CE 6506 Construction Techniques, Equipment and Practice PDF

A Course Material on
CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES, EQUIPMENT AND PRACTICES
By
Mr. P. JAGATEESH
Assistant Professor
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
SASURIE COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
VIJAYAMANGALAM – 638 056

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Subject Code : CE2404

Scubject : CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES, EQUIPMENTS AND PRACTICES
Class : IV Year CIVIL
being prepared by me and it meets the knowledge requirement of the university curriculum.
Signature of the Author
Name: P.JAGATEESH
Designation: Assistant Professor
This is to certify that the course material being prepared by Mr. P.JAGATEESH is of adequate
quality. He has referred more than five books amount them minimum one is from aborad
author.
Signature of HD
Name: N.Sathish Kumar
SEAL
CE6506 Construction Techniques Equipment Practices
Sl.No Contents Page No.
UNIT I CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY
1.1 Types of cement 3
1.2 Chemical admixtures for concrete 4
1.3 Manufacturing of cement 6
1.4 Concrete mix design concept 7
1.5 Manufacturing of concrete 9
1.6 Transportation of concrete 11
1.7 Placing of concrete 13
1.8 Compaction of concrete 14
1.9 Tests on concrete 15
UNIT II CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES
2.1 Sequences of activities and construction coordination planning 18
2.2 Marking and setting out of foundation 18
2.3 Excavation 19
2.4 Foundation 19
2.5 Stone masonary 23
2.6 Brick masonary 26
2.7 Damp proof course 28
2.8 Floors 32
2.9 Scaffolding 36
2.1 Trusses 39
2.11 Centering and Shuttering 41
SCE Dept of Civil

2.12 Roof finishing 43
2.13 Fire production 44
UNIT III SUB STRUCTURE CONSTRUCTION
3.1 Types of structures under jacking 46
3.2 Pipe Jacking 46
3.3 Diaphragm wall 47
3.4 Tunneling 47
3.5 Pile driving 48
3.6 Sheet piles 49
3.7 Dewatering 51
UNIT IV SUPER STRUCTURE CONSTRUCTION
4.1 Bridge decks 52
4.2 Shell structures 53
4.3 Offshore platforms 54
4.4 Erecting light weight components in tall structures 54
UNIT V CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENTS
5.1 Introduction to construction equipments 56
5.2 Selection of equipments 58
5.3 Excavators 59
5.4 Equipment for concrete mixing 60
5.5 Tunneling equipments 61
SCE Dept of Civil

CE6501 CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES, EQUIPMENT AND PRACTICES
OBJECTIVE
The main objective of this course is to make the student aware of the various construction
techniques, practices and the equipment needed for different types of construction activities.
At the end of this course the student shall have a reasonable knowledge about the various
construction procedures for sub to super structure and also the equipment needed for
construction of various types of structures from foundation to super structure.
UNIT I CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Cements – Grade of cements - manufacture of cement – concrete chemicals and Applications –
Mix design concept – mix design as per BIS & ACI methods – manufacturing of concrete –
Batching – mixing – transporting – placing – compaction of concrete – curing and finishing.
Testing of fresh and hardened concrete – quality of concrete - Non – destructive testing.
UNIT II CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES

Specifications, details and sequence of activities and construction co-ordination – Site Clearance
– Marking – Earthwork - masonry – stone masonry – Bond in masonry - concrete hollow block
masonry – flooring – damp proof courses – construction joints – movement and expansion joints
– pre cast pavements – Building foundations – basements – temporary shed – centering and
shuttering – slip forms – scaffoldings – de-shuttering forms – Fabrication and erection of steel
trusses – frames – braced domes – laying brick –– weather and water proof – roof finishes –
acoustic and fire protection.
UNIT III SUB STRUCTURE CONSTRUCTION

Techniques of Box jacking – Pipe Jacking -under water construction of diaphragm walls and
basement-Tunneling techniques – Piling techniques - well and caisson - sinking cofferdam –
cable anchoring and grouting-driving diaphragm walls, sheet piles - shoring for deep cutting –
well points -Dewatering and stand by Plant equipment for underground open excavation.
UNIT IV SUPER STRUCTURE CONSTRUCTION

Launching girders, bridge decks, off shore platforms – special forms for shells - techniques for
heavy decks – in-situ pre-stressing in high rise structures, Material handling - erecting light
weight components on tall structures - Support structure for heavy Equipment and conveyors –
Erection of articulated structures, braced domes and space decks.
UNIT V CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT

Selection of equipment for earth work - earth moving operations - types of earthwork equipment
- tractors, motor graders, scrapers, front end waders, earth movers – Equipment for foundation
and pile driving. Equipment for compaction, batching and mixing and concreting - Equipment
for material handling and erection of structures - Equipment for dredging, trenching, tunneling,
TEXT BOOKS
1. Peurifoy, R.L., Ledbetter, W.B. and Schexnayder, C., "Construction Planning, Equipment
and Methods", 5th Edition, McGraw Hill, Singapore, 1995.
SCE Dept of Civil

2. Arora S.P. and Bindra S.P., Building Construction, Planning Techniques and Method of
Construction, Dhanpat Rai and Sons, 1997.
3. Varghese , P.C. Building construction, Prentice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi, 2007.
4. Sheety, M.S, Concrete Technology, Theory and Practice, S. Chand and Company Ltd, New
Delhi, 2005.
REFERENCES
1. Jha J and Sinha S.K., Construction and Foundation Engineering, Khanna Publishers, 1993.
2. Sharma S.C. “Construction Equipment and Management”, Khanna Publishers New Delhi,
1988.
3. Deodhar, S.V. “Construction Equipment and Job Planning”, Khanna Publishers, New Delhi,
1988.
4. Dr. Mahesh Varma, “Construction Equipment and its Planning and Application”,
Metropolitan Book Company, New Delhi-, 1983.
5. Gambhir, M.L, Concrete Technology, Tata McGraw – Hill Publishing Company Ltd, New
Delhi, 2004
SCE Dept of Civil

UNIT I
CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY
1.1 TYPES OF CEMENT
 Ordinary Portland cement
 OPC33,OPC43 and OPC53 grade
 Rapid hardening cement
 Extra rapid hardening cement
 Sulphate resisting cement
 Portland slag cement
 Quick setting cement
 Low heat cement
 Portland pazzolona cement
 Air entraining cement
 Colored cement
 White cement
 Hydrophobic cement
 Masonry cement
 expansive cement
 Oil well cement
 Redi set cemnt
 Concrete sleeper grade cement
 High alumina cement
 Very high strength cement
SCE Dept of Civil

1.2 CHEMICAL ADMIXTURES OF CONCRETE
Water-reducing admixture / Plasticizers:
These admixtures are used for following purposes:
1. To achieve a higher strength by decreasing the water cement ratio at the same
workability as an admixture free mix.
2. To achieve the same workability by decreasing the cement content so as to reduce
the heat of hydration in mass concrete.
3. To increase the workability so as to ease placing in accessible locations
4. Water reduction more than 5% but less than 12%
Actions involved:
1. Dispersion:
Surface active agents alter the physic chemical forces at the interface. They are adsorbed on
the cement particles, giving them a negative charge which leads to repulsion between the
particles. Electrostatic forces are developed causing disintegration and the free water become
available for workability.
2. Lubrication:
As these agents are organic by nature, thus they lubricate the mix reducing the friction
and increasing the workability.
3. Retardation:
A thin layer is formed over the cement particles protecting them from hydration and
increasing the setting time. Most normal plasticizers give some retardation, 30–90 minutes
Super Plasticizers:
 These are more recent and more effective type of water reducing admixtures also
known as high range water reducer
The commonly used Super Plasticizers are as follows:
Sulphonated melamine formaldehyde condensates (SMF)

Give 16–25%+ water reduction. SMF gives little or no retardation, which makes them very
effective at low temperatures or where early strength is most critical.
However, at higher temperatures, they lose workability relatively quickly. SMF generally give
a good finish and are colorless, giving no staining in white concrete.
They are therefore often used where appearance is important.
Sulphonated naphthalene formaldehyde condensates (SNF)

SCE Dept of Civil
Typically give 16–25%+ water reduction. They tend to increase the entrapment of
larger, unstable air bubbles. This can improve cohesion but may lead to more surface
defects.
Retardation is more than with SMF but will still not normally exceed 90 minutes. SNF is a
very cost-effective.
Polycarboxylate ether super plasticizers (PCE)
Typically give 20–35%+ water reduction. They are relatively expensive per liter but are
very powerful so a lower dose (or more dilute solution) is normally used.
In general the dosage levels are usually higher than with conventional water reducers, and
the possible undesirable side effects are reduced because they do not markedly lower the
surface tension of the water.
Accelerators:
An admixture which, when added to concrete, mortar, or grout, increases the rate of hydration
of hydraulic cement, shortens the time of set in concrete, or increases the rate of hardening or
strength development.
Accelerating admixtures can be divided into groups based on their performance and application:
1. Set Accelerating Admixtures,
Reduce the time for the mix to change from the plastic to the hardened
state. Set accelerators have relatively limited use, mainly to produce an
early set.
2. Hardening Accelerators,
Which increase the strength at 24 hours by at least 120% at 20ºC and at 5ºC by at least 130% at
48 hours. Hardening accelerators find use where early stripping of shuttering or very early
access to pavements is required.
They are often used in combination with a high range water reducer, especially in
cold conditions.
Set Retarders:
The function of retarder is to delay or extend the setting time of cement paste in concrete.
These are helpful for concrete that has to be transported to long distance, and helpful in
placing the concrete at high temperatures.
When water is first added to cement there is a rapid initial hydration reaction, after which there
is little formation of further hydrates for typically 2–3 hours.
SCE Dept of Civil
The exact time depends mainly on the cement type and the temperature. This is called the
dormant period when the concrete is plastic and can be placed.
At the end of the dormant period, the hydration rate increases and a lot of calcium silicate
hydrate and calcium hydroxide is formed relatively quickly. This corresponds to the setting
time of the concrete.
Retarding admixtures delay the end of the dormant period and the start of setting and
hardening. This is useful when used with plasticizers to give workability retention. Used on
their own, retarders allow later vibration of the concrete to prevent the formation of cold
joints between layers of concrete placed with a significant delay between them.
The mechanism of set retards is based on absorption. The large admixture anions and
molecules are absorbed on the surface of cement particles, which hinders further reactions
between cement and water i.e. retards setting.
Air Entrained Admixtures:
An addition for hydraulic cement or an admixture for concrete or mortar which causes air,
usually in small quantity, to be incorporated in the form of minute bubbles in the concrete
or mortar during mixing, usually to increase its workability and frost resistance.
Air-entraining admixtures are surfactants that change the surface tension of the water.
Traditionally, they were based on fatty acid salts or vinsol resin but these have largely
been replaced by synthetic surfactants or blends of surfactants to give improved stability
and void characteristics to the entrained air.
Air entrainment is used to produce a number of effects in both the plastic and the
hardened concrete. These include:
• Resistance to freeze–thaw action in the hardened concrete.• Increased cohesion, reducing the
tendency to bleed and segregation in the plastic concrete.
• Compaction of low workability mixes including semi-dry concrete.
• Stability of extruded concrete.
1.3 MANUFACTURING OF CEMENT
Raw materials used
 Calcareous
 Argillaceous
Calcareous materials used are
 Cement rock
 Lime stone
 Marl
SCE  Chalk Dept of Civil
 Marine shell
Argillaceous materials used are
 Clay
 shale
 slate
 blast furnace slag
Process manufacturing cement
 Dry process
 Wet process
1.4.1 Dry process

Lime stone and clay are ground to fine powder separately and are mixed together Water
is added to make a thick paste which contains 14% of moisture. The paste format are dried and
off charged into a rotary kiln. The product obtained often calcinations in rotary kiln. The linker
I obtained as a result of incipient fusion and sintering at a temp about 1400◦c to 1500◦ c. The
linker is cooled to preserve the meta stable compounds and there solid solutions Dispersion of
one solid with another solid which made the clinker again heated Clinker is again cooled and
grounded in tube mills where 2-3% gypsum is added. The purpose of adding gypsum is to coat
the cement particle by interfering the process of hydration of cement particles.
1.4.2 Wet process
The operations are

 Mixing
 Burning
 Grinding
Process
The crushed raw materials are fed in to a ball mill and a little water is added. The steel
balls in the ball mill pulverized the raw material which form a slurry with water. The slurry is
passed through storage tanks where the proportioning of compound is adjusted to ensure
desired chemical composition. The corrected slurry having moisture about 40%,is then fed into
rotary kiln where it loses moisture and form on to lumps. These are finally burned at 1500◦ to
1600 ◦c.
It becomes clinker at this stage, the clinker is cooled and then grounded in tube mills
While grinding the clinker 3% gypsum I added this is stored in silos and packed.
1.4 Concrete Mix Design concept
Definition:
Mix design can be defined as the process of selecting suitable ingredients of concrete and
determining their relative proportions with the object of producing concrete of certain
minimum strength and durability as economically as possible.
SCE Dept of Civil
One of the ultimate aims of studying the various properties of the materials of concrete,
plastic concrete and hardened concrete is to enable a concrete technologist to design a

concrete mix for a particular strength and durability.
The design of concrete mix is not a simple task on account of the widely varying properties of
the constituent materials, the conditions that prevail at the site of work, in particular the
exposure condition, and the conditions that are demanded for a particular work for which the
mix is designed.
Design of concrete mix requires complete knowledge of the various properties of

these constituent materials, these make the task of mix design more complex and
difficult.
Design of concrete mix needs not only the knowledge of material properties and properties
of concrete in plastic condition; it also needs wider knowledge and experience of
concreting.
Even then the proportion of the materials of concrete found out at the laboratory
requires modification and re adjustments to suit the field conditions.
With better understanding of the properties, the concrete is becoming more and more an
exact material than in the past.
The structural designer specifies certain minimum strength; and the concrete
technologist designs the concrete mix with the knowledge of the materials, site exposure
conditions and standard of supervision available at the site of work to achieve this
minimum strength and durability.
Further, the site engineer is required to make the concrete at site, closely following the
parameters suggested by the mix designer to achieve the minimum strength specified by
the structural engineer.
In some cases the site engineer may be required to slightly modify the mix proportions given
by the mix designer.
He also makes cubes or cylinders sufficient in numbers and tests them to confirm the
achievements with respect to the minimum specified strength. Mix designer, earlier, may
havemade trial cubes with representative materials to arrive at the value of standard
deviation or coefficient of variation to be used in the mix design.
American Concrete Institute Method of Mix Design 11.3 (ACI Concrete Mix Design)
This method of proportioning was first published in 1944 by ACI committee 613. In 1954 the
method was revised to include, among other modifications, the use of entrained air. In 1970,
the method of ACI mix design became the responsibility of ACI committee 211. We shall now
deal with the latest ACI Committee 211.1 method.
It has the advantages of simplicity in that it:
1. Applies equally well

SCE Dept of Civil
2. With more or less identical procedure to rounded or angular aggregate
3. To regular or light weight aggregates

4. To air entrained or non-air-entrained concretes.
1.5 Manufacturing of concrete
Introduction
Production of concrete requires meticulous care at every stage
The ingredients of good and bad concrete are same but good rules are not
Observed it may become
bad
Manufacturing of concrete includes the following stages

1. Batching
2. Mixing
3. Transporting
4. Placing
5. Compacting
6. Curing
7. Finishing
Batching
The measurement of materials for making concrete is known as

batching. Methods of batching
 Volume
batching
 Weigh batching
Volume batching
The required ingredients of conc. Are measured by volume basis
o Volume batching is done by various types of gauge boxes

o The gauge boxes are made with comparatively deeper with narrow surface
o Some times bottomless gauge boxes are used but it should be avoided
Volume batching is not a good practice because of the difficulties it offers to

granular material.
Some of the sand in loose condition weighs much less than the same volume of
dry compacted soil.
For un important concrete or any small job concrete may be batched by volume.
Weigh batching
It is the correct method of measuring materials for concrete.

