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ical examples such as Stonehenge to building techniques. • creative and technical inventions and
present day ecological office buildings and While the focus lies on Western architec their lasting effects
Blobitecture. ture, each chapter also includes pages • chronologically and thematically sorted
The history of architecture unfolds examining the Islamic, Asian and African for easy reference
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and texts that trace the development of Fullcolor photographs are enriched by information
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Leibnizstrasse 33 throughout the ages and around the thing you need to know about architecture.
D – 10625 Berlin world. Technological innovations, build- Great for anyone interested in the stylistic
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ARCHITECTURE
A WORLD HISTORY
5
34 Minoan and Mycenaean 116 Gothic
118 Timeline
36 Antiquity and Early Christianity 120 Introduction
38 Timeline 126 The Birth of Gothic
40 Introduction 128 Notre Dame de Paris
44 Building Techniques: The Classical Orders 130 High Gothic in France
46 Greek Architecture 132 Rayonnant and Flamboyant Gothic
50 The Acropolis in France
52 The Parthenon 134 Building Techniques: Gothic
Cathedrals
54 Early Roman Architecture
136 Early Gothic in the UK
56 The Colosseum
138 Westminster Abbey
58 Roman Urban Planning
140 Late Gothic in the UK
60 Roman Empire
142 Late Gothic in Germany
64 Early Christian Architecture
144 Bohemian and Polish Gothic
66 Byzantine Architecture 148 Iberian Gothic
68 Pre-Mughal Architecture 150 Late Gothic in Northern Italy
70 Early Buddhist Architecture 152 Italian Civic Architecture
72 Early Chinese Architecture 156 Rock Churches of Lalibela
74 Mesoamerican Architecture
158 Renaissance
76 Romanesque 160 Timeline
78 Timeline 162 Introduction
Colosseum, page 57 80 Introduction 168 Filippo Brunelleschi
84 Carolingian Renaissance 170 Building Techniques:
86 Monasteries The Dome of Florence Cathedral
88 Ottonian Cathedrals Chartres Cathedral, page 127 172 Leon Battista Alberti
Architecture: A World History Contents
174 Ideal Urban Planning 258 Bohemian Baroque
176 Donato Bramante 260 Building Techniques:
178 Giuliano da Sangallo Baroque Dynamism
180 Michelangelo Buonarroti 262 Iberian Baroque
182 St. Peter’s Basilica 264 Sir John Vanbrugh
184 Raphael 266 Rococo Architecture
186 Jacopo Sansovino 270 Bartolomeo Rastrelli
188 Vincenzo Scamozzi 272 Islamic Architecture
Fillippo Brunelleschi: Florence Cathedral, 190 Giulio Romano 274 Ottoman Empire
page 170 276 Japanese Architecture
192 Andrea Palladio
194 Michele Sanmicheli 278 Baroque in Latin America
6
7
196 Baldassare Peruzzi
198 French Châteaux 282 Neoclassicism
202 Germany and Austria 284 Timeline
206 Northern Renaissance 286 Introduction
208 Renaissance in the UK 290 Building Techniques:
Neoclassical Styles
210 Iberian Renaissance
292 Sir Christopher Wren
212 Eastern Europe
294 WIlliam Kent
214 Mughal Empire
296 Robert Adam
216 East Asian Architecture
298 John Nash
Karl Friedrich Schinkel: Konzerthaus on 300 Sir John Soane
218 Baroque Gendarmenmarkt, page 309
302 Sir Robert Smirke
220 Timeline 304 Claude Nicolas Ledoux
222 Introduction 306 Carl Gotthard Langhans
228 Giacomo Barozzi da Vignola 308 Karl Friedrich Schinkel
230 Gian Lorenzo Bernini 312 Russian Neoclassicism
232 Francesco Borromini 314 Benjamin Henry Latrobe
234 Pietro Berrettini da Cortona 316 The US Capitol
236 François Mansart 318 Thomas Jefferson
238 Jules Hardouin Mansart
240 Louis Le Vau 320 19th Century
242 Versailles 322 Timeline
244 French Castles and Gardens 324 Introduction
246 Urban Planning in Paris 328 Building Techniques:
248 Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach Industrial Architecture
Versailles, page 243 250 Johann Dientzenhofer 330 William Wilkins
252 Jakob Prandtauer 332 The Inwood Family
254 Johann Balthassar Neumann 334 Gottfried Semper
Architecture: A World History Contents
336 Scottish Baronial 418 Art Deco in New York
338 Egyptian Revival 420 Totalitarian Architecture
340 Sir Charles Barry
342 Augustus Welby Northmore Pugin 424 Architecture after 1945
344 Sir George Gilbert Scott 426 Timeline
346 William Butterfield 428 Introduction
348 Eugène Viollet-le-Duc 434 Mies van der Rohe
350 James Renwick Jr. 438 Seagram Building
352 Haussmannization of Paris 440 Louis Kahn
Charles Garnier: Paris Opéra (Palais
Garnier), page 365 354 The Louvre 442 Syndey Opera House
356 Second Empire in the USA 444 Eero Saarinen
8
9
358 Richard Morris Hunt 446 Kenzo Tange
360 Henry Hobson Richardson 448 Oscar Niemeyer
362 Exoticism 450 Brutalism
364 Charles Garnier Le Corbusier: Notre Dame du Haut, page 415 452 Tadao Ando
366 Henri Labrouste 454 Álvaro Siza Viera
456 Urban Utopias: Theoretical Urban
368 20th Century 1900 to 1945 Planning
370 Timeline 458 Building Techniques:
Daniel Burnham: Complex Curvature
Flatiron Building 372 Introduction
(Fuller Building), 378 Louis Sullivan 460 Skidmore, Owings & Merrill
page 381 464 I. M. Pei
380 Building Techniques: Steel Frames
382 Frank Lloyd Wright 466 Sir Norman Foster
386 Victor Horta 470 High Tech Architecture
388 Hector Guimard 474 Venturi & Scott-Brown
390 Antoni Gaudí 476 Sir James Stirling
392 Charles Rennie Mackintosh 478 Aldo Rossi
394 Otto Wagner 480 New York Five
396 Joseph Maria Olbrich 482 Postmodern Classicism
398 Adolf Loos 484 Peter Eisenman
400 Peter Behrens 486 Frank Gehry
402 Erich Mendelsohn 490 Zaha Hadid
404 Gerrit Thomas Rietveld 494 Daniel Libeskind
406 Walter Gropius 496 Rem Koolhaas
408 Bauhaus Sir Norman Foster: Reichstag Dome,
498 Herzog & de Meuron
410 Social Housing Estates page 467 500 Blobs
412 Le Corbusier
416 Nordic Modernism 502 Index
Architecture: A World History Contents
Pre- and Early History
Europe
10,000 BCE 4800 BCE 2500 BCE 2000 BCE 1600 BCE 1200 BCE
Neolithic period; mud Megalithic structures in Bronze Age; The Minoans construct The Mycenaeans rule Mycenae falls to
bricks are first used Brittany Stonehenge large royal palace com- the Mediterranean; invaders; start of a
plexes on Crete royal burial mounds at 400-year Greek dark
Mycenae age, during which
building halts and
Greek innovations stall
12
13
p. 18
p. 35
10 , 000 5000 4000 3000 2000 1000 500 300
Middle East
3200 BCE 1200 BCE builds the Ishtar Gate and
Sumerians rule Mesopotamia; Assyrian period; King Sen- the Hanging Gardens of
construction of a proto-zig- nacherib constructs Babylon
gurat, the White Temple in Uruk palaces at Nineveh
p. 29
560 BCE
2100 BCE 612 BCE Persian Achaemenid dy-
Construction of the Ziggurat Neo-Babylonian period; nasty; royal palaces and
at Ur King Nebuchadnezzar II tombs at Persepolis
Egypt
3000 BCE 2575 BCE 1550 BCE 332 BCE
Early Dynastic period; Old Kingdom; the Great New Kingdom; construction of Greco-Roman period; Ptolo-
Egyptian state forms; first Pyramids of Giza large temple complexes near maic pharaohs build temples
use of stone as a building Thebes and royal tombs in the in an early Egyptian style; cross-
material; first pyramid, the
2125 BCE Valley of the Dead; reigns of influences with Roman archi-
Step Pyramid of Djoser, is First Intermediate Pharaohs Hatshepsut and tecture mean that innovations
built period; Egypt splits in two, with Ramses II and styles are shared between
capitals in Memphis and the two
Thebes
p. 23
Prehistoric Architecture
10,000–1500 BCE
Single family houses, barns, and communal dwellings were built Early
buildings were made from natural materials such as timber, clay, and mud bricks
Massive stone slabs were used to mark graves and important sites
left: The Menhirs of Carnac, ca. 3300 BCE, Carnac, Brittany
10,000 BCE Neolithic cul- Around 10,000 BCE, people began farming and creating
ture appears on the east
coast of the Mediterra-
the first architecture in their settled communities. In
nean; grains are cultivated Turkey and the Middle East, early buildings and towns
18
19
and mud bricks are used were constructed from mud bricks, while Neolithic Euro-
8000 BCE Neolithic culture peans used timber framing and made walls of woven
spreads to Syria and Iraq
sticks covered with clay. The first buildings were primarily
23
the top of the structure, or a the small pyramids for
feet (146 meters) high, the pyramid was 8
9 Queen’s Chamber Menkaure’s queens. The scale
the world’s tallest building until Lincoln 6 ramp winding up the outside
10 Air Shafts of the pyramids. Some of the project is staggering, but
Cathedral was completed in 1300.
Ancient Egypt
Ancient Egypt
29
ruler Ur-Nammu builds the area, known as Mesopotamia, the Sumerian culture Roman triumphal arches. A 1-
ziggurat at Ur thrived. They developed agriculture and invented a mile- (1.6-km-) long processional
705–681 BCE King
written language, which they etched into clay tablets. way led from the gate to the
Sennacherib constructs
palaces at the Assyrian Their cities were mainly composed of mud-brick build- city’s main temple. It was lined
capital Nineveh ings. Wet clay was pounded into wood molds and left to with tall blue-glazed brick walls
605–562 BCE King Neb- with reliefs of 120 lions. Each
dry in the sun. Later, the Sumerians began firing bricks in year, statues of the gods were
uchadnezzar II builds the
Ishtar Gate and the Hang- ovens, resulting in harder and more durable building ma- paraded through the Ishtar Gate
ing Gardens of Babylon terials. Pigmented glazes were added to the bricks to and down the processional way
559–330 BCE Persian create brilliant colors. during the New Year’s celebra-
Achaemenid dynasty; tion. Nebuchadnezzar II carried
Persepolis and royal tombs The cities of Mesopotamia were dominated by
out other ambitious building
are built stepped pyramids called ziggurats. Unlike Egyptian
projects throughout Babylon.
