FAR EASTERN UNIVERSITY

INSTITUTE OF ARTS AND SCIENCES

DEPARTMENT OF MEDICAL TECHNOLOGY

MTY11101
General Chemistry and Organic Chemistry for Medical Technology

Laboratory Experiments

2019
Table of Contents

Experiment Title Page

1 DENSITY OF SOLIDS AND LIQUIDS
2 FLAME TEST OF METAL CATIONS
3 MOLECULAR GEOMETRY, POLARITY, AND RESONANCE
4 TYPE OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND ACTIVITY SERIES OF
METALS
5 GASES, LIQUIDS, AND SOLIDS
6 COLLOIDS AND COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES OF SOLUTION
7 FACTORS AFFECTING RATES OF REACTION
 EXPERIMENT 1
DENSITY OF SOLIDS AND LIQUIDS

Introduction

Density is one of the fundamental properties of any matter. This is determined by dividing the mass
of a given sample by its volume:
𝑴
𝝆 =
𝑽
The density of water is as a function of temperature is as follow:

Temperature Density
30 °C 0.9957 g/mL
25 °C 0.9970 g/mL
4 °C 1.0000 g/mL
0 °C 0.9998 g/mL

Volumes of liquid are easily determined by using a calibrated container. In the laboratory, we

often use a graduated cylinder.

Volumes of solids can be determined by direct measurement provided that the solid has a regular

geometrical shape, such as a cube or a cylinder. On the other hand, volumes of irregularly shaped solids

such as a small rock or a small chunk of metal are determined by liquid volume displacement. This is done

by immersing the sample in a liquid of known volume and measuring the volume of liquid displaced by the

solid.

In this experiment, the density of a liquid and a solid will be determined.

Materials

Graduated cylinder, triple beam balance, unknown liquid, unknown metal, five (5) one peso coin.

Procedures
A. Density of Unknown Metal
1. Weigh an unknown sample of metal using a digital scale or a triple beam balance.
2. Fill a graduated cylinder with 10 ml of water.
3. Record the initial reading of water.
4. Carefully place the unknown sample of metal in the cylinder containing water and record the rise in the

level of water.

5. Record the volume of the unknown metal.

6. Calculate the density of the unknown metal.
7. Identify the unknown metal by comparing the calculated density with the density of known metals.

(See table of densities)

B. Density of a Coin
1. Weigh separately five one-peso coin
2. Get the sum, and then calculate the average weight of the coin.
3. Stack the 5 coins on top of one another forming a cylinder.
4. Measure the diameter and the height of the cylinder.
5. Calculate the volume of the cylinder formed using the formula V=pr 2h.
6. Determine the volume of 1 coin using the calculated volume of the cylinder.
7. Using the average weight of the coins and the volume of a coin, calculate the density of the

coin.

8. Identify the metal/alloy material of the coin based on the density calculated.

C. Density of Liquid
1. Weigh a dry, clean, empty graduated cylinder. Record your measurement
2. Fill it carefully with the unknown liquid sample up to the maximum graduation of the graduated

cylinder. This is the volume of the liquid.

3. Weigh the graduated cylinder with the unknown liquid sample. Make sure the side of the cylinder is dry.

Record your measurement.

4. Get the difference of the mass recorded in steps 1 and 3.

5. Calculate the density of the liquid, and identify the unknown liquid.
 DATA SHEET 1
DENSITY OF SOLIDS AND LIQUIDS

Section: ___________ Members: __________________________ __________________________

Group #: __________ __________________________ __________________________

A. Density of Unknown Metal (Irregular Solids)

TRIAL 1 TRIAL 2
Mass of unknown metal
Volume of water
Volume of water + metal
Volume of metal
Density of metal
Identity of the unknown metal is _____________________

B. Density of a Coin (Regular Solids)

TRIAL 1 TRIAL 2
Mass of Coin 1
Mass of Coin 2
Mass of Coin 3
Mass of Coin 4
Mass of Coin 5
Average Mass (5 Coins)
Diameter of Cylinder
Height of Cylinder
Volume of Cylinder
Volume of a Coin
Density of the Coin
C. Density of Unknown Liquid
TRIAL 1 TRIAL 2
Mass of empty graduated cylinder

Mass of graduated cylinder + unknown liquid

Mass of unknown liquid
Volume of unknown liquid
Density of unknown liquid
 Guide Questions

1 What are the uncertainty of the measuring devices used in the experiment?
a. Triple Beam Balance/Weighing Scale ± _________
b. Graduated Cylinder ± _________
c. Ruler ± _________

2. The density of a solid substance is usually higher than its density in liquid form. Explain

then why ice (a solid) floats on top of water (a liquid).

3. Explain the difference between precision and accuracy.

Solve the following problem:

4. A student weighed a clean and dry beaker and found its mass to be 53.6 g. She then

poured chloroform in the beaker and then measured the total mass to be 74.8 g. Help the

student identify the volume of the liquid poured into the beaker.

5 A student immersed an 62.4 g of unknown metal sample in a graduated cylinder containing

20 mL of water. She noted the water level to rise to 28 mL. From these data, help the

student identify the unknown metal.

 EXPERIMENT 2
FLAME TEST OF METAL CATIONS

Introduction
When sufficient energy is absorbed by atoms, electrons jump from lower to higher

energy levels. This is not a stable configuration for these atoms and eventually the excited

electrons return to their original state, the ground state. As electrons return to their ground

state, they emit radiant energy corresponding to the energy difference between the excited

state and more stable ground state to which they return. This released energy travels at the

speed of light and propagates at a unique frequency and wavelength, giving it a characteristic

color. The relationship between speed, wavelength and frequency is according to the equation:

𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 (𝒄) = 𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 (𝝀) 𝒙 𝒇𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 (𝒇)

Some of these energy emissions occur in the visible portion of the electromagnetic

spectrum and can be observed with human eye. Many elements can be identified by simply

observing their visible spectrum.

