Role of Rock Mechanics in Mining Industry: Applications

in Underground Mining

A Technical Report submitted in the partial fulfilment of requirement of award of bachelor

degree of Bachelor of Technology in Mining Engineering

By

Sri Sesha Sai Pavan Josyula

Enrolment No. 511217002

SESSION 2018-19

DEPARTMENT OF MINING ENGINEERING

INDIAN INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, SHIBPUR

HOWRAH – 711103
 DEPARTMENT OF MINING ENGINEERING

INDIAN INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING SCIECNE AND

TECHNOLOGY, SHIBPUR

(An Institute of National Importance)

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the dissertation titled “ROLE OF ROCK MECHANICS IN MINING
INDUSTRY: APPLICATIONS IN UNDERGROUND MINING” being submitted by Mr.
Sri Sesha Sai Pavan Josyula (Roll No.: 511217002) to the Department of Mining
Engineering, Indian Institute of Engineering Science and Technology, Shibpur, in partial
fulfilment of requirements for award of dual degree of Bachelor of Technology in Mining
Engineering is a record of bonafide work carried out by him under my supervision and
guidance.

To the best of my knowledge, the matter embodied in this document has not been submitted
anywhere else for award of any other degree or diploma.

Date: ____________________________________

(Prof. M. Mitra)

Professor in Mining Engineering

 DEPARTMENT OF MINING ENGINEERING

INDIAN INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING SCIECNE AND

TECHNOLOGY, SHIBPUR

(An Institute of National Importance)

DECLARATION

I hereby declare that the technical report entitled “ROLE OF ROCK MECHANICS
IN MINING INDUSTRY: APPLICATIONS IN UNDERGROUND MINING” submitted
to the Indian Institute of Engineering Science and Technology, Shibpur in the partial
fulfilment of the requirements of the award of the degree of Bachelor of Technology in
Mining Engineering is a record of bonafide technical report carried out by me.

To the best of my knowledge, the matter embodied in this document has not been
submitted anywhere else for award of any other degree or diploma.

Date: ____________________________

Sri Sesha Sai Pavan Josyula

Enrolment No. 511217002

 DEPARTMENT OF MINING ENGINEERING

INDIAN INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING SCIECNE AND

TECHNOLOGY, SHIBPUR

(An Institute of National Importance)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are thankful to Prof. Mukul Mitra, Professor in Department of Mining Engineering,

IIEST, Shibpur for his constant supervision, guidance, motivation and support at every stage
of this technical report.

We would also like to convey our sincere gratitude and indebtness to faculty and staff
members of Department of Mining Engineering, IIEST Shibpur, for their help at different
times.

We would also like to extend our sincere thanks to Dr. N. C. Dey and Dr. P. Dutta, for their
help in providing the necessary information for the dissertation work.

Last but not least our sincere thanks to all our friends who have extended all sorts of support
for the completion of this project.

Sri Sesha Sai Pavan Josyula

III Semester B. Tech in Mining Engineering

Indian Institute of Engineering Science and Technology, Shibpur

Howrah-711103
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Contents

ROLE OF ROCK MECHANICS IN MINING INDUSTRY: APPLICATIONS TO

UNDERGROUND MINING.................................................................................................. i

CERTIFICATE........................................................................................................................ii

DECLARATION.................................................................................................................... iii

Table of Contents.....................................................................................................................iv

Summary...................................................................................................................................v

List of Figures...........................................................................................................................vi

List of Tables...........................................................................................................................vii

Chapter-1 Introduction to Rock Mechanics.............................................................................1

1.1. Rock Mechanics................................................................................................................1

1.2. Rock Mechanics Problems................................................................................................1
1.3. Scope of Rock Mechanics.................................................................................................2
1.4. Problems of Rock Mechanics............................................................................................2

Chapter-2 Fundamentals of Rock Mechanics..........................................................................3

2.1. Physical Properties of Rocks............................................................................................3

2.1.1. Porosity..............................................................................................................3

2.1.2. Density...............................................................................................................4

2.1.3. Moisture Content...............................................................................................5

2.1.4. Degree of Saturation..........................................................................................6

2.1.5. Permeability.......................................................................................................6

2.1.6. Electrical Properties...........................................................................................7

2.1.7. Thermal Properties.............................................................................................7

 2.1.8. Durability.............................................................................................................7

2.2. Mechanical Properties.........................................................................................................8