Ziggurat at Ur, pyramids, ziggurats were not built as tombs, but rather His own palace complex in-
Sumerian, ca. 2113–2096 as man-made mountains that reached to heaven. cluded the famous Hanging
BCE, Iraq The Sumerian gods were associated with the large distant Gardens of Babylon, named as
The ziggurat at Ur is the mountains to the east, and the ziggurats were one of the Seven Wonders of the
best preserved of the an- Ancient World.
cient ziggurats. The stepped Etemenanki Ziggurat at King Nebuchadnezzar II rebuilt
pyramid has a core of mud the tower as part of his recon-
Babylon, Babylonian, 605–562
brick finished with an outer
BCE, Iraq struction of Babylon. Excavations
casing of fired brick. Its walls
show it had a square base plan
have flat buttresses and Believed to be the inspiration for
and three stairs. The Greek his-
slope in slightly with the zig- the biblical Tower of Babel, the
gurat’s elevation, to exag- torian Herodotos described the
ziggurat was part of a religious ziggurat as multi-colored,
gerate height. Three con- complex located in the city
verging ramps lead to the suggesting it was finished
center. The tower had seven tiers, with glazed brick. Alexander
first platform, and a central
stairway continues to the with a temple to the god Marduk the Great conquered
top, where a small temple on top. An earlier ziggurat nearby Babylon and ordered the
to the city’s patron god was already 1,000 years old when ziggurat’s destruction in
Nanna once stood. invaders destroyed it in 689 BCE. 323 BCE.
Pre- and Early History 10,000–300 BCE Mesopotamia and Persia
Classical Orders
The Classical orders are systems for designing build-
ings based on proportions between the individual
parts. The ancient Greeks developed the orders in
their early wooden temples. They used a basic struc-
tural system—the post-and-lintel, or vertical columns
supporting horizontal beams. The Classical orders
gave their buildings an aesthetic sophistication by
ensuring consistency and visual harmony between
44
45
buildings, regardless of size or materials used.
There are three orders: the Doric, Ionic, and Corin-
thian. Each has a unique set of rules defining its use.
Antiquity
Antiquity
51
Athens and destroy the later housed temples to the goddess Athena. Early archaic typical Ionic ideal of 1:9, but
temples on the Acropolis temples to the protectors of the city stood on this site, but in the columns are capped with
461–429 BCE Pericles rules
480 BCE, after a devastating war with the Persians, the Acrop- Ionic capitals. The 16.5-
Antiquity
Antiquity
I Early Romans embraced Greek culture I Classical orders were used I The Ro-
mans adopted Etruscan innovations like structural arches I Military victories ex-
panded Rome’s influence I Temples and aqueducts were built in new territories
I left: Roman Maison Carrée, 19–16 BCE, Nîmes
ca. 600–300 BCE The Etr- Roman architects owed a large debt to the Greeks. They
uscans build temples and
tombs in central Italy
dressed their buildings in the Classical orders and deco-
ca. 550 BCE Greek Doric rated them with copies of Greek statues. Many distinctly
54
55
temples at Paestum, Italy Roman features, such as the arch, were developed by the
ca. 300 BCE The Romans Etruscans, who had lived in Italy centuries before. These
absorb Etruscan culture
two cultures combined to produce the Roman style. The
Roman Antiquity
Roman Antiquity
and architecture
ca. 30 BCE Vitruvius writes Roman Maison Carrée in Nîmes uses the Greek style but
his influential The Ten is based on Etruscan models. Greek temples sat close to
Books of Architecture the ground, with steps and columns wrapped all around.
ca. 50 BCE –100 CE Roman
buildings are built in far- This building is on a high podium. Stairs, only in the front,
flung provincial cities lead to a porch of Corinthian columns.
Other Works
Temple of Alatri,
ca. 600–300 BCE, recon-
structed at the Villa Giulia,
Rome
Cloaca Maxima,
ca. 600–200 BCE, Rome
Temple of Jupiter Aqueduct, ca. 100 CE, Thermopolium, ca. 100 CE,
Capitolinus, ca. 200 BCE, Segovia Ostia Antica
Rome
The Romans learned hydraulics Restaurants like this served hot
Temple of Augustus from the Etruscans, who had food as well as spiced wine from
and Livia, ca. 25 BCE, built early sewers to drain clay jars set in the marble
Vienna Rome’s swamps. Using the sci- counter. The Romans pioneered
ence of arch building, the Ro- the use of concrete to create
Casa Sannitica, house, one of the oldest in the opening onto it. The atrium roof mans were able to engineer curved forms. Here, the walls and
reconstruction, ca. 200 BCE, town, was based on Etruscan sloped inward and opened in the monumental aqueducts. This arches are concrete, poured into
Herculaneum models. The large atrium was the center, allowing sunlight and rain- example, built of unmortared a brick veneer that served as a
Like Pompeii, Hercula- center of the home. A loggia, dec- water to enter. Richly decorated granite blocks, towers 92 feet framework and molded the con-
neum was an Italian town orated with Ionic columns, with stucco and frescoes, the (28 meters) above the streets of crete to look like bricks. The mo-
buried in the eruption of wrapped around the second floor, house likely belonged to a pros- Segovia and still carries water saics that adorn the building’s
Mt. Vesuvius in 79 CE. This with bedrooms and offices perous businessman. 19 miles (30 km) from a spring. floors were a Greek innovation.
Antiquity and Early Christianity 600 BCE –600 CE Early Roman Architecture
The Colosseum
When Emperor Vespasian came to power in 69 CE, Rome was in a state of chaos.
In order to appease the masses, he announced the construction of an enormous
public amphitheater. His sons Titus and Domitian succeeded him as emperor,
creating the Flavian dynasty and giving the building its official name, the Flavian
Amphitheater. When the ampitheater opened in 80 CE, the historian Dio Cassius
wrote that Rome celebrated with 100 days of games during which 9,000 animals
were killed. For centuries, the Colosseum witnessed staged battles between man
and beast and man against man, and was even flooded for mock naval battles.
56
57
Built to seat 50,000 spectators, its efficient system of tiered seating and spacious
passageways remains a model for stadium design to the present day. Later dam-
aged by fire and earthquakes, the Colosseum was abandoned, and its walls were
Roman Antiquity
Roman Antiquity
used as a marble quarry. In 1749 Pope Benedict XIV called for its preservation as
a shrine to the early Christians martyred there. Today the Colosseum is a vivid The Colosseum’s three-tiered umns and entablatures—Doric and square windows. At the
monument to the aspirations and decadence of imperial Rome. facade resembles the design of on the first story; Ionic, second; top, brackets carried the masts
Roman aqueducts. The arcades and Corinthian, third. An attic from which the valerium, a can-
are faced by three-quarter col- story has Corinthian pilasters opy for shade, was suspended.
The Colosseum, 72–80 CE, Rome
The Colosseum was built on a drained lake bed in Em-
peror Nero’s once lavish gardens. A 131-foot (40-
meter) statue of Nero stood near the site, and it
was this “colossus” that gave the amphitheater
its popular name. Over centuries, the bronze
statue was remolded to resemble new rulers
and in the end melted down, but the
name still endures.
67
divided into western and Soon after, the Roman Empire was split in two, with sep- ribbed dome rises 184 feet (56
eastern empires arate capital cities for each half—Constantinople in the meters) and seemingly floats
402 The capital of the east and the Italian city of Ravenna in the west. Among over a row of small windows.
Early Christianity
Early Christianity
western empire is moved the structures from this period, Hagia Sophia in Istanbul Embellished with multicolored
to Ravenna, a small but is exceptional both for its scale and the technical daring marble and gold mosaics, the
easily defended Italian city building is both a culmination
near the Adriatic Sea of its construction. The monuments of Ravenna, al-
of Roman architectural ambi-
532–37 Eastern Emperor though smaller, are nevertheless renowned for their fluid tions and an inspiration for later
Justinian builds the church space and stunning mosaic decoration. Unlike earlier buildings. Orthodox churches
of Hagia Sophia in Con- Roman floor mosaics made with stone, Byzantine mo- today use the central plan and
stantinople saics were made from glass, either in brilliant colors or dome, and Islamic shrines, like
554 Rome is reduced to a layered with gold leaf. The ceiling vaults of the octag- the Sultan Ahmed Mosque, are
camp of about 30,000 modeled after it.
people, while Constan-
onal Church of St. Vitale in Ravenna appear to dissolve,
tinople has about 1 million replaced by angels, animals, and holy apostles floating in Anthemios and Isidoros:
people a sea of heavenly light. Hagia Sophia, exterior,
532–537, Istanbul
Other Works Mausoleum of Galla
Perhaps due to its daring de-
Placidia, 425–430, Ravenna,
Chora Church, ca. 333, sign or shortcuts taken in its
Italy
Istanbul construction, the dome of
This small tomb for the daughter Hagia Sophia collapsed after an
Hagia Irene, ca. 360, of Emperor Theodosius I, built in earthquake in 563 and was re-
Istanbul the form of a Greek cross, is the placed with the current version.
Arian Baptistery, ca. 490, earliest and best preserved of Later, the support walls were re-
Ravenna, Italy Ravenna’s mosaic monuments. built and heavily reinforced.
St. Apollinare Nuovo, The vaulted ceilings and cupola Crusaders sacked the city in
493–496, Ravenna, Italy are covered with glass and gold 1204, leaving the building
Church of St. Sophia, leaf tiles depicting a beardless badly damaged. In 1453, it was
527–565, Sofia, Bulgaria Jesus Christ and his 12 apostles, converted to a mosque, and
as well as fanciful geometric mo- Christian mosaics were plas-
St. Apollinare in Classe,
tifs. The windows are panels of tered over. Now a museum, the
530, Ravenna, Italy
translucent stone. building has been restored.
Antiquity and Early Christianity 600 BCE –600 CE Byzantine Architecture
Pagoda, 669 CE, at Xingjiao
Buddhist Temple, Shaanxi
Early Chinese Architecture Province
A combination of the layered
220 BCE –700 CE
Indian stupa tower and Chinese
Neolithic Chinese built villages and tombs China was unified, and con- watchtowers, the first Chinese
struction of the Great Wall began Classic Chinese architectural styles deve- pagodas were built of wood
loped under the Han dynasty The arrival of Buddhism inspired early temples and square in plan. Later pa-
The pagoda form appeared Buddhist shrines were carved into cliffs
godas were octagonal or round.
This early brick pagoda marking
the burial site of Xuanzang, a
220 BCE Emperor Qin Shi For centuries, China’s vast area was populated by remote pilgrim who brought Buddhist
Huang first unifies China tribes, some nomadic and others living in farming villages scriptures back from India, has
under the Qin dynasty; his distinctly Chinese features such
mausoleum complex in surrounded by stamped-earth walls. In 220 BCE, China was
as projecting roof eaves.