Materials
Solution of LiCl, KCl, NaCI, CaCl2, BaCl2, SrCl2, CuCl2, nichrome wire, concentrated HCl,

bunsen burner, small beakers

Procedures

Use 5 to 10 drops each of the following solutions: LiCl, KCl, NaCI, CaCl2, BaCl2,

SrCl2, CuCl2

1. Create a small loop at the end of a clean 15 cm long nichrome wire. Place

a small cork or rubber band at the other end to insulate the wire when you hold it.

2. Rinse the looped end of the nichrome wire into distilled H2O and place the rinsed loop in a test

tube containing the solution.

3. Prepare your timer, and then bring the to the flame and identify the color imparted by the

solution. Take note of the duration of the appearance of the flame (in seconds) and the intensity

of the flame color.

Note: Use the nonluminous flame of the burner.

4. Wash again the nichrome wire with the distilled H2O. Repeat procedures 2 and 3 until all the

metal chloride samples have been tested.

5. Identify the wavelength which corresponds to the flame color observed for each solution

using the table given.

Dominant Color Approximate Wavelength (in nm) *

Red 701
Red-Orange 622
Orange 609
Orange-Yellow 597
Yellow 587
Yellow-Green 577
Green 535
Green-Blue 492
Blue 474
Blue-Violet 455
Violet 423
 DATA SHEET 2
FLAME TEST OF METAL CATIONS

Section: ___________ Members: __________________________ __________________________

Group #: __________ __________________________ __________________________

Table 1. Observations on te flame test.

Solution Dominant Wavelength Frequency Flame Intensity Flame Duration

(dim, medium,
Color (in nm) (in s-1) bright) (seconds)
LiCl
KCl
NaCl
CaCl2
BaCl2
SrCl2
CuCl2
 Guide Questions

1 Which among the solutions that was tested produced a flame that has a dominant

color with the longest wavelength? _____________

Which one gave the shortest wavelength? _____________

2 Why did the solutions emit different flame color?

3 Each solution used contains a positive ion (cation) and a negative ion (anion). Explain

how we can infer that the color is due to the cations and not the anions in the solution.

4 Explain why chloride solutions of the metals were used instead of the metals

themselves.

5 Research on the chemistry of fireworks. Identify chemical compounds used in fireworks

and the color corresponding to the wavelength they produce.

 EXPERIMENT 3
MOLECULAR GEOMETRY, POLARITY, & RESONANCE

Introduction
Gilbert N. Lewis was the first to propose that the outermost electron of an atom, also

called the valence electrons, are responsible for the formation of molecular bonds.

According to him, these bonds are composed of shared pairs of electrons. Using the now

called Lewis dot structure, he showed how atoms would share electrons in order to fill 8

electrons in its outermost shell to form covalent bonds, also known as the Octet Rule. It can

be applied to many atoms particularly with molecules containing carbon, nitrogen, oxygen

and the halogens such as fluorine, and chlorine.

The Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) theory suggests that electron pairs

around an atom will assume a position that minimizes the repulsion between electrons. Using

this theory, the arrangement of electron pair around non-hydrogen atom can be predicted.

In this experiment, geometry of molecules will be investigated by applying the VSEPR theory

and the polarity of molecules will be identified using its geometry.

Pre-Lab Assignment
As part of your pre-lab assignment, draw the Lewis structures of the given molecules below.

Materials
Bring the following materials clay, toothpick sticks (or barbeque sticks), or a molecular model kit.

Procedures
1. Determine the total valence (outermost electrons) in the species: e.g. C=4, H=1, 0=6, Cl=7

(refer to your periodic table). The total number of valence electron equals the sum of the valence

electron on all of the atoms in the species being studied.

Example: CHOO– Total valence electron= 1+ 4+ 6+ x2 1- =18

(Formate/Methanoate) H C O2 Negative (-1) Total Valence

ion
(lf you are working with ions, add one
electron
for each negative ionic charge and subtract one electron for each positive ionic charge.)

2. Identify the number of electron pairs. Since there are 18 valence electrons in the sample

molecule CHOO–, and the electron occurs in pairs, there will be 9 pairs. (You will therefore

need 9 sticks to represent these nine electron pairs. Meanwhile, use balls to represent the

atoms of the element e.g. C, H, O. You will need 4 balls in our example).
3. Draw the Lewis Structure of the compound. In drawing the Lewis formula, obey the octet rule

by placing 8 electrons around each atom. However, there are compounds that do not follow the

octet rule: Group 3A metals such as Be or Al has 3 valence electrons and they usually form 3 bonds.

Meanwhile, large atoms such as Se, I, P etc. contains available d-orbitals that allows them to exceed

the octet rule, and this usually occurs when they are paired with outer atoms that has high

electronegativity such as F or Cl.

Lewis structures alone will not show the shape, but they can be used to establish the (a) VSEPR

geometry, (b) the type of molecular bonding orbitals (sigma or pi), (c) the orbital hybridization,

and (d) if there are structural resonance or electron delocalization.

3 From your Lewis Structure, count the number of bonded atoms or ligands to the central atom

(denoted by X) and the number of non-bonding pairs or lone pairs in the central atom (denoted

by Y). (In our example, we have 3 atoms bonded to the central atom Carbon, so X=3. We have no

lone pairs attached to Carbon, so Y=0)

Get the sum of X and Y to get N (Steric Number):

X+Y =N
4. To connect the balls using the sticks, we need to identify where to place the holes for the

bonds. For this, refer to the table:

Steric Number (N) VSEPR Geometry Bond Angles* Hybridization

2 Linear 180° sp
3 Trigonal Planar 120° sp2
4 Tetrahedral 109.5° sp3
5 Trigonal Bipyramid 90°, 120° sp3d
6 Octahedral 90° sp3d2
* Bond Angles can slightly vary depending on the electron density around the central atom
According to the table above, our model for CHOO– where N=3 will be Trigonal Planar. This

can be assembled by connecting: One Hydrogen atom ball to the C atom ball with one stick

One Oxygen atom ball to the C atom ball with one stick and One Oxygen atom ball to the C

atom ball using two sticks (for double bond). Using the table above, the angles between the

three ligands will be 120°, and the three bonding groups will be in a single plane in trigonal

formation (Trigonal Planar).