2.2.1. Elasticity...............................................................................................................8

2.2.2. Plasticity...............................................................................................................9

2.2.3. Poisson’s Ratio.....................................................................................................9

2.2.4. Hardness.............................................................................................................10

2.2.5. Strength..............................................................................................................10

Chapter-3 Defects in Rock Mass..............................................................................................11

3.1. Discontinuities & Defects in Rock Mass..............................................................11

3.2. Strike & Dip..........................................................................................................11

3.3. Joints......................................................................................................................12

3.4. Faults.....................................................................................................................12

3.5. Folds......................................................................................................................15

Chapter-4 Rock Mechanics in Mining.....................................................................................16

4.1. Rock Blasting........................................................................................................16

4.2. Ground Vibration Study........................................................................................16

4.3. Ground Control/Strata Control..............................................................................16

4.4. Selection of Support Systems................................................................................17

4.5. Design of Stope & Pillar.......................................................................................17

4.6. Premining stresses in rocks...................................................................................17

4.7. Subsidence.............................................................................................................18

References................................................................................................................................20
 DEPARTMENT OF MINING ENGINEERING

INDIAN INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING SCIECNE AND

TECHNOLOGY, SHIBPUR

(An Institute of National Importance)

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
The subject “Rock Mechanics” is budding branch of Mining Engineering and Geosciences
which in today’s context has been gaining wide attention, momentum and acceptance by the
Mining Fraternity. Rock masses invariably are heterogeneous and vary in their engineering
properties and are intersected persistently by discontinuity planes. It is, therefore, a challenge
to create realistic simulations of excavation in rock, which is not only unpredictable but also
very complex as there are no simplistic assumptions by which rock mass diversities could be
explained.

The present scenario of rapidly expanding mining and civil engineering sectors calls for
scientific approach in formulating designs of opencast, underground and civil excavations.
List of figures
FIG. No. TITLE PAGE No.
3.1 Strike & Dip 12
3.2 Joint 13
3.3 Different types of Faults 14
3.4 Describing different types of 15
anticline & syncline
3.5 Different types of Folds 15
4.1 Coal Mine Subsidence 19
4.2 Subsidence Phenomenon 19
List of Tables

TABLE No. TITLE PAGE No.

2.1 Dry Densities of some 5
typical rocks
2.2 Durability Classification 8
CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION TO ROCK MECHANICS

1.1. Rock Mechanics

“Rock Mechanics is the theoretical and applied science of the behaviour of rock; it is
that branch of mechanics which is concerned with the response of rock to the force field of its
environment”.

Rock Mechanics may be taken as separate field of engineering and different from
engineering geology. It not only deals with rock as an engineering material but it also deals
with changes in mechanical behaviour in rocks (such as stress, strain and movement in rocks)
brought in due to engineering activities. It is also associated with design and stability of
underground structures in rock.

When there is continuous rock mass with no inherent defects, its property can be
estimated with theories of engineering geology and mechanics. But when the rock mass is
discontinuous having either inherent defects or defects developed due to engineering
operations, the theories of rock mechanics are required to predict the behaviour of rock mass.

1.2. Rock Mechanics Problems

In Rock Mechanics, the laws of mechanics and hydraulics including theories of elasticity
and plasticity are utilised for rock and rock masses. In general, the problems of rock
mechanics may be classified in three categories.

(a) Problems of equilibrium or stability

(b) Problems of Elastic and Plastic deformations
(c) Drainage problem

For problems (a) & (b) types, it is necessary to know about the load imposed, magnitude and
distribution of stresses induced in the rock mass by the load.
1.3. Scope of Rock Mechanics

The study of rock mechanics is necessary and essential for civil engineers, mining
engineers, geologists and geophysicists.

When a cut is made into rock mass such as mining shafts, tunnels and underground
powerhouses then there is a stress relief in the surrounding rock mass which causes the
development of tensile stress due to which cracks appear and subsequently there is rock fall
into the opening. In such cases, the opening has to be designed such that rocks may not
appear excessively after the opening has been made. If at all cracks have appeared, then the
rock may be made stable by adopting a suitable design of rock reinforcement or a concrete
lining.

Knowledge of rock mechanics is essential for mining engineers. For effective mining
operations, explosives are put for explosion and then the mining operation is done.
Knowledge of rock mechanics helps in effective selection of explosive material depending up
on rock properties. Rock mechanics also helps in selecting drilling bit materials so that
effective drilling may be done at deeper depth such as for oil explorations, etc.

