Stability: Lecture Notes of ELG3155: Introduction To Control Systems

Stability
Wail Gueaieb
Chapter 6
Stability
Lecture notes of ELG3155: Introduction to Control Systems
Objectives
Introduction
Routh-Hurwitz Criteria
Routh-Hurwitz Table
Routh-Hurwitz Criteria:
Special Cases
Supplementary
Examples
Stability in State Space
References
Wail Gueaieb
EECS
University of Ottawa
6.1
Stability
Outline
Wail Gueaieb
1 Introduction
2 Routh-Hurwitz Criteria
Objectives
Introduction
3 Routh-Hurwitz Table Routh-Hurwitz Criteria
Routh-Hurwitz Table
Special Cases
4 Routh-Hurwitz Criteria: Special Cases
Case 1: a zero component at the beginning of a nonzero row Routh-Hurwitz Criteria:
Supplementary
Case 2: an entire row of zeros (ROZ) Examples
References
5 Routh-Hurwitz Criteria: Supplementary Examples
6 Stability in State Space
6.2
Stability
Objectives
Wail Gueaieb
Objectives
Introduction
This chapter aims at studying how:
• to determine a system’s stability from its transfer function without solving
Routh-Hurwitz Table
for the poles.
• to determine a system’s parameter to guarantee its stability. Special Cases
Supplementary
Examples
References
6.3
Stability
Introduction
Wail Gueaieb
• Stability is the most important feature of a control system.

• If a system is unstable, studying its transient response becomes
uninteresting.
Definition (Instability) Objectives
A system is said to be unstable if and only if there exists at least one bounded Introduction
input that leads to an unbounded output. Otherwise, it is stable. Routh-Hurwitz Criteria
Routh-Hurwitz Table
Poles of an unstable LTI system Routh-Hurwitz Criteria:
Special Cases
An LTI system is unstable if at least one of its poles is at the origin, or on the
RHS of the s-plane, or a pair of conjugate poles on the jω-axis is repeated Supplementary
twice or more. Examples
References
jω jω jω
× × ×(2)
× σ × σ × σ
× × ×(2)
6.4
Definition (Stability) Stability
Wail Gueaieb
A system is said to be stable if and only if every bounded input leads to a
bounded output. A stable system is either asymptotic stable or marginally
(critically) stable.
Definition (Asymptotic stability)

A system is said to be asymptotically stable if its natural response tends to
Objectives
zero as t → ∞.
Introduction
c(t) = cf (t) + cn (t) , where lim cn (t) = 0. Routh-Hurwitz Criteria

t→∞
Routh-Hurwitz Table
Special Cases
Poles of an asymptotically stable LTI system Supplementary
Examples
An LTI system is asymptotically stable if and only if all of its poles are on the
LHS of the s-plane.
References
jω jω
×
× ×
× σ σ
× ×
× 6.5
Stability
Definition (Marginal stability) Wail Gueaieb
A system is marginally stable (or critically stable) when its natural response
cn (t) is oscillatory with a constant magnitude.
cn (t)
t Objectives
Introduction
Routh-Hurwitz Table
Poles of a critically stable LTI system
An LTI system is critically stable if and only if it is stable and has at least one Special Cases
conjugate pair of poles are the imaginary axis of the s-plane. Routh-Hurwitz Criteria:
Supplementary
Examples

jω jω References
×
×
×
× σ σ
×
×
×
6.6
Stability
Wail Gueaieb
Figs. 2 and 1 show a graphical illustration of these concepts.
Objectives
Unstable
Introduction
LTI system Marginally stable Routh-Hurwitz Criteria
Routh-Hurwitz Table
Stable
Special Cases
Asymptotically stable
Supplementary
Figure 1: The different types of stability for an LTI system. Examples
References
6.7
Stability
Wail Gueaieb
Objectives
Introduction
Routh-Hurwitz Table
Special Cases
Supplementary
Examples
References
Figure 2: (a) Stable system; (b) unstable system (Fig. 6.1 of [Nise, 2015]).
6.8
Stability
Wail Gueaieb
Necessary (but insufficient) stability condition