Use the remaining sticks to represent the lone pairs in the outer atoms. Make sure to still

follow the VSEPR Geometry in placing the lone pairs of the outer atoms (i.e. For the oxygen,

with double bond to C, there is only one bonded atom which is Carbon, so X=1) and there are

2 lone pairs (Y=2), therefore N=3 and the geometry of this oxygen should also be Trigonal

Planar.

For the oxygen, with single bond to C, there is only one bonded atom (which is Carbon, so X=1)

and there are 3 lone pairs (Y=3), therefore N=4 and the geometry of this oxygen should be

Tetrahedral.)

5. We can now use the molecular geometry in order to identify the polarity of the molecule.

But first, we need to identify the polarity of the bonds. This is done by comparing the

electronegativity of the elements. In our example CHOO–,

EN (Electronegativity)
Electronegativity
BONDS Bond Polarity
Difference (DEN)
(Lower EN) Higher (EN)
C–H H=2.1 C=2.5 0.4 Slightly Polar
C=O
C=2.5 O=3.5 1.0 Polar
C–O
Bond polarity is represented by a vector arrow going from the low EN atom to the higher EN.

Looking at the molecule and vector arrows of our example, we can see that for CHOO–, the vector

arrows will not cancel each other out, and therefore the molecule is Polar.

Bond lengths are approximated by adding the atomic radius of the bonding atoms. In our
example, the atomic radius of Hydrogen is 0.37 Å, while Carbon is 0.77 Å, so the H-C bond length
is approximated by the sum of the two, or 1.14 Å. (For double bonds, subtract 14%, while for triple
bond, subtract 25%). In your model, represent the relative length of the bonds with the
appropriate stick lengths.

6. Resonance structure will exist for molecules where electron delocalization occurs. Electron

delocalization is when electrons are not associated with just one single covalent bond, but

associated instead with multiple bonds. In our example CHOO–, the electron pair that we

associated with the Carbon-Oxygen double bond is actually a delocalized electron pair. This

means that this electron is also associated with the other Oxygen atom. Therefore, we have two

Lewis structure that contribute to the actual structure of the molecules, which we represent as:

(Note that both Lewis structures are not the actual electron distribution, but instead, it is the

average of the two).

 DATA SHEET 3
MOLECULAR GEOMETRY, POLARITY & RESONANCE

Section: ___________ Members: __________________________ __________________________

Group #: __________ __________________________ __________________________

Data, Results, and Calculations:

Chemical Formula, N(X+Y), Bond Lengths ABXEY Molecule

VSEPR
Lewis Structure Geometry, & Polarity Molecular Shape Polarity
(Draw Resonance if it exists) Hybridization Bond Angles
1.14Å
CHOO–1 N=__ 3__ H–C= AB3E0
VSEPR
Geometry: DEN = 0.4 Trigonal Planar Polar

Trigonal Planar__
ÐHCO = 120°
C–O=1.23Å ÐOCO = 120°
Hybridization: DEN = 1.0
Carbon is sp2

CO2 N = _____
VSEPR
Geometry:
_______________

Hybridization:
_______________
BF3

CHCl3
CCl4

H3O+

H2O

PF5

NO2 1+

NO2 –1
XeF2

PO43-

ClF4

SF4

C2H2Br2 (all isomers)

 Guide Questions

1 Why are double bonds and triple bonds shorter than single bonds?

2 VSEPR geometry predicts that the bond angles in formaldehyde (CH2O), a trigonal planar

molecule, will be 120° throughout all three angles. However, analysis showed that the H-

C-H bond angle is slightly smaller at 116.5°, while the two H-C-O angles are slightly larger

at 121.8°. Explain this difference in the predicted bond angle vs actual bond angle.

3 VSEPR geometry also predicts that the bond angles in tetrahedral molecules is 109.5°.

However, in the case of ammonia (NH3), analysis showed that the H-N-H bond angles are

107.3°. Explain this difference in the bond angle.

4 What is electronegativity, and why is it used to determine bond polarity?

5 Which among the molecules above has a resonance structure? What did you found to

be common among them that is required to have a resonance structure?

 EXPERIMENT 4
TYPES OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS & THE ACTIVITY SERIES OF METALS

Introduction
There are five main types of common chemical reactions:
1. COMBINATION or SYNTHESIS – two or more atoms in this type of reaction

combine to form a product.

Element + Element ➜ Compound

S(s) + O2(g) ➜ SO2 (g)

Sulfur + Oxygen ➜ Sulfur dioxide

Compounds can also combine

NH3 (aq) + HCI (aq) ➜ NH4CI (aq)

Ammonia + Hydrochloric Acid ➜ Ammonium chloride
2. DECOMPOSITION – this type of reaction is a breakdown of a compound into

simpler compounds or elements.

H2CO3 (l) ➜H2O (l) + CO2(g)

Carbonic acid ➜ Water + Carbon dioxide

2H2O (l) ➜ 2H2 (g) + O2 (g)

Water ➜ Hydrogen + Oxygen

6 SINGLE REPLACEMENT or SUBSTITUTION – this type of reaction is one where a more

active element takes the place of another element in a compound. Which elements can

replace another can be identified based on the Activity Series of Metals* (see Table 4-

1).
2Fe (s) + 6HCl(aq) ➜ 2FeCl3(aq) + 3H2(g)
Iron + Hydrochloric Acid à Iron (III) Chloride + Hydrogen

Cu(s) + Hg(NO3)2(aq) ➜ Cu(NO3)2(aq) + Hg(s)

Copper + Mercury (II) Nitrate ➜ Copper (II) Nitrate + Mercury
3. DOUBLE REPLACEMENT – two reactants exchange ions to form a new compound.