1.4. Problems of Rock Mechanics

Reaction of a particular rock when put to actual use, load carrying capacity of the rock
at its surface and at different depths, shear strength of rock, dynamic properties of the rock,
effect of earthquake on rock foundation system, elastic constants of rocks, effect of rock
defects on its strength properties, time-dependent deformation (creep) in rock, laws of plastic
flow, effect of anisotropy of rock on stress distribution, co-relation of laboratory results with
rock-strength “in-situ”, estimation of test method which will provide actual “in-situ”
conditions and properties of rocks, mechanism of failure in rocks, estimation of rock-slope
design factors and factor of safety to be used in design.
CHAPTER 2

FUNDAMENTALS OF ROCK MECHANICS

2.1. Physical Properties

The performance of rock, under a particular condition, depends upon physical

properties of rocks. The physical properties are also known as ‘index properties’, which
describe the rock materials and help in classifying them.

A rock material is an aggregate of mineral particles. These individual mineral crystals

and grains are not homogeneous, isotropic and perfectly elastic bodies due to sequence of
formation of rock masses. The crystal hardness is influenced by various physical and
mechanical properties, such as cohesion, brittleness, tensile strength, etc at the same time due
to an orientation of cleavage planes.

2.1.1. Porosity

Porosity identifies the relative proportion of solids and voids. The porosity of a rock sample
is defined as the ratio of the volume of voids to the total volume of the sample, i.e.

Vv
n= ........ (2.1)
V

Where

n is the porosity generally expressed in percentage;

Vv is the volume of void, i.e. volume of air as well as water present in the pore spaces;

V is the total volume of the rock sample.

If the sample is completely dry, voids will contain only air whereas in case of a fully
saturated sample, voids will contain only liquid such as water or oil. Porosity depends upon
the shape of mineral grains, their grading and orientation and the degree of compaction and
cementation. When the rock forming particles are of different sizes, the space created by
bigger particles will be filled by finer particles and thus, the rock will be having dense
compaction resulting into a lesser porosity. On the other hand, if the grains are of uniform
size, the spaces inside the mass will be large and thus, the rock will be having a higher
porosity value. Due to weathering in rock mass, the porosity of rock may be higher. Porosity
generally decreases with the age of rocks. It decreases with depth also. Because at greater
depth, the rock is subjected to a higher pressure which reduces the pore spaces of the rock
mass.

Sedimentary rocks have maximum porosity value and the value ranges from 1% to
90%. The igneous rocks have porosity less than 1% to 2%. But due to weathering, the value
of porosity goes as high as 20%. Chalk is found to be the most porous rock. Its value is found
to be as high as 50% or more. The porosity of rock material is its measure of water-holding
capacity also. Sometimes, this helps in evaluating the water yield of a stratum. Most porous
rock may not be suitable for engineering constructions.

2.1.2. Density

Density is defined as mass per unit volume of the rock. Depending up on a requirement, the
density may be expressed as dry density, bulk density or saturated density.

Dry density refers to mass per unit volume when the rock mass is completely dry, i.e. void
contains only air.

Bulk density refers to mass per unit volume in normal conditions, which means that the rock
mass may contain some liquid and some air in its pores.

Saturated density refers to mass per unit volume when the rock mass is fully saturated.

The following Table-2.1 gives an idea of dry density of common types of rocks.
 Table-2.1: Dry Densities of some typical rocks

Rock Dry Density(gm/cc)

Granite 2.65
Diorite 2.85
Gypsum 2.30
Dense limestone 2.70
Marble 2.75
Quartz, mica schist 2.82
Rhyolite 2.37
Basalt 2.77
Shale 2.25 to 2.62
(varies with depth)
Coal 0.7 to 2.0
(varies with ash content)

The values of porosity and density don’t give us the information about the nature of bonding
among the mineral grains.

The relation between bulk density and dry density is given as follows:

𝑦
yn = 1+𝑚 .............(2.2)

Where,

yd = the dry density;

y = bulk density;

m = the moisture content of sample.

2.1.3. Moisture Content

The moisture content of a rock sample is defined as the ratio of weight of water in the
voids to the weight of dry solids in the sample.

𝑊𝑤
i.e. m= 𝑊𝑠
where, m = moisture content;

Ww = weight of water in voids;

Ws = weight of solids.