SCE Dept of Civil
Use of weight system in batching ,facilitates accuracy flexibility and simplicity
The different types of weigh batching are there, they are used based on the different
situation. In small works the weighing arrangement consist of two weighing buckets
connected to the
levers of spring loaded dials which indicates the load,
The weighing buckets are mounted on a central spindle about which they rotate
On large works the weigh bucket type of weighing equipment used ,the materials are
fed from the over head storage hopper and it discharges by gravity.
Mixing
Thorough mixing of materials is essential for the production of uniform concrete
The mixing should ensure that the mass becomes homogeneous uniform in color
and consistency.
 Types of mixing
Hand mixing
Machine mixing
Hand mixing
It is practiced for small scale un important concrete works. Hand mixing should be done
over a impervious concrete or brick floor sufficiently large size take one bag of cement.
Spread out and measure d out fine aggregates and course aggregate in alternative layers.
Pour the cement on the top of it and mix them dry by showel, turning the mixture over and
over again until the uniformity of color is achieved. The uniform mixture is spread out in
the thickness of about 20 cm. The water is taken and sprinkled over the mixture and
simultaneously turned over. The operation is continued till such time a good uniform
homogeneous concrete is obtained
Machine mixing
Mixing of concrete almost invariably carried ot by machine ,for reinforced concrete

work medium or large scale concrete works .
Machine mixing is not only efficient it is also economical when quantity of concrete to
be produced is large
Type of mixer for mixing concrete
 Batch mixer
 Continuous mixer
SCE Dept of Civil

Concrete mixers are generally designed to run at a speed of 15 to 20 revolutions per

minute
For proper mixing it is seen that about 25to 30 revolutions are required in a well
designed mixer
It is important that a mixer should not stop in between concreting operations for
this requirement concrete mixer must be kept maintained
1.6 Transporting of concrete

Concrete can be imported by variety of methods and equipments methods
adopted for transportation of concrete
 Mortar pan
] Wheel barrow
 Crane, bucket and rope way
 Truck mixers and dumpers
 Belt conveyors
 Chute
 Skip and hoist
 Transit mixer
 Pump and pipe line
 Helicopter
Mortar pan
This case concrete is carried out in small quantities. This method exposes greater surface area
of concrete for drying conditions. This results a geat loss of water particularly in hot weather.
Mortar pan must be wetted to start with and must be kept clean.
Wheel barrow
Used for transporting concrete in ground level. This method is employed for hauling concrete
in longer distance in case of concrete road construction. If the distance is long or ground is
rough it is likely that the concrete get segregated due to vibration. To avoid this, wheel
barrows are provided with pneumatic wheel.
Crane bucket and rope way
This is one of the right way for transporting concrete above the ground level. Crane can
handle concrete in high rise construction project and are becoming familiar sites in big cities.
Rope way buckets of various sizes are used.
Rope way method is adopted for

Concrete works in valley
Construction work of the pier in the river
For dam construction
SCE Dept of Civil
Truck mixer and dumpers
For large concrete works particularly for concrete to be placed at ground level. These
are ordinary open steel tipping lorries Dumpers having 2-3 cubic meter capacity Belt
conveyors also can be used.
Chutes
Provided for transporting concrete from ground to lower level. The surface should have
same slope not flatter than 1 vertical to 2 and a1/2 horizontal
SCE Dept of Civil

Skip and hoist

Adopted method for transporting concrete vertically for 3 to 4 floors. Mortar pan with staging
and human ladder is used for transporting concrete.
Transit mixer
This is the equipment for transporting concrete over a big distance particularky ready
mix concrete. They are truck mounted having a capacity of 4 to 7 m3. The speed of
rotation of truck mixer is 4to16 rev/min. A small concrete pump is also mounted on the
truck carrying transit mixer.
Pumps and pipe lines
Universally accepted method Starts with the suction stroke for suck the concrete inside the
pipe. It has a piston which moves forward and backward to have suction and delivery of
concrete
 Choosing a correct pump involves

 Length of horizontal pipe
 Length of vertical pipe
 Number of bends
 Diameter of pipe line
 Length of flexible hose
 Change in line diameter
 Slump of concrete
1.7 Placing of concrete
Concrete must be placed in a systematic manner to yield optimum results. Some situation here
we used provide concrete. Placing concrete within earth mould Placing concrete with large
earth mould or timber plank form work. Placing concrete in layers with in timber or steel
shutter, Placing concrete with in usual form work,Placing concrete under water.
Placing concrete within earth mould

Concrete is invariably as foundation bed below the walls and columns Before placing
concrete
o All loose earth must be removed
o Roots of trees must be cut
o If surface is dry must be made just damp
o If it is too wet or rain soaked the water slush must be removed
Placing concrete with large earth mould or timber plank form work
For construction of road slabs,air field slabs and ground floor slabs in building conc os
placed in this method. The ground surface must be free from loose earth pool of water ,grass
or roots or leaves. The earth must be compacted well Poly ethylene film is used in between
conc ground to avoid absorption of moisture. Concrete is laid alternative layers to give
enough scope for shrinkage.
SCE Dept of Civil

Placing concrete in layers with in timber or steel shutter
This can be used in the following cases

Dam construction
Construction of concrete abutments
Raft for a high rise building
The thickness of layers depend on
Method of compaction
Size of vibrator
Frequency of vibrator used
It is good for laying 15 to 30 cm thick layer of concrete ,for mass concrete it may varie
from 35 to 45 cm. Its better to leave the top of the layer rough so that succeeding layer can
have the good bond.
Placing concrete with in usual form work
This can be adopt for Column ,beam and floors Rules that should be followed while
placing the concrete.
 Check the reinforcements are correctly tied and placed
 Check the reinforcement is having appropriate cover
 The joints between plywood’s or sheets properly plugged
 Mould releasing agent should be applied
The concrete must be placed very care fully a small quantity at a time so that they will not
block the entry of subsequent concrete
Placing concrete under water

Concrete is often required to be placed under water or I a trench filled with slurry. In such a
cases use of bottom slurry buckets or termic pipes are used. In the bottom bucket concrete is
taken through water in a water tight box or bucket reaching final place of deposition. The
bottom is made to open by some mechanism and the whole concrete is dumped slowly.
1.8 Compaction of concrete
Compaction of concrete is the process adopted for expelling the entrapped air from the
concrete
Method for compacting concrete
Hand compaction
Compaction by vibrator
Compaction by pressure and jolting
Compaction by spinning
SCE Dept of Civil

Poking the concrete with about 2m long 16 mm dia rod to poke the concrete reinforcement
Ramming
Should be done with care Permitted in unreinforced foundation concrete in ground floor
construction
Tamping
The thickness of conc should be comparatively less. Consist of beating the op surface
bywooden cross beam The section of wooden beam is about 10x10 cm
1.8.1 Compaction by vibrators
We can place the concrete economically when compared to hand compaction
The use of vibrators may be essential for the production of good concrete Type
of vibrators
Internal vibrator
Formwork vibrator
Table vibrator
Platform vibrator
Surface vibrator
Vibratory rollers
Compaction by pressure and jolting
This is one of the effective method of compacting dry concrete. Often used for compacting
hollow block ,cavity blocks concrete blocks.The stiff concrete is vibrated pressed and also given
jolts. With the combined action of the three the stiff conc gets compacted to an dense form to
give good strength and volume
Compaction by spinning
This is one of the recent method of the compacting concrete. This is adopted for fabrication of
concrete pipes. The plastic concrete when at every high speed get well compacted by centrifugal
force. Potential products such as spun pipes are compacted by spinning process
Vibratory rollers
One of the recent methods of compacting very lean or dry concrete. The concrete compacted by
rollers can be called as roller concrete
1.9 Tests on concrete Concrete
Slump Test
SCE This test is performed to check the consistency of freshly made concrete. Dept of Civil
The slump test is done
to make sure a concrete mix is workable. The measured slump must be within a set range, or
tolerance, from the target slump.Workability of concrete is mainly affected by consistency i.e.
wetter mixes will be more workable than drier mixes, but concrete of the same consistency may
vary in workability.
It can also be defined as the relative plasticity of freshly mixed concrete as indicative of
its workability.
Tools and apparatus used for slump test (equipment):
1. Standard slump cone (100 mm top diameter x 200 mm bottom diameter x 300 mm high)
2. Small scoop
3. Bullet-nosed rod (600 mm long x 16 mm diameter)
4. Rule
5. Slump plate (500 mm x 500 mm)
Procedure of slump test for concrete:
 Clean the cone. Dampen with water and place on the slump plate. The slump plate should
be clean, firm, level and non-absorbent. Collect a sample of concrete to perform the slum
test
 Stand firmly on the footpieces and fill 1/3 the volume of the cone with the sample.
Compact the concrete by 'rodding' 25 times. Rodding means to push a steel rod in and out
of the concrete to compact it into the cylinder, or slump cone. Always rod in a definite
pattern, working from outside into the middle.
 Now fill to 2/3 and again rod 25 times, just into the top of the first layer.
 Fill to overflowing, rodding again this time just into the top of the second layer. Top up
the cone till it overflows.
 Level off the surface with the steel rod using a rolling action. Clean any concrete from
around the base and top of the cone, push down on the handles and step off the
footpieces.
 Carefully lift the cone straight up making sure not to move the
sample. Turn the cone upside down and place the rod across the up-
turned cone.
Take several measurements and report the average distance to the top of the sample.If the
sample fails by being outside the tolerance (ie the slump is too high or too low), another must be
taken.
If this also fails the remainder of the batch should be rejected.
Compression Test
The compression test shows the compressive strength of hardened concrete. The compression
test shows the best possible strength concrete can reach in perfect conditions. The compression
SCE test measures concrete strength in the hardened state. Testing should always
Deptbeof Civil
done carefully. Wrong test results can be costly.
The testing is done in a laboratory off-site. The only work done on-site is to make a concrete
cylinder for the compression test.
The strength is measured in Megapascals (MPa) and is commonly specified as a characteristic

strength of concrete measured at 28 days after mixing. The compressive strength is a measure
of the concrete’s ability to resist loads which tend to
crush it.
Apparatus for compression test
Cylinders (100 mm diameter x 200 mm high or 150 mm diameter x 300 mm high) (The small
cylinders are normally used for most testing due to their lighter weight)
1. Small scoop
2. Bullet-nosed rod (600 mm x 16 mm)
3. Steel float
4. Steel plate
Procedure for compression test of concrete
 Clean the cylinder mould and coat the inside lightly with form oil, then place on a clean,
level and firm surface, ie the steel plate. Collect a sample.
 Fill 1/2 the volume of the mould with concrete then compact by rodding 25 times. Cylinders
may also be compacted by vibrating using a vibrating table.
 Fill the cone to overflowing and rod 25 times into the top of the first layer, then top up the
mould till overflowing.
 Level off the top with the steel float and clean any concrete from around the mould.
 Cap, clearly tag the cylinder and put it in a cool dry place to set for at least 24 hours.
 After the mould is removed the cylinder is sent to the laboratory where it is cured and
crushed to test compressive strength
SCE Dept of Civil

UNIT II
CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES
2.1 Sequence of activities and construction co-ordination
Planning
Planning is considered as a precondition measures before attending any development program
Particularly planning is more important in the following area
When the fund available are
limited The total requirement is
much higher Sequence of
operation
It is always desirable to divide large projects into several construction stages
For prepare progress of construction each stage may be constructed under separate contraction
It should be carried out in the proper method and arrangement
Before starting to construct the structure we must go for the sequence of operation in the
project it is better way o arrange the labour material and equipment
Following are the sequence of operation in a highway project
Site clearance
Earth work for laying embankment
Construction of drainage works
Construction of pavement structures Installation
of light poles and road signals
2.2 MARKING, SETTING OUT OF FOUNDATION
Setting out is the process of laying down the excavation lines and centre lines on the
ground before excavation is started after the foundation design is done
For setting out the foundation of a small building the centre line of the longest outer wall of
the building is first marked on the ground by stretching a string between wooden or mild
steel pegs driven at the ends
Two pegs one on either from the central peg are driven at the each end of the line
Each peg is equidistant from the central peg and the distance between the outer pegs
SCE corresponds to the width of foundation trench to be excavated. Each peg may
Deptbe
of projected
Civil
about 25 to 50 mm above ground level may be driven at a distance of
2m from the edge of excavation
When the string is stretched joining the corresponding pegs at the two extremities of the line
the boundary of the trench to be excavated can be marked on the ground with dry lime
powders
A right angle can be set out b forming 3, 4 and 5 units long
The centre line of the other wall which is perpendicular to the long wall can be marked by
setting out right angles
All the specifications are made by tape or prismatic compass may be used for setting out
right angles
Similarly outer lines of the foundation trench of each cross wall can be set out
For big project reference pillars of masonry is constructed first, these pillars may be about
20cm thick and 15cm wider than the width of the foundation
2.3 EXCAVATION
Excavation of foundation can be done by manually or with the help of special

mechanical equipments
Manually it can be done by the help of following equipments

 Spade
 Phawrah
 Pick axe
 Crowbar
 Rammer
 Wedge
 Boning rod
 Sledge hammer
 Basket
 Iron pan
 line and pins
Mechanically the excavation can be done by the help of following machineries
o Boom bucket dipper handle

o Trench
o Chain mounted buckets
o Raking cut
o Vertical cut
2.4 FOUNDATION
The foundation is he lower portion of the building, usually located below the ground level,
which transmit the load of super structure to sub soil
SCE Dept of Civil
Functions of foundation
 Reduction of load intensity

 Even distribution of load
 Provision of level surface
 Lateral stability
 Safety against undermining
 Protection against soil movements
Types of foundation
 Shallow foundation
 Deep foundation
2.4.1 Shallow foundation
If the depth of foundation is less than or equal to width of foundation it is called as shallow
foundation
Types of shallow foundation
 Spread footing
 Combined footing
 Strap footing
 Mat foundation
Spread footing
Spread footing is those which spread the super imposed load to of a wall or column over the
large area
Spread footing support either a column or a wall
It has the following types
 Single footing
 Stepped footing
 Sloped footing
 Wall footing with out step
 Stepped footing for wall
 Grillage foundation
SCE Dept of Civil

Combined footing
A spread footing which supports two are more columnsis termed as combined footing It has
the following types
 Rectangular combined footing
 Trapezoidal combined footing
 Combined column wall footing
Trapezoidal footing
If the independent footings of two columns are connected by a beam it is called as strap
footing
A strap footing may be used where the distance between the columns is so great that a
combined trapezoidal footing becomes quite narrow
The strap beam does not remains in contact with soil and thus does not transfer any
pressure to the soil
2.4.2 Mat foundation
A raft or mat is a combined footing that covers the entire beneath a structure and supports all
walls and columns. It is used when the allowable soil pressure is low are the building loads
are heavy. It is used to reduce the settlement above highly compressible soil
Rafts may divided into three types
o Solid slab
system o Beam
slab system o
Cellular system
Deep foundation
If the depth of foundation is equal to or more than the width of the foundation is called
deep foundation
Types
 Deep strip rectangular or square footing
 Pile foundation
 Pier foundation or drilled caisson foundation
 Well foundation or caissons
Deep strip footing

SCE Dept of Civil
Whenever the depth of strip footing is more than the width it is called as deep strip footing
Pile foundation
it is a type of deep foundation in which the loads are taken to a low level by means of
vertical members which may be timber or concrete or steel
Types of pile foundation
 End bearing pile
 Friction pile
 Combined end bearing and friction pile