When the reactants are acids and bases, the process is termed neutralization

reaction.
Na-OH (aq) + H-CI (aq) ➜ Na-Cl (aq) + H-OH (aq)
Sodium Hydroxide + Hydrochloric Acid ➜ Sodium Chloride + Water

CuSO4 (aq) + BaCl2 (aq) ➜ BaSO4 (aq) + CuCl2 (aq)

Copper Sulfate + Barium Chloride ➜ Barium Sulfate + Copper Chloride

4. COMBUSTION REACTIONS – a specific type of reaction (which can sometimes also

fall under the categories given above) where oxygen reacts with a combustible
reactant, usually hydrocarbons, to produce carbon dioxide, water, and a huge amount
of energy.
C3H8 + O2 ➜ CO2 + H2O
Propane + Oxygen ➜ Carbon dioxide + water

C2H5OH + O2 ➜ CO2 + H2O

Ethanol + Oxygen ➜ Carbon dioxide + Water

 TABLE 4-1 *In most single replacement reactions, solid metals replace ionic metals
Metal Symbol in solutions. The rates of these single replacement reactions vary
Lithium Li according to the relative activities of the metals involved. The activity
Potassium K
series arranges the metals (and hydrogen) in order of decreasing activity.
Strontium Sr
The more active metals will replace the less active ones through single
Calcium Ca
replacement reactions, while less active metals cannot spontaneously
Sodium Na
Magnesium Mg replace the more active ones.

Aluminum Al
Zinc Zn
Materials
Chromium Cr
Crucible with Cover, Crucible Tong, Clay Triangle, Bunsen Burner,
Iron Fe
Beaker, Triple Beam Balance, Red Litmus Paper, Evaporating Dish,
Cadmium Cd
Cobalt Co Test Tubes, Stirring Rod, Graduated Cylinder, Iron stand, Iron Ring,

Nickel Ni Spot Plate

Tin Sn
Lead Pb
Reagents
Hydrogen
Distilled Water, Calcium Carbonate, Mg (Magnesium Ribbon), Fe (Iron
gas H2
Antimony Sb Fillings), Cu (Copper Turnings/Wire), Al (Aluminum), Zn (Zinc), Zinc

Arsenic As Chloride Solution, Dilute Hydrochloric Acid, Concentrated Nitric Acid,

Bismuth Bi Dilute Nitric Acid, 1M Copper Sulfate, 1M Barium Chloride, 1M Lead
Copper Cu
Nitrate, 1M Potassium Chromate
Mercury Hg
Silver Ag
Palladium Pd
Platinum Pt
Gold Au

Procedures
1A. Ignite an empty Crucible and Cover for 10 minutes, remove from flame and let it cool.

(Safety note: Do not place the hot crucible on top of the bare table!) After cooling, measure
the mass of the empty crucible.
2A. Half fill the crucible with Calcium Carbonate and measure the mass of the Crucible +

Calcium Carbonate.

3A. Cover the Crucible and ignite over a strong blue flame for one hour. (Note: Make sure

that the flame and crucible distance is small to maximize heat transfer; Assign a group
member to look after the set-up while proceeding with the other steps B, C and D in this
experiment)
4A. Cool the crucible while keeping it well covered. After cooling, measure again the mass of

Crucible + contents. Compare the mass before and after heating.

5A. After measuring the mass, transfer the contents of the crucible in a beaker with 100 mL of

distilled water. Drop a piece of red litmus paper in the solution. (Assignment: Research on

what is a Litmus Paper. Note this down on your Pre-Lab) Note any change in the litmus paper.

1B. Ignite a small piece of magnesium ribbon in a flame and quickly drop the glowing

piece of magnesium ribbon in an evaporating dish.

2B. Add 2 mL (~40 drops) of distilled water into the evaporating dish with the ignited

magnesium ribbon

3B. Drop a piece of red litmus paper in the solution. Again, note any change in the litmus
paper.
1C. Place 5-7 drops each of dilute HCI into each of the 5 depressions of a spot plate. (Label

each spot with the 5 metals in step 2 using your tape)

2C. Add simultaneously approximately 0.25 g of the following metals: Fe (Iron), Cu (Copper),

Al (Aluminum), Zn (Zinc), and Mg (Magnesium). Note the extent of each reaction by observing

the rate of bubbling/ rate of bubble formation.

3C. Place 5-7 drops each of ZnCl2 into each of the 2 depressions of the spot plate. To the first
add a pinch of Fe (Iron) fillings; to the second, add 1 cm Mg (Magnesium) Ribbon. Note which

one will give a faster reaction.

4C. In a test tubes, add 20 drops of CuSO4 (Copper Sulfate) Solution. Note the color of the

CuSO4 Solution. Then add a pinch of Fe (Iron Fillings) (Also note the initial color of the Iron

Fillings). Shake your test tube vigorously. Note any change in the color of the solution and

the Iron Fillings.

5C. In two depressions of a spot plate, place 1 cm of Cu (Copper) turnings/wire. Then

compare the rates of reaction with 5 drops each of dilute and concentrated HNO3 (Nitric

Acid). Note your observations.

1D. To 1 mL of Lead Nitrate in a test tube, add 1 mL of Potassium Chromate. Note the

changes that takes place.

2D. To 1 mL of Copper Sulfate in a test tube, add 1 mL of Barium Chloride. Note the

changes that takes place.