Natural moisture content of a rock sample is the moisture content of the sample when taken
from ground due to excavation or boring.

It is noted that the bearing capacity of the rock mass decreases with the increase in the natural
moisture content.

2.1.4. Degree of Saturation

Degree of Saturation is defined as the ratio of volume of water in the voids to the total
volume of voids in the rock sample.

𝑉𝑤
i.e. S= 𝑉𝑣

Where S = the degree of saturation;

Vw = the volume of water;

Vv = the volume of voids.

The rock mass having higher values of porosity will have higher degree of saturation.

2.1.5. Permeability

Permeability refers to the ability of a porous material to allow a liquid to pass through
pores. Since the pores are connected with each other, the flow of liquid takes place through
the pores if there is difference in head at the two ends of the sample. Darcy has proposed an
equation for the flow of liquid through porous mass:

Q  iA

Or Q=KiA
Where Q = the discharge through the area A

i = hydraulic gradient

K = the constant of proportionality which is known as coefficient of

permeability.

The coefficient of permeability (K) has unit of velocity and its value depends up on
the rock type, pore size, entrapped air in the pores and temperature of rock mass and the
viscosity of air.

2.1.6. Electrical Properties

Most of the rocks are dielectrics and hence measurements of dielectric constants are done for
interpretation of data. This property is also of importance in prospecting for ground water
resources because due to the presence of water in pores of the rock, the dielectric properties
of rocks change sharply and hence interpretation of data is done for the location of ground
water reservoirs.

2.1.7. Thermal Properties

Thermal properties are of more importance especially for tunnels, for underground openings
like underground powerhouses, etc. Increase in temperature of the rock or a frequent change
in temperature of rock makes it weaker due to the formation of cracks in the rock mass.
Hence, knowledge in Thermal conductivity and coefficient of thermal expansion and
contraction of rock mass is essential. Thermal conductivity, K equals to

𝑄𝑥
K = 𝐴𝑡∆𝑇

Where, Q = amount of heat transferred in perpendicular direction through an area A

T = Temperature difference in oC between two points at a distance x

2.1.8. Durability

Durability may be defined as a resistance to destruction. If the rock mass is more durable, it
will last for a longer period when put to use. Durability of rock mass will depend on the
nature of environment against which it is going to be used.
 Table-2.2: Durability Classification

Group % Retained after one 10 % Retained after two 10

minute cycle minute cycles
Very high durability >99 >98
High durability 98-99 95-98
Medium high durability 95-98 85-95
Medium durability 85-95 60-85
Low durability 60-85 30-60
Very low durability <60 <30

Slake durability test is used to determine the durability of rock mass.

2.2. Mechanical Properties

The mechanical properties of rock mass depend on the following factors:

(a) The mechanical properties of the individual elements constituting the system.
(b) The sliding friction along the planes of weakness.
(c) The configuration of the system with respect to direction of loading
(d) The induced stress condition inside the mass.

2.2.1. Elasticity

If an external force, producing deformation does not exceed a certain limit; the deformation
disappears with the removal of the force. The property of material to recover the deformation
is known as “Elasticity”. The limit of deformation up to which the material is elastic is
known as an elastic limit. The linear relation between the stress and deformation (i.e. strain)
is known as Hooke’s law.


=E

Where,  = the stress applied on the material

 = strain in the material due to stress

And E is known as “modulus of elasticity” of the material.

 The modulus of elasticity gives an idea about the elastic property or elasticity of the
material. Modulus of elasticity of rocks depends upon a rock type, its porosity, grain size and
water content. Higher values of modulus of elasticity indicate good quality of rock having
sound composition.

2.2.2. Plasticity

Plasticity is defined as a property of the solid material to deform continuously and

permanently without rupture under a stress exceeding the yield value of the material. Thus,
the plasticity deals with the property of the material when the stress has exceeded the yield
value.

Brittle materials follow elastic property and there is a collapse after elastic limit; but
the ductile materials follow plastic law above the elastic limit. In plastic state, permanent
deformation may occur without fracture. The phenomenon of creep in the rock material is
due to plastic flow.

2.2.3. Poisson’s Ratio

When a material is subjected to uniaxial compressive stress x, strain in x direction is

given by

x
x = E

But due to shortening of material in x direction, there is corresponding increase in

dimensions of the material in lateral dimensions. If the sample is cylindrical then the lateral
strain is given by

y = z

x
=
E

=  x ........... (2.3)

In equation (2.3),  is a constant called “Poisson’s Ratio”. Hence, if longitudinal strain is

known lateral strain can be evaluated with known value of Poisson’s ratio of the material.
Poisson’s Ratio is

lat
 = long

Where, long = strain parallel to the direction of applied load

lat = strain at right angles to the direction of applied load.