 Compaction pile
End bearing piles
End bearing piles are used to transfer load through water or soft soil to a suitable bearing
stratum
Such piles are used to carry heavy loads to hard strata
Multi storied buildings are invariably founded on end bearing piles, so that the settlements
are minimized
Friction piles
Friction piles are used to transfer loads to a depth of a friction load carrying material by
means of skin friction along the length of the pile
These piles mostly used in granular soil
Combined end bearing and friction pile
These are the piles which transfer the super imposed load both through side friction as
well as end bearing
Such piles are more common, especially the end bearing piles are passed through granular soil
Compaction piles
These piles are used o compact loose soil thus increasing there bearing capacity
The pile tube driven to compact the soil is gradually taken out and sand is filled in its place
thus forming the sand pile
Pier foundation
A pier foundation consist of a cylindrical column of large diameter to support transfer

large super imposed loads to the firm strata below
SCE Dept of Civil
Generally pier foundation is shallower in depth than the pile foundation
It has two types
o Masonry
o concrete pier
Drilled caissons
Well foundation or caissons are box like structures –circular or rectangular which are sunk
from the surface of either land or water to the desired depth
Caisson foundations are used for major foundation work such as
Bridge pier and abutments in river
Wharves and quay walls docks
Large water front structures such as pump houses, subjected to heavy vertical and
horizontal loads
Well foundations are caissons are hollow from inside, which may filled withstand and
are plugged at the bottom, the load is transferred to the perimeter wall called as
steining
2.5 Stone Masonry
Definition:
The art of building a structure in stone with any suitable masonry is called stone masonry.
Types of Stone Masonry:
Stone masonry may be broadly classified into the following two types:
1. Rubble
Masonry
2. Ashlar
Masonry
2.5.1 Rubble Masonry:
The stone masonry in which either undressed or roughly dressed stone are laid in a
suitable mortar is called rubble masonry. In this masonry the joints are not of uniform
thickness.
Rubble masonry is further sub-divided into the following three types:
 Random rubble masonry

 Squared rubble masonry
 Dry rubble masonry
SCE Dept of Civil
1. Random rubble masonry: The rubble masonry in which either undressed or

hammer dressed stones are used is called random rubble masonry. Further random
rubble masonry is also divided into the following three types:
a. Un coursed random rubble masonry: The random rubble masonry in
which stones are laid without forming courses is known as un coursed
random rubble masonry. This is the roughest and cheapest type of masonry
and is of varying appearance. The stones used in this masonry are of
different sizes and shapes. before lying, all projecting corners of stones are
slightly knocked off. Vertical joints are not plumbed, joints are filled and
flushed. Large stones are used at corners and at jambs to increase their
strength. Once "through stone" is used for every square meter of the face
area for joining faces and backing.
Suitability: Used for construction of walls of low height in case of
ordinary buildings.
b. Coursed random rubble masonry: The random rubble masonry in which

stones are laid in layers of equal height is called random rubble masonry. In
this masonry, the stones are laid in somewhat level courses. Headers of one
coursed height are placed at certain intervals. The stones are hammer dressed.
Suitability: Used for construction of residential buildings, go downs,
boundary walls etc.
Squared rubble masonry:The rubble masonry in which the face stones are squared
on all joints and beds by hammer dressing or chisel dressing before their actual
laying, is called squared rubble masonry.
There are two types of squared rubble masonry.

c. Coursed Square rubble masonry: The square rubble masonry in which
chisel dressed stones laid in courses is called coarse square rubble masonry.
This is a superior variety of rubble masonry. It consists of stones, which are
squared on all joints and laid in courses. The stones are to be laid in courses
of equal layers. and the joints should also be uniform.
Suitability: Used for construction of public buildings, hospitals, schools,
markets, modern residential buildings etc and in hilly areas where good
quality of stone is easily available.
d. Un coursed square rubble masonry: The squared rubble in masonry
which hammer dressed stones are laid without making courses is called un
coursed square rubble masonry. It consists of stones which are squared on
all joints and beds by hammer dressing. All the stones to be laid are of
different sizes. Suitability: Used for construction of ordinary buildings in
hilly areas where a good variety of stones are cheaply available.
2. Dry rubble masonry: The rubble masonry in which stones are laid without using
any mortar is called dry rubble masonry or sometimes shortly as "dry stones". It is
an ordinary masonry and is recommended for constructing walls of height not
more than
6m. In case the height is more, three adjacent courses are laid in squared rubble
masonry mortar at 3m intervals.
SCE Dept of Civil
2.5.2. Ashlar masonry:

The stone masonry in which finely dressed stones are laid in cement or lime mortar is
known as ashlars masonry. In this masonry are the courses are of uniform height, all the
joints are regular, thin and have uniform thickness. This type of masonry is much costly as it
requires dressing of stones.
Suitability: This masonry is used for heavy structures, architectural buildings, high piers
and abutments of bridges.
Ashlars masonry is further sub divided into the following types:
 Ashlars fine or coarse ashlar masonry

 Random coarse ashlars masonry
 Rough tooled ashlar masonry
 Rock or quarry faced ashlars masonry
 Chamfered ashlars masonry
 Block in coarse masonry
 Ashlar facing
 Ashlar fine or coursed ashlar masonry: In this type of stone

masonry stone blocks of same height in each course are used. Every
stone is fine tooled on all sides. Thickness of mortar is uniform
through out. It is an
expensive type of stone masonry as it requires heavy labor and
wastage of material while dressing. Satisfactory bond can be obtained
in this type of stone masonry.
 Random coursed ashlar masonry: This type of ashlar masonry
consists of fine or coursed ashlar but the courses are of varying thick
nesses, depending upon the character of the building
 Rough tooled ashlar masonry: This type of ashlar masonry the sides
of the stones are rough tooled and dressed with chisels. Thickness of
joints is uniform, which does not exceed 6mm.
 Rock or quarry faced ashlar masonry: This type of ashlar masonry
is similar to rough tooled type except that there is chisel-drafted
margin left rough on the face which is known as quarry faced.
 Chamfered ashlar masonry: It is similar to quarry faced except that
the edges are beveled or chamfered to 450 for depth of 2.5 cm or
more.
 Block-in course masonry: It is the name given to a class of ashlar
masonry which occupies an intermediate place between rubble and
ashlars. The stones are all squared and properly dressed. It resembles
to coursed rubble masonry or rough tooled ashlar masonry.
 Ashlar facing: Ashlar facing is the best type of ashlars masonry. Since this is
type of masonry is very expensive, it is not commonly used throughout the whole
thickness of the wall, except in works of great importance and strength. For
SCE Dept of Civil
economy the facing are built in ashlars and the rest in rubble.
2.6 Brick masonry
This bond is weak in strength but it is economical Brick masonry is made up of brick
units bonded together with mortar
Components of brick masonry
 Brick
 Mortar
Types of mortar
 Cement mortar
 Lime mortar
 Cement-lime mortar
 Lime surkhi mortar
 Mud mortar
Types ofbricks
 Traditional bricks
 Modular bricks
2.6.1 Traditional bricks
It has not been standardize in
size
Dimensions varies from place to

place
Thickness varies from varies from cm to 7.5cm,widthvaries from 10to13 cm and length
varies from 20to25 cm
2.6.2 Modular brick
Any brick which is the same uniform size as laid down by
bis The nominal size of the modular brick is 20cm
x10cmx10cm Actual size is 19x9x9
Classes ofbrick
 First class brick

 Second class brick
 Third class brick
SCE Dept of Civil

CE6506 Bonds in brickwork Construction Techniques Equipment Practices
 Stretcher bond
 Header bond
 English bond
 Flemish bond
 Facing bond
 English crossing bond
 Brick on edge bond
 Dutch bond
 Racking bond
 Zigzag bond
 Garden wall bond
Stretcher bond
The length of the brick its along with the face of the wall. This pattern is used only for
those wall which have thickness of half brick
Header bond
The width of the bricks are thus along the direction of the wall
This pattern is used only when the thickness of the wall is equal to one brick
English bond
It is the most commonly used methodthis bond is considered to be the strongest
This bond consist of alternate course of stretchers and headers
Alternative courses will show either headers or stretchers in elevation
There is nop vertical joint
Every alternative header come centrally over the joint between two stretchers in corse in
below
Since the number of vertical joint in the header course twice the number of vertical joints in
stretcher course ,the joints in the header course are made thinner than the joints in the
stretcher course
Flemish bond
Inthis type of course is comprised of alternative headers and stretchers
Types of Flemish bond
Double Flemish bond

Single Flemish bond
Double Flemish bond
SCE Every course consist of headers and stretchers placed alternatively Dept of Civil
The facing and backing of the wall in each course have the same appearance
Single Flemish bond
Single Flemish bond is comprised of double Flemish bond facing an English bond backing
and hearting in each course
Facing bond
This bond is used where the bricks of different thickness are to be used in the facing
and backing of the wall
The nominal thickness of facing brick is 10 cm and that of backing bricks is 9 cm the
header course tis provided at a vertical interval of 90 cm
English cross bond
This is he modification of English bond to improve the appearance e of the wall

Brick on edge bond
This type of bond uses stret dutch bond
2.7 DAMP PROOF COURSE
2.7.1 Materials for Damp Proof Course (DPC):
An effective damp proofing material should have the following properties;
1. It should be impervious.
2. It should be strong and durable, and should be capable of withstanding both dead as
well as live loads without damage.
3. It should be dimensionally stable.
4. It should be free from deliquescent salts like sulphates, chlorides and nitrates.
The materials commonly used to check dampness can be divided into the following
three categories:
1. Flexible Materials: Materials like bitumen felts (which may be hessian based
or fibre/glass fibre based), plastic sheeting (polythene sheets) etc.
2. Semi-rigid Materials: Materials like mastic, asphalt, or combination of materials
or layers.
3. Rigid Materials: Materials like first class bricks, stones, slate, cement concrete etc.
2.7.2 SELECTION OF MATERIALS FOR DAMP PROOF COURSE:
The choice of material to function as an effective damp proof course requires a judicious
selection. It depends upon the climate and atmospheric conditions, nature of structure and
the situation where DPC is to be provided. The points to be kept in view while making
selection of DPC materials are briefly discussed below:
SCE Dept of Civil
1. DPC above ground level: For DPC above ground level with wall thickness generally
not exceeding 40cm, any one of the type of materials mentioned above may be used.
Cement concrete is however commonly adopted material for DPC at plinth level, 38
to 50mm thick layer of cement concrete M15 (1:2:4 mix) serves the purpose under
normal conditions.
In case of damp and humid atmosphere, richer mix of concrete should be used. The concrete
is further made dense by adding water proofing materials like Pudlo, Impermo, Waterlock
etc in its ingredients during the process of mixing. It is used to apply two coats of hot
bitumen over the third surface of the concrete DPC.
1. DPC Material for floors, roofs etc: For greater wall thickness or where DPC is to
be laid over large areas such as floors, roofs, etc, the choice is limited to flexible
materials which provide lesser number of joints like mastic, asphalt, bitumen felts,
plastic sheets etc.
The felts when used should be properly bonded to the surface with bitumen and laid with
joints properly lapped and sealed.
1. DPC Material for situations where differential thermal movements occur: In

parapet walls and other such situations, materials like mastic, asphalt, bitumen felts
and metal (copper or lead) are recommended. It is important to ensure that the DPC
material is flexible so as to avoid any damage or puncture of the material due to
differential thermal movement between the material of the roof and the parapet.
2. DPC material for Cavity Walls: In cavity wall construction, like cavity over the
door or window should be bridged by flexible material like bitumen felt, strips or lead
etc.
General principles to be observed while laying DPC are:
1. The DPC should cover full thickness of walls excluding rendering.

2. The mortar bed upon which the DPC is to be laid should be made level, even and
free from projections. Uneven base is likely to cause damage to DPC.
3. When a horizontal DPC is to be continued up a vertical face a cement concrete fillet
75mm in radius should be provided at the junction prior to the treatment.
4. Each DPC should be placed in correct relation to other DPC so as to ensure complete
and continuous barrier to the passage of water from floors, walls or roof.
SCE Dept of Civil

Figures 1 to 7 explain provision of DPC under different conditions
Figure 1: Air Drain
Figure 2: DPC Treatment for basement on undrained soils.
SCE Dept of Civil

Figure 3: Plan of building showing DPC
Figure 5: Asphalt tanking for basement
SCE Dept of Civil

Figure 6: DPC for flooring
2.8 FLOORS
The purpose of floor is to provide a level surface capable of supporting the occupants of the
building, furniture, equipment and some time interior wall
The floor must satisfy the following requirements
SCE Dept of Civil

 Adequate strength and stability

 Adequate fire resistance
 Sound proof
 Damp resistance
 Thermal insulations
2.8.1 Components of a floor
Sub floor, basecourse or floor base
Floor covering or flooring
Selection of flooring materials
Factor that affect the choice of flooring
 Initial cost
 Appearance
 Cleanliness
 Durability
 Damp resistance
 Sound insulation
 Thermal insulation
 Fire resistance
 Smoothness
 Hardness
 Maintenance
2.8.2 Types of flooring
 Mud flooring and muram flooring

 Brick flooring
 Flag stone flooring cement concrete flooring
 Terrazzo flooring
 Mosaic flooring
 Tiled flooring
 Marble flooring timber flooring
 Asphalt flooring
 Rubber flooring
 Linoleum flooring
 Cork flooring
SCE Dept of Civil

Double are masons

 Glass flooring
 Plastic or pvc flooring
Mud flooring and muram flooring
This type of flooring is cheap, hard highly impervious
It is easy to construct and easy to maintain
It has good thermal insulation property due to which it remains cool in summer and warm in
winter
Over a well prepared ground 25 cm thick selected moist earth is spread and it rammed well to
compacted thickness of 15cm
In order to prevent cracks small quantity of chopped straw is mixed
Muram flooring
Muram is a form of disintegrated rock with binding material
To construct such a floor a 15 cm thick layer muram is laid over prepared sub grade over it 2.5
cm thick powder layer of muram is spread and rammed
Brick flooring
The sub grade is compacted properly, to the desired leveland 7.5 cm thick layer is spread
Over this a course of brick is laid flat in mortar is built
Such flooring is used in cheap construction, especially where good bricks are available
Flag stone flooring
Flag stone is laminated sand stone available in 2cm to 4cm thickness in the form of stone slab of
30X30 cm or 45X45cm and 60X60 cm
This type of works also called paving.

The stones are laid on concrete base the subsoil is properly compacted over which 10 to of lime
concrete or lean cement concrete is laid
Cement concrete flooring

This is commonly used for residential, commercial even industrial building..
It is moderately cheap quite durable and easy to construct
SCE Dept of Civil

Double are masons

The floor consist of two components
Base concrete
Topping or wearing surface
The base course ma be 7.5 to 10 cm thick
The topping consist of 1:2:4 cement concrete
Terrazzo flooring
Terrazzo flooring is another type of floor finish that is laid in thin layer over concrete topping
It is very decorative and good wearing properties
Terrazzo is a specially prepare concrete surface containing cement and marble chips in the
proportion to 1:1 1/4 to 1:2
When the surface has set the chips are exposed by grinding operation
Mosaic flooring
Mosaic flooring Is made of small pieces of broken tiles of china glazed or of cement or of marble
arranged in different pattern
These pieces are cut to desired shape and sizes
a concrete base is prepare as in the case of concrete flooring over that 5to8 thick lime surkhi
mortar is spread over an area, over this 3mm thick cementing paste is layered and is left to dry
about 4 hours, there after small pieces of broken tiles or marble pieces of different colors
arranged definite pattern and hammered in different layers
Tiled flooring
Tiledflooring is constructed from square, hexagonal or other shapes made up of clay cement
concrete and terrazzo. These are available In various thickness
Thes are commonly used in residential houses, schools, hospitals and other public buildings
Over the concrete base a 25 to 30 mm thick layr of lime mortar 1:3 to serve as a bedding
The bedding mortar is allowed to harden for 12 to 24 hours
Neat cement slurry is spread over it and the tiles are laid flat over it
Marble flooring
It is the superior type of flooring used in bathrooms and kitchens of residential building and
hospitals ,sanitorium ,temples etc
SCE Dept of Civil
After the preparation of base concrete 20 mm thick bed layer of 1:4 cement mix spread under the
Double are masons

area of each individual slabs.
The marble layer is then laid over it and pressed with wooden mallet and leveled
Timber flooring
Timber flooring is used for carpentry halls ,dancing halls auditorium