For a control system to be stable, all the coefficients of its characteristic
equation must be of the same sign including a nonzero bias.
Objectives
Examples of characteristic equations satisfying this condition (the system may or Introduction
may not be stable)
• 2s9 + 10s7 + 66s5 + 9s3 + 4 = 0 Routh-Hurwitz Table
• −30s8 − 5s7 − 12s4 − 3s2 − 1 = 0 Special Cases
Supplementary
Examples

Examples of characteristic equations violating this condition (the system is then
unstable) References
• 2s9 + 10s7 − 66s5 + 9s3 + 4 = 0

• −30s8 − 5s7 − 12s4 − 3s2 − s = 0
6.9
Stability
Wail Gueaieb
• The Routh-Hurwitz criteria are a set of rules to determine the number of

Objectives
the roots of an algebraic equation
Introduction
an sn + an−1 sn−1 + · · · + a1 s + a0 = 0 Routh-Hurwitz Criteria
Routh-Hurwitz Table
which have positive (> 0) real parts without solving the equation.
Special Cases
Supplementary
Examples
Routh-Hurwitz Criteria (necessary and sufficient condition)
The number of roots of a polynomial which are on the RHS of the s-plane is References
equal to the number of sign changes in the first column of the Routh-Hurwitz
table.
6.10
Stability
Routh-Hurwitz Table
Wail Gueaieb
Building the RH table
• Consider a polynomial of the form: an sn + an−1 sn−1 + · · · + a1 s + a0 .

• The top two rows of the RH table correspond to sn and sn−1 . The
coefficients of these two rows are extracted directly from the polynomial.
• The rest of the table is calculated as shown below. Objectives
Introduction
col. 1 col. 2 col. 3 ··· col. j col. j + 1 ··· Routh-Hurwitz Criteria
Routh-Hurwitz Table
sn an an−2 an−4 ··· ··· ··· ···
sn−1 an−1 an−3 an−5 ··· ··· ··· ··· Special Cases
sn−2 zi−2,1 zi−2,j+1 Routh-Hurwitz Criteria:
sn−3 zi−1,1 zi−1,j+1 Supplementary
Examples
..
. zi,j Stability in State Space
s1 References
s0

z zi−2,j+1
− i−2,1
zi−1,1 zi−1,j+1
where zi,j =
zi−1,1
6.11
Stability
Wail Gueaieb
Objectives
Example 6.1 Introduction
R(s) E(s) C(s)
Determine the stability of the following system, +
−
G(s) Routh-Hurwitz Criteria
1000
where G(s) = (s+2)(s+3)(s+5) . Routh-Hurwitz Table
Special Cases
Supplementary
Examples
References
6.12
Stability
Wail Gueaieb
Verification
Fig. 3 shows the step response of this system. It is clear that the response
goes out of bound, hence the system is unstable.
Step Response
#10 25
5
4
Objectives
3
Introduction
2
Amplitude
1
Routh-Hurwitz Table
0
-1 Special Cases
-2 Routh-Hurwitz Criteria:
Supplementary
-3 Examples
-4 Stability in State Space

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Time (seconds) References
Figure 3: Step response of the system in Example 6.1
System poles: −13.4136 and 1.7068 ± j 8.595
6.13
Stability
Wail Gueaieb
Complex conjugate roots on the imaginary axis
• A polynomial cannot have complex conjugate roots on the imaginary axis

if its RH table does not have a row of zeros (ROZ). Objectives
• However, the converse statement is not always true. Introduction
That is, the existence of a ROZ does not necessarily imply that the Routh-Hurwitz Criteria
polynomial has complex conjugate roots on the imaginary axis.
Routh-Hurwitz Table
Special Cases
Facilitating the manual computation of the RH table Supplementary
Examples

• To facilitate the manual calculation of the RH table, it is safe to multiply an
References
entire row by a positive scalar.
6.14
Stability
Wail Gueaieb
Objectives
Example Introduction
Consider the following system, where G(s) = R(s) E(s) C(s) Routh-Hurwitz Criteria
K + G(s)
and K ∈ R. For what values of −
(s+1)(s2 +2s+1) Routh-Hurwitz Table
K is the system stable? Routh-Hurwitz Criteria:
Special Cases
Supplementary
Examples
References
6.15
Stability
Wail Gueaieb
Verification (Fig. 4)
Step Response Step Response Step Response