72
73
Xian covers 1.3 square unified, and parts of the Great Wall were constructed to
miles (2 square km) protect the country’s borders. Other Works
206 BCE –220 CE During the Under the Han dynasty, the classic style of Chinese ar-
85
icated Benedictine monasteries that he set up were often the
814 Charlemagne dies only source of social structure in an otherwise dispersed
820 Plan for an ideal mon-
population. By promoting Latin as the official secular and
Early Romanesque
Early Romanesque
711 Muslim armies con- Political struggles over Spain between Christians and
quer Spain Muslims led to a diverse architectural style on the Iberian
961–976 Great Mosque of
Cordoba extended Peninsula. After the fall of Cordoba in 1236, its Great
102
103
1236 Cordoba falls to Mosque was converted into a church. The magnificent
Christian armies 10th century sanctuary was left intact, even after the con-
1238 Alhambra Citadel in struction of a 16th-century cathedral at the center of the
107
portion of the roof, which then
1031 King Olaf II is canon- later, churches. In Norway alone more than 1,000 wooden
ized, prompting the descends almost to the ground
construction of shrines churches were built over the course of three centuries. over three separate slopes.
Although this tradition has all but disappeared, remark- Owing to the weather, there are
Wooden Architecture
Wooden Architecture
1066 William the Con- Anglo-Saxon England had efficient fortifications before Dover Castle, keep, begun ca. 1180, Kent, UK
queror is crowned king of the Norman Conquest of 1066, but very few stone struc-
England at Westminster The windows at the White Tower were enlarged
Abbey, and fortification of tures were built. William the Conqueror changed this sit- in the 18th century, making it appear more hos-
108
109
London takes place uation entirely in the second half of the 11th century. His pitable to a 21st-century visitor. Yet it is the omi-
ca. 1077–97 The White first major accomplishment was the construction of the nous solidity of Dover that communicates the
Tower of the Tower of real purpose of the fortified residence: defensibil-
Tower of London, at the edge of the city, overlooking the
Fortifications
Fortifications
London is constructed ity. During the Romanesque period, the main de-
1099 Jerusalem is cap- Thames and surrounding countryside. The tower was fensive positions were on the roof instead of at
tured by Christian armies both a royal residence and a key fortress, influencing ar- the slits or loops that came into use later.
during the Crusades
chitectural styles for fortifications throughout England.
1142 The Knights Hospi-
taller take possession of With the launch of the first Crusade in 1095, military archi-
Krak des Chevaliers tecture was particularly important. Contact with the East
meant the introduction of
new technological inno-
vations that could both
be brought back for use
in European wars and put
to the test abroad.
White Tower, Tower of
London, ca. 1077–97
The White Tower is the keep, or
residence, built within the forti-
fied complex of the Tower of
London. The keep is rectangular
in plan, with stair towers at
three corners and the fourth oc-
cupied by a semicircular projec-
tion that contains the chapel.
The upper floor includes two Krak des Chevaliers, with rounded projections provided several lines of de-
large halls and the royal chapel, begun 1142, near Homs, Syria formed a complex polygon. In- fense. The castle was an impor-
all surrounded by a gallery Krak des Chevaliers was an ad- side, a wide buffer zone gave tant military outpost from
running along the perimeter vanced piece of military tech- way to a massive inner struc- which Crusaders could control
walls. nology. A set of fortified walls ture, with layered walls that the Syrian coast.
Romanesque 790–1140 Secular Architecture
Ancient Pueblos
ca. 1000–ca. 1300
I The Anasazi inhabited large parts of southwestern North America I They
were the ancestors of modern-day Pueblo peoples I Many cliff dwellings and
stone pueblos were discovered in the late 19th century and later excavated
I left: Cliff Palace, ca. 1200–ca. 1300, Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado
ca. 1000 Stone begins to The main social space for the Pueblo peoples was the
be used, along with the kiva—a round, subterranean room that served spiritual,
traditional mediums of
wood and mud, as a con- political, and familial purposes similar to the functions of
114
119
structural elements such
tecture of light” using forms; in Spain and building massive temple
as vaulting and ribs
skeletal frames that com- Portugal, Flamboyant complexes that also
become increasingly intri-
partmentalize buildings Gothic mixes with highly reached to the heavens,
cate and ornate
and increase the possibil- ornate local styles such as while in Ethiopia, chur-
ities of height and orna- the Manueline style ches were hollowed out
p.142
mentation of the earth
1100 1150 1200 1250 1300 1400 1450 1500 1550 1600
1174–1517 1230–1520
Gothic in Gothic in Central
the UK and Northern
Europe
p. 155
Gothic styles spread from
France to the UK, where
German, Austrian, Polish,
Flamboyant, or Deco-
and Bohemian architects
rated, and Perpendicular
adopt French Gothic
styles create new forms of
styles, building wider
tracery and vaulting
structures of brick
p. 141
p. 148
p. 133
Chartres Cathedral, after 1194
The Birth of Gothic At Chartres, the focus was on interior rather than
exterior clarity. The cathedral’s external beauty
lies in how clearly the layers of construction
1140–1281
throughout different campaigns can be seen.
Religious fervor sparked the construction of many churches Light was Begun during the early Gothic period, the west-
used as an element of design Skeletal structures replaced load-bearing ern facade is a fusion of a late Romanesque base
walls Architectural elements such as the pointed arch, the flying but- with an early Gothic facade and a late Gothic
tress, the rose window, and the triple portal were first used together spire. Chartres was structurally revolutionary for
its time. When it was built, the cathedral’s vaults
were the highest in Europe, and were supported
1140–44 West facade The building that marks the beginning of the Gothic era by flying buttresses. At 118 feet (36 meters) tall,
and ambulatory of Saint- is the Abbey Church of Saint-Denis, near Paris. It was built the nave is an uninterrupted volume
Denis is built
under the direction of Abbot Suger, one of the most influ- framed by clustered columns and re-
126
127
ca. 1144 Abbot Suger de-
ential political figures of the time. Suger, describing the markable fenestration. The
scribes the construction
of Saint-Denis construction of Saint-Denis, wrote of a new light that was cathedral re- tains almost all
ca. 1160 Laon and Paris its medieval stained glass,
to pervade his church, one that would aid the religious ex-
Gothic in France
Gothic in France
129
slightly beyond the exterior walls, but did not inter-
rupt the rhythm of the aisles. Although the simplifi-
cation of form and absolute emphasis on verticality
Gothic in France
Gothic in France
of later churches is still muted at Notre Dame, its satisfying proportions and well-
integrated ornament unify the space. The scholastic movement influenced the
strict compartmentalization of early
Gothic works, but also introduced con-
trast into architecture—at Notre Dame,
slender shafts fall uninterrupted down
the height of the thin nave wall, but
stop abruptly, balancing on massive ca-
pitals.
Notre Dame, chevet with buttressing,
1163–1230, Paris
The flying buttresses at Notre Dame were among
the first of their kind and were modified during a
construction phase that enlarged the clerestory
windows. Architects sacrificed exterior clarity for in-
terior light, obscuring the exterior walls, and
making them less tangible and more mysterious.
Notre Dame, nave, after 1178, Paris
Full of contrast, Notre Dame has thin, transparent
nave walls, essential to the sublime light of Gothic
buildings, resting on monumental piers. The com-
plex problem of creating an illusion of weightless- Notre Dame, facade, not appear to rise fluidly from metrical figures: the square,
ness both inside and out is solved through the use 1200–50, Paris the soil, like Reims. Instead it is the circle, and the triangle, ar-
of light—the interior is dematerialized with light The facade of Notre Dame is an orderly and comprehensible ranged on a grid throughout
and the exterior with the complexity of shadow. anything but vertical. It does image based on primary geo- its elevation.
Gothic 1140–1520 Notre Dame de Paris
Other Works Troyes Cathedral, crossing,
ca. 1230
Rayonnant and Flamboyant Abbey Church of Saint-Denis,
nave and transept, begun 1231,
Less concerned with height,
13th-century architects focused
Gothic in France Paris
Church of Saint-Urbain,
on refining the nave wall. By re-
choir and transept, begun 1262,
placing columns with groups of
1220–1500 Troyes colonnettes and running them
I Architects concentrated on details and ornamentation I Windows became
up the entire height of the wall,
Rouen Cathedral,
larger, with more glass I Interiors were brighter and felt more spacious north transept, west facade and they achieved progressively
towers, 1281–1500 more unified interior eleva-
tions. Vertical elements, like the
Palace of the Popes, 1335–51,
1220 Reims architect Jean In the Rayonnant style the early and High Gothic obses- Avignon clerestory tracery, elegantly
Le Loup first links the trifo- dropped down to pick up the
rium and clerestory
sion with height was replaced with a systematic refine- Saint-Maclou, begun 1434,
arches of the triforium below,
1226–70 Louis IX reigns in ment of detail. Smaller churches and chapels were built Rouen
132
133
uniting the levels.
France anew, while many existing buildings were modernized,
ca. 1230 First mature Ray- enlarged, or simply finished in the new style. The Abbey
onnant works appear at
Church of Saint-Denis was almost totally rebuilt, while
135
4
cathedral architects introduced innovations that were
pivotal to the development of Gothic planning. By
Gothic
Gothic
139
obscured clerestory, and a chevet
and sleek proportions with English length, resulting
with radiating chapels were all
in a truly monumental space. Unlike in France, where borrowed from contemporary
royal functions were distributed between different
Gothic in the UK
Gothic in the UK
I Present-day Mont-Saint-Michel and Carcassonne are the result of major Aigues-Mortes, rebuilt in the
restoration work I Restorations focused on Gothic and Picturesque qualities 13th century, France
I left: Crossing Tower, begun 11th century, Mont-Saint-Michel, France Citadella, 13th century, near
Vicenza, Italy
1204 New monastic build- The origins of fortified cites and towns are as varied as Caernarfon, 13th century, UK
ings are built at Mont- the places themselves. Some were ancient forts like Car- Historic Center of Avignon
Saint-Michel with exqui- with Fortified Papal Complex,
site Gothic vaulting cassonne, occupied and rebuilt by consecutive invaders.
146
147
13th and 14th century, France
1226 External defensive Others, such as the castles on the Loire, were villages and
walls are built around monasteries whose inhabitants built fortifications during
Carcassonne Mont-Saint-Michel, Tour Tied to France, but reaching out Mont-Saint-Michel, view
the violent 9th and 10th centuries. Still others were com-
Gothic Fortifications
Gothic Fortifications
151
1308–21 Dante Alighieri
writes The Divine Comedy dominantly Classical tradition. Even key buildings such
St. Maria Novella, begun 1246,
1348 Outbreak of the as the cathedrals of Florence or Siena were transitional Florence
Black Plague stops en- moments between the established Italian Romanesque
Gothic in Italy
Gothic in Italy
155
1113–50 Reign of Surya- to tourists, political turmoil has made it difficult to con- Made of bricks from the Dhammayazika
varman II; Angkor Wat duct archaeological research and comprehensive restora- Pagoda, ca. 1196, near
dusty soil on which
built in the capital city of Bagan, Myanmar
tion programs. As a result, much remains to be discov- they stand, thousands
157
ture. The church is thought to
tured by Muslims; King 12 churches cannot really be classified as buildings, for to have possibly been a royal
Gebre Mesqel Lalibela build means to assemble something larger from smaller chamber.
orders the carving of
elements. Instead, these churches are enormous carvings
161
veloped and modernized; are adopted in varying de- strong in Spain and Por- Islamic and Persian styles.