Etc
These are not commonly usedin India because its costlier
But hilly area where wood is available and temperature drops very low timber flooring is quite
common
The suspended type of wooden floor is supported above the ground
The solid type of wooden floor is fully supported on the ground
2.9 SCAFFOLDING
When te higt of wall or column or othet structural member of a building exceeding1.5 m

temporary structures needed to support trhe platforms over which the work man sit and carry o
the work
These temporary structures constructed very close to the wall is in the form of imber o steel
frame work commonly called as scaffoldings
Components of scaffoldings
 Ledgers
 Braces
 Put logs
 Transoms
 Boarding
 Guard rail
 Toe board
 Single scaffolding or brick layer scaffolding
 Double scaffoldings or masons scaffoldings
 Cantilever or needle scaffoldings
 Suspended scaffoldings
 Trestle scaffolding
 Steel scaffolding
 Patented scaffoldings
2.9.1 Single scaffoldings
This consists of a single frame work of standards, legers, put logs etc
Constructed parallel to the wall at a distance of about 1.2 meters
The standards are placed at a distance of 2to2.5m interval
Ledger connected with the standards, and are provided at a vertical distance of 1.2to 1.5 m
SCE Dept of Civil
Double are masons
Put logs or connected with one end on the ledgers and other end at the holes of the wall at an
interval of1.2 to 1.5 m interval
scaffoldings
It is very difficult to put holes in walls to m support putlogs in stone masonry
In the case a strong scaffolding is used consisting of two rows of scaffolding
The first row placed 20 to 30 cm away from the wall the other frame will 1m distance from the
first one
Put logs are the supported on both the supports, rakers and cross braces are provided to make the
scaffolding more strong
It also called as independent scaffoldings
SCE Dept of Civil

2.9.2Cantilever or needle scaffolding
Cantilever supports can be used under following circumctances
Ground is week to support standards

Construction of the upper part of the wall is to be carried out
It is required to keep the ground near wall free for traffic etc i
It ha s two types
Single Frame
Te standards are supported on series of needle taken out through opening or through holes
Double frame
The needles are projecting beams are strutted inside the floors
2.9.3 Suspended scaffolding
It is the light weight scaffolding used for repair works such as pointing, painting etc
The working platforms are suspended from roofs by means of wire ropes or chains etc
SCE Dept of Civil

2.9.4 Trestle scaffolding
Such type of scaffoldings are used for painting and repairing work inside the room up to a height
of 5m
The working platform is supported over the top of movable contrivances such as tripods ladders
etc
2.9.5 Steel scaffolding
Steel scaffolding is practically similar to the timber scaffolding, here wooden members are
replaced by steel couplets are fittings
Such scaffolding can be erected and dismantled rapidly
It has a greater strength and greater durability
2.9.6 Patented scaffolding
Many patented scaffolding made of steel are available in the market

Thos scaffoldings are equipped with special couplings frames etc
2.10 TRUSSES
Trusses are the frame formed by number of straight members connected in the form of triangles
The embers are made by steel angles and they are joined by rivet or welding, these joints are
called nodes
It is assumed that the external loads act at the nodes only and the members are subjected to only
tension or compression
The compression members are called as struts and the tension members are called as ties
Steel roof trusses are used under the following condition
Large spans are to be covered
Intermediate columns are to be avoided to have an unobstructed working area inside
There is a heavy rain or snow fall
SCE Dept of Civil

Types of roof trusses
2.10.1 King post truss
Here t he
common rafters are supported by wooden frame work called truss under required interval
The frame work consist of a king post, two struts two principal rafters and tie beam
The truss rest on stone bed blocks at either end
The common rafters rest on wooden purlins which in turn are fixed to the principal rafters of the
truss
The king post connect the ridge post and the middle of the tie beam
The struts are connected to the king post at the bottom and the principal rafters at the top
The roofing material is fixed to the common rafters king post truss is used for spans of 5m to 9m
2.10.2 Queen post truss
The frame work consist of two principal rafters ,two queen post one straining sill two struts one
tie beam and one straining beam
SCE Dept of Civil

The common matters rest on wooden purlins
The staining beam resist the horizontal thrust developed
The struts are connected to the queen post at the bottom and the principal rafters at the top
2.10.3 North light roof truss
North light or saw tooth roof truss is special type of roof trusses suitable for factories engaging in
manufacturing work
North light truss is sawtooth
Actual lighting is taken an advantage during day time by using the north light roof trusses
In this type of trusses vertical drops are provided this drops are covered with glasses so as to
permit light in to the interior
2.11 Centering and shuttering

Shuttering is the temporary ancillary construction used as a mould for the structures
In which the concrete is placed and allowed to hardened
These are classified as steel wooden plywood combined woods steel, reinforced concrete and
plain concrete
Requirements of shuttering
The material should be cheap and should be suitable for re use several times
It should be practically water proof so that it should not observe water from concrete
It should be strong enough to with stand all loads coming on it
It should be stiff enough so that deflection is minimum
The surface of the formwork should smooth and it should afford easy stripping
SCE Dept of Civil

Loads on form work
Live load due to labour etc

Dead weight of wet concrete
Hydrostatic pressure of the fluid concrete
Impact due t pouring concrete
Shuttering for column

Components
Sheeting or column shutter all around the column

Yokes
Wedges
bolt
Shuttering for beam and slab floor
The slab is continous over the beam
The slab is supported on 2.5 cm thick sheeting laid parallel to the main beam
SCE Dept of Civil

The boarding may be 4 to 5 cm thick for walls up to 3to 4m high
The boards are fixed to 5cmX10cm posts known as struts are soldiers
2.12 ROOF FINISHING
Roof finishing accessories include all types of accessory materials that are used to finish a roof.
Flashing, drip edge, and roof drains are all examples of roofing accessories.
Roof finishing accessories are widely available for a range of applications and may be chosen
for functional, aesthetic, or budgetary reasons.
Roofing accessories are largely made from aluminum, steel, copper, or PVC vinyl. They include
a range of products including
Rain gutters and Drains and guards
Flashing or weatherproofing materials
 Roof caps
 Drip edges
 Ridges and shingles
 Chimney caps
 Leader boxes
 Finials and turrets
 Weathervanes.
Rain gutters and Drains and guards
Rain gutters, drains and guards are roof finishing accessories that collect and divert rainwater
away from the roof and building foundation.
These types of roof finishing accessories may also reduce erosion, prevent leaks in the
foundation or basement, reduce water exposure on painted surfaces, and collect water for
additional use.
Rain gutter, drain and guard roof finishing accessories may be available with screens, louvers, or
hoods for additional protection.
Flashing or weatherproofing materials
Roof finishing accessories also include flashing, also known as weatherproofing.
Flashing refers to installing a thin, continuous piece of sheet material to prevent the passage of
water into the structure from a joint or angle.
Flashing roof finishing accessories are commonly used around protruding objects in the roof,
such as chimneys or pipes, to prevent water from reaching seams or joints.
SCE Dept of Civil

Roof caps, drip edges, ridges and shingles, and chimney caps
Roof caps, drip edges, ridges and shingles, and chimney caps are also common, functional roof
finishing accessories
. Roof caps provide ventilation via the rooftop. They are commonly made from copper or
galvanized steel, and often include an insect screen.
Drip edge roof finishing accessories are useful in stopping water from seeping under a roof
deck, which can prevent frame rot.
Roof ridge caps and shingles are also used as finishing accessories. Roof shingles are individual,
overlapping elements used for water-resistance.
At the roof ridge, there is typically a copper, lead, or plastic cap to ensure water protection.
Ridge vents are also commonly used as roof finishing accessories to provide ventilation to attic
or upper crawlspaces.
Leader boxes, Finials and turrets and Weathervanes.

Finishing accessories can also be decorative.
These accessories include leader boxes, finials and turrets, and weathervanes. Leader box
accessories are used with gutter systems to hide or diminish the sight of leader elbows, and are
available in a range of decorative styles, shapes, and designs.
Roof finials and turrets are caps or towers affixed to the highest point of the roof, largely
for decoration. Turrets are often designed to hold clocks or bells.
Similarly, weathervanes are another type of roof finishing accessory often used for decoration
at the highest point of the roof. Weathervanes are not solely used for decoration, however, as
they also point to the direction of the wind. Other, unlisted types of roof finishing accessories
may also be available.
2.12.1 ACOUSTICS
Acoustics is the science of sound ,which deals with origin ,propagation and auditory sensation
of sound and also with design and construction of different building units to set optimum
condition for producing and listenig speech musi etc
2.13 FIRE PROTECION
No building material is perfectly fire proof
A wider interpretation of the fire safety may be deemed to cover the following aspects
Fire prevention and reduction of number of out breaks of
fire
Spread of fire both internally and

externally
SCE Dept of Civil
Safe existence of any and all occupants in the event of an out breaks of
fire
Fire load
Fire load is the amount of heat in kilocalories which is liberated per square meter of floor area
of any combustible parts of the building itself
The fire load is determined by multiplying the weight of all combustible materials by
their calorific value and dividing the floor area under consideration
Grading of building according to fire

resistance
The national building code of India (sp:7-1970) divides building in to the following four
types
according to the fire load the building is designed to resist
Type 1 construction all structural components have 4 hours fire resistance
Type 2 construction all structural components have 3 fire resistance
Type 3construction all structural components have 2 hours fire resistance
Type 4 construction all structural components have 1 hour fire resistance
General fire safety requirements for buildings
All building and particularly building having more than one storey shall be provided with
liberally designed and safe fire proof existence
The exist shall be so placed that they are always immediately accessible and each is capable of
taking all the persons on that floor a s alternative escape route
Escape route shall be well ventilated as persons using the escapes are likely to over come from
smoke
Fire proof door shall conform rigidly to the fire safety requirements
Electrical and mechanical lifts while reliable undr normal condition may not always be relied on
escape purpose
Lift shafts and stairways invariably serve as flues are tunnels thus increasing the fire by
increased draught
Floors are required to withstand the effect of fire for full period stated for the particular grading
Roofs of the various fire grades of the building shall be designed and constructed to withstand
the effect of fire for the maximum period
SCE Dept of Civil

UNIT III
SUB STRUCTURE CONSTRUCTION
3.1 Types of structures under jacking
Box jacking
Arch jacking
Pipe jacking
OPERATONS
The box shaped tunnel structures are pre fabricated units which are pushed into soil by hydraulic
jack
Soil is excavated at the advancing face by manual means or by excavators

To avoid settlements of over laying roads or rail track soil is excavated after it enters the cutting
heads
Excavation ahead of the cutting is avoided the cutting head is moved forward in small
increments to avoid any having of the road or rail track
In addition to that, without stabilizing the soil, the box technique would cause the super structure
to settle the threatening structure failure so the ground ahead of tunnel boxes needed to be frozen
3.2 PIPE JACKING

In tunnels of damages above 2m men and machines worked the tunnel phase exacting and
providing soil support to the excavator soil by erecting the lining. The tunnel diameter becomes
small it becomes difficult for workers to carry out soil excavation of in erect the tunnel lining
system with in the tunnel shield
For diameter in the range of 0.5m to 1.5m it is more efficient to excavate the soil by drilling
systems controlled from a shaft or a pit to push the tunnel lining segment from the shaft or pit
these techniques are often referred to us pipe jacking or micro tunneling techniques and
equipments
Pipe jacking refers to a technique in which a man in a sitting or crouch position, user’s epic and
shovels to excavate tunnel face and the pipe is jacked forward from a shaft using hydraulic
jacking system
Horizontal auguring refers to a similar technique in which the man is replaced by a horizontal
continuous flight helical auger
INSTALATION
The pipe sections are moved forward by hydraulic jacking and the miniature TBM derive its
reaction from these section
Pipe segments of length 1 to 3 diameters 0.5 to 2m can be jacked into the soil using reaction
from the concrete wall erected at the rior of jacking pit.
SCE Dept of Civil
3.3 DIAPHRAGM WALL

In structural engineering, a diaphragm is a structural system used to transfer lateral loads to
shear walls or frames primarily through in-plane shear stress
. These lateral loads are usually wind and earthquake loads, but other lateral loads such as lateral
earth pressure or hydrostatic pressure can also be resisted by diaphragm action.
The diaphragm of a structure often does double duty as the floor system or roof system in a
building or the deck of abridge, which simultaneously supports gravity loads.
Diaphragms are usually constructed of plywood or oriented stand board in timber construction;
Metal deck or composite metal deck in steel construction; or concrete slab in concrete
construction.
The two primary types of diaphragm are flexible and rigid. Flexible diaphragms resist lateral
forces depending on the tributary area, irrespective of the flexibility of the members that they are
transferring force to. On the other hand, rigid diaphragms transfer load to frames or shear walls
depending on their flexibility and their location in the structure.
Parts of a diaphragm include:
 the membrane, used as a shear panel to carry in-plane shear

 the drag strut member, used to transfer the load to the shear walls or frames
 The chord, used to resist the tension and compression forces that develop in the
diaphragm, since the membrane is usually incapable of handling these loads alone.
3.4 TUNNELING
Process of making tunnels in order to reduce distance of travel or traffic congestion for highway
and railway is called tunneling
Tunneling is important for the following purpose
o Time saving and reduction in fuel o

Avoid unwanted traffic congestion o
Maintain a proper speed
o Avoid tiredness of travel
o Avoid unwanted accidents
o To avoid deforestation and death of animal while crossing
o To avoid land slide in hilly region
o To avoid the long route around the mountain
o To reduce the length of highway and railway and it may be economical
o To have flatter gradient that is essential to maintain the speed of the vehicle
Tunneling types depending upon the shapes
Poly centric
SCE Horse shoe Dept of Civil

Size of the tunnel
It depends upon the number of track and the width and length of the mountain
Alignment of tunneling
o Identify the shortest route

o Height of mountain should be less
o Mark the points on the mountain
o Transfer the tunnel inside the mountain by making of required depth
o Checking the tunnel cross section whether equal every where
Methods of tunneling
Shaft tunneling
Pilot tunneling
Shaft tunnels
Vertical passages are created along the line o the tunnel then the tunnels can be excavated by the
passage of having distance half of the distance between adjacent passage openings are available
to take the excavated material ,shafts can also be used to pump out the water
Pilot tunneling
If the height of the mountain is more then we can exercise this method of tunneling but uf he
horizontal length is more, shaft tunneling is done
3.5 PILE DRIVING

This is the process of inserting the pile inside the soil
It is a process by way of which a pile is forced in to the ground with out excavating the soil
Pile driving an be done by two methods
Using hammering
Using pile driver
Hammering
Heavy bl0w is given by means of a hammer
Variety of hammers available to perform some of the acion
 Drop hammer
 Single acting hammer
SCE  Double acting hammer Dept of Civil
 Diesel hammer and

 Vibrating hammer
Drop hammer
The hammer is lifted by a winch and dropped down

The hammer is connected to the rope by a hook
When it is lifted up after reaching a particular height it is dropped down
Single acting hammer
Hammer is lifted by stream and dropped then it will fell down in the top of the pile by
gravitational force
Double acting hammer
It is the same as that of single acting but here both the lifting and dropping is done by steam
engine
Diesel hammer
The process of lifting and dropping is done by diesel engine
Vibrators
If the soil condition is loose ,then using some vibrators the pile is inserted
3.6 SHEET PILES
It is the type of pile that is made of concrete, steel or wood
The thickness of the pile is very less when compared to the length and width of the pile
To prevent the entry water in construction the sheet piles are used, this is also used to separate
the vertical member of the building
The piles are inserted by some machine the depth of the piles can be increased by proper joints in
successive installment
Functions
To enclose the site or part to prevent escape of loose soil
To retain the sides of trenches or excavation
To construct retaining wall in the marine structures

To prevent seepage below the dams or hydraulic structures to construct coastal defense work
SCE To protect the foundation from scouring action of nearby river Dept of Civil
Concrete sheet piles
Reinforced precast unit having the width of 50 to 60 cm and thickness 2to 6cm and the depth can
be increased by further installment
Timber sheet piles
it is used only for temporary works ,the width of the pile varies from 225to 280 cm the thickness
shall not be less than 50mm
3.7 DEWATERING
DEFINITION
When water table exists at a shallow depth below ground surface, it is essential to lower the
water so as to carry out construction of foundation, basement, and metro tunnels etc.This is
achieved by pumping out water from multiple wells installed at the site. The process is called as
dewatering.
Types of dewatering method
Dewatering can be done by adopting one of the following four strategies

Dewatering of soil by temporary lowering of water table using wells and pumps prior excavation
as depleted in figure
Allowing water to reap into excavation area, collecting it in sumps and pumping it out. Before
that adequate steps have to be taken to support the soil on sides of the excavated area, to prevent
washing away of fines and have sufficient space for the work area.
Making the soil around excavated zone impermeable by technique such as grouting are freezing
so that inflow of water is stop are minimized.
INSTALATION TECHNIQUE
Sufficient size and capacity of dewatering system is necessary to lower and maintain ground
water table and to allow material to be excavated in a reasonable dry condition.
Excavation slopes to be stabilized where sheeting is not required
Dewatering system is to be operated continuously until backfill work has been completed.
SCE Dept of Civil

3.7.1DEWATERING WELL POINTS
When construction operation have to be excited below the ground water table level. Dewatering
of soil can be done by the following methods
Collecting water in sumps and pumping it out.
Installing well points small or deep wells and pumping out ground water
Using special technique in fine grained soils such as vaccum dewatering and electro-osmosis
WELL POINTS
To pump out the ground water small sized wells called well points are used for a more dry
working area the two methods used most often for lowering water table below the excavation
level are the well point method and the deep well method.
WELL POINT METHOD:

This is economical and useful for lowering the water table by 15m or less.
Incase of well point method or deep well method it is based on the fact that removal of water by
continuous pumping from a well causes the water table level to become depressed and result in
the formation of draw down.
When a series of wells are placed close to each other, the overall effect is lowering of the water
table level.
Well points, being smaller, are easy to install.