0.9 #10 25 1.8
0
0.8 1.6
Objectives
-0.5
0.7 1.4
Introduction
0.6 -1 1.2
Amplitude
Amplitude
Amplitude
0.5 1
-1.5
0.4 0.8
0.3 -2 0.6
Routh-Hurwitz Table
0.2 0.4
-2.5
0.1 0.2
Special Cases
0 -3 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Time (seconds) Time (seconds) Time (seconds) Routh-Hurwitz Criteria:
Supplementary
K =2 K = −4 K =8 Examples

Figure 4: Stability verification with different values of K
References
6.16
Stability
Routh-Hurwitz Criteria: Special Cases
Case 1: a zero component at the beginning of a nonzero row Wail Gueaieb
Objectives
Introduction
Example Routh-Hurwitz Criteria
R(s) E(s) C(s) Routh-Hurwitz Table

−
G(s)
where G(s) = 2s4 +2s13 +s2 +s . Special Cases
Case 1: a zero component
at the beginning of a
nonzero row
Case 2: an entire row of
zeros (ROZ)
Supplementary
Examples
References
6.17
Stability
Wail Gueaieb
Verification
Step Response
#10 27
7
6
Objectives
5 Introduction
Amplitude
3 Routh-Hurwitz Table
2
Special Cases
1 Case 1: a zero component
nonzero row
0
zeros (ROZ)
-1
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Time (seconds)
Supplementary
Examples
Figure 5: Step response of the system Stability in State Space
References
System poles: −0.7927 ± j 0.4292 and 0.2927 ± j 0.7278
6.18
Stability
Wail Gueaieb
Objectives
Example 6.2
Introduction
Find the distribution of the poles on the s-plane for a system whose transfer
function is
T (s) = 5
s + 2s4 + 3s3 + 6s2 + 5s + 3 Routh-Hurwitz Criteria:
Special Cases
nonzero row
zeros (ROZ)
Supplementary
Examples
References
6.19
Stability
Wail Gueaieb
Verification
Objectives
Introduction
Routh-Hurwitz Table
Special Cases
nonzero row
zeros (ROZ)
System poles: −1.6681, 0.3429 ± j 1.5083, and −0.5088 ± j 0.7020 Routh-Hurwitz Criteria:
Supplementary
Examples
References
6.20
Stability
Routh-Hurwitz Criteria: Special Cases
Case 2: an entire row of zeros (ROZ) Wail Gueaieb
Objectives
Introduction
Example Routh-Hurwitz Criteria
R(s) E(s) C(s) Routh-Hurwitz Table

−
G(s)
1 Routh-Hurwitz Criteria:
where G(s) = s4 +s3 +5s 2 +4s+3 . Special Cases
nonzero row
zeros (ROZ)
Supplementary
Examples
References
6.21
Stability
Wail Gueaieb
Verification
Fig. 6 shows the step response of this system. At steady state, the response is
oscillatory with a fixed amplitude and frequency, hence the system is critically
stable.
Step Response
4
3.5
Objectives
Introduction
3
2.5
Amplitude
Routh-Hurwitz Table
2
1.5 Special Cases
1 at the beginning of a
nonzero row
0.5 Case 2: an entire row of

zeros (ROZ)
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 Routh-Hurwitz Criteria:
Time (seconds) Supplementary
Examples

Figure 6: Step response of the system
References
System poles: ±j 2 and −0.5 ± j 0.866
6.22
Stability
Wail Gueaieb
Definition (Even function)

Consider the function f : D (⊆ C) → R. Then, f is an even function iff
f (−s) = f (s), ∀s ∈ D
Objectives
Introduction
So, if f is an even function, then for every root s of f in the LHS of the s-plane Routh-Hurwitz Table
there exists another root −s on the RHS of the plane, and vice versa. Routh-Hurwitz Criteria:
Special Cases
jω at the beginning of a
−s nonzero row
× Case 2: an entire row of

zeros (ROZ)
σ Supplementary
Examples

×
s References
6.23
Stability
Wail Gueaieb
Auxiliary equation
Objectives
• A system’s auxiliary equation exits only when there is a ROZ in the RH Introduction
table. Routh-Hurwitz Criteria
• The auxiliary equation is the equation corresponding to the row in the RH Routh-Hurwitz Table
table that is right above the ROZ. Routh-Hurwitz Criteria:

Special Cases
• An auxiliary polynomial is always even. Case 1: a zero component
nonzero row
zeros (ROZ)
Supplementary
Examples
References
6.24
Stability
Wail Gueaieb
Remarks
• A ROZ exists in the RH table if (not iff) the characteristic equation has one
or more pairs of complex conjugate roots in the jω-axis. In this case,
• The characterictic polynomial, say Q(s), can be factorized into a product of an Objectives
even auxiliary polynomial, say P(s), and a non-even polynomial, say P 0 (s). Introduction
That is,
Q(s) = P(s) P (s).
Routh-Hurwitz Table
Thus, the roots of P(s) and P 0 (s), are also roots of Q(s).
• The distribution of the roots of the auxiliary polynomial P(s) on the s-plane is Special Cases
determined from the sign changes of the coefficients in the first column of the at the beginning of a
RH table corresponding to the rows of sp down to s0 , where p is the order of nonzero row
P(s). See Fig. 7. zeros (ROZ)
• The distribution of the roots of the remaining (non-even) polynomial P 0 (s) is Routh-Hurwitz Criteria:
Supplementary
determined from the sign changes of the coefficients in the first column of the Examples
RH table corresponding to the rows of sn down to sp , where n is the order of
the control system (and of the characteristic polynomial). Stability in State Space
References
6.25
Stability
Wail Gueaieb
Col. 1
Objectives
Root distribution of P'(s) Introduction
Routh-Hurwitz Table
Aux. poly. P(s) Routh-Hurwitz Criteria:
ROZ Special Cases
Root distribution of aux. poly. P(s) nonzero row

zeros (ROZ)
Supplementary
Examples
Figure 7: Pole distribution on the s-plane in the existence of an auxiliary equation. Stability in State Space
References
6.26
Stability
Wail Gueaieb
Definition (Critical frequency)

The critical frequency is defined when a system is critically stable. It is the Objectives
oscillation frenquency of the system’s natural response. It can be computed Introduction
from the auxiliary equation. Routh-Hurwitz Criteria
Routh-Hurwitz Table
Special Cases
Definition (Critical gain) Case 1: a zero component
In the case of a free gain, the critical gain is the value of this gain which makes nonzero row
the system critically stable. Case 2: an entire row of

zeros (ROZ)
Supplementary
Examples
References
6.27
Stability
Wail Gueaieb
Example 6.4
function is
10
T (s) = 5 Objectives
s + 7s4 + 6s3 + 42s2 + 8s + 56
Introduction
Routh-Hurwitz Table
Special Cases
nonzero row
zeros (ROZ)
Supplementary
Examples
References
6.28
Stability
Wail Gueaieb
Verification
Fig. 8 shows the step response of this system. At steady state, the response is
oscillatory with a fixed amplitude and frequency, hence the system is critically
stable.
Step Response
1.8
1.6 Objectives
1.4 Introduction
1.2 Routh-Hurwitz Criteria

Amplitude
0.8 Routh-Hurwitz Criteria:

Special Cases
0.6 Case 1: a zero component
0.4 nonzero row
0.2
zeros (ROZ)
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 Routh-Hurwitz Criteria:
Time (seconds) Supplementary
Examples

Figure 8: Step response of the system
References
System poles: −7, ±j 2, and ±j 1.4142
6.29
Stability
Wail Gueaieb
Remarks
Objectives
• If a system is marginally stable, then it must have a ROZ in its RH table. Introduction
• However, a ROZ doesn’t necessary mean that the system is marginally Routh-Hurwitz Criteria
stable (see Example 6.5 and Problem 6.19, for instance). Routh-Hurwitz Table
• A ROZ simply means that the characteristic polynomial can be factorized Routh-Hurwitz Criteria:
Special Cases
as a product of two polynomials, one of which is even. Case 1: a zero component
nonzero row
zeros (ROZ)
Supplementary
Examples
References
6.30
Stability
Wail Gueaieb
Example 6.5
function is
20
T (s) =
s8 + s7 + 12s6 + 22s5 + 39s4 + 59s3 + 48s2 + 38s + 20
Objectives
Introduction
Routh-Hurwitz Table
Special Cases
nonzero row
zeros (ROZ)
Supplementary
Examples
References
6.31
Stability
Wail Gueaieb
Verification
Step Response
#10 10
2.5
2
Objectives
1.5 Introduction
Amplitude
0.5 Routh-Hurwitz Table
0
Special Cases
-0.5 Case 1: a zero component
nonzero row
-1
zeros (ROZ)
-1.5
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (seconds)
Supplementary
Examples
Figure 9: Step response of the system Stability in State Space
References
System poles: 0.5 ± j 3.1225, ±j 1.4142, ±j, and two poles at −1.
6.32
Stability
Routh-Hurwitz Criteria: Supplementary Examples
Wail Gueaieb
Objectives
Introduction
Example 6.9
Consider the following system, where G(s) =
R(s) E(s) C(s)
K Routh-Hurwitz Table
s(s+7)(s+11)
and K ∈ R. For what values of K +
−
G(s)
is the system stable, unstable, and marginally Special Cases
stable? Routh-Hurwitz Criteria:
Supplementary
Examples
References
6.33
Stability
Wail Gueaieb
Step Response Step Response Step Response