Mannerist architecture grees throughout the UK, tugal, which were greatly Meanwhile, in East Asia,
develops France, and northern influenced by the Moorish terraced temples,
Europe; countries appro- tradition. During the late palaces, and fortresses
Giuliano da Sangallo
p. 173
priate the styles to their Renaissance the Desorna- were built with swooping
p. 178 own building traditions mentado style developed eaves
p. 217
architectural styles from p. 194 brought to Germany,
antiquity transforms Jacopo Sansovino p. 186 Austria, Poland, and
Italian architecture Giulio Romano p. 190 Bohemia by wealthy pa-
Andrea Palladio p. 192 trons in order to mod-
Filippo Brunelleschi Vincenzo Scamozzi ernize central and eastern
p. 168 p. 188 European residences
Leon Battista Alberti
p. 172 Jacopo Strada
Alberto Luchese
Lüder von Bentheim
Georg Ridinger
p. 211
p. 199
Elias Holl
Filippo Brunelleschi
1377, Florence–1446, Florence
I Leading builder of domes in Florence I His technical prowess and
knowledge of the architecture of antiquity gained him great prestige
I Developed a system by which he could measure the dimensions of a
room exactly, thereby becoming a pioneer of freestyle perspective
1377 Born in Florence Filippo Brunelleschi is one of the key figures of Renais-
1392–98 Trains as a sance architecture. Although his early works were still
goldsmith
very much related to Gothic designs, he later developed
168
169
1402 Participates in a con-
test for the two bronze an individual architectural style that combined elements
doors of the Florentine from Tuscan Romanesque and Gothic—such as massive
Baptistery, but his design
pillars, lancet arches, and medieval ornamentation—with
loses to Ghiberti’s
1402–04 Travels for his a formal style from antiquity—columns, elegant pillars,
studies to Rome, probably and geometric forms and proportions. Brunelleschi es-
with Donatello
1415 Creates his first linear
tablished fixed mathematical and technical principles in
perspective drawing, his designs. He was able to make a clear break with the
greatly influencing both styles of Gothic architecture with the design and con-
art and architecture
1417 Designs a cupola for
struction of the massive dome of the Florence Cathedral
the Florence Cathedral (p. 170). Brunelleschi was also an innovator of perspective
1446 Dies in Florence drawing and construction techniques. Ospedale degli Innocenti, 1424–45, Florence
Other Works Pazzi Chapel at Brunelleschi’s design of the Ospedale degli Inno-
St. Croce, 1429–61, centi, an orphanage, included a nine-part loggia,
Palazzo di Parte Florence or gallery, that is arcaded with composite arches
Guelfa, 1421–22, that mix the Classical orders. In contrast to Gothic
Florence This small chapel was
one of the first cen- arches, half-circle arches are used, spanning a
Sagrestia Vecchia wider space and creating a more geometric fa-
(the Old Sacristy) of
trally planned con-
structions of the cade. As with many of his other buildings,
St. Lorenzo, 1421–40, Brunelleschi was concerned with mathematic
Florence Renaissance. The
and geometric precision in the design.
Barbadori Chapel at
arcaded facade’s
St. Felicità, 1423–25, middle cupola mir- Basilica of St. Lorenzo, 1420–69, Florence
Florence rors the shape of the Brunelleschi linked elements of local building
Palazzo Busini, before main interior space. tradition with elements of the architecture of an-
1427, Florence The inner chamber tiquity. The evenly arranged windows allow a
was originally consistent amount of light into all the sections of
St. Maria degli Angeli,
1434–37, Florence planned as a burial space, which was an innovation from medieval
chapel for the family architecture. The combination of gray sandstone
St. Spirito, 1434–82, Flo-
of the benefactor, structures and white plasterwork is one of
rence
Andrea de’ Pazzi. Brunelleschi’s trademarks.
Renaissance 1420–1620 Filippo Brunelleschi
The Dome of Florence Cathedral
In 1294 the citizens of Florence decided to build a new
cathedral. As one of the richest Renaissance city-
states, Florence was able to afford a building of phe-
nomenal size. Filippo Brunelleschi’s (p. 168) bold
dome, designed after most construction had finished,
was a groundbreaking achievement in engineering.
The design relied on the law of physics that two cor-
relating, inclined structures will mutually support one
170
171
another. Brunelleschi positioned bricks in an overlap-
ping ring arrangement, using a fast-drying mortar to
join them in a herringbone pattern. He was therefore
Building Techniques
Building Techniques
175
1484–85 Leonardo da of new cities, as architects sought to create a better world. perspective, attributed to the and create more accurate drafts antiquity as the age of reason
Vinci plans a city equipped Strong building laws were passed, which were upheld by Italian artist and architect Fil- and studies. This 15th-century and order, they adopted similar
with infrastructure
architect guilds. Palaces constructed by the new noble ippo Brunelleschi, revolution- painting of the Renaissance styles in their own ideals.
Renaissance
Renaissance
Other Works
Rome’s Water Supply Infra-
structure, redesigned by
Leon Battista Alberti, ca. 1450
Central Plan of Florence, by
Giorgio Vasari, ca. 1555
Mannheim Gridded Layout,
1606, Germany
Renaissance 1420–1620
St. Peter’s Basilica
At the beginning of the Renaissance, St. Peter’s Basilica was still the ancient St. Peter’s Basilica, facade after the drafts of and the papal bureau. There was also an aes-
basilica that Constantine I built. Within a few decades, however, one of the might- Carlo Maderno, and Michelangelo’s dome, thetic problem: the facade should practically re-
1607–12, Rome main in the background, so as not to obstruct
iest and largest cathedrals in the world was built. In 1455, the initial plans for the
Carlo Maderno was only able to construct the the view of Michelangelo’s magnificent dome.
expansion of the church’s foundations were prepared, and before long they de- To solve these problems, a two-story cross
facade after great difficulty. The nave of the
veloped into a gigantic new construc- structure was built using the Corinthian
church was exceptionally wide, and the in-
tion project. Many famous architects cumbent Pope Paul V required that there order. Second-floor windows provide a
worked on the over 200-year-long be a structural link between the vestibule platform for papal speeches.
development and planning of the
182
183
cathedral, including Bramante (p. 176),
Raphael (p. 184), Michelangelo (p. 180),
and Bernini (p. 230). Each architect con-
1508 Born in Padua Proportion, symmetry, and the allusion to elements of an-
1521 Begins an appren- tiquity are the distinguishing hallmarks of Andrea Pal-
ticeship in Vicenza to be-
ladio’s architectural style. His designs have clear floor
192
193
come a mason and
sculptor plans and characteristically symmetrical facades with pil-
1538 Becomes ac- lars, pilasters, porticoes, pediments, and mezzanines. Pal-
quainted with the human- ladio adopted proportion and symmetry from his ancient
1494 The French invasion Gothic styles remained popular for a long time in France.
of Italy reveals the Italian The Italian Renaissance style was first adopted into French
Renaissance to France
châteaux in the Loire River valley and, by 1530, was the
198
199
1515–47 Reign of
François I, under whose popular style for all noble houses. New constructions
patronage many Italian ar- rarely featured extensive ornamentation, but were struc-
chitects come to France
turally intricate, like their Gothic predecessors, and there-
ca. 1500 Belgium and the The Renaissance began in northern Europe about 100
Netherlands are at the years later than in Italy. Gothic elements such as gazebos,
forefront of European
trade, prompting wealthy balconies, gates, and delicately decorated facades re-
206
207
merchants to build estates mained common in the north until that point. An indi-
1543 The Rossum family vidual variety of architecture developed in Belgium and
constructs residences in
the Netherlands that was different than the architecture
Renaissance styles in
Amheim, Vaasen, and found in Renaissance Italy. The designs of small middle-
Zaltbommel class homes with tall sliding gates and simple floor plans
1572–80 After winning in- changed little with the passage of time. Belgian and
dependence from Spain,
the Netherlands develops Dutch architects typically utilized elements from antiq-
Cornelis Floris de Vriendt: Cornelis Floris de Vriendt, who However, northern architectur-
its own styles of architec- uity only as decoration. Thus, northern European architec- Town Hall, 1561–64, Antwerp had traveled to Rome, drafted al features, such as the separate
ture; cities, guilds, and in- ture remained largely the same until the early 16th
dividuals fund new town This town hall was one of the the town hall in the Renais- tower portion of the facade and
halls and banks century—when the first architectural texts relating to first buildings to mimic the hori- sance style. A ground floor ar- a highly ornamented entrance-
ca. 1630 Baroque styles Roman architectural styles appeared and Italian styles zontal outlines found in Italian cade placed atop square bases way, remained, and were com-
emerge were sporadically adopted in the north. palaces. The Flemish architect is indicative of Italian influence. bined with the new styles.
211
are preferred onset of the 16th century that an original style called Plat-
1556–98 During Spanish eresque emerged. The word comes from the silversmith
absolutism under King
trade and characterizes the rich, ornate, filigree decora-
213
St. Marco in Venice and at An-
1518 King Sigismund I Italian Renaissance and the architectural theories of antiq- drea Palladio’s Palazzo della Ra-
marries Bona Sforza, who uity and comissioned work from Italian architects. Italian gione in Vincenza—a porticoed
brings Italian architects arches, slender pilasters, the Classical orders, and floor- colonnade, open only on one
1530 Humayun becomes The influence of Islamic and Persian architecture became
Great Mughal of India and even stronger in India under the sovereignty of the first
invites Persian artists to his
palace; three-sided Mughal rulers. The Persian-Islamic-influenced culture of
214
215
vaulted niches, called these foreign rulers first started to combine itself with ele-
iwan, become character-
istic elements of almost all ments of Indian architecture after 1526. Mosques, tombs,
Mughal architecture and palaces of the early Mughal period merged Hindu ar-
1540 Under Sher Shah, chitectural tradition with Islamic ornamentation and in-
local building styles be- novations. Elements of Islamic architecture, such as the
come more prominent
1556 During Akbar’s reign, pointed arch, the onion-shaped dome, minarets, and mo-
the court workshops in saic decorations started to supersede the plentiful num-
Agra, Delhi, and Fatehpur bers of intricately detailed figures of older Hindu temples.