The reciprocal of Poisson’s ratio is known as Poisson’s number and is denoted by m.

Presence of cracks decreases the value of Poisson’s ratio but if the cracks are oriented parallel
to the direction of application of the load, they tend to open up, causing a higher lateral strain
and thus, higher value of Poisson’s ratio is obtained.

2.2.4. Hardness

Hardness of the rocks is defined as its resistance to abrasion. It also gives an idea of strength
criteria of rocks. Hardness of rocks depends upon the strength of chemical bonds. Mohr’s
empirical scale is used for rocks. The hardness is estimated by scratching the rock material.

2.2.5. Strength

Strength is a general term. The ability of a material to resist an externally applied load is
known as its strength. But in rock mechanics, strength is defined as the force per unit area
required to bring about rupture in a rock mass at given environmental conditions.

In addition to the environment, rock strength depends on the following factors also

1. Size of rock specimen

2. Type of test
3. Duration of test i.e. rate of loading
4. Cycle of loading
5. Confining pressure
6. Degree of saturation.
Depending up on the type of loading and the stresses, the strength in general can be classified
as

1. Compressive strength
2. Tensile strength
3. Shear strength
CHAPTER 3

DEFECTS IN ROCK MASS

3.1. Discontinuities & Defects in Rock Mass

The rock may be igneous, sedimentary or metamorphic, but it may consist of a lot of
discontinuities in the mass which may make the rock unable to withstand high stresses due to
some external factors.

The discontinuities & weaknesses in the rocks may be in the following forms:

1. Fractures
2. Cracks & Hair cracks
3. Fissures
4. Bedding planes & laminations
5. Stratification
6. Joints
7. Faults
8. Folds
9. Cavities

3.2. Strike & Dip

Unequal forces acting on the crust cause unequal uplift or subsidence. Due to unequal uplift
or subsidence, the original horizontal sedimentary bed gets tilted. These tilted beds slope in
some direction and subtend an angle with the horizontal plane.

The direction of the line along which the inclined bed meets a horizontal plane is
known as the strike of the bed. It is described as N( 0)E, N(0)W, S(0)E, S(0)W.
 Fig.3.1. Strike & Dip

Dip indicates the maximum slope of a particular inclined plane with the horizontal plane.
Strike & Dip are used to describe the joints.

3.3. Joints

Any break in the rock mass irrespective of its size is termed as fractures. Minor fractures are
termed as cracks or fissures.

Cracks along which the fractured rock masses appear to have suffered no relative
displacement is known as joints. (Refer Fig.3.2)

Joints occur in all types of rocks, i.e. igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic.

3.4. Faults

When there is a displacement on each side of a fracture in the rock mass along the fracture
plane, then the plane is classified as a fault. The displacement may be horizontal, vertical or
both. In wide contrast with joints, faults are well defined cracks. (Refer Fig.3.3)
Fig.3.2. Joint
Fig.3.3. Different types of faults
3.5. Folds

Folds are wavy undulations which are developed in the country rocks when the region is
subjected to high stresses. The wave like form is made up of a series of alternate crests and
troughs.

Fig.3.4. Describing different types of anticline & syncline

Fig.3.5. Different types of folds

CHAPTER 4

ROCK MECHANICS IN MINING

4.1. Rock Blasting

Rock Blasting is one of the key areas that directly influence the productivity of mines
as large quantities of well-fragmented ROM (Run-of-Mine) are required for the processing
plants. It is desirable to minimise damage desired to rock slope after excavation of materials.
The production of well-fragmented rock facilitates the post-excavation stages, such as,
loading, transportation, handling and crushing. These requirements are possible only if proper
blasting techniques are adopted & applied so as to control rock fragmentation and the
consequent damages effected.

Proper control of factors, such as, type, weight and distribution of explosives, blast
hole diameter, effective burden, effective spacing, blast hole inclination, stemming, initiation
sequence for detonation of explosives, delay between successive sequence hole or row firing
etc. are essential for achieving optimum results. Rock Mechanics techniques that are based on
rock mass characterisation studies help in selection of blasting parameters for specific rock
mass.