 DATA SHEET 4
TYPES OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS & THE ACTIVITY SERIES OF METALS

Section: ___________ Members: __________________________ __________________________

Group #: __________ __________________________ __________________________

Data, Results, and Calculations:

A. Calcium Carbonate Reaction

Quantity Mass (in grams)

A. Empty Crucible (After 1st Heating, No Cover)

±
B. Crucible + Calcium Carbonate (Before 2nd Heating, No
Cover)
±
C. Calcium Carbonate (B minus A)
±
D. Crucible + Contents (After 2nd Heating, No Cover)
±
E. Contents After Heating (D minus A)
±

Color of Litmus Paper when added to the solution at the beaker: _______________

2. What color is formed when Magnesium Ribbon is heated? _______________

Color of Litmus paper in the heated Mg Ribbon + Water: _______________

 3. Observations
Procedures 1C-2C

Extent of Reaction (Describe the observed Rank, 1 to 5

Reagents reaction) (Fastest to Slowest)

Fe + HCl

Cu + HCl

Al + HCl

Zn + HCl

Mg + HCl

Procedure 3C

Reagents Observation(s)

Fe + ZnCl2

Mg + ZnCl2
Procedure 4C

Color After Reaction:

Color Before
Reagents Reaction: Solution

CuSO4 Solution Metal

Iron (Fe) Fillings

Procedure 5C

Reagents Observation(s)

Cu + dilute HNO3
Cu + concentrated HNO3

Procedure 1D
Reagents Observation(s)

Lead Nitrate + Potassium Chromate

Copper Sulfate + Barium Chloride

 Guide Questions

1. What is the purpose of initial heating of the crucible?

2. What is the effect of heat on CaCO3?

3. What happened to the Red Litmus Paper when the product(s) in A & B were added

to water and the litmus paper was dipped into these solutions?
4. Research on the major composition of air: ____________________________________________
Among these components, which species reacted with the Magnesium when heat was

applied to it? __________________ Why did Magnesium react with this species but not the

other?

5. Among the Five (5) Metals reacted with HCl in (C.), which among them gave the

fastest reaction? __________ Slowest Reaction? ___________ Why do you think these

metals reacted differently?

6. Explain the difference in your observations between the reaction of Fe (Iron) and the

reaction of Mg (Magnesium) with ZnCl2

7. What did you observe in the reaction of concentrated and dilute nitric acid with Cu
(Copper)?

Did the reaction followed the expected results according to the Activity Series?

How did this reaction produce a different result compared to the reaction of copper with

HCl in part (A.)?

8. In the reaction for part (D.), identify the new chemical species that was produced

after the reaction (identify the product of the reaction).

What color are these products according to your observation? What are their states?
Reaction Schemes: Write the complete balanced chemical equations for the reactions**.
**In writing complete balanced chemical reactions, the following are used to indicate the
state/phase of the species:
(s) – Solid (l) – Liquid
(g) – Gas (aq) – Aqueous Solution (Ionic species dissolved in water)
A. Calcium Carbonate inside the heated Crucible: Reaction Type

Product of the reaction in (A.) plus water

B. Reaction of Magnesium with air using heat:

Product of the reaction in (B.) plus water

C. Complete & balance all reactions:

Fe (s) + HCl (aq) ➜
Cu (s) + HCl (aq) ➜
Al (s) + HCl (aq) ➜
Zn (s) + HCl (aq) ➜
Mg (s) + HCl (aq) ➜

Fe (s) + ZnCl2 (aq) ➜

Mg (s) + ZnCl2 (aq) ➜

Fe (s) + CuSO4 (aq) ➜

Cu (s) + HNO3 (aq) ➜

Cu (s) + HNO3 (aq) ➜
 EXPERIMENT 5

GASES, LIQUIDS, and SOLIDS

Introduction

Gas Laws

In the seventeenth century, Robert Boyle studied the behavior of gases in a

systematical and quantitative manner. In one series of studies, Boyle investigated the

pressure-volume relationship of a gas sample and the product of his work contributed in

understanding the behavior of gases.

On the other hand, Jacques Charles, a French scientist, studied the relationship of

temperature and volume of gases. His study showed what will be the behavior of a gas

once the temperature is increased and once it is decreased. This led to the temperature-

volume relationship of a gas at constant pressure & amount of gas, called the Charles’

Law.

In this experiment, the proportional relationships of pressure and volume (at a

constant temperature), temperature and volume (at constant pressure), & pressure and

temperature (at constant volume) will all be observed.

Solids and Liquids

A liquid has no specific shape, but it takes the shape of the containing vessel as it

seeks its own level under the influence of gravity. It is compressed only to a certain extent

even with the use of high pressure.

As a liquid is cooled down, the molecules starts to move more slowly until a point

is reached where most of this motion stops and the particles are held in a definite

arrangement. At this point the liquid has turned to a solid. Due to this arrangement of
 particles in the solid state, solids have relatively high densities, they do not mix or diffuse

appreciably, and are practically incompressible.

Phase Separation of Mixtures

The components of a mixture may be separated by the following mechanical

techniques:

1 Decantation and Filtration – Processes which separate solid from liquids.

e.g. Sand and salt mixture can be separated through filtration by dissolving the salt

in the liquid phase, and letting allowing the mixture to pass through a filter.

2 Evaporation and Distillation – Processes which involve the separation of volatile

substances from less volatile one. Solids may be separated from volatile liquids by

evaporating the liquids if the solid itself is non-volatile. Meanwhile, simple distillation

can be done to show the difference in boiling point of two soluble or miscible

samples.

e.g. Salt crystals can be extracted from salt solution by evaporating the water,

leaving the salt behind.

 3. Crystallization and Decolorization – Processes which are used when mixtures have

different solubilities in a given solvent and the components, do not react chemically

with each other nor with the solvent. Decolorization removes color impurity with the

use of charcoal/bone black by the process of adsorption.

4. Sublimation – is the phase change from solid to gas/vapor. This method is used to

separate a mixture of two solids by heating, where the pure substance with lower

sublimation point will vaporize, leaving the higher sublimation point residue behind.

5. Chromatography – a process which separates two or more substances that are both

soluble in the same solvent at different degrees. The rate at which components will

move along the solid (also called the stationary phase) depends on their relative

tendency to be dissolved in the solvent (also called mobile phase) and to be

adsorbed on the solid/stationary phase. The net effect is that as the solvent passes

slowly through the stationary phase, the dissolved solute components separate from

each other and move along as rather diffuse zones.

