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E-Waste Trading Impact on Public Health and Ecosystem Services in

Developing Countries
Article · January 2016

DOI: 10.4172/2252-5211.1000188
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International Journal Shamim et al. Int J Waste Resources 2015, 5:4
http://dx.doi.org/10.4172/2252-5211.1000188
of Waste Resources
Research Article
Review Article Open
OpenAccess
Access
E-Waste Trading Impact on Public Health and Ecosystem Services in

Developing Countries
Ahsan Shamim1*, Ali Mursheda K2, and Islam Rafiq3
Associate Professor of Environmental Science, Earth and Atmospheric Sciences Department, Metropolitan State University of Denver, CO, USA
1
Adjunct Faculty, Biology Department, Metropolitan State University of Denver, CO, USA
2
Soil, Water & Bioenergy Program Director, Ohio State University South Centers, Piketon, OH ,USA
3
Abstract
During recent year’s accelerated global rise in Waste of Electric and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) and its
indiscriminate disposal is becoming a foremost concern for human health and ecosystem services. With the rise in
concerns on e-waste management and disposals practices, there are attempts to hold back e-waste generation and
processing by a variety of regulatory instrument. Realistically there are substantial deficiencies in regulatory initiatives
on worldwide trade, unlawful trafficking and improper handling of e-wastes. Currently, the center of attention on
recent studies is primarily focusing on linkages of improper handling and consequent health effects on workers in
the developing countries. Several studies emphasized on public health problems and reduced ecosystem services.
An imminent concern of global calamity is expected, unless appropriate measures are not placed immediately into
actions. These concerns demand a need to re-review the facts from recent research studies and suggest effective
plans for collection, handling, disposal and remedy of e-wastes. An across-the-board review of available research
and policy strategy is necessary to find a sustainable solution dealing with the global trafficking and trade of e-wastes.
Keywords: E-waste, trafficking, human health, recycling, regulatory Europe and other countries of the world are overflowing into China
compliance, Basel convention, Waste of electric and Electronic every year, taking advantage of the cheap labor costs and non-stringent
Equipment (WEEE), EU Directives. environmental regulations [7]. It is assessed that one billion computers
and accessories had been manufactured and subsequently discarded in
Introduction 2008, and another one billion would be discarded worldwide within
During last few decades, one special type of waste has raised a next 5 years [8].
great concern in most of the developed- and in developing countries The e-waste is a global environmental problem. Of the 20 million
is the electronic waste. Currently, Waste Electrical and Electronic to 50 million metric tons of e-waste generated annually, it is estimated
Equipment (WEEE) or e-waste is one of the fastest growing waste that 75 to 80% of that is shipped to developing countries especially in
streams in the world [1]. Large quantities of e-waste represent an Asia and Africa for “recycling” and disposal [9]. Several studies have
emerging environmental problem, as electrical and electronic waste reported that a vast majority of the e-wastes is being exported to China
equipment already constitutes more than 5% of municipal waste and is and India. Moreover, other identified hot spots for e-waste destinations
still growing fast in the developed countries [2]. Among the developed are Pakistan, Bangladesh, Ghana, Nigeria and Kenya. However, the
countries, United States produces largest volume of e-waste and it handling and recycling techniques in these countries are often primitive
accounts for 1 to 3% of the total municipal waste generation. While and there is a little esteem for worker’s safety or environmental protection
in European Union (EU), the WEEE increases by16 to 28% every five [8,10], which are illegal under the Basel Convention of 1992 or any
years, which is three times faster than that of average annual municipal other existing national environmental legislations [11]. In contrast, the
solid waste generation. One of the UNEP studies estimate that the total WEEE recycling in developing countries is a daisy chain of processes
amount of WEEE generation in EU ranges from 5 to 7 million metric which are carried out in the informal economy. Informal economies
tons annually or about 14 to 15 kg per capita, which is expected to grow constitute a considerable amount of the gross national product (GNP)
at a rate of 3 to 5% per year [1]. The 2012 UN report projected that by of the developing or economically transitional countries [12].
2017 global e-waste will increase a further 33% from 49.7 million to
65.4 million metric tons annually [3]. The e-waste has raised great concerns as many components in
these products are hazardous, toxic and non-biodegradable. A prolong
The USEPA’s report on e‐waste statistics published in 2011 have
reported that in 2009 there were 438 million new electronic products
sold, 5 million short tons of electronic products were in storage,
2.37 million short tons of electronic products were ready for end-of- *Corresponding author: Shamim A, Associate Professor of Environmental Science,
life management, and 25% of these tons were collected for recycling Earth and Atmospheric Sciences Department, Metropolitan State University of Denver,
CO, USA, Tel: 303-556-4465; E-mail: sahsan@msudenver.edu
[4]. As fastest growing economies in the world, China and India are
also experiencing exponential growth of Electrical and Electronic Received November 11, 2015; Accepted December 22, 2015; Published December
29, 2015
Equipment (EEE) consumption, which currently leads to a large
volume of e-waste generation. In China, more than 5.1 million home Citation: Shamim A, Mursheda AK, Rafiq I (2015) E-Waste Trading Impact
on Public Health and Ecosystem Services in Developing Countries. J Waste
appliances and 4.5 million personal computers are becoming obsolete
Resources 5: 188. doi: 10.4172/2252-5211.1000188
each year [5]. In 2012 alone, China reportedly generated 11.1 million
metric tons of e-waste as compared to 10 million tons of e-waste Copyright: © 2015 Shamim, et al. This is an open-access article distributed under
the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted
produced in the United States [6]. Besides domestic e-waste, being a use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and
developing country, over one million tons of e-waste from the U.S., source are credited.
Int J Waste Resources