Sikri are centers of activity
for artists and architects Technological advances accompanied the new style of
1638 Shah Jahan moves architecture, and it became possible to build even larger
Mausoleum of Sher Shah, plan, the dome and its lotus- Mausoleum of Humayun,
the capital from Agra to structures, such as the construction of high-walled ca. 1540, Sasaram shaped tip, inner arcade, and 1564–72, Delhi
Delhi domes, throughout India. The usage of Indian red sand-
1707 End of the reign of The mausoleum is located on corner pavilions on the defense The monument mixes Persian
Aurangzeh, the last Great stone inlaid with white marble and semiprecious stones top of a two-tiered quadratic wall are all characteristic of In- elements, like the double-
Mughal to commission imparted a distinctively Indian colorfulness to Mughal terrace in the center of an artifi- dian tombs constructed in the shelled dome and layered décor,
large-scale architecture. cial sea. The octagonal floor Mughal Empire. with Indian red sandstone.
architectural
works Panch Mahal Palace in gardens, a marketplace, a water- Other Works
Fatehpur Sikri, 1569–74 works and innumerable roofed
Grave of Isa Khan, ca. 1548,
Following the model of streets, staircases, and terraces
Delhi
Islamic urban planning, were assembled into one complex
Red Fort, after 1565, Agra
multi-level palaces, in the city of Fatehpur Sikri. The
five-story palace of Panch Mahal is Akbar’s Palace in Ajmer,
1570–72
situated directly in the middle of
the entire ensemble. The palace Jama Masjid, 1571–74,
Fatehpur Sikri
bears witness to the two oppo-
sing styles of architecture in India Akbar’s Mausoleum, 1613,
Sikandra
during this period—the figurative
architecture of Hinduism and the Tomb of Itimad-ud-Daula,
1628, Agra
geometric style of Islam.
Renaissance Mughal Empire
Baroque
1550–1770 1650–1770 1650–1770
Italian Baroque Baroque in Iberian Baroque
Baroque architecture Central and Baroque architecture
develops in Italy; oval
floor plans and convex Eastern Europe is popular in Spain and
Portugal and is exported
and concave surfaces In Germany, Austria, and to the colonies in the
create dynamic Bohemia, Baroque is
220
221
Americas
buildings developed by wealthy
families João Frederico
Pietro Berrettini da
Cortona p. 234 Johann Bernhard Ludovice
Giacomo Barozzi da Fischer von Erlach p. 248 Niccolo Nasoni
p. 242
p. 267
Vignola p. 228 Jakob Prandtauer p. 252 Eufrasio López de Rojas
1550 1600 1650 1700 1750 1800
Gian Lorenzo 1550–1770 Johann Dientzenhofer 1715–1790 Around the World:
Bernini p. 230 p. 250
Francesco Borromini Baroque in Jan Santini Aichel Rococo Islamic, Ottoman, Japanese,
p. 232 France and Johann Balthasar Rococo architecture and and Latin American
Neumann p. 254 interior decoration is
the UK Kilian Ignaz flamboyantly decorative Architecture
The French king Louis XIV Dientzenhofer Johann Lukas von Islamic and Ottoman architecture
adopts Flamboyant Giovanni Alliprandi develops intricate domes;
Hildebrandt
Baroque styles, and the Japanese architecture
Filippo Juvarra develops the Shoin and
mansard roof is popula-
rized; in the UK, the style Johann Michael Fischer Sukiya styles;
slowly gains popularity François de Cuvilliés Latin American
Francesco Bartolomeo churches adopt
Francois Mansart p. 236 Rastrelli p. 270 Baroque
Louis Le Vau p. 240 Philippe de La Guêpière styles
Jules Hardouin Mansart
p. 238
Nicholas Hawksmoor
p. 249
p. 277
Sir John Vanbrugh
p. 264
p. 235
Other Works by Borromini
Francesco Borromini Cappella del St. Sacramento,
1627, Rome
1599, Bissone–1667, Rome Palazzo Spada, 1632, Rome
Oratory of St. Phillip Neri, 1637,
I Fascinated by geometry and Galileo I Began his career by assisting Rome
Carlo Maderno I Used interlocking oval and triangular floor plans in the
Maria dei Sette Dolori,
designs of his churches I Extravagant, individual style and technique 1642–48, Rome
I Played with decorative features on domes I Lifelong rival of Bernini
Palazzo Pamphili, 1645–50,
Rome
1599 Born at Lake Lugano Francesco Borromini was born at Lake Lugano in Switzer- St. Giovani in Laterano,
in Bissone, Switzerland 1646–49, Rome
land and was the son of a mason. He moved to Rome at
1619 Goes to Rome, Villa Falconieri, 1648, Frascati
where he works with his the age of 15 and initially worked with his relative Carlo
232
233
relative Carlo Maderno Maderno on St. Peter’s Basilica. After Maderno’s death he St. Carlo alle Quattro
1629–32 Works with worked with Bernini (p. 230), but they developed a fa- Fontane, 1634–68, Rome
Bernini on St. Peter’s and
mously fierce rivalry that persisted throughout Borro- The corner church is an early
Baroque in Italy
Baroque in Italy
1646 Born in Paris Jules Hardouin Mansart inherited the legacy, name, and
1675 Appointed the royal architectural plans of his great-uncle François Mansart
architect to Louis XIV
(p. 236). He studied with Libéral Bruant and worked in the
238
239
1678 In charge of the
extensions at Versailles, French Baroque style. As director general of the Maison du
continuing from Le Vau Roi, he oversaw the construction of the royal palaces and
1685 Appointed to the town planning projects. Following Louis Le Vau’s
Baroque in France
Baroque in France
position of premier archi- (p. 240) initial extensions, he built grandiose facades at Ver-
tect for the king
1699 Appointed superin- sailles to suit the monarchy’s taste for power and prestige.
tendant of buildings Adaptable, he could also build with elegant simplicity. His
1690s Works on the inte- dome at Les Invalides is one of the largest in the world.
rior decoration at Ver-
sailles, Trianon, and Marly
1698 Designs Place
Vendôme
1708 Dies in Marly, near
Paris
Other Works
Pavillion de Manse, Château de Marly, 1679–1686, Marly-le-Roi Dome of Les Invalides,1679–91, Paris
1659–89, Auvergne The Marly Château was designed to be a Hardoin Mansart worked with Libéral Bruant
Château de Saint- retreat for Louis XIV away from the pressures at the veterans’ hospital and continued the
Germain-en-Laye, of court life. Hardouin Mansart built a project after Bruant’s death. Les Invalides’s
1663–82, near Paris small palace to house the king and his large ribbed dome dominates the build-
Château de Dampierre- family, but it soon grew to include ing’s structure. He raised the columned
en-Yvelines, 1675–83, elaborate gardens, cascades, and 12 drum area of the dome by adding an
Dampierre-en-Yvelines
separate pavilions for guests. The extra attic level above the cor-
Place des Victories, château had frescoes painted by nice, creating one of the
1684–86, Paris
Charles Le Brun, a decorative greatest examples of
Pont Royal, 1685–89, Grand Trianon, 1687–88, to ground level, becoming the balustrade, and over 200 sta- Baroque architecture.
Paris Versailles first “French windows.” These win- tues that depicted ancient Within, the dome
Château de Meudon, dows opened the structure out
1695, Meudon
At the Grand Trianon, an elegant gods and goddesses. A so- dominates the
open colonnade known as a peri- into the garden. Hardouin Man- phisticated hydraulic interior as the cen-
Place Vendôme, 1698, sart also designed the fountains
Paris style connects the royal apart- system supplied water to terpiece of the
ments. The windows reach down linking the interior and exterior. the garden fountains. chapel.
Baroque 1550–1790 Jules Hardouin Mansart
Johann Bernhard Fischer
von Erlach
1656, Graz–1723, Vienna
I Leading architect during the Hapsburg era I Brought Italian Baroque styles
to central Europe I Combined influences from antiquity, Europe, and the Orient
1656 Born near Graz One of the most prominent Austrian architects, Fischer
1672 Travels to Italy, where von Erlach came from an artisan family, and his son, Jo-
he meets Bernini and stud-
ies sculpting and archi- seph, completed his final buildings after his death. At a
248
249
tecture young age he moved to Italy, where he trained as a
1687 Returns to Austria sculptor. There he was also exposed to the architecture of
and is appointed court ar- Borromini (p. 232), Bernini (p. 230), and Palladianism, and
chitect
1696 Knighted this was to affect his building style. Following the defeat
1704 Travels to Germany, of the Turks at the Battle of Vienna, the Hapsburg impe-
the Netherlands, the UK, rial family wanted an architecture that would display their
and Venice power. Fischer von Erlach’s grand facades and Baroque
1707 Builds Palais Clam
Gallas in Prague splendor encapsulated their aspirations. As court archi-
1721 Publishes Entwurf tect for three emperors he built many triumphal palaces
einer historischen Archi- and churches. He also built spectacular secular buildings,
tektur such as the Vienna Hofbibliothek, or Central
1723 Begins Vienna Hofbi-
bliothek, which is com- Library, with its grand main room. He also
pleted by his son published an influential book recording
1723 Dies in Vienna world architecture.
261
effects on virtually every type of surface. Buildings placing ellipses or triangles
were full of dark niches, narrow enclaves, and corners. over the crossings. This resul-
ted in a combination of con-
Contrastingly, well-lit protruding pilasters, high win-
Baroque Aesthetics
Baroque Aesthetics
271
and France to study archi-
tecture Bartolomeo Rastrelli, he arrived in Russia from France at
1730 Appointed senior the age of 15. He was appointed senior court architect
court architect and was popular with Empresses Anne and Elizabeth. His
Baroque in Russia
Baroque in Russia
1730s Earliest indepen- style was influenced by French and Italian Baroque, but
dent building in Mitau
(now Jelgava, Latvia) the monumental linearity of his designs and his grand,
1764 Catherine the Great colored facades were fitting for the royal buildings of a
prefers the Neoclassical powerful new nation under Peter the Great. His interiors,
style, and his commissions
decline
as well as his exterior stucco decorations, were in a lavish
1771 Dies in St. Peters- Rococo style. He often used light and mirrors, and he in-
Winter Palace, 1754–62, By adding a double layer of co- visual effect. Many artisans
burg structed a large school of artisans. St. Petersburg lumns, the height of the three- were employed on this large-
Other Important Works by Rastrelli The grand Winter Palace embo- story palace seems to increase. scale building project. Three
dies the rising greatness of the Stone statues adorning the ba- large arches lead from the pa-
St. Petersburg Voronostrov, 1749, lustrade and decorative vases lace square through to the
Russian court through Rastrel-
Summer Palace, 1741, St. Petersburg
St. Petersburg li’s design and spatial planning. on the vertical axis add to the inner ceremonial courtyard.