Materials

(Bring the following) Marshmallow, 10ml syringe, ice, balloon, a glass bottle (with

1-2” opening), boiled egg, strip of papers, match

(Lab Materials) Bunsen Burner, Erlenmeyer flask, Water bath, Iron stand, Iron ring,

Iron clamp, Wire gauze, Measuring pipet, Test tubes, Graduated Cylinder, 25 cm long U-

shaped glass tubing, Beaker, Evaporating dish, Filter paper, Funnel

Reagents:

Propanol, 10% Sugar Solution, 30% Sugar Solution, Coconut oil, FeCl 3, K4Fe(CN)6,

KclO3, NaCl, NH4Cl, Methyl orange, Bone black or animal charcoal

Procedure
1. Gas Laws

Boyle’s Law
Remove the pump of the 10ml syringe to insert the

marshmallow inside. Place the pump back, push and pull the

pump and observe what will happen to the marshmallow.

NOTE: Disregard the syringe needle, dispose it properly.

Charles’ Law
1. Fill the Erlenmeyer flask with 50 ml water and

cover the flask with the balloon. Make two set ups

of flask covered with a balloon.

2. Subject one flask to heat using a Bunsen burner

(set up – A) and bring it to boil, while the other

one is in the water bath with ice (set up – B).

Observe what will happen.

SET-UP A SET-UP B
Gay-Lussac’s Law

Fire up a strip of paper and place inside the glass bottle.

Put the hard-boiled egg at the top of the glass bottle and see what will happen.

NOTE: Cook the egg and remove its shell prior to the experiment.

2. Solids and Liquids

a. Viscosity

1. Draw water up to the middle of a pipet then slowly release from one end to the

beaker. Using a timer, measure the time (in seconds) required for the volume of

water to flow from the pipet into the beaker.

Note: A glass tubing may be used in lieu of a pipet

2. Repeat these observations until 2 to 3 trials are done. Record readings in the

table given in the date sheet.

3. Using the above method, determine the viscosities of other liquids: 10% sugar

solution, 30% sugar solution, propanol, and coconut oil. Observe.

b. Diffusion of Solids in Liquids

1. Take a piece of glass tubing (20 - 25 cm long) and bend at right angles about 1

cm from each end. The bent ends should be pointing in the same direction. (The

curved corners will be points A and B).

2. Measure the distance between the curved ends of the tube (Distance between A
& B).

3. Fill the longer part of the tube with water, until the water just reaches the curved
ends.

4. Clamp the tube in a horizontal position with the bent ends pointing upward (or

secure them horizontally using tapes), adjust until it is perfectly leveled as shown

by the water in the tube.

 5. Select crystals of FeCl3 and K4Fe(CN)6 small enough as to allow them to fall

down the short necks of the tube. Simultaneously drop one crystal at one end

and the other crystal at the other end. Note the color of the

solutions formed at each end.

6. Watch for the appearance of a blue band

somewhere in the tube. (This will be point C)

Measure the distance of the blue band (Point

C) relative to the curved end of the tube.

C. Phase Separation of Mixtures

a. Crystallization and Decolorization

1. Place a mixture of 1g KClO3 and 1g NaCl in a small beaker and add 5 drops of

methyl orange.

2. Add 10 mL of water, heat and stir. Note the color of the mixture.

3. When the mixture is fully dissolved, add a pinch of bone black or animal charcoal

and boil for 5 minutes. Occasionally replenish the water lost by evaporation, by

adding increments of 2 mL water.

4. Filter the mixture while hot using fluted filter paper.

5. Describe the color of the filtrate.

6. Allow the mixture to cool, by placing the beaker in an ice bath. Record your

observation upon cooling the mixture.

b. Sublimation

1. Mix 0.5 gram of NaCl and 0.5 gram of NH4Cl in an evaporating dish.

2. Cover the evaporating dish with a perforated filter paper (punch small holes

through the filter paper).

3. Place an inverted glass funnel on top of the evaporating dish. The tip of the funnel

should be covered with loosely packed moistened cotton or tissue. Secure the

inverted funnel using an iron clamp.

4. Heat the evaporating dish gently until sublimation starts. (rapidly heating the

evaporating dish may cause the formation of burnt solids inside that may cause

staining in the evaporating dish)

5. After heating and allowing all vaporization to take place, turn off the burner and

cool the evaporating dish. Note: Do not open the set-up until it is cooled to

avoid the escape of vapors

6. Remove the funnel then describe the color and shape of crystals that collect

in the funnel.

7. Identify the residue left in the beaker.

 DATA SHEET 5

GASES, LIQUIDS, and SOLIDS

Section: ___________ Members: __________________________ __________________________

Group #: __________ __________________________ __________________________

a. Viscosity
Time Flow in seconds

Trial 1 Trail 2 Average

Water ± ± ±

10% Sugar ± ± ±

30% Sugar ± ± ±

n-Propanol ± ± ±

Coconut oil ± ± ±

b. Diffusion

Total Length AB Length AC Length CB

Distance (in cm)
 Guide Questions

A. Gas Laws

1. Why does the pressure decrease as volume is increased at a constant temperature?

2. What will happen to the volume as temperature is increased at a constant pressure?

Why?

3. Why did the egg fell down inside the bottle given that its size is bigger than the

bottle opening?
 4. Make a separate generalization to the three laws.

a. Boyle’s Law

b. Charles’ Law

c. Gay-Lussac’s Law

B. Solids and Liquids

a. Viscosity

1. Which among the tested liquid is most viscous? Arrange the liquids

according to increasing viscosity.