Well points, can lower the water table by only 6.7m because the pump, is located at the ground
surface and connected to group of well points through a pipe, cannot lift water from greater
depth.
Beyond 7m, multistage well points are used.
DEEP WELL METHOD
This method is useful for lowering the water table by more than 15m.
Deep wells have larger diameter more depth and greater spacing.
The pump is located at the bottom of well and hence can pump out water from greater depth.
Deep wells become more economical if more points are required.
SCE Dept of Civil

UNIT IV
SUPER STRUCTURE CONSTRUCTION
4.1 BRIDGE DECKS
The principal function of a bridge deck is to provide support to local vertical loads (from
highway traffic, railway or pedestrians) and transmit these loads to the primary superstructure of
the bridge, Figure 1(1). As a result of its function, the deck will be continuous along the bridge
span and (apart from some railway bridges) continuous across the span. As a result of this
continuity, it will act as a plate (isotropic or orthotropic depending on construction) to support
cal patch
SCE Dept of Civil

Continuity ensures that whether or not it has been designed to do so, it will participate
in the overall structural action of the superstructure.
The overall structural actions may include:
 Contributing to the top flange of the longitudinal girders, Figure 1(2).

 Contributing to the top flange of cross girders at supports and, where present
in twin girder and cross girder structures, throughout the span, Figure 1(3).
 Stabilising longitudinal and cross girders, Figure 1(4).
 Acting as a diaphragm to transmit horizontal loads to supports, Figure 1(5).
 Providing a means of distribution of vertical load between longitudinal girders,
Figure 1(6).
It may be necessary to take account of these combined actions when verifying the design
of the deck. This is most likely to be the case when there are significant stresses from the
overall structural actions in the same direction as the maximum bending moments from
local deck actions, e.g. in structures with cross girders where the direction of maximum
moment is along the bridge.
The passage of each wheel load causes a complete cycle of local bending stresses. The
number of significant stress cycles is, therefore, very much higher for the deck than for
the remainder of the superstructure. In addition, some of the actions of the deck arising
from its participation in the overall behaviour are subject to full reversal;
an example is the transverse distribution of vertical load between girders. For both these
reasons, fatigue is more likely to govern the design of the bridge deck than the remainder
of the superstructure.
4.2 SHELL STRUCTURES
Shells are 3d structures constructed on storage tanks or roof for large column area such as
indoor stadiums, exhibition halls, theatres, complex churches etc
Classification
Singly curved Doubl curved Cylindrical shells Singly curved
It can be used for rectangular shape buildings, shells represents the roof of the building
Dome storage tank for water and petroleum is example for single curved
Doubly curved
For doubly curved structures the super structure should be in hexagonal or circular shape
Cylindrical shape
These ae just modification of pitched roof and frequently emloyed in modern age
construction
It has two types

SCE Dept of Civil
North light shell roof
Barell vault shell roof
Both are different to provide lighting effect in factories
In barell vault ventilation s provided in middle

4.3 Off shore platforms
Off shore platforms are self contained platforms with adequate facilities for drilling,
derrick, drilling mud electric power, pumping equipment for the offshore construction these
are artificial facilities above the elevation of off shore platforms
Off shore platforms can be classified as
Fixed Off shore platforms
Bottom supported structures

Compliant platforms and floating platforms
Construction principles of offshore platforms

Selection of operational criteria
Selection of environment
Environmental factors
like Storming wind
velocity Storming
wave height
Tidal conditions
Before analysis and design of foundation it is necessary to determine the soil characters of
the sea shore. Capacities of the available crains will influence the operational activities of
platform constructions.
The fixed platforms can be classified into

Jacket or template structures
Gravity structures
4.4 ERECTING LIGHT WEIGHT COMPONENTS ON TALL STRUCTURES
Besides high raise buildings the usage of steel element is also popular with
construction of hospital and commercial complexes
Instead of concrete beams and columns more than 6100 tonnes of steel have been used to
SCE build the main frames Dept of Civil
Light weight blocks are used for patricians to reduce the dead load building
The usage of permanent concrete form works and structural steel elements will be the
main constituter for erecting light weight components on tall structures results rapid
speed of constructions.
Hence the erection of steel beams and columns as well as the installation of concrete form
work consumes only less time
Self drilling tapping screws are the most prevalent fasteners. Steel to steel connections
can be carried out to connect struts or joist and track together
Entire can be erected manually with out the use of heavy equipment
All these structures require few battery powered screw gunes and some ropes and pulleys
No scaffoldings is require for assembly and disc assembly of the structures because the
structure itself provides the scaffoldings as it goes up or comes down
Almost any number of column sections can be added to make it any height we desire
During the construction of tall structures the following equipments areused for the
aerial transporting and handling
SCE Dept of Civil

UNIT V
CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT
5.1 Introduction to construction equipments
Types of earth moving equipment

Classified into following types
 Production equipment
 Equipment used for digging and moving
 Service equipment
 Dozers and motor girders
5.1.1 Tractors
Tractors are machine which change the engine energy into tractive energy
These are primarily used for pull or push the loads
They are also used for different purposes by mounting many types of accessories
Types of tractor
Crawler type or track type

Rubber tired or wheel type
The tractor is multi purpose machine
Light models are used for agricultural or short haulage works

Heavy models are employed in earth moving works, cranes, shovels or special rigs
Wheeled types or employed in light but speedy jobs
Main constituents of tractor are engine ,clutch ,transmissonsystem,ground drive and

controls
Factors should be considered while selecting a tractor dozer
Size of the dozer for given job the type expected from the track to dozer
The type and condition of haul

road distance to be move
5.1.2 Bulldozers
Dozers are machine designed primarily for cutting and pushing the material over short
distance
SCE Dept of Civil
They consist with a front mounted blade controlled by hydraulic cylinder to vary the depth
of cut and rate of leveling depending on the material and application
a dozer is frame mounted unit with a blade, curved in its section, extending in front of
the tractor
Bulldozer is most versatile and most important equipment on construction project
Basically its pushing unit but its widely used as multipurpose equipment and can
perform large number of operations with minor changes
5.1.3 Scrapers
Scrapers are the devices to scrap the ground and load it simultaneously, transport it for
the required distance and dump it and then spread it for the required area
The scrapers are designed to dig,load,haul,dump and spread
The scrapers are of three types
 towed type
 conventional type
 self loading or elevating scrapers
Towed type
The towed type scrapers are provided with either cable or hydraulic control
It can be operated in extremely adverse condition
Conventional scrapers
These are generally manufactured from 10to 25cubicmetres
Self loading scrapers
These are twin engine scrapers

It can work completely independently of all other plants
It has the following parts
o Bowl
o Cutting edge
o Apron
o Tail gate or ejector
Following or three major operations of scrapers
Loading or digging
Transporting
Unloading
SCE Dept of Civil

5.2 SELECTION OF EQUIPMENT
Proper selection of construction equipment place a vital role in the speedy and economical
completion of the construction
Following are the main points which should be considered while selection off the
construction equipments
Suitable for job condition

The equipment must meet the requirement of the work climate and working condition
Size of the equipment

Size of the equipment it should be such that must be able to be used with other equipments
If the equipment selected for larger size it will remain idle inmost of the time
Standardization
It is better to have same type and size of equipment in a construction then it is easy to have
spare parts, and to understand its operations
Availability of
equipment
Availability of spare
parts
Multi purpose equipments the selected equipments must be capable of performing

various operations
Availability of know how
The equipments selected should be satisfactorily handled by the available operators

and machine
Use in future projects The economical aspects Reliability of the equipments Service
support
Operating requirements
Past performance
Reputation of the manufacturer
Warranty and guaranty offered by the manufacturer
Adequacy of drive mechanism
SCE Dept of Civil

5.3 EXCAVATORS
Excavators are basically digging machines having three major components
An under carriage to give mobility
A super structure with operators cabin mounted on either a sloe ring to traverse through
360◦or on a rigid frame
Hydraulically articulated boom or tipper arms with bucket
Types of excavatorsCrawler mounted excavators

Truck mounted excavators
Self propelled excavators
Excavators mounted on barge or rail
Compactors
Compaction is the process where by material particles are constrained to pack more closely
together through
a reduction of air void content generally by mechanical means

Types of compactors
 static smooth wheeled rollers

 sheep foot and pad foot rollers
 pneumatic tired rollers
 vibratory rollers
Static compaction equipment
It has several types
 towed static smooth compactors

 static sheep foot or pad foot compactors
 static three wheel self propelled compactors
 static tandem compactors
 three axle static compactors
Towed static smooth compactors
Smooth rolls where the first type of rolling compaction equipment used
SCE Dept of Civil

These where pulled by men or horses and were first used by Romans to smoothen there
roads
Static sheep foot or pad foot compactors
When compacting the earth the feet penetrate deep in to th e loose material during the first
passes and compact the soil from bottom up
The kneading effect of sheep foot compactors is used to break up the

Earth lumps and reduce the air voids
Static three wheeled self propelled compactors
These have three rolls a small usually split steering role in the front
Two large drive rolls mounted on rear axle at both the end
Static tandem compactors
Tandem rolls have two equal sized rolls and are centered in line tandem
These are used for the compaction of bituminous layer as they leave a smooth surface
Vibratory compaction equipments
It can be divided in to following types
 Tandem vibratory compactors

 Towed vibratory compactors
 Towed sheep foot and tamping foot vibratory compactors
 Self propelled vibratory compactors
 Hand guided vibratory compactors
5.4 Equipment for concrete mixing
Concrete mixers
For small jobs conc. mixers are used to mix the ingredients of the concrete
Following type of concrete mixers are used in the construction
Hand felt tilting drum mixers

These are smaller capacity mixers ,aggregate cement and water fed in to the drum by hand
Loader fed tilting drum mixers
These are larger capacity as compared to hand fed mixers
These are fixed with the loading hopper operating by the wired rope for loading
SCE Dept of Civil

Reversing drum mixers
This type of mixer is used on comparatively larger works
The mixer drum is horizontal and it is non tilting type
It has blades which work alternatively
Roller pan mixers

These mixers are primarily used for mortars ,the rollers and mixer blades rotate in a pan and
not only mixing material but also kneading and crushing it
5.5 Tunneling equipment
Selection of equipment
Selection of equipment for tunneling depends upon quantum of work involved
So that the tunneling work is carried out economically,speedly and safely

Muck loading
Mucking is the operation of loading the broken rock or earth for removal from tunnel
Mucking process can be done by the following equipments
Power shovels Tractor
loader Mucking
machines
Tunnel boring machines
Tunneling is mostly done by conventional and drilling and blasting methods
Working principle of tunneling these machines perform the bring operation through the rotation
of the front head against the rock face
The mole has circular cutter head in the front provided with fixed cutters of desired shapes
The cutter head while rotating is pressed against the rock to cut or pulverize it
The tunnel boring machines are two types
Single stage machine
These are recommended for small dia tunnels of 3 to 6 m
These machine are allowed to access change in bore hole diameter and this can be done without
any change of machines
SCE Dept of Civil

A Course Material on
CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES, EQUIPMENT AND PRACTICES
By
Mr. P. JAGATEESH
Assistant Professor
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
SASURIE COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
VIJAYAMANGALAM – 638 056

QUALITY CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the e-course material
Subject Code : CE2404

Scubject : CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES, EQUIPMENTS AND PRACTICES
Class : IV Year CIVIL
being prepared by me and it meets the knowledge requirement of the university curriculum.
Signature of the Author
Name: P.JAGATEESH
Designation: Assistant Professor
This is to certify that the course material being prepared by Mr. P.JAGATEESH is of adequate
quality. He has referred more than five books amount them minimum one is from aborad
author.
Signature of HD
Name: N.Sathish Kumar
SEAL
Construction Techniques, Equipments and Practices IV Year/ VII Semester CIVIL ENGINEERING
h h h h h[ Ty pe here] [Ty pe here
] [Ty pe here ]
Consruction Techniques, Equipment And Practice
UNIT I - CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY
PART-A
1) What are all the types of cement?
o Ordinary Portland cement
o OPC33,OPC43 and OPC53 grade
o Rapid hardening cement
o Extra rapid hardening cement
o Sulphate resisting cement
o Portland slag cement
o Quick setting cement
o Low heat cement
o Portland pazzolona cement
o Air entraining cement
o Colored cement
2) Differentiate dry process and wet process of manufacturing cement?
Process
 Lime stone and clay are ground to fine powder separately and are mixed together
 Water is added to make a thick paste which contains 14% of moisture
 The paste format are dried and off charged into a rotary kiln
 The product obtained often calcinations in rotary kiln
Process
o The crushed raw materials are fed in to a ball mill and a little water is added
o The steel balls in the ball mill pulverized the raw material which form a slurry with
water
o The slurry is passed through storage tanks where the proportioning of compound is
adjusted to ensure desired chemical composition
P.JAGATEESH 1 2015-2016
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3) Define batching, what are all the methods of batching?
The measurement of materials for making concrete is known as batching.

Methods of batching
Volume batching
Weigh batching
4) What are all the raw materials of the cement?
o Lime
o Silica
o Alumina
o Calcium sulphate
o Iron oxide
o Magnesium oxide
o Sulphar ti oxide
o alkalis
5) Write notes on steam curing.
This approach is widely used in precast concrete units.here the precast units are kept under
warm and damp atmosphere of a steam chamber.
6) Define non destructive testing.

Non destructive testing is done on haredend concrete in non destructive testing methods soe
properties of concrete are used to estimate strength durability ,elastic parameters,crack depth micro
cracks and progressive deteriotion of concrete.
7) What are all the types of concrete test?