Stroganov Palace,
Hermitage at Cathe- Catherine’s Palace, 1756,
1753, St. Petersburg
rines Palace, 1746–52, near St. Petersburg
near St. Petersburg Grotto at Catherine’s First built by J. F. Braunstein, Ca-
St. Andrew’s, 1747–67, Palace, 1755–56, therine’s Palace was given an
Kiev near St. Petersburg elaborate Baroque redesign by
Rastrelli in 1756. The palace was
Smolny Cathedral, 1748–57, St. Petersburg extended, and stucco decora-
The Smolny Cathedral, on the banks of the Nova tions and gilded columns were
River, is the center of a convent complex and was built onto the exterior facade. It
constructed as a residence for Empress Elizabeth. was said that 220 lbs (100 kg) of
The blue and white color-washed stucco stands gold was used. The interior was
out on the perfectly proportioned structure, given a Rococo finish, and
playing with the senses. It is surrounded by four included grand rooms such as
domed churches, which form a cross. Rastrelli’s the Mirrored Ballroom and the
plans for a tiered belfry were never executed. famous Amber Room.
Baroque 1550–1790 Bartolomeo Rastrelli
Ottoman Empire
1512–1770
I During the 16th and 17th centuries, the Ottoman Empire included Turkey,
the Middle East, and parts of North Africa I Süleyman the Magnificent
oversaw many new building projects I Sinan was the best-known architect
of the Ottoman era I The mosque complex was an integral part of Islamic life
1512 The architect Mimar Under Süleyman the Magnificent (1520–1566), both the
Sinan goes to Istanbul and
learns engineering Ottoman Empire and the arts and architecture flourished.
1530s Sinan’s miltary ex- Architecture was a combination of Byzantine influ-
274
Rhodes
1539 Sinan is appointed plex, or camii, consisting of minarets, domes, and the wall
architect of Istanbul by the facing Mecca, the kibla. Decoration consisted of intricate
grand vizier
1588 Sinan dies tiling and limestone carvings. Mimar Sinan, the great Ot-
1703–57 Turkey’s Tulip toman architect, built over 300 buildings and helped to
era, in which public spaces create the dramatic skyline of Istanbul with his slender Mimar Sinan: Selimiye Mosque, 1569–75, in that its minarets were the tallest in the Ot-
were built, and the begin- minarets and staggered domes. Sinan aimed for a unified Edirne, Turkey toman era, and the interior has an innovative
ning of Baroque mosques mihrab, a niche in the kibla wall, which can be
interior space and experimented with supports, vaulting, The Selimiye Mosque is considered Sinan’s mas-
1770 Westernized tastes terpiece, because its interior is a unified space of observed from everywhere in the prayer hall. The
change architecture and arches. Secular buildings included bazaars and kiosks. mihrab is large enough to allow for windows,
clear geometry. The massive dome is supported
Other Works Mimar Sinan: Süleymaniye by eight pillars, and four semidomes round off which illuminate the glazed tiles on the interior
Mosque, 1551–58, Istanbul the building’s corners. The complex was unique with natural light.
Köse Hüsrev Pasa
Following in the grand style of Mimar Sinan: Şehzade
Mosque, by Mimar Sinan,
the Fatih complex, the Süley- Mosque, interior, 1544–48,
1536–37, Van, Turkey maniye Mosque is a large com- Istanbul
Sultan Süleyman plex for prayer, culture, and ed- The Şehzade complex was
Mosque, by Mimar Sinan, ucation. It consists of one of Sinan’s earliest works
1563, Damascus symmetrical groups in geo- and an architectural ingenuity.
metric shapes. Four minarets The mosque exhibits his work-
Sokollu Mehmed, by
stand in the four corners, and a manship and advanced con-
Mimar Sinan, 1570–74,
large main dome is flanked by struction skills. Created on a
Istanbul two half domes. As in the square plan, four half domes
Laleli Mosque, Byzantine Hagia Sophia, the Sü- flank the large central domed
1760–63, Istanbul leymaniye’s dome is separated building. Four tall piers round
from its supports by a row of into arches and assist in the
Zeynep Sultan
windows. The mosque symbol- dome’s support. The asymmet-
Mosque, by Mehmet Tahir
izes the grandeur of the empire rical central plan is repeated in
Ağa, 1769, Istanbul
and of Istanbul. the courtyard.
Baroque 1550–1790 Ottoman Empire
Hikone Castle, 1603–22, Shiga
1568 During the Azuchi- In 17th-century Japan, the Shoin and Sukiya styles devel-
Momoyama period, forti- oped in the defensive designs of castles, temples for
fied architectural elements
are prominent due to the prayer, and private residences. Sukiya architecture con-
276
277
political climate sists of simple materials and proportions creating a har-
1603 The Edo period monious relationship between interior and exterior
begins, under which struc-
spaces, and was heavily influenced by the designs of tea-
279
the lineage of St. Dominic.
Francisco precedes a new on the ecclesiastical architecture and religious art of the
wave of the Mudéjar style St. Francisco Church at built in nearby Acatepec in local materials to an art form.
region. The discovery of gold and silver played a large
1664 Jesuit shrine on Acatepec, 1730, Cholula, Puebla, a region famous for its Yellow, blue, and green tiles
role in bringing European architectural styles to what
Plaza des Armas is the first Mexico local ceramics. Made from the adorn the red-brick facade of
in the late Baroque style were previously remote villages. The Brazilian school of In the 16th century, nearly 400 local azulejos, or hand-painted this Churrigueresque church.
1698 First example of an Baroque was heavily influenced by Portuguese styles. churches were built to replace tiles, the talevera ceramics can Even the large doorway is cov-
independent Peruvian- Antonio Francisco Lisboa, known as Aleijadinho, was a the Aztec temples destroyed by be seen on many of the remark- ered in tiles and carvings.
Bolivian mestizo in La the exploratory party of Hernán able facades and domes of the The interior is excessively or-
Compañía Church leading Brazilian architect, sculptor, and painter who
built many churches in the Ouro Preto region. Mexican Cortés in the town of Cholula. buildings in the area. St. Francis, nate, with gilded and plaster
1730s Architect Aleija- in particular, elevates the use of decoration.
The St. Francisco Church was
dinho, or “Little Cripple,” Baroque architecture was especially influenced by the
born in Brazil adaptation of the Spanish Churrigueresque style, which
1749 Metropolitan Sac-
risty has tapering pilasters
resulted in highly decorative facades. Late Baroque spiral
ca. 1770 Most Baroque columns (salomónica) were imported from Spain, and ta-
projects are completed pering pilasters (estípite) were widely used. In Puebla,
Catedral Metropoli-
tana, 1667, Mexico City,
Mexico
The Catedral Metropoli-
tana is one of the largest in
the Western Hemisphere.
The lower levels of the fa-
cade, with their twisted
columns, volutes, and stat-
ues, are High Baroque,
while the Classical towers
were added later. The side
chapel is in Churrigue-
resque style. There are five
naves, and the church
forms a cross.
Baroque Baroque in Latin America
Neoclassical Styles
Although Neoclassicism was influ- Karl Friedrich Schinkel:
enced by the Classical styles of Altes Museum, 1823–30, Berlin
Greece and Rome, these were Schinkel learnt to draw detailed
adapted and developed in Neo- perspective drawings as a result
of his study trips to Italy. His
classical architecture. During the drawings of the Altes Museum
17th century, discoveries in sci- had great influence on the ar-
ence, mathematics, and astronomy chitecture of the time.
influenced building techniques. It is no wonder that
290
291
one of the first great Neoclassical architects, Christo-
pher Wren (p. 292), was a renowned scientist and
physicist. Wren’s St. Paul’s Cathedral in London used
Neoclassicism
Neoclassicism
Giovanni Paolo Pannini: and the return to Classicism Karl Friedrich Schinkel: Karl Friedrich Schinkel: than solely ecclesiastical ones. temple, are instead used as a
Gallery Displaying Views of was a reaction against the ex- Friedrichswerder Church, Altes Museum, 1823–30, Berlin The rotunda and dome of place to venerate art and cul-
Ancient Rome, 1758 cesses of Baroque and Rococo 1824–30, Berlin The dome and rotunda were Schinkel’s Altes Museum in ture—the museum. Inside the
Giovanni Paolo Pannini’s paint- styles. Columns and domes Schinkel’s perspective drawings prevalent features in Neoclas- Berlin is directly influenced by, rotunda, pillars and Greek
ings show the public fascina- were often used, and there was only assisted in the planning of sical architecture, but unlike the and refers to, the Pantheon in sculptures are displayed among
tion with the ruins and temples a renewed focus on remaining the church, but give the viewer styles popular during the Rome. However, in this instance the art, and the square cof-
of ancient Rome. Antiquity was Classical buildings, such as the an impression of its size from a Baroque and Rococo eras, they the drum, rotunda, and dome, fering lightens the weight of
seen as an age bound to reason, Pantheon and Colosseum. human-scaled point of view. were used for buildings other although painted like a Roman the dome.
Neoclassicism 1640–1850 Neoclassical Styles
Sir Christopher Wren
1632, Wiltshire–1723, London
Renowned British architect Respected scientist, mathematician, and as-
tronomer Influenced by Bernini and Vitruvius Oversaw the construc-
tion of 51 new churches following the Great Fire of London Built under
four British sovereigns Designed academic, royal, and church buildings
1632 Born in East Knoyle, Christopher Wren was born in Wiltshire and studied at
Wiltshire
Oxford. Most renowned as an architect, he also success-
1661 Appointed Savilian
Professor of Astronomy at fully engaged in mechanics, biology, optics, and astron-
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293
Oxford omy and was a founder of the Royal Society. Having read
1665 Travels to Paris and Vitruvius, he developed an interest in architecture and
sees Bernini’s designs for
visited Bernini in Paris. Shortly after his redesign for St.
Neoclassicism in the UK
Neoclassicism in the UK
309
and Austria
1816 Builds royal guard- learning, and public life. He lived and studied architec-
house in military style with ture with David Gilly and his son Friedrich, who had a
Doric portico large influence on his work and ideas. A remarkable
Neoclassicism in Germany
Neoclassicism in Germany
329
for the World’s Fair of 1889, yet
Utilitarian, public venues became more important, the 1889 Paris World’s Fair
it has come to be the most rec-
and needed to be durable. The popularity of World’s showcased the new methods of
ognized landmark in Paris. Engi-
Fairs resulted in spectacular temporary exhibition construction. Ferdinand Dutert
Building Techniques
Building Techniques
1855 The Great Exhibition Second Empire was an architectural style that coincided
in Paris showcases the with the reign of Napoléon III in France and was enthusi-
Second Empire style and
spreads it internationally, astically applied in America. It was implemented in gov-
356
357
inspiring designs in the ernment buildings, stately homes, asylums, hospitals, and
United States private houses. The most recognizable feature of the Sec-
1857 Additions to the ond Empire style is the mansard roof—a steeply pitched,
19th-Century Architecture in the United States
381
The answer was to replace load-bearing masonry with models had to be reinter-
a uniform and flexible steel skeleton. preted to accommodate the
proportions of the office
Cass Gilbert: Woolworth Daniel Burnham and
Building Techniques
Building Techniques
tower.