 2. What is the relationship of viscosity and time of flow?

3. What is the relationship between viscosity and concentration of solution?

b. Diffusion of Solids in liquids

1. Observation:

2. What is the color of the solution formed at each end of the tube?

3. At what portion was the color formed? At which point was it closer?

4. How would you explain this difference in distance travelled?

C. Phase Separation of Mixtures

a. Crystallization and Decolorization

1. What is the role of the animal charcoal?

2. Describe the crystals formed.

3. What were these crystals that was formed? Why did these crystals form?

b. Sublimation

1. Between the two solids crystals used, what is the sublimate?

2. What is the residue left in the evaporating dish? How did you know this?
 EXPERIMENT 6

COLLOIDS & COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES OF SOLUTIONS

Introduction

A. Solution, Colloids & Suspension

Solutions are homogenous mixtures where the components do not separate on standing

they cannot be separated by filtration. Most solution are transparent (either colorless or colored)

except for solid solutions. To separate solutions into its components, physical separation

methods such as distillation & chromatography can be used.

Colloids (also known as a colloidal dispersion or colloidal system) are stable mixtures with

a very large surface area and solute particles ranging from 1 to 1000 nm. Two basic

characteristics of a colloidal system are: a.) its ability to scatter light when viewed at a right

angle called Tyndall effect as exhibited by smoke, serum and fog; b.) formation of stable

dispersion which can exist in a variety of phases: gas, liquid or solid. Emulsions are colloidal

systems composed of immiscible or partially miscible liquids formed with the aid of an

emulsifying agent such as egg yolk in mayonnaise and casein in milk.

Suspensions, on the other hand, are unstable mixture of particles larger than 1000 nm,

separating into phases. As an example, a lump of soil dispersed in water will form a muddy

suspension; soil particles will soon settle with the clear water found above the sediment.

B. Colligative Properties of Solution

A pure substance has a standard boiling point freezing point and vapor pressure, which

may alter in the presence of soluble compounds. These physical properties are dependent on

the number of particles present. Such properties which are dependent on the number of particles

but not on the kind of dissolved particles are termed colligative properties.

Boiling point is inversely proportional to the vapor pressure, which means that a decrease

(¯) in vapor pressure will result in the rise/increase () of boiling point of a liquid. Boiling point is
dependent on the number of solute particles and the decrease of solvent molecules exerting

pressure is influenced by the number of solute particles present in solution.

Freezing point is a function of the number of particles in solution and the presence of

solute lowers the freezing point of pure solvent.

Osmotic pressure is the pressure that needs to be applied to prevent the flow of pure

solvent through a semi-permeable membrane into a solution. At constant temperature, this

pressure is proportional to the concentration of the solution. This property is dependent on

the number of dissolved particles and independent on the nature of the dissolving particles.

Constants for water (K)

kb = molal boiling point elevation = 0.52°C

kf = molal freezing point depression = 1.86°C

Materials

(Bring the following ingredients and materials – the whole class could buy as a group and share

ingredients+materials) Eggs, Mustard, Lemon juice, Soil, Canola oil, Whisk, mixing bowl, Laser

Pointer, Large Test Tubes, Cork stopper (for the test tubes), 1-quart size zipper bag (Ziploc), 1

gal size zipper bag (Ziploc), milk (either white whole milk or chocolate milk), flavoring (optional),

food coloring (optional), measuring cups, sugar, ice

Reagents

Distilled Water, CuSO4 Crystals, NaCl Crystals

PRECAUTIONS:

Wipe up spills immediately. Report any broken or cracked glassware to your facilitator or

laboratory technician.

Procedures

A. Classifying Mixtures

1. Half-fill the test tubes with water. Number the test tubes.

2. Add the following materials to the test tubes:

#1 – water only

#2 – 0.5 g sugar

#3 – a few drops of milk

#4 – 0.5 g of CuSO4 crystals

#5 – 2 ml cooking oil

#6 – 0.5 g soil
3. Put and secure a stopper into each test tube. Shake for several minutes to form a mixture.

4. Shine a laser pointer to each test tube. Observe its effect on the mixture formed.

5. Record your observations after a few minutes.

6. Clean all equipment used and clean your working stations.

B. Making an Emulsion (Mayonnaise)

5. Whisk together the egg yolk, two tablespoons of beaten egg, lemon juice, and mustard.

6. Whisking constantly, slowly add oil until mayonnaise is thick and oil is incorporated.

7. Once it emulsifies and starts to thicken, add oil in the thinnest stream you can manage.

8. Notice how the mayonnaise was formed.

C. Colligative Properties of Solution – Freezing Point Depression

1. Pour ½ cup of milk into the quart size zipper bag. You may use either white or

whole milk or chocolate milk. If you use white milk, add three heaping spoons of

sugar. If you want to add flavor, add a small amount of vanilla flavoring. If you want

color, add food coloring. For chocolate milk, use as is from the container. No

additives are needed.

2. Squeeze as much air as you can from the bag with milk and zip shut. Be sure that

the bag is sealed by gently squeezing. If air or milk escape, the bag is not sealed.

3. Place the bag with milk in the gallon bag. Scoop ice into the large bag to cover the

smaller bag. This will require at least a cup of ice. Measure and record the

temperature of the ice.

4. Sprinkle salt over the ice. The salt should cover the ice with a thin layer.

5. Zip the large bag closed. Make sure the bag is sealed so that water cannot escape.

6. Gently massage the bag with the ice to insure thermal contact between the inner

bag with the milk and the outer bag with salt. As you massage the bag, ice will

melt. Record the temperature of the ice/salt mixture at least every two minutes. To

record this temperature, fold the ice bag around the thermometer to surround the
 thermometer bulb with ice and salt water long enough to read the thermometer.

After each recording, resume stirring the ice/salt water mix.

7. Monitor the texture of the milk in the inner bag by feeling it through the outer bag.

When the milk solidifies, record the time and the temperature.
 DATA SHEET 6

COLLOIDS & COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES OF SOLUTIONS

Section: ___________ Members: __________________________ __________________________

Group #: __________ __________________________ __________________________

A. Colloids

Table I. Classifying Mixtures

Materials
mixed Observations before Observations after
No. mixing Type of Mixture
with water mixing
1 water only

2 0.5 g sugar

3 drops of milk

4 0.5 g CuSO4

5 2 ml olive oil

6 0.5 g soil

B. Colligative Properties of Solution

Table II. Temperature of Solution

Time (minutes) Temperature (°C) Comments

0 minutes (Start) ± Temperature of ice before adding salt
±
±

±
 Guide Questions

1. Based on what you have observed in the experiment, describe how you would

distinguish a solution, a colloid and a suspension.