Slump test
compressive test
split tensile strength
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PART-B
1) Explain the manufacturing of cement with neat sketches and flow chart
Raw materials used
Calcareous
Argillaceous
Calcareous materials used are
Cement rock
Lime stone
Marl
Chalk
Marine shell
Argillaceous materials used are

Clay
shale
slate
blast furnace slag
Process manufacturing cement

Dry process
Wet process
Dry process
 General
 Adopted when the raw materials are quite
hard The process is slow an the product is
costly Process
 Lime stone and clay are ground to fine powder separately and are mixed togetherWater is
added to make a thick paste which contains 14% of moisture
 The paste format are dried and off charged into a rotary kiln
 The product obtained often calcinations in rotary kiln
 The clinker I obtained as a result of incipient fusion and sintering at a temp about 1400◦c
to1500◦ c
 The clinker is cooled to preserve the meta stable compounds and there solid
solutions Dispersion of one solid with another solid which made the clinker again
[Ty pe here ]
heated Clinker is again cooled and grounded in tube mills where 2-3% gypsum is
added
 The purpose of adding gypsum is to coat the cement particle by interfering the process
of hydration of cement particles
Wet process
The operations are
 Mixing
 Burning
 Grinding
Process
 The crushed raw materials are fed in to a ball mill and a little water is added
 The steel balls in the ball mill pulverized the raw material which form a slurry with water
 The slurry is passed through storage tanks where the proportioning of compound is
adjusted to ensure desired chemical composition
 The corrected slurry having moisture about 40%,is then fed into rotary kiln
Where it loses moisture and form on to lumps
 These are finally burned at 1500◦ to 1600 ◦cIt becomes clinker at this stage, the clinker is
cooled and then grounded in tube mills
 While grinding the clinker 3% gypsum I added this is stored in silos and packed
[Ty pe here ]
2) Explain briefly about the chemicals used in concrete and their advantages
Water-reducing admixture / Plasticizers:
These admixtures are used for following purposes:
1. To achieve a higher strength by decreasing the water cement ratio at the same workability
as an admixture free mix.
2. To achieve the same workability by decreasing the cement content so as to reduce the
heat of hydration in mass concrete.
3. To increase the workability so as to ease placing in accessible locations
4. Water reduction more than 5% but less than 12%
Actions involved:
1. Dispersion:
Surface active agents alter the physic chemical forces at the interface. They are adsorbed on the
cement particles, giving them a negative charge which leads to repulsion between the particles.
Electrostatic forces are developed causing disintegration and the free water become available for
workability.
2. Lubrication:
As these agents are organic by nature, thus they lubricate the mix reducing the friction and
increasing the workability.
3. Retardation:
A thin layer is formed over the cement particles protecting them from hydration and increasing
the setting time. Most normal plasticizers give some retardation, 30–90 minutes
Super Plasticizers:
o These are more recent and more effective type of water reducing admixtures
also known as high range water reducer
o The commonly used Super Plasticizers are as follows:
Sulphonated melamine formaldehyde condensates (SMF)

 Give 16–25%+ water reduction. SMF gives little or no retardation, which makes them very
effective at low temperatures or where early strength is most critical.
 However, at higher temperatures, they lose workability relatively quickly. SMF generally
give a good finish and are colorless, giving no staining in white concrete.
 They are therefore often used where appearance is important.
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Sulphonated naphthalene formaldehyde condensates (SNF)
 Typically give 16–25%+ water reduction. They tend to increase the entrapment of
larger, unstable air bubbles. This can improve cohesion but may lead to more
surface defects.
 Retardation is more than with SMF but will still not normally exceed 90 minutes. SNF is a
very cost-effective.
Polycarboxylate ether super plasticizers (PCE)
 Typically give 20–35%+ water reduction. They are relatively expensive per liter but
are very powerful so a lower dose (or more dilute solution) is normally used.
 In general the dosage levels are usually higher than with conventional water reducers,
and the possible undesirable side effects are reduced because they do not markedly
lower the surface tension of the water.
Accelerators:
 An admixture which, when added to concrete, mortar, or grout, increases the rate of
hydration of hydraulic cement, shortens the time of set in concrete, or increases the rate of
hardening or strength development.
 Accelerating admixtures can be divided into groups based on their performance and
application:
1. Set Accelerating Admixtures,
Reduce the time for the mix to change from the plastic to the hardened state.
Set accelerators have relatively limited use, mainly to produce an early set.
2. Hardening Accelerators,
 Which increase the strength at 24 hours by at least 120% at 20ºC and at 5ºC by at least
130% at
 48 hours. Hardening accelerators find use where early stripping of shuttering or very early
access to pavements is required.They are often used in combination with a high range
water reducer, especially in cold conditions.
Set Retarders:
 The function of retarder is to delay or extend the setting time of cement paste in concrete.
These are helpful for concrete that has to be transported to long distance, and helpful in
placing the concrete at high temperatures.
 When water is first added to cement there is a rapid initial hydration reaction, after which
there is little formation of further hydrates for typically 2–3 hours.
] [Ty pe here ]
 The exact time depends mainly on the cement type and the temperature. This is called the
dormant period when the concrete is plastic and can be placed.
 At the end of the dormant period, the hydration rate increases and a lot of calcium silicate
hydrate and calcium hydroxide is formed relatively quickly. This corresponds to the
setting time of the concrete.
 Retarding admixtures delay the end of the dormant period and the start of setting and
hardening. This is useful when used with plasticizers to give workability retention. Used
on their own, retarders allow later vibration of the concrete to prevent the formation of
cold joints between layers of concrete placed with a significant delay between them.
 The mechanism of set retards is based on absorption. The large admixture anions and
molecules are absorbed on the surface of cement particles, which hinders further reactions
between cement and water i.e. retards setting.
Air Entrained Admixtures:
 An addition for hydraulic cement or an admixture for concrete or mortar which causes
air, usually in small quantity, to be incorporated in the form of minute bubbles in the
concrete or mortar during mixing, usually to increase its workability and frost
resistance.
 Air-entraining admixtures are surfactants that change the surface tension of the water.
Traditionally, they were based on fatty acid salts or vinsol resin but these have largely
been replaced by synthetic surfactants or blends of surfactants to give improved
stability and void characteristics to the entrained air.
 Air entrainment is used to produce a number of effects in both the plastic and the
hardened concrete. These include:
• Resistance to freeze–thaw action in the hardened concrete.
• Increased cohesion, reducing the tendency to bleed and segregation in the plastic
concrete.
• Compaction of low workability mixes including semi-dry concrete.
• Stability of extruded concrete.
] [Ty pe here ]
3) Explain the procedure of compression test on concrete
 The compression test shows the compressive strength of hardened concrete.
 The compression test shows the best possible strength concrete can reach in perfect
conditions. The compression test measures concrete strength in the hardened state. Testing
should always be done carefully. Wrong test results can be costly.The testing is done in a
laboratory off-site. The only work done on-site is to make a concrete cylinder for the
compression test.
 The strength is measured in Megapascals (MPa) and is commonly specified as a

characteristic strength of concrete measured at 28 days after mixing.
 The compressive strength is a measure of the concrete’s ability to resist loads which tend to
crush it.
Apparatus for compression test
Cylinders (100 mm diameter x 200 mm high or 150 mm diameter x 300 mm high) (The small
cylinders are normally used for most testing due to their lighter weight)
1. Small scoop
2. Bullet-nosed rod (600 mm x 16 mm)
3. Steel float
4. Steel plate
Procedure for compression test of concrete
 Clean the cylinder mould and coat the inside lightly with form oil, then place on a
clean, level and firm surface, ie the steel plate. Collect a sample.
 Fill 1/2 the volume of the mould with concrete then compact by rodding 25 times.
Cylinders may also be compacted by vibrating using a vibrating table.
 Fill the cone to overflowing and rod 25 times into the top of the first layer, then top up
the mould till overflowing.
Level off the top with the steel float and clean any concrete from around the mould.
 Cap, clearly tag the cylinder and put it in a cool dry place to set for at least 24 hours.
 After the mould is removed the cylinder is sent to the laboratory where it is cured
and crushed to test compressive strength
UNIT-II
CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES
PART A
1. What are the general specifications for first class building?

Foundation and plinth.
superstructure.
damp-proof course.
lintels.
roofing.
plastering.
doors and windows.
distempering and colour wasting.
painting.
2. What are monolithic wall? write its classifications?

Monolithic walls:-Walls built of a material requiring some kind of
shuttering in the initial stages.
Masonry can be classified into the following types
stone masonry.
brick masonry.
hollow block concrete masonry.
reinforced masonry.
composite masonry.
3. Define plinth.
Plinth:- It is the horizontal course of stone or brick provided at the base of the
wall above ground level. It indicates the height of the ground floor level above the
natural ground level. It protects the building from dampness.
4. What are classifications of stone masonry

There are two types ,they are
rubber masonry.
ashlar masonry.
5. What is rubber masonry and ashlar masonry?

Rubber masonry:-
Stones of irregular sizes are used. stones may be undressed or roughly
dressed. using hammer having wider joints.
Ashlar masonry:-
This is a costlier, high grade and superior quality of masonry. The work
built from accurately dressed stones with uniform and very fine joints of about
3mm. thickness is termed as ashlar masonry.
6. Compare English bond and Double Flemish bond.

English bond double Flemish bond.
More compact and stronger for walls Less compact and stronger.
having thickness more than 1(1/2)
bricks.
Not pleasing appearance of the facing. Better appearance in the facing.
No strict supervision and skill required Good workmanship and careful
for its construction. supervision is required.
More in cost than Double Flemish Cheaper in cost-because number of
bond. bricks bats are used.
7. What are the defects in brick masonry.

Defects in brick masonry:-
Sulphate attack.
Crystallization of salts from bricks.
Corrosion of embedded iron or steel.
Shrinkage on drying.
8. Mention the common sizes of building blocks.

The common sizes of building blocks are
390x190x300 mm- standard size hollow block.
390x190x200 mm- hollow building tiles.
390x190x100 mm- hollow concrete blocks for partition.
9. What the types of flooring commonly used.

mud flooring
muram flooring
cement concrete flooring
mosaic flooring
tiled flooring
marble flooring
10. Define damp proof course., what are its causes of dampness.
Definition :-The courses which are laid to check the entry of water or moisture
into the building are called damp proof courses.
Causes:-
faulty design of structure
faulty construction or poor workmanship
use of poor quality materials in construction.
11. Define roofs.

Roof:-A roof is defined as the uppermost part of the building which is
constructed in the form of a frame work to give protection to the building
against rain , heat wind etc..
12. What are the uses of water proofing compounds.

Uses:- When water proofing compounds is added to cement during construction it
prevents leakage. It is available in powder form. It is mixed with cement by hand before
cement is mixed with aggregate.
13. what are the condition for filters.

Condition for filter:-
It should remove harmful particles from air.
It should be workable under different velocity.
It should have very low frictional resistance.
It should not cause contamination of incoming air.
it should be easy to clean.
14. Define fire resistance

Fire Resistance:- It is the time during which an element of structure fulfils
its function in building safely in the event of fire of known intensity. Fire
resistance is also defined as an index of fire safety of buildings.
15. Define acoustics

Acoustics:-The term acoustics is defined as the science of sound, and it describes
the origin ,propagation and sensation of sound.
16. What are the conditions for good acoustics of an auditorium:-

Conditions for good acoustics of an auditorium:-
The initial sound should be of adequate intensity or loudness.
It is important for a speaker to be heard over a long distance.
The sound produced should be evenly spread over the whole area covered by
audience. If the sound is not evenly distributed echoes will be established.
the initial sound should be clear and distinct.
For music hall ,the initial sound should reach the audience with same frequency
and intensity.
All undesired sound should be reduced.
17. Define scaffolding:-

Scaffolding:-It is defined as the temporary structure employed in the building
construction for supporting workers, materials and tools etc., during its
construction alteration, demolition, painting and repair etc.,
18. Write the types of scaffolding.

Types of scaffolding:-
Single scaffolding or Brick layer scaffolding.
Double scaffolding or Masons scaffolding.
Ladder scaffolding.
Cantilever or Needle scaffolding.
19. Write any some materials used for joints.

bituminous felt
Metal strips
Fibre board
these are some of the materials used for joints.
20. Define flooring

Flooring:- The properly supported horizontal surfaces which divide the building into
different levels for providing accommodation one above the other within space are
called floors.
1) Explain the various types of foundation with neat sketches
The foundation is he lower portion of the building, usually located below the ground level,
which transmit the load of super structure to sub soil
Functions of foundation
Reduction of load intensity
Even distribution of load
Provision of level surface
Lateral stability
Safety against undermining
Protection against soil movements

Types of foundation
Shallow foundation
Deep foundation
Shallow foundation
If the depth of foundation is less than or equal to width of foundation it is called as

shallow foundation
Types of shallow foundation
Spread footing
Combined footing
Strap footing
Mat foundation
Spread footing
Spread footing is those which spread the super imposed load to of a wall or column over
the large area
Spread footing support either a column or a wall
Single footing
Stepped footing
Sloped footing
Wall footing with out step
Stepped footing for wall
Grillage foundation
Combined footing
A spread footing which supports two are more columnsis termed as combined footing
Rectangular combined footing
Trapezoidal combined footing
Combined column wall footing
Trapezoidal footing
If the independent footings of two columns are connected by a beam it is called as strap
footing
A strap footing may be used where the distance between the columns is so great that a
combined trapezoidal footing becomes quite narrow
The strap beam does not remains in contact with soil and thus does not transfer any
pressure to the soil
Mat foundation
A raft or mat is a combined footing that covers the entire beneath a structure
And supports all walls and columns
It is used when the allowable soil pressure is low are the building loads are heavy
It is used to reduce the settlement above highly compressible soil
Rafts may divided into three types

o Solid slab system
o Beam slab system
o Cellular system
Deep foundation
If the depth of foundation is equal to or more than the width of the foundation is called
deep foundation
Types
Deep strip rectangular or square footing
Pilefoundation
Pier foundation or drilled caisson foundation
Well foundation or caissons
Deep strip footing
Whenever the depth of strip footing is more than the width it is called as deep strip footing
Pile foundation
it is a type of deep foundation in which the loads are taken to a low level by means of
vertical members which may be timber or concrete or steel
Types of pile foundation
End bearing pile
Friction pile
Compaction pile
End bearing piles
End bearing piles are used to transfer load through water or soft soil to a suitable bearing
stratum
Such piles are used to carry heavy loads to hard strata
Multi storied buildings are invariably founded on end bearing piles, so that the
settlements are minimized
Friction piles
Friction piles are used to transfer loads to a depth of a friction load carrying material by
means of skin friction along the length of the pile
These piles mostly used in granular soil
These are the piles which transfer the super imposed load both through side friction as
well as end bearing
Such piles are more common, especially the end bearing piles are passed through granular
soil
Compaction piles
These piles are used o compact loose soil thus increasing there bearing capacity
The pile tube driven to compact the soil is gradually taken out and sand is filled in its place
thus forming the sand pile
Pier foundation
A pier foundation consist of a cylindrical column of large diameter to support transfer

large super imposed loads to the firm strata below
Generally pier foundation is shallower in depth than the pile foundation
It has two types
o Masonry
o concrete pier
Drilled caissons
Well foundation or caissons are box like structures –circular or rectangular which are sunk
from the surface of either land or water to the desired depth
Caisson foundations are used for major foundation work such as
Bridge pier and abutments in river
Wharves and quay walls docks
Large water front structures such as pump houses, subjected to heavy vertical and
horizontal loads
2) Make a comparison between stone masonry and brick masonry
Definition:
The art of building a structure in stone with any suitable masonry is called stone masonry.
Types of Stone Masonry:
Stone masonry may be broadly classified into the following two types:
1. Rubble
Masonry
2. Ashlar
Masonry
1. Rubble Masonry:
The stone masonry in which either undressed or roughly dressed stone are laid in a
suitable mortar is called rubble masonry. In this masonry the joints are not of uniform
thickness.
Rubble masonry is further sub-divided into the following three types:
Random rubble masonry