Building, under construction, Charles Atwood: Reliance
1912, New York Building, 1890–95, Chicago
Steel frame construction and el- One of the earliest and most el-
evators meant that height was egant incarnations of the sky-
no longer a limiting factor. Al- scraper, a wall of glass and
though by 1910 steel had been white terra cotta hangs from
in use for two decades, a the riveted, wind-braced steel
50-story building posed new frame. Thin vertical members
challenges—wind loads, foun- rest on continuous spandrel
dation stability, and fire safety panels, emphasizing the
were all factors needing thor- stacked horizontality of skeletal
ough research. construction.
William Le Baron Jenney:
Second Leiter Building,
1889–91, Chicago
The second incarnation of the
Leiter Building was a mature
example of steel frame con-
struction. A self-supporting,
fireproof metal frame was
draped in a comparatively light
masonry curtain wall. With no
load-bearing masonry left, all
the loads had to be carried by
the steel skeleton. It was
erected before cladding and
partition walls were added, de-
termining the building’s layout.
20th Century before 1945
Unity Temple, interior view,
1905–08, Oak Park, Illinois
Frank Lloyd Wright Inside the temple, two levels of
balconies hover over the cen-
1867, Richland Center–1959, Phoenix
tral square seating area on the
I Iconic figure of American architecture I Spanned generations and styles main level, enabling the entire
I Developed the Prairie style I Used local materials and adapted his plans congregation to sit in close
to the surrounding landscape I Published utopian urban planning proximity to one another. Pro-
projects I Influenced the development of American suburbs tected from the noisy street be-
hind the building, the space is
discreetly entered from below
1867 Born in Richland In the late 1890s Frank Lloyd Wright was building ab- and lit only from the top with
Center, Wisconsin stract, geometric forms while the Beaux-Arts movement a combination of clerestory
1886–88 Studies
engineering at the Univer- dominated Europe and North America. In Europe, Wright’s windows and stained glass sky-
382
383
sity of Wisconsin Art Nouveau contemporaries were grappling with the re- lights. The interior is not orna-
1888–92 Apprentices lationships between ornament and structure, but were mented, but rather unified with
with Adler and Sullivan sets of intersecting volumes,
much less interested in the complex spaces and inter-
391
Architecture at the Univer- organic forms of the style, his work is part of the Catalan forces. Gaudí projected that it
sity of Barcelona would take 200 years to build
Modernisme movement, developed in the context of his
1877 Opens his first office the Sagrada Família. No other
Gothic Revivalist training and love for medieval Mediter-
Art Nouveau
Art Nouveau
407
1908 Employed by Peter ding functions all provided opportunities to introduce Massachusetts
Behrens on AEG Turbine moments of craft into an industrial framework. According Housing Block, 1955–57,
Hall to Gropius’s philosophy, facade treatment only needed to Hansaviertel, Berlin
Modernism Neue Sachlichkeit
409
furniture, and object design were included in the cur-
riculum. The Bauhaus was closed by the Nazis in 1933.
Bauhaus in Germany
Bauhaus in Germany
1916–21 Alvar Aalto The two key figures of Nordic Modernism were Swedish
studies architecture at architect Erik Gunnar Asplund and his Finnish colleague
Helsinki University of
Technology Alvar Aalto. Asplund was older than Aalto by 13 years,
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417
1924 Aalto marries archi- and his work provided the young architect with a point of
tect Aino Marsio and tra- departure for a wholly alternative aesthetic. Although
vels to Italy, developing an
Aalto was interested in economical architecture and mass
Modernism in Northern Europe
435
Behrens in Berlin foundly influenced the evolution of American cities. never built. The emer-
1921 Joins the Deutscher Skeletons of steel and glass replaced the traditional load- gence of new materials
Werkbund such as reinforced con-
bearing walls. The boundary between interior and exte-
International Style
International Style
1913 Born in Sakai, Japan Perhaps the central figure in 20th-century Japanese de-
1949 Wins commission to sign, the architect, author, and urban planner Kenzo
design Hiroshima’s Peace
Tange combined the International style with High Tech
446
447
Center
1964 Achieves interna- architecture and traditional Japanese forms to create a
tional recognition with his visionary synthesis that helped to define the identity of
Yoyogi National Gymna- postwar Japan. Arguing that architecture should reflect or
Late Modernism
Late Modernism
1952 Le Corbusier devises The Brutalist movement in architecture stems from the
his Unité d’Habitation
principle and builds the
French béton brut—meaning “raw concrete”—a term
Cité Radieuse in Marseille used by Le Corbusier to describe his choice of material.
450
451
1954 The term Brutalism is Associated with social utopianism, the movement sought
coined by the British archi- to use architecture to engineer a more rational urban en-
tects Alison and Peter
vironment. This was to be accomplished through the con-
Minimalist Modernism
Minimalist Modernism
Smithson
1954 Publication of struction of high-density housing blocks based on Le
Reyner Banham’s book The Corbusier’s vision of the Unité d’Habitation. The idea was
New Brutalism, which be-
comes the movement’s to engender more collective and functional patterns of
manual living by reducing ornament and distraction. Highly
1960s Brutalism is popular controversial, this plan achieved only mixed success, alt-
in university campus ex-
pansions across the hough some aspects of Brutalism have managed to be in-
United States corporated into later Sir Denys Lasdun: National middle of London without buildings in the UK. The com-
1975 J. G. Ballard pub- styles. Theater, 1967 anyone objecting,” Denys plex achieves a structural bal-
lishes his novel High-Rise,
which argues that Brutalist Described by Prince Charles as Lasdun’s National Theater regu- ance, smoothing out the
architecture causes mur- “a clever way of building a nu- larly places among the ten most horizontal spaces to match its
derous chaos clear power station in the hated and the ten most loved vertical axis.
Other Works Moshe Safdie: Habitat ’67,
Montreal, Canada
Barbican Estate,
by Chamberlin, Powell, Built as part of Expo ’67, Moshe
and Bon, 1965–76, London Safdie designed Habitat ’67
Tricorn Center, when he was just 24, for his
by Owen Luder, 1965–66, master’s thesis at Montreal’s
demolished 2004, McGill University. Composed of
Portsmouth, UK a series of modular, interlocking
Trellick Tower, by Ernő forms, Safdie hoped his dy-
Goldfinger, 1966–72, namic vision would become
London popular among architects
Robin Hood Gardens, Paul Rudolph: Yale Art and Brutalist architecture in the United around the world. Sadly, his se-
by Alison and Peter Architecture Building, 1958–63, States, the Yale Art and Archi- veral attempts to construct sim-
Smithson, 1969–72, New Haven, Connecticut tecture Building is made of ribbed, ilar structures elsewhere have
London all failed due to lack of funding.
The most renowned example of bush-hammered concrete.
Architecture after 1945 Brutalism
Álvaro Siza Vieira
1933, Matosinhos
I Works out of the organic conditions of an existing site, rather than impo-
sing his own designs on them I Renowned for his coherent, understated
designs and absence of rhetoric
I left: Schlesisches Tor Apartments, 1980, Berlin
1933 Born in Matosinhos, The sculptor and architect Álvaro Siza Vieira was born in
Portugal 1933 in a coastal town in the mountainous northern
1949 Begins studies at the
University of Porto School region of Portugal. Siza’s fresh, lucid buildings take their
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455
of Architecture inspiration from the long light and quiet of his birthplace,
1954 Finishes first archi- and his work is characterized by a sensitivity to the
tectural project—four specificities of local contexts. Utilizing a tactile and mate-
Late Modernism
Late Modernism
houses in Matosinhos
rial-focused approach, rather than an overtly visual or
1954 Opens private prac- College of Education, 1986–94, Setubal,
tice in Porto graphic one, Siza has been called a Minimalist for his em- Other Works
Portugal
1955 Completes his archi- phasis on simplicity, balance, and scale. Nevertheless, Boa Nova Tea House, Faculty of Architec-
tecture studies there is also a strong current of sensuality in his work that Striking a balance between rigor and flexibility, 1963, Leça da Palmeira, ture at the University
1966 Begins teaching at Siza’s design for the college tethers a series of Portugal
is revealed by the cool delicacy with which he manipu- of Porto, 1995,
the University of Porto outlying volumes to a central U-shaped founda- Leça Swimming Pool, Portugal
School of Architecture
lates texture. Siza has designed swimming pools, housing tion, like boats moored to a quay. The idea was 1966, Leça da Palmeira Serpentine Gallery
1976 Appointed professor developments, private residences, banks, office buildings, to create a series of freely calibrated, semi-
restaurants, art galleries, shops, and almost every other Duarte House, Pavilion in Hyde Park,
1992 Awarded the Pritzker autonomous spaces that would remain at the
1981–85, Ovar, Portugal 2005, London
Prize type of structure. same time linked to a central whole.
Banco Borges Centro Gallego de Arte
e Irmão, 1978–86, Contemporaneo, 1988–93,
Vila do Conde, Santiago de Compostela,
Portugal Spain
This small bank Unusual among contemporary
branch gave Siza art museums in that it strives to
the chance to re- merge with its surroundings
alize some of the rather then dominate them, the
formal ideas that
Centro Gallego de Arte Con-
he had developed
temporaneo achieves a harmo-
for his unbuilt
works in Berlin. nious relationship with its
Both expansive and urban setting, allowing the
compact, colossal city’s traditional and modern
and delicate, heavy- styles to converge. Siza’s clear-
set and limpid, lined, granite-clad design re-
Siza’s design plays flects his admiration for Ration-
with the paradoxes alism and his sensitivity to local
of space itself. conditions.
Architecture after 1945 Álvaro Siza Viera
Vasco da Gama Tower at
Expo 1998, Lisbon
Skidmore, Owings & Merrill Leonor Janeiro and Nick Jacobs
worked with SOM to create this
1936–Present steel framework tower for the
I Interested in technological and structural advancements I Concerned with Expo 1998 World’s Fair. At the
architecture, design, urban planning, and structural engineering I Create a tower’s base is a three-story
corporate identity in which individual architects come under the general name building, used as the European
of SOM I One of the largest architecture firms in the world
Union Building during the fair.
The tower, shaped to resemble
the sail of a Portuguese ship,
1936 Louis Skidmore and Skidmore, Owings & Merrill is one of the largest architec- leads up to a luxury restaurant
Nathaniel Owings found ture firms in the world. Founded in 1936, the company and an observation deck.
an architectural firm
has a long tradition of multidisciplinary design and re- John Hancock Center
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461
in New York City search projects, involving more than 10,000 campaigns in 1967–70, Chicago
1939 John Merrill be- over 50 countries. After World War II, When the John Hancock Center
comes a member and the the firm received worldwide recogni- was completed, it held the
Corporate Modernism
Corporate Modernism
467
sity; wins Yale scholarship of its aesthetics, as well as its organization—par-
1967 Founds his own firm, practices in the world, Foster + Partners often works closely ticularly the V-shaped suspension trusses on the
Foster + Partners with engineers and has designed a vast number of large- exterior, which are a prominent symbol of the
1979 Begins Hongkong scale, institutional, and infrastructural buildings around the building and that also form double-height
Corporate Modernism
Corporate Modernism
and Shanghai Bank head- world that are characterized by their use of glass, stainless spaces inside. This relationship between aes-
quarters thetics and technology makes the Hongkong
1983 Wins RIBA Gold
steel, and exposed and aestheticized
and Shanghai Bank one of the icons of High
Medal structures, often in iconic and Tech architecture.