4.2. Ground Vibration Study

The ground vibration studies are helpful in designing blasting parameters, in order to reduce
the distance of fly rocks and improved fragmentation. Blast induced vibrations are measured
with the help of blasting seismograph. Depending on the site’s ground conditions, an
equation may be established to calculate a safe charge weight per delay and safe distance for
measuring the ground vibration due to blasting within the permissible safe limits so as to
avoid possible damage to important surface structures, such as, railway lines, crushers,
buildings, archaeological sites, temples and village localities. All these would have to be in
compliance with the various regulations of the Mining Act.

4.3. Ground Control/Strata Control

Many underground mines have problems of stope design, ground control and support
systems. For the purpose of analysis of the stability of existing pillars so as to avoid possible
impending failure and to achieve safer designs of future stopes and pillar, geotechnical study
is required. By using various instruments and close monitoring, stability of crown and rib
pillars could be achieved.

4.4. Selection of Support Systems

Geo-technical studies form an integral part for the assessment of ground conditions for
support requirement. The geomechanics classification of rock mass in drives, stopes on the
basis of rock mass classification, stand-up time for open stope, tunnel or without providing
support can be studied. Type of supports and its density can be calculated.

4.5. Design of Stope & Pillar

Rock mechanics investigations are helpful for-

a) design of different pillars in the stope, such as, rib pillar, barrier pillars, pillars against
waterlogged area
b) design of stopes
c) The stability of stopes and various pillars—barrier pillars, shaft pillars etc.
d) Problem on ground control and design of support system.

The major sources of instability of underground workings are-

a) adverse geological structure

b) excessively high rock stress while mining is at great depth
c) weathering or swelling of rock
d) excessive ground water pressure

Feasibility study for selecting underground mining methods require the rock mechanics data,
such as, in situ stress, physio mechanical and elastic properties of rock and rock mass
strength.

4.6. Premining stresses in rocks

The stress in the rock prior to the mining can be classified into five categories.

1. Inherent stress
2. Induced stress
 3. Residual stress
4. Burden stress
5. Lateral stress

Inherent Stress: It is contributed by the constituents of rocks. The grains which compose the
rocks are not completely free of stresses and the stress already present in the grains exists in
the rocks also.

Induced Stress: These are the stresses which are induced in the rocks due to external causes
like tectonic movements, hydration of & dilatation of argillaceous shale, etc.

Residual Stress: It is the stress which remains after the cause of stress has disappeared. The
rocks are not perfect elastic bodies as they can’t destress themselves completely, i.e. the rocks
which were buried deep inside the earth’s crust when brought or near the surface due to
erosion or other tectonic movements are not found to be free of stress.

Burden Stress: It is the main stress existing in the rocks. It is due to the weight of overlying
strata.

Lateral Stress: It may be caused due to organic forces or due to inabilities of rock to expand
at depth under the action of burden stress. It acts at right angles to burden stress.

4.7. Subsidence

Subsidence occurs when large areas of coal are mined and the resulting settlement of
roof material into the void (the goaf) results in the surface subsiding over the affected area.
More commonly there is a gradual lowering of the surface strata which actually bends rather
than fractures at the limits of the subsiding area. The central area of subsidence usually
subjected to a gradual lowering, possibly suffering some tilt and strain as the workings pass
beneath.

This may cause damage to such items as roads and pipelines but this is easily repaired
& there is a little evidence of it being a subsidence area after movement ceases.

Upsidence is also a surface phenomenon associated with mining and subsidence and
occurs where workings pass beneath a gorge or similar surface feature causing a
concentration of horizontal stress in the strata between the bottom of the feature and the top
of any goaf cavity. This increased stress may cause strata beds close to the surface to bend
upwards and possibly fracture.

Fig.4.1. Coal Mine Subsidence

Fig.4.2. Subsidence Phenomenon

 References

1. Singh R. D., ‘Principles and Practices of Modern Coal Mining’, 1st Edition, New Age
International Publishers, 1997.
2. Verma B. P., ‘Rock Mechanics for Engineers’, 1st Edition, Khanna Publishers, 1985.
3. Controller General of Indian Bureau of Mines, ‘Application of Rock Mechanics in
Surface and Underground Mining’, 1st Edition, IBM Press, Nagpur, 2014.
4. Deshmukh D. J., ‘Elements of Mining Technology Vol. 1’, 9th Edition, Denett
Publishers, 2016.