Squared rubble masonry
Dry rubble masonry
1. Random rubble masonry: The rubble masonry in which either undressed or

hammer dressed stones are used is called random rubble masonry. Further
random rubble masonry is also divided into the following three types:
a. Un coursed random rubble masonry: The random rubble masonry in

which stones are laid without forming courses is known as un coursed
random rubble masonry. This is the roughest and cheapest type of
masonry and is of varying appearance. The stones used in this masonry
are of different sizes and shapes. before lying, all projecting corners of
stones are slightly knocked off. Vertical joints are not plumbed, joints are
filled and flushed. Large stones are used at corners and at jambs to
increase their strength. Once "through stone" is used for every square
meter of the face area for joining faces and backing.
Suitability: Used for construction of walls of low height in case of

ordinary buildings.
b. Coursed random rubble masonry: The random rubble masonry in which

stones are laid in layers of equal height is called random rubble masonry.
In this masonry, the stones are laid in somewhat level courses.
Headers of one coursed height are placed at certain intervals. The stones are
hammer dressed.
Suitability: Used for construction of residential buildings, go
downs, boundary walls etc.
Squared rubble masonry:The rubble masonry in which the face stones are
squared on all joints and beds by hammer dressing or chisel dressing before their
actual laying, is called squared rubble masonry
There are two types of squared rubble masonry.
c. Coursed Square rubble masonry: The square rubble masonry in which chisel
dressed stones laid in courses is called coarse square rubble masonry. This is a superior
variety of rubble masonry. It consists of stones, which are squared on all joints and laid
in courses. The stones are to be laid in courses of equal layers. and the joints should
also be uniform.
Suitability: Used for construction of public buildings, hospitals, schools,
markets, modern residential buildings etc and in hilly areas where good
quality of stone is easily available.
d. Un coursed square rubble masonry: The squared rubble in masonry
which hammer dressed stones are laid without making courses is called
un coursed square rubble masonry. It consists of stones which are
squared on all joints and beds by hammer dressing. All the stones to be
laid are of different sizes. Suitability: Used for construction of ordinary
buildings in hilly areas where a good variety of stones are cheaply
available.
2. Dry rubble masonry: The rubble masonry in which stones are laid without
using any mortar is called dry rubble masonry or sometimes shortly as "dry
stones". It is an ordinary masonry and is recommended for constructing walls
of height not more than
6m. In case the height is more, three adjacent courses are laid in squared rubble
masonry mortar at 3m intervals.
2. Ashlar masonry:
The stone masonry in which finely dressed stones are laid in cement or lime mortar is
known as ashlars masonry. In this masonry are the courses are of uniform height, all the
joints are regular, thin and have uniform thickness. This type of masonry is much costly
as it requires dressing of stones.
Suitability: This masonry is used for heavy structures, architectural buildings, high
piers and abutments of bridges.
Ashlars masonry is further sub divided into the following types:
Ashlars fine or coarse ashlar masonry

Random coarse ashlars masonry
Rough tooled ashlar masonry
Rock or quarry faced ashlars masonry
Chamfered ashlars masonry
Block in coarse masonry
Ashlar facing
Ashlar fine or coursed ashlar masonry: In this type of stone

masonry stone blocks of same height in each course are used.
Every stone is fine tooled on all sides. Thickness of mortar is
uniform through out. It is anexpensive type of stone masonry as
it requires heavy labor and wastage of material while dressing.
Satisfactory bond can be obtained in this type of stone masonry.
Random coursed ashlar masonry: This type of ashlar masonry
consists of fine or coursed ashlar but the courses are of varying
thick nesses, depending upon the character of the building
Rough tooled ashlar masonry: This type of ashlar masonry the
sides of the stones are rough tooled and dressed with chisels.
Thickness of joints is uniform, which does not exceed 6mm.
Rock or quarry faced ashlar masonry: This type of ashlar
masonry is similar to rough tooled type except that there is chisel-
drafted margin left rough on the face which is known as quarry
faced.
Chamfered ashlar masonry: It is similar to quarry faced except
that the edges are beveled or chamfered to 450 for depth of 2.5 cm
or more.
Block-in course masonry: It is the name given to a class of ashlar
masonry which occupies an intermediate place between rubble and
ashlars. The stones are all squared and properly dressed. It
resembles to coursed rubble masonry or rough tooled ashlar
masonry.
Ashlar facing: Ashlar facing is the best type of ashlars masonry. Since this is
type of masonry is very expensive, it is not commonly used throughout the
whole thickness
of the wall, except in works of great importance and strength. For economy the
facing are built in ashlars and the rest in rubble.
Brick masonry
This bond is weak in strength but it is economical Brick masonry is made up of brick
units bonded together with mortar
Components of brick masonry
Brick
Mortar
Types of mortar
Cement mortar
Lime mortar
Cement-lime mortar
Lime surkhi mortar
Mud mortarTypes of bricks
Traditional bricks
Modular bricks
Traditional bricks
It has not been standardize in
Sze
Dimensions varies from place to
place
Thickness varies from varies from cm to 7.5cm,widthvaries from 10to13 cm and length
varies from 20to25 cmModular brick
Any brick which is the same uniform size as laid down by
bis The nominal size of the modular brick is 20cm
x10cmx10cm Actual size is 19x9x9
Classes of brick
First class brick

Second class brick
Third class brick
Bonds in brick work
Stretcher bond
Header bond
English bond
Flemish bond
Facing bond
English crossing bond
Brick on edge bond
Dutch bond
Racking bond
Zigzag bond
Garden wall bond
Stretcher bond
The length of the brick its along with the face of the wall\
This pattern is used only for those wall which have thickness of half brick
Header bond
The width of the bricks are thus along the direction of the wall
This pattern is used only when the thickness of the wall is equal to one brick
English bond
It is the most commonly used methodthis bond is considered to be the strongest
This bond consist of alternate course of stretchers and headers
Alternative courses will show either headers or stretchers in
elevation There is nop vertical jointEvery alternative header come
centrally over the joint between two stretchers in corse in below
Since the number of vertical joint in the header course twice the number of vertical joints
in stretcher course ,the joints in the header course are made thinner than the joints in the
stretcher course
Flemish bond
Inthis type of course is comprised of alternative headers and stretchers
Types of Flemish bond
Double Flemish bond

Single Flemish bond
Double Flemish bond
Every course consist of headers and stretchers placed alternatively
The facing and backing of the wall in each course have the same appearance
Single Flemish bond
Single Flemish bond is comprised of double Flemish bond facing an English bond backing
and hearting in each course
Facing bond
This bond is used where the bricks of different thickness are to be used in the facing
and backing of the wall
The nominal thickness of facing brick is 10 cm and that of backing bricks is 9 cm the
header course tis provided at a vertical interval of 90 cm
English cross bond
This is he modification of English bond to improve the appearance e of the wall

Brick on edge bond
UNIT III
SUB STRUCTURE CONSTRUCTION

PART A
1. What are the techniques used in Box/Pipe Jacking?

Techniques used in Box/Pipe jacking requires the construction of just two pits:
The Trust
Reception pits
Dimensions of the pits vary according to site conditions.Excavation of soil can be by
manual or mechanical means depending on the type of machines used.
2. Give the applications of Box Jacking?
The applications of Box Jacking are:
Underground Pipes
Ducks and culverts
3. Give the advantages of Box/Pipe Jacking?
The advantages of Box/Pipe Jacking are:
Environmentally friendly with minimal damage to the surface.
Highly accurate and cost effective.
Suitable for all kinds of profiles for a wide variety of soil conditions.
Traffic congestion and additional pollution will not cause.
Extremely suitable for all kinds of underground utility infrastructure.
4. List the disadvantages of Box/Pipe Jacking?
The disadvantages of Box/Pipe Jacking are:
Limited tunnel run resulting in more required shafts (approximately every 1000 ft).
Relatively straight alignment required (minimum radius of curvature approximately
400ft).
Difficulty in replacing damaged pipe.
5. When is Diaphragm walls used?
A diaphragm wall is basically a deep trench excavated in soil in to which reinforced concrete is
placed.Diaphragm walls are used in permanent and temporary foundation walls for deep
basements in earth retention schemes for highway and tunnel projects,as permanent walls for
deep shafts for tunnel access,and as permanent cut-off walls through the care of earth dams.
6. Give the uses of diaphragm walls?
To provide structural support for the construction of building basements with
underground parking.
To provide stability to landslide ,highway cuts,and deep building excavations including
shafts.
To provide retaining walls in areas where severe limitations may be posed by
noise,vibration,geology,water table and schedule.
7. What is a tunnel?Give the advantages?
A tunnel is defined as an underground passage for transport of
passengers,water,sewage,minerals,gas,etc.
Advantages:-
The society of tunnel construction is increased by the improved modern methods of
construction.
It is more economical than open cuts beyond certain depths.
8. What are the factors you will consider while selection of route in tunneling?
a) Geological conditions
b) Right of way
9. Give the various methods of tunneling through rock .
The various method of tunneling through the rocks are:
Full face method
Heading and bench method
Cantilever car pump method
Drift system
Pilot tunnel method
10. Give the various methods of tunneling through soft ground.
The various methods of tunneling through the soft ground are:
a) Fore paling method
b) Needle beam method
c) Five piece set method
d) Linear plates method
e) Other methods
• Casting methods
• Square sets and logging method
• Horse cups method
11. What is cofferdam?
A cofferdam is defined as a temporary structure which is constructed.So,as to remove water/soil
from an area and make it possible to carry on the construction work under reasonably dry
conditions.
12. What are the uses of cofferdams?
To facilitate pile driving operations.
To place grillage and raft foundations.
To construct foundations for piers and abutments of bridges,dams,locks,etc,
13. What are the factors you will consider while selecting cofferdams?
The factors considered while selecting cofferdams are:
The area to be protected by a cofferdam.
The depth of coater to be dealt with i.e, shallow depth of deep depth.
The possibility of overtopping by floods,tides,etc.
The nature of bed on which the cofferdam is to test,(i.e;) previous layer or an impervious
layer.
14. What are the types of cofferdams?
The types of cofferdams are:
Dikes
Single wall construction
Double wall construction
Cellular cofferdam
Rock-filled Concrete
cofferdam Suspended
cofferdam
15. Give the different types of piling?
Rotary board technique
Continuous flight Augur piling
Low head room continuous Augur pile
16. What is grouting?
Grouting is an engineering and art combined to fill up the voids or cavities in rock or soil
masses with fluid that will increase the overall strength and impermeability of the mass.
17. Give the types of grouting.
Chemical
Cement
Jet grouting
18. Give the characteristics of grouting materials.
The characteristics of grouting materials are:
The grouting material has high permeability.
No vibrations are used.
Application requires no additional structure used.
The properties are measurable.
It has high strength and low deformability.
19. What is caisson ?
The word caisson is derived from the French word ‘caisse’ meaning a box. In civil Engineering,
a caisson is defined as a structure which is sunk through ground or water. They exclude water
and semi fluid material during the process of excavations of foundations and which
subsequently becomes an integral part of the substructure.
20. Give the uses of caissons.

The uses of caissons are:
To reach the hard bearing structure for transferring the load coming on support for
bridge piers and building columns.
To serve as an impervious core wall of earth dams.When placed adjacent to each other.
To provide an access to a deep shaft or a tunnel.
21. What is the difference between cofferdams and caissons?
The difference between cofferdams and caissons are:
The main difference between a cofferdam and a caisson is that the former is a temporary
structure while the latter forms the part of the permanent work.
A cofferdam becomes uneconomical in cases where the place of the foundation work
and small as compared to the depth of water under such circumstances ,caissons are
most suitable.
The places at which cofferdam cannot be dewatered successfully,caissons are used.
22. What are the materials used for the construction of caissons?
Cast iron
Reinforced Cement concrete
Steel
Timber
23. Give the classification of caissons?
24. What are the uses of sheet pile?

The uses of sheet pile are:
To protect river banks.
To retain the sides of foundation trenches.
To resist flow of underground or loose soil or of both.
To resist bending abrasion or other stresses which may arise in use.
25. Give the different types of sheet piles?
The types of sheet piles are:
Concrete sheet pile
Steel sheet pile
Timber sheet pile
26. What is shoring?Why is it provided?
Shoring is the construction of a temporary structure to support temporarily an unsafe structure.
27. Why is shoring provided in foundation?
When a wall cracks due to unequal settlement of foundation and the cracked wall needs
repair.So,shoring is provided in foundation.
28. Give the types of shoring in foundation.

Types of shoring foundation are:
Sheet piling
Stay Bracings
Box sheeting
Vertical sheeting
29. What is dewatering?

The process of removal of water from an area where the ground water table is high .
30. Give the methods of dewatering.
Ditches
Well point system
Shallow well system
Deep wall system
Vacuum method (forced flow method)
Electro osmosis method
PART-B
1) Explain under water construction of diaphragm walls with neat sketches.
Diaphragm Wall
In structural engineering, a diaphragm is a structural system used to transfer lateral loads to shear walls
or frames primarily through in-plane shear stress
. These lateral loads are usually wind and earthquake loads, but other lateral loads such as lateral earth
pressure or hydrostatic pressure can also be resisted by diaphragm action.
The diaphragm of a structure often does double duty as the floor system or roof system in a building or
the deck of abridge, which simultaneously supports gravity loads.
Diaphragms are usually constructed of plywood or oriented stand board in timber construction; Metal deck
or composite metal deck in steel construction; or concrete slab in concrete

construction.
The two primary types of diaphragm are flexible and rigid. Flexible diaphragms resist lateral forces depending
on the tributary area, irrespective of the flexibility of the members that they are transferring force to. On the
other hand, rigid diaphragms transfer load to frames or shear walls depending on their flexibility and their
location in the structure.
Parts of a diaphragm include:
the membrane, used as a shear panel to carry in-plane shear

the drag strut member, used to transfer the load to the shear walls or frames
The chord, used to resist the tension and compression forces that develop in the diaphragm, since
the membrane is usually incapable of handling these loads alone.
02) Explain the various types of sheet piles.
Sheet Piles
It is the type of pile that is made of concrete, steel or wood
The thickness of the pile is very less when compared to the length and width of the pile
To prevent the entry water in construction the sheet piles are used, this is also used to separate the vertical
member of the building
The piles are inserted by some machine the depth of the piles can be increased by proper joints in successive
installment
Functions
To enclose the site or part to prevent escape of loose soil
To retain the sides of trenches or excavation
To construct retaining wall in the marine structures
To prevent seepage below the dams or hydraulic structures to construct coastal defense work
To protect the foundation from scouring action of nearby river
Concrete sheet piles
Reinforced precast unit having the width of 50 to 60 cm and thickness 2to 6cm and the depth can be increased
by further installment
Timber sheet piles
it is used only for temporary works ,the width of the pile varies from 225to 280 cm the thickness shall not be
less than 50mm
3) Explain the methods of piling

Pile Driving
This is the process of inserting the pile inside the soil
It is a process by way of which a pile is forced in to the ground with out excavating the soil
Pile driving an be done by two methods
Using hammering Using pile
driver Hammering
Heavy bl0w is given by means of a hammer
Variety of hammers available to perform some of the acion

Drop hammer
Diesel hammer and
Vibrating hammer
Drop hammer
The hammer is lifted by a winch and dropped down
The hammer is connected to the rope by a hook
When it is lifted up after reaching a particular height it is dropped down
Hammer is lifted by stream and dropped then it will fell down in the top of the pile by gravitational
force
It is the same as that of single acting but here both the lifting and dropping is done by steam engine
Diesel hammer
The process of lifting and dropping is done by diesel engine
Vibrators
If the soil condition is loose ,then using some vibrators the pile is inserted
04) Write notes on Dewatering and stand by Plant equipment for underground open excavation.
Dewatering
Definition
When water table exists at a shallow depth below ground surface, it is essential to lower the water so as to
carry out construction of foundation, basement, and metro tunnels etc.This is achieved by pumping out water
from multiple wells installed at the site. The process is called as dewatering.
Types of dewatering method
Dewatering can be done by adopting one of the following four strategies

Dewatering of soil by temporary lowering of water table using wells and pumps prior excavation as depleted
in figure
Allowing water to reap into excavation area, collecting it in sumps and pumping it out. Before that adequate
steps have to be taken to support the soil on sides of the excavated area, to prevent washing away of fines and
have sufficient space for the work area.
Making the soil around excavated zone impermeable by technique such as grouting are freezing so that
inflow of water is stop are minimized.
Instalation Technique
Sufficient size and capacity of dewatering system is necessary to lower and maintain ground water table
and to allow material to be excavated in a reasonable dry condition.
Excavation slopes to be stabilized where sheeting is not required
Dewatering system is to be operated continuously until backfill work has been completed.Then, the structure to
be constructed at the excavated area has to be finished
The complete stand by have to be available for immediate operation as may be required, to adequately
maintain dewatering on continuous basis and in the event that all or any other part of the system may become
inadequate or fail
The water removed from the excavation to be disposed in such a manner as will not endanger portions of
work under construction or completed.
For dewatering purpose, well points deep well, caissons and tunnels are used.
When construction operation have to be excited below the ground water table level. Dewatering of soil can be
done by the following methods
Collecting water in sumps and pumping it out.
Installing well points small or deep wells and pumping out ground water
Using special technique in fine grained soils such as vaccum dewatering and electro-osmosis
Well Points
To pump out the ground water small sized wells called well points are used for a more dry
working area the two methods used most often for lowering water table below the excavation level are the
well point method and the deep well method.
Well Point Method

:
This is economical and useful for lowering the water table by 15m or less.
Incase of well point method or deep well method it is based on the fact that removal of water by continuous
pumping from a well causes the water table level to become depressed and result in the formation of draw
down.
When a series of wells are placed close to each other, the overall effect is lowering of the water table level.
Well points, being smaller, are easy to install.
Well points, can lower the water table by only 6.7m because the pump, is located at the ground surface and
connected to group of well points through a pipe, cannot lift water from greater depth.
Beyond 7m, multistage well points are used.
Deep Well Method
This method is useful for lowering the water table by more than 15m. Deep wells have
larger diameter more depth and greater spacing.
The pump is located at the bottom of well and hence can pump out water from greater depth. Deep wells
become more economical if more points are required.
UNIT IV
SUPER STRUCTURE CONSTRUCION

PART A
1.What are the uses of offshore platform?