1994 Wins AIA Gold Medal metaphoric forms. Since the 1970s,
1998 Awarded the Stirling the firm has been internationally Reichstag Dome, 1992–99, Berlin
Prize for Imperial War recognized for its environmentally Foster’s glass dome on top of the existing Neo-
Museum, Duxford classical Reichstag building was conceived as a
sustainable designs, which make
1999 Wins the Pritzker Prize visual metaphor for the transparency and open-
2004 Awarded the Stirling
use of natural daylight and pas- ness of the newly unified German government. In
Prize for 30 St. Mary Axe sive climate-control strategies, addition to serving as the primary attraction for
2007 Wins the Aga Khan thus revolutionizing the ty- visitors to the German parliament, with a spiral
Award pology of tall ramp providing panoramic views of the city, the
buildings in interior cone of the dome provides reflected day-
30 St. Mary Axe,
light to the chambers below, with an automated
1997–2004, London this a em- sunshade to reduce heat gain during the warmer
Known as “the Gherkin,” 30 bracing summer months.
St. Mary Axe is London’s
first ecological tall building. Other Important Works by Foster
Its unique shape and trian-
Willis Faber & Dumas Chep Lap Kok
gulated structural surface is Headquarters, Airport, 1992–97,
designed to resist wind, 1971–75, Ipswich, UK Hong Kong
while double glazing allows
Sainsbury Center for The Great Court
for passive solar heating
Visual Arts, 1974–78, at the British Museum,
and natural cooling. De-
Norwich, UK 1994–2000, London
signed to maximize the use
of natural light, the building Canary Wharf Masdar Initiative
is fitted with sensors to min- Underground Station, Master Plan, 2007–,
imize energy waste. 1991–99, London Abu Dhabi
1929 Born in Toronto With his innovative use of materials and expressive, rec-
1954 Graduates from ognizable forms, Canadian-born Frank Gehry is the most
University of Southern
California School of popularly celebrated contemporary American architect.
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487
Architecture Gehry’s early work was inspired by the fast pace and arti-
1962 Opens Frank O. ficiality of Los Angeles, the city in which he has always
Gehry & Associates in Los been based. He assembled ordinary materials such as ply-
Deconstructivism
Deconstructivism
Angeles
wood, chain-link fence, and corrugated metal to create
1969–73 Develops the
Easy Edges cardboard Cubist-inspired buildings, including many houses that are
furniture line often associated with the Deconstructivist movement. As
1985–91 Collaborates he moved on to larger projects, his buildings became
with Claes Oldenburg and
Coosje van Bruggen on
increasingly curvilinear. His later works incorporate De- Guggenheim Museum Bilbao, 1991–97,
Chiat/Day building in constructivist elements with flowing lines. Gehry’s firm Bilbao
Venice, California pioneered the use of software from the aerospace in- Clad in titanium, the Guggenheim Bilbao is a
1989 Awarded the Pritzker dustry for the design and fabrication of his buildings, culmination of Gehry’s form-making and techno-
Prize logical pursuits. The building is both a work of
many of which employ high-tech materials. Although his
2001 Exhibition of his sculpture and of urbanism. It was carefully de-
work at the Guggenheim works have been associated with a variety of movements,
signed to integrate with the surrounding urban
Museum, New York he has managed to create a distinguished personal fabric, including the neighboring bridge. The
Vitra Design Museum, museum supported F. L. Wright’s concept of the
1987–89, Weil am Rhein first Guggenheim in New York, in which the ar-
chitecture is as dazzling as the art within.
The white stucco and zinc
cladding of the Vitra De- Other Works by Gehry Nationale Neder-
sign Museum blurs distinc- landen Building,
tions between horizontal Gehry House, 1992–96, Prague
and vertical planes, as well 1977–78, Santa
Monica Also known as “Fred
as interior and exterior and Ginger,” a name
spaces. Unlike Gehry’s ear- Walt Disney Concert
referencing the dance-
lier work, this building is Hall, 1988–2003, Los
Angeles like nature of the two
no longer an assemblage forms, this building
of parts, but instead a uni- Weisman Museum, adopts the regularity
1990–93, Minneapolis
fied, sculptural whole that of its historic surround-
bends into and moves out Gehry Tower, 2001, ings to Gehry’s trade-
of itself. Hanover, Germany mark curves.
Architecture after 1945 Frank Gehry
Zaha Hadid
1950, Baghdad
I Works in diverse mediums including furniture and interiors I First female
architect to receive the Pritzker Prize I Interested in theory, teaching, and
practice I Associated with the Deconstructivist movement I Unconven-
tional and visionary use of shape and form
1950 Born in Baghdad Zaha Hadid was the first female recipient of the Pritzker
1972 Moves to London Prize. She uses strong, arched shapes that appear to
after studying mathemat-
ics at the American Univer- stretch the limits of their materials. Hadid’s work encom-
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491
sity in Beirut passes all fields of design, ranging from urban planning to Vitra Fire Station, 1993, from the front, but reveals its in- walls that bend and break in
1977 Graduates from the products, interiors, and furniture. Her work experiments Weil-am-Rhein
Architectural Association teriors from a perpendicular accordance with their structural
with new spatial concepts, intensifying existing urban
Deconstructivism
Deconstructivism
in London One of Hadid’s first infra- viewpoint. Constructed of ex- functions. The building is now
1977–87 Collaborates with landscapes in the pursuit of a visionary aesthetic. Her structural projects, the Vitra Fire posed, reinforced concrete, it used as a showcase for designer
Rem Koolhaas and Elia buildings’ designs make use of multiple perspective Station appears impenetrable uses sharp edges and layered chairs.
Zenghelis at the Office of
Metropolitan Architecture points that at times seem confusing, but the overall effect
in London absorbs viewers and the surrounding environment,
1980 Establishes her own uniting both through her Modernist designs. Her early
firm in London work makes use of asymmetrical sharp angles; tiered, flat-
1988 Participates in De-
constructivist Architecture planed levels; and seemingly hermetic forms that create
Exhibition in New York new and unexpected spaces and angles. In designing
2004 Awarded the her buildings and plans, Hadid combines prelimi-
Pritzker Prize
nary sketches and applies computer design pro-
grams to unite glass and metals,
LFone Pavilion, 1999, Weil-am-Rhein, Phaeno Science Center,
Germany interior, 2005, Wolfsburg,
A fluid yet geometrical extension of a net- Germany
work of surrounding paths, this cement Within the Phaeno Science
structure is an amalgamation of Center a craterlike interior
organic and inorganic solid creates diagonal sectional
planes, blunt edges, and views to the different levels of
Phaeno Science Center, curiosity and discovery in its
tiered levels. the exhibition space, while pro-
exterior, 2005, Wolfsburg, visitors. The bulk of the building truding volumes allow for di-
Germany is elevated on stilts, creating a verse functions. The structural
Allowing for maximum trans- public space for visitors. As with ground supports also provide
parency and porosity at ground her other buildings, Hadid con- space for both cultural func-
level, the science center ap- structed an intricate network of tions associated with the sci-
pears as a mysterious, strange pedestrian and vehicular paths ence center and commercial
object. The design generates throughout the structure. functions.
Zaha Hadid
Rem Koolhaas
1944, Rotterdam
I Philosopher, writer, and architect I Analytical, intellectual approach to
design and urban experience I Dramatic, innovative use of trajectory
I Interested in the link between urbanity and social practice I His work
gives radical new forms to existing materials
1944 Born in Rotterdam, Born in Rotterdam, the Netherlands, Rem Koolhaas spent
the Netherlands four years of his youth in Indonesia, where his father
1966 Works as a reporter
for the Haagse Post served as a cultural director. He first gained international
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497
1968 Begins studying at recognition when he published Delirious New York, a book
Architectural Association on architectural theory. Koolhaas’s work searches for a
School of Architecture in link between technology and humanity. He uses an
New Directions
New Directions
London
1972 Studies at Cornell intelligent, analytic approach, and is renowned for his in-
CCTV Headquar- top in a cantilevered Other Works by Koolhaas
University in New York novative and radical use of trajectory in his designs. He ters, design, Beijing penthouse. A new icon
1975 Cofounds the Office utilizes materials in a sculptural way, often elongating or of the Beijing skyline, Netherlands Dance Casa da Música,
for Metropolitan Archi- A truly three-dimen-
flattening shapes and making rigid materials appear sional experience, the the structure is a single Theater, 1988, 2001–05, Porto
tecture (OMA) in London The Hague, the
1978 Publishes Delirious malleable. His designs draw from an eclectic mix of two gigantic towers of interconnected loop, Royal Dutch Embassy,
Netherlands 2003, Berlin
New York sources, including elements of Classicism and Moder- Koolhaas’s design for symbolically contai-
the CCTV Headquarters ning all the depart- Second Stage Seoul National
1995 Publishes S, M, L, XL nism, Formalism and Deconstructivism, and transform Theater, 1999, New
with Bruce Mau rise from a common ments that make University Museum of
these ideas into inventive and new forms. Today he is one York Art, 2005
1997 Cofounds archi- platform and join at the broadcasting possible.
tectural think tank AMO
of the world’s most sought-after architects, known for
both his risk taking and his interest in the social and phi- Educatorium, 1997,
2000 Awarded the Pritzker
losophical elements of the urban experience. Utrecht University,
Prize
the Netherlands
Seattle Public Library, Two dramatic planes
2004 fold and interlock to
A structural steel and glass create a single tra-
skin unifies eight horizon- jectory that makes the
tal platforms that are concrete curves ap-
connected by a series of pear malleable. Sloped
elevators and escalators. ceilings and densely
These levels, all of diffe- packed I-beams gener-
rent opacities, densities, ate a series of smaller
sizes, and shapes, allow for spaces within large
versatile uses of space. The rooms. Cement and
sloping glass ceilings and glass walls are used
walls create unusual side by side to allow
lighting and views of the for both privacy and
urban surroundings. views.
Architecture after 1945 Rem Koolhaas
Blobs
1992–Present
I Digital modeling software creates infinite design possibilities I Archi-
tects are able to fast-track the design process I Designs respond with
greater sensitivity to organic shapes in nature I A new expressive language
for movement and motion that responds to human interaction and scale
1992 Zappi research proj- First coined in 1995, the term Blobs, or Blobitecture, is used
ect pioneers glass as a to refer to amoeboid, fluid designs that are created using
structural element
digital modeling software. By manipulating the algo-
500
A rchi t ec t u r e