1.8 2 #10 26
2
1.8
Objectives
1.6 1.5
1.6 1
1.4
1.4
Introduction
0.5
1.2
1.2
Amplitude
0
Amplitude
Amplitude
1
1 -0.5
0.8
0.6
0.8 -1 Routh-Hurwitz Table
0.6 -1.5
0.4 0.4 -2 Routh-Hurwitz Criteria:
0.2 0.2 -2.5 Special Cases
0 0 -3
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Supplementary
K = 1000 K = 1386 K = 2000 Examples

References
6.34
Stability
Wail Gueaieb
Objectives
Example 6.10
Introduction
Manually compute the roots of the polynomial Routh-Hurwitz Criteria
4 3 2 Routh-Hurwitz Table
s + 3s + 30s + 30s + 200
Special Cases
Supplementary
Examples
References
6.35
Stability
Wail Gueaieb
Remark
p
−b ± b2 − 4ac
The roots of f (x) = ax 2
+ bx + c, with a 6= 0, are x1,2 = .
( 2a
sign(−a) , if x1 < x < x2
Assuming x1 ≤ x2 , then sign(f (x)) =
sign(a) , if x < x1 or x > x2
Objectives
Introduction
Example Routh-Hurwitz Table
Consider the following RH table corresponding to a certain polynomial, where Special Cases
K ∈ R. For what values of K does the polynomial have roots on the RHS of the
s-plane? Supplementary
Examples

s4 10 ? ?
s3 3 ? ? References
s2 K +7 ?
s1 K2 + K − 2
s0 5
6.36
Stability
Wail Gueaieb
Objectives
Problem 6.34 of Nise
Introduction
Consider the following system, where G(s) =
K (s−1)(s−2) R(s) E(s) C(s) Routh-Hurwitz Criteria
(s+2)(s2 +2s+2)
and K ∈ R. For what values of +
−
G(s)
Routh-Hurwitz Table
K is the system stable, unstable, and marginally
stable? Special Cases
Supplementary
Examples
References
6.37
Stability
Wail Gueaieb
Step Response Step Response

0.7 #10 26
Step Response 0.5
1.2 Objectives
0.6 System: T1 System: T1
1 Time (seconds): 31.8 Time (seconds): 37.3 0
Amplitude: 1.18 Amplitude: 1.18
0.5
0.8
Introduction
0.4 -0.5
0.6
Amplitude
Amplitude
0.3
Amplitude 0.4
-1
0.2
0.1 0.2
-1.5
Routh-Hurwitz Table
0 0
-2 Routh-Hurwitz Criteria:
-0.1 -0.2
Special Cases
-0.2 -0.4 -2.5
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 0 50 100 150 200 250
Supplementary
K =1 K = 1.57 K = −4.27 Examples

References
6.38
Stability
Wail Gueaieb
Objectives
For a system represented in state space, Introduction
• The poles of the system are the eigenvalues of the system’s matrix A. Routh-Hurwitz Criteria
• The system’s characteristic equation is det(sI − A) = 0 (the roots of Routh-Hurwitz Table
which are the system’s poles). Routh-Hurwitz Criteria:
Special Cases
The Routh-Hurwitz table is drawn starting using the characteristic equation
det(sI − A) = 0. Supplementary
Examples
References
6.39
Stability
Wail Gueaieb
Example 6.11 of Nise