 The uses of offshore platform are:
 Connect the offshore pipeline grid.
 Provide an efficient means to platform maintenance
 Locate compression,separation,production handling and other facilities.
 Conduct drilling operations during the initial development phase of an oil and
natural gas property.
 Oil & gas exploration
 Navigation aid towers.
 Bridges and causeways
 Ship loading & unloading facilities.
2. What are the types of offshore platforms?
 The types of offshore platforms are:
 Converted jackup barges
 Fixed tower structures
 Tension leg platforms (TLP’s)
 Stationary floating SPAR’s
3. What are the classifications of bridge?
 Segmental bridges are in two general categories.They are:
 Precast bridge
 Cable bridge
 A cable stayed bridge is suspended by multiple cables.Main component of cable
stayed bridge are inclined cables,towers,piers and the deck.The cable stayed deck
is in compression,pulled towards the towers,and has to be stiff at all stages of
construction and use.
4. What are skyscrapers?

 Skyscrapers are the multistoried building.The construction of multi-storied building
dependenton availability of materials,technology and the availability of services like elevators.
5. Give the uses of silos.
 Silos are used to store large quantities of granular bulk solids and to store the green crops
and converting them into sillage.
6. What are the types of cooling tower?
The types of cooling tower are :
 Mechanical draft cooling tower
 Natural draft cooling tower
7. What is Transmission Tower?
 Transmission tower is a steel structure constructed to transmit the signals.Generally ,it is
used as
 towers for Television,Radio & Cell phones.
1) Explain the types of bridge decks with sketch
Bridge Decks
 The principal function of a bridge deck is to provide support to local vertical loads
(from highway traffic, railway or pedestrians) and transmit these loads to the primary
superstructure of the bridge, Figure 1(1). As a result of its function, the deck will be
continuous along the bridge span and (apart from some railway bridges) continuous
across the span. As a result of this continuity, it will act as a plate (isotropic or
orthotropic depending on construction) to support
Continuity ensures that whether or not it has been designed to do so, it will participate
in the overall structural action of the superstructure.
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2) What are all the types of off shore platforms?
Off shore platforms
 Off shore platforms are self contained platforms with adequate facilities for drilling,
derrick, drilling mud electric power, pumping equipment for the offshore construction
these are artificial facilities above the elevation of off shore platforms
Off shore platforms can be classified as
 Fixed Off shore platforms
 Bottom supported structures
 Compliant platforms and floating platforms
Construction principles of offshore platforms

 Selection of operational criteriaSelection of environment Environmental factors like
Storming wind velocity Storming wave height
 Tidal conditions
o Before analysis and design of foundation it is necessary to determine the soil
characters of the sea shore. Capacities of the available crains will influence the
operational activities of platform constructions.
 The fixed platforms can be classified into

 Jacket or template structures
 Gravity structures
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03) What are all the light weight components of tall structures?
Erecting Light Weight Components On Tall Structures
 Besides high raise buildings the usage of steel element is also popular with
construction of hospital and commercial complexes
 Instead of concrete beams and columns more than 6100 tonnes of steel have been used
to build the main frames
 Light weight blocks are used for patricians to reduce the dead load building
 The usage of permanent concrete form works and structural steel elements will be
the main constituter for erecting light weight components on tall structures results
rapid speed of constructions.
 Hence the erection of steel beams and columns as well as the installation of concrete
form work consumes only less time
 Self drilling tapping screws are the most prevalent fasteners. Steel to steel
connections can be carried out to connect struts or joist and track together
 Entire can be erected manually with out the use of heavy equipment
 All these structures require few battery powered screw gunes and some ropes and pulleys
 No scaffoldings is require for assembly and disc assembly of the structures because the
structure itself provides the scaffoldings as it goes up or comes down
 Almost any number of column sections can be added to make it any height we desire
 During the construction of tall structures the following equipments areused for the
aerial transporting and handling
 Aerial cable way

 Helicopter
UNIT V
CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT
PART A
1. On what basis you will select the equipment for the construction?
 Volume of the material to be removed
 Size of the machine used
 Depth of excavation
 Height to be lifted
 Soil type
 Duration of period
 Rented or purchased
 Production cost
 Spares availability
 Skilled operation
2. List some excavation equipment?
Tractor
a) Crawler or track type
b) Wheel or pneumatic type
Bull dozer & Angle dozers
Grader
Scraper
a) Crawler-drawn scraper
b) Two-axle scraper
c) Three-axle scraper
Power shovels
3. Bring out some difference between crawler and pneumatic type of wheels?
Crawler Pneumatic type wheels
1.The crawler moves on an endless chain. 1.It moves on pneumatic tyres.

2.They are slow speed. 2.They are faster in speed.
3.They are used for uneven & rough ground. 3.They operate best on smooth roads.
4.They have a speed of about 12 Km/h. 4.They have a speed of about 50 Km/h.
4. What are the three types of scraper?

 Crawler-drawn scraper
 Two-axle scraper
 Three-axle scraper
5. What is the power shovel?

 It is used to excavate the earth of all classes and load it into wagons.They are mounted on
crawler tracks.It consist of a mountain ,cab,boon,dipper ,stric,hoist line.
6. Name some compaction equipment?

 Towed static smooth compactors
 Static sheep foot or pad foot compactors
 Static three wheel self propelled compactors
 Static tandem compactors
 Three axle static compactors
 Rubber tyred compactors
 Vibrator compactors
a) Tandem vibrator compactors
b) Towed vibrator compactors
c) Sheep foot & tamping foot vibrator compactors
d) Self-propelled vibrator compactors
e) Hand guided vibrator compactors
7. What are the types of conveyors?
 Belt conveyors
 Roller conveyors
 Chain conveyors
 Pipe conveyors
 Elevating conveyors
8. Give some advantages of belt conveyor?
 Its suitable levels eliminate a good deal of lifting and lowering of material.
 It require no stopping or standing but is continuous operation.
 Transportation is affected by friction between material being transported and the belt.
 It largely saves labor cost.
 No noise
 Carry the material horizontal,vertical,inclined.
 It can withstand 1600 C.
9. How do you calculate the output of the scraper?
 Size & Mechanical condition of the scraper
 Hauling device
 Condition of the haul road
 Characteristics of soil & work area
 Efficiency
 Output of scraper in bank volume/hr =Optimum loose volume loaded/trip x S x
60/t x efficiency
o Where ,S= Swell factor
 T =cycle time/trip in miniutes.
10. What are the uses of excavators?

 It have various earthmoving jobs,like laying pipes,removing trees,excavation of drains,general
earth moving jobs of cleaning area,loading,etc,It is also used for excavation of houses &
building foundation,trenches for irrigation,sewage,cables,gas & oil pipe lines.Maintenance &
cleaning of rivers,cannals,irrigation.It is also used for loading of material like
earth,coal,aggregate,etc.
11. What are the types of excavators?
 Crawler mounted excavators
 Truck mounted excavators
 Self propelled excavators
 Excavators mounted on barge or rail
 Hydraulic excavators
 Excavators loader
 Bucket wheel excavators
12. Give the advantages of elevating scraper?
 Better loading ability
 It is self loading one in addition to self propelled capabilities.
 The chain rotated by power independent of the travel of the scraper.
 It has a variable speed
 It has a very good finishing ability.
 Pusher not required
 It gives uniform compaction
 They are capable of loading most materials except rock and boulders.
13. List the factors which will affect the output of the scraper?
 When working in hard ground the surface should be pre broken by a ripper or
scarifier
 and assistance in cutting should be given by a pushing
vehicle.
 Where possible the cutting operation should take place down hill to take full
advantage of the weight of the unit.
 Haul roads should be kept smooth to enable the machine to obtain maximum speed.
 Recommended tyre pressure should be maintained.
 Size, distance,Road condition,soil type,Efficiency of engine.
14. What is grader?Give its uses?
 It is used for leveling and smoothening the earth work.Spreading and leveling the base
course in the construction of roads and air fields.This blade can be rotated at 3600 and also
used as
 ditching and trenching
operation.
 Gravel road repairing
 Ditch filling or digging
 Level or sloped ground finishing
 Snow clearance
 Land clearance
 Base course of spreading and leveling
15. What are the types of tractors?
 Crawler type
 Wheel type
 Two wheeled
Four wheeled
16.What is grad ability?

The maximum slope of the tractor that can work
K= 11660 x T x G _ N
RxW 40
K=Gradability
G=Clear reduction
W=Wt. of vehicle
T=Torque
R=really radian
N=Rolling vehicle
17.What is the application of dozer?

 Road cleaning
 Stripping
 Back filling
 Ditching
 Spreading
 Side fills & cuts
18.What does the output of dozer depend on?
 The output of the dozer depends on:
 Size & condition of the dozer.
 Distance travelled by the dozer.
 Speed of operation.
 Characteristics of soil being handled.
 Surface on which dozer is operating, soil condition, etc
 Efficiency
19.Give some importance of excavators?
 Excavators are basically used for soil, it is a digging machine.
 The hydraulic system is very productive and efficient.
 It is rotated at 3600
 This can be fitted with various multipurpose attachments for various works like
laying pipe, removing trees, excavating drain, clearing, loading, etc.
20.Give the application of trenchers?
 Trenchers are the equipment used for excavating trenches or ditching of variable depth.
It is used to trench the water lines, pipe lines, oil line cables, drainage and sewer. These
are usefull for digging canal works.
PART-B
1) Types of earth moving equipment
Classified into following types
Production equipment
Equipment used for digging and moving
Service equipment
Dozers and motor girders
Tractors
 Tractors are machine which change the engine energy into tractive energy
 These are primarily used for pull or push the loads
 They are also used for different purposes by mounting many types of accessories
Types of tractor
 Crawler type or track type

 Rubber tired or wheel type
 The tractor is multi purpose machine
 Light models are used for agricultural or short haulage works

 Heavy models are employed in earth moving works, cranes, shovels or special rigs
 Wheeled types or employed in light but speedy jobs
 Main constituents of tractor are engine ,clutch ,transmissonsystem,ground drive and controls
 Factors should be considered while selecting a tractor dozer
 Size of the dozer for given job the type expected from the track to dozer
 The type and condition of haul
 distance to be move
Bulldozers
 Dozers are machine designed primarily for cutting and pushing the material over short
Distance.
 They consist with a front mounted blade controlled by hydraulic cylinder to vary the depth of cut and rate
of leveling depending on the material and application a dozer is frame mounted unit with a blade, curved
in its section, extending in front of the tractor
 Bulldozer is most versatile and most important equipment on construction project
 Basically its pushing unit but its widely used as multipurpose equipment and can perform large
number of operations with minor changes
Scrapers
 Scrapers are the devices to scrap the ground and load it simultaneously, transport it for the required
distance and dump it and then spread it for the required area
 The scrapers are designed to dig,load,haul,dump and spread
The scrapers are of three types
 towed type
 conventional type
 self loading or elevating scrapers
Towed type
The towed type scrapers are provided with either cable or hydraulic control
It can be operated in extremely adverse condition
Conventional scrapers
 These are generally manufactured from 10to 25cubicmetres
 Self loading scrapers
 These are twin engine scrapers

 It can work completely independently of all other plants
 It has the following parts
 Bowl
 Cutting edge
 Apron
 Tail gate or ejector
 Following or three major operations of scrapers
 Loading or digging Transporting

Unloading
Selection Of Equipment
 Proper selection of construction equipment place a vital role in the speedy and economical completion of
the construction
 Following are the main points which should be considered while selection off the construction
equipments
 Suitable for job condition

 The equipment must meet the requirement of the work climate and working condition
 Size of the equipment

 Size of the equipment it should be such that must be able to be used with other equipments If the
equipment selected for larger size it will remain idle inmost of the time Standardization
 It is better to have same type and size of equipment in a construction then it is easy to have spare parts,
and to understand its operations
 Availability of equipment
 Availability of spare parts
 Multi purpose equipments the selected equipments must be capable of performing various operations
 Availability of know how
 The equipments selected should be satisfactorily handled by the available operators and machine
 Use in future projects The economical
aspects Reliability of the equipments
Service support
 Operating requirements
 Past performance
 Reputation of the manufacturer
 Warranty and guaranty offered by the manufacturer
 Adequacy of drive mechanism
Excavators
 Excavators are basically digging machines having three major components
 An under carriage to give mobility
 A super structure with operators cabin mounted on either a sloe ring to traverse through
 360◦or on a rigid frame
 Hydraulically articulated boom or tipper arms with bucket
 Types of excavators
 Crawler mounted excavators
 Truck mounted excavators
 Self propelled excavators
 Excavators mounted on barge or rail
Compactors
 Compaction is the process where by material particles are constrained to pack more closely together
through a reduction of air void content generally by mechanical means
Types of compactors
 static smooth wheeled rollers
 sheep foot and pad foot rollers
 pneumatic tired rollers
 vibratory rollers
Static compaction equipment
It has several types
 towed static smooth compactors
 static sheep foot or pad foot compactors
 static three wheel self propelled compactors
 static tandem compactors
 three axle static compactors
Towed static smooth compactors
 Smooth rolls where the first type of rolling compaction equipment usedThese where pulled by men or
horses and were first used by Romans to smoothen there roads

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A Course Material on

CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES, EQUIPMENT AND PRACTICES

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

SASURIE COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

VIJAYAMANGALAM – 638 056

This is to certify that the e-course material

Subject Code : CE2404

Class : IV Year CIVIL

Signature of the Author

Designation: Assistant Professor

Name: N.Sathish Kumar

Sl.No Contents Page No.

UNIT I CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

1.1 Types of cement 3

1.2 Chemical admixtures for concrete 4

1.3 Manufacturing of cement 6

1.4 Concrete mix design concept 7

1.5 Manufacturing of concrete 9

1.6 Transportation of concrete 11

1.7 Placing of concrete 13

1.8 Compaction of concrete 14

1.9 Tests on concrete 15

UNIT II CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES

2.1 Sequences of activities and construction coordination planning 18

2.2 Marking and setting out of foundation 18

2.5 Stone masonary 23

2.6 Brick masonary 26

2.7 Damp proof course 28

2.11 Centering and Shuttering 41

SCE Dept of Civil

2.12 Roof finishing 43

2.13 Fire production 44

UNIT III SUB STRUCTURE CONSTRUCTION

3.1 Types of structures under jacking 46

3.2 Pipe Jacking 46

3.3 Diaphragm wall 47

3.5 Pile driving 48

3.6 Sheet piles 49

UNIT IV SUPER STRUCTURE CONSTRUCTION

4.1 Bridge decks 52

4.2 Shell structures 53

4.3 Offshore platforms 54

4.4 Erecting light weight components in tall structures 54

UNIT V CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENTS

5.1 Introduction to construction equipments 56

5.2 Selection of equipments 58

5.4 Equipment for concrete mixing 60

5.5 Tunneling equipments 61

SCE Dept of Civil

CE6501 CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES, EQUIPMENT AND PRACTICES

UNIT I CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

UNIT II CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES

UNIT III SUB STRUCTURE CONSTRUCTION

UNIT IV SUPER STRUCTURE CONSTRUCTION

UNIT V CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT

SCE Dept of Civil

SCE Dept of Civil

1.1 TYPES OF CEMENT

 Ordinary Portland cement