2. Classify each of the following as a suspension, colloid or solution. (In some cases,

more than one answer may be possible).

A. A mixture is poured through a filter, and the entire mixture passes through.

B. A mixture is left to stand for a while and small particles settle out.

C. When viewed under a microscope, small particles are visible in the mixture.

D. A beam of light passed through the mixture is scattered.

E. The mixture is blue and transparent.

3. Salad dressing, milk and mayonnaise are good examples of an emulsion. Explain how

egg yolk acts as an emulsifier in mayonnaise.

4. How much colder was the salt ice solution than the ice alone?

5. What is the role of salt in the ice/salt mixture?

6. Explain how the colligative property "freezing point depression” was demonstrated

in the experiment?
7. What is the freezing point of a solution of 100.0 g of ethyl alcohol (C2H5OH) in 500.0

g of water?

8. What is the molal concentration of a sugar solution that freezes at -0.93°C?

9. The boiling point constant for CCI4 is 5.03°C, the boiling point of CCI4 is 7.70°C. Determine
the boiling point of a solution made by dissolving 0.50 mole of a substance in 100.0 g of
CCl4

10. What would be the freezing point of sugar solution, which contains 150.0 g of solute in
0.50 L of H2O?
 EXPERIMENT 7

FACTORS AFFECTING RATES OF REACTION

Introduction

The rate of chemical reaction may be defined as the rate of formation of products, or the

rate of disappearance of reactants. These rates may be affected by factors, such as surface area,

nature of reactants, concentration of reactants, temperature, and presence of catalyst.

In this experiment, factors that influence how fast or slow reactions proceed is presented.

Manipulating these factors enable one to achieve the desired reaction rate.

Materials

Hot Plate, Glass Beaker (500mL), Graduated Cylinder (50mL), Thermometer, Pair of Tongs, Test

Tubes, Funnel, Graduated Cylinder (200mL), Pestle Mortar, Test Tubes (500mL)

Reagents

Water, 8 Alka Seltzer Tablet, Ice, Hydrochloric Acid Solutions (0.1M, 1.0M, and 2.0M), Strips

of Zinc Metal, Hydrogen Peroxide, Solid CuCl2, Solid NaCl, Solid Potassium Iodide (KI)

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Always wear your laboratory gown and safety googles.

2. Handle thermometer and all glass wares properly.
3. Hydrochloric acid is corrosive and can cause severe burns. Be cautious!
4. Consider all salts you will be using as harmful materials.
5. Avoid skin contact with H2O2.
6. For disposal, small amounts of H2O2 can be flushed down in a sink with large quantity of
water.

Procedures

A. Effect of Temperature

1. Measure 250 ml of water using a graduated cylinder, and pour it into a 500ml beaker.
2. Scoop out 125ml of ice, and add it into the beaker of water.
3. Take the temperature of the water, and record it.
4. Place the Alka Seltzer tablet into the beaker carefully.
5. Time how long it takes the tablet to dissolve completely. Observe and record
observations.
6. Follow your teacher's instructions for disposal of wastes
7. Measure 250 ml of water using a graduated cylinder, and pour it into a 500ml beaker.
8. Use your tongs to grab the beaker, and place it on the hot plate for about 40 seconds.
9. Repeat steps 3-5
10. Clean up, and put away the equipment you have used.
B.Effect of Concentration

1. Use a 200mL graduated cylinder to measure 5mL of a 0.1M, 1.0M, and 2.0M.

2. Label each test tube as 0.1M, 1.0M, and 2.0M

3. Funnel each solution into its correct test tube.

4. Carefully, drop one zinc metal into each test tube, and observe. Record your observations.

5. Clean up and put away the equipment you have used.

C.Effect of Surface Area

1. Fill the beaker with 150mL of water.

2. Place the whole Alka Seltzer tablet into the beaker.

3. Time the reaction, and record your observations.

4. Repeat steps 1-3, instead with a crushed tablet and a chunked tablet.

5. Clean up and put away the equipment you have used.

D.Effect of the Presence of a Catalyst

1 Use a funnel and fill a 500mL test tube with 3mL of hydrogen peroxide. Add a drop of
dish soap.

2 Place the solid CuCl2 into the test tube.

3 Repeat steps 1-3 with solid NaCl and KI.

4 Record and observe your results.

5 Clean up and put away the equipment you have used.

 DATA SHEET 7

FACTORS AFFECTING RATES OF REACTION

Section: ___________ Members: __________________________ __________________________

Group #: __________ __________________________ __________________________

Table 1. Effect of Temperature

Temperature of water (◦C) Observations

With ice:

Normal room temp:

On hot plate:

Table 2. Effect of Concentration

Concentration of HCl (in M) Observations

Table 3. Effect of Surface Area

Surface area of tablet Observations

Whole

Chunks

Crushed

Table 4. Effect of the Presence of a Catalyst

Catalyst Observations
None

NaCl

CuCl2

KI
 Guide Questions

1. a. What effect does temperature have on the reaction rate of the tablet and water?

b. Will temperature have an effect on the equilibrium constant of this reaction?

2. a. Write the balanced equation for the reaction of Zinc and HCl
 b. Write the equilibrium expression for the reaction of zinc and HCl.

Keq =

c. Should the equilibrium expression change if the size of the zinc pieces changes? Why or
why not?

3. What does the reaction of the tablet with water show you about reaction rates?

4. a. What effect does CuCl2 have on the reaction rate of the decomposition of

hydrogen peroxide?

a. What effect does CuCl2 have on the equilibrium constant?

5. a. Will adding a catalyst to a given reaction shift the equilibrium so that more

product is produced?

b. What is the main purpose of a catalyst?