A system has the following state space representation:
   
0 3 1 −10 Objectives
ẋ(t) =  2 8 1 x(t) +  0 u(t) Introduction

−10 −5 −2 0 Routh-Hurwitz Criteria

y (t) = 1 0 0 x(t) Routh-Hurwitz Table
Special Cases
Find the distribution of the system poles on the s-plane.
Supplementary
Examples

Verification
References
System poles: 7.7642 and −0.8821 ± j 2.433.
6.40
Stability
Wail Gueaieb
Attention!
• In many examples in the textbook, the author jumps to the conclusion that
the system is stable simply by showing that there are no sign changes in
the first column of the RH table.
• This is not a proper proof that a system is stable.
Objectives
• The number of sign changes in the first column of the RH table only Introduction
indicates the number of roots in the right-hand side of the s plane. Routh-Hurwitz Criteria
• You still need to show that there are no poles at the origin of the plane and Routh-Hurwitz Table
that there are no repeated complex conjugate roots on the imaginary axis Routh-Hurwitz Criteria:
to conclude that a system is stable. Special Cases
Supplementary
Examples

Matlab
References
Ch6sp1 (Appendix E) shows how to derive the Routh-Hurwitz table even for
systems with variable gain.
Examine ch6p1, ch6p2, and ch6p3 (Appendix B), and ch6sp2 (Appendix E).
6.41
Stability
References
Wail Gueaieb
Objectives
Introduction
Nise, N. S. (2015).
Control Systems Engineering. Routh-Hurwitz Table
Wiley, 7 edition. Routh-Hurwitz Criteria:

Special Cases
Supplementary
Examples
References
6.42

Stability: Lecture Notes of ELG3155: Introduction To Control Systems

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Stability

Stability in State Space

3 Routh-Hurwitz Table Routh-Hurwitz Criteria

Stability in State Space

6 Stability in State Space

Stability in State Space

• Stability is the most important feature of a control system.

Definition (Instability) Objectives

Stability in State Space

Definition (Asymptotic stability)

c(t) = cf (t) + cn (t) , where lim cn (t) = 0. Routh-Hurwitz Criteria

Definition (Marginal stability) Wail Gueaieb

Stability in State Space

Figs. 2 and 1 show a graphical illustration of these concepts.

LTI system Marginally stable Routh-Hurwitz Criteria

Stability in State Space

Stability in State Space

Necessary (but insufficient) stability condition

• 2s9 + 10s7 + 66s5 + 9s3 + 4 = 0 Routh-Hurwitz Table

Stability in State Space

• 2s9 + 10s7 − 66s5 + 9s3 + 4 = 0

• The Routh-Hurwitz criteria are a set of rules to determine the number of

Building the RH table

• Consider a polynomial of the form: an sn + an−1 sn−1 + · · · + a1 s + a0 .

col. 1 col. 2 col. 3 ··· col. j col. j + 1 ··· Routh-Hurwitz Criteria

Stability in State Space

-4 Stability in State Space

Figure 3: Step response of the system in Example 6.1

System poles: −13.4136 and 1.7068 ± j 8.595

Complex conjugate roots on the imaginary axis

• A polynomial cannot have complex conjugate roots on the imaginary axis

Stability in State Space

Stability in State Space

Step Response Step Response Step Response

Stability in State Space

Example Routh-Hurwitz Criteria

R(s) E(s) C(s) Routh-Hurwitz Table

Stability in State Space

System poles: −0.7927 ± j 0.4292 and 0.2927 ± j 0.7278

Stability in State Space

Stability in State Space

Example Routh-Hurwitz Criteria

R(s) E(s) C(s) Routh-Hurwitz Table

Stability in State Space

0.5 Case 2: an entire row of

Stability in State Space

System poles: ±j 2 and −0.5 ± j 0.866

Definition (Even function)

× Case 2: an entire row of

Stability in State Space

table. Routh-Hurwitz Criteria

table that is right above the ROZ. Routh-Hurwitz Criteria:

Stability in State Space

Root distribution of P'(s) Introduction

Root distribution of aux. poly. P(s) nonzero row

Definition (Critical frequency)

the system critically stable. Case 2: an entire row of

Stability in State Space