ISSN: 2252-5211 IJWR, an open access journal Volume 5 • Issue 4 • 1000188
Citation: Shamim A, Mursheda AK, Rafiq I (2015) E-Waste Trading Impact on Public Health and Ecosystem Services in Developing Countries. J Waste Resources 5:
188. doi: 10.4172/2252-5211.1000188
Page 2 of 12
exposure of these toxic constituents in the environment is almost estimation on future e-waste generation varies from nation to nation,
definite to cause a long term concern for both human and ecosystem however, Khurrum et al. [26] analyzed e-waste problem providing an
health. Based on environmental concerns and scientific findings, estimation of the amount of e-waste produced and recycled every year.
several EU countries banned e-waste from landfills in the 1990s [13]. The estimate leads us to believe that by the year 2015, over 500 million
The concern about the effects of chemical exposure from e-waste units of e-waste will be disposed-off and slightly over 113 million units
products and e-waste recycling on public health is increasing despite are expected to be recycled. Recent rise in electronic sales eliciting
the paucity of scientifically valid research findings. Reported adverse great concern of continued increase in e-waste. An annual report of the
effects of e-waste on public health include: fetal loss, prematurity, low Consumer Electronic Association (CEA) presented a healthy-looking
birth weight, and congenital malformations, abnormal thyroid function growth for sale of consumer electronic products. The US consumer
and thyroid development, neuro-behavioral disturbances, and Geno electronics industry made overall shipment revenues above $ 173
toxicity [10,14]. billion in 2008, while in July 2012 report estimates that industry sales
will surpass $ 206 billion this year. Sales growth is projected to continue
The goal of this review paper is to assess the current status on
into 2013, when industry revenues will likely grow 4.5%, reaching $216
generation and destination of WEEE, regulatory framework and
billion [27]. The global e-waste management market 2011-2016 report
its shortcomings, and likely human health and ecosystem effects
forecasted: The revenue generated from the e-waste management
summarized in related peer-reviewed research studies. This paper will
market is expected to grow from $ 9.15 billion in 2011 to $ 20.25 billion
also review the current sustainable e-waste management schemes, its
in 2016 at a growth rate of 17.2% from 2011 to 2016 [19]. According to a
outcomes, and possible solutions.
new report by Allied Market Research, the global e-waste Management
E-waste Generation, Disposal and Regulations Market would reach an amount of $ 49.4 billion by 2020, registering a
Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of 23.5% during 2014 to 2020
Growth of e-waste and future global forecast [28]. It is quite apparent that in different reports there are discrepancies
and lacking in the correctness of the forecast data, however, most of the
Considerable global growth of e-waste has taken place in recent
reports revealed a just beginning global rise of e-waste. The increase
decades. According to UNEP reports, the estimated amount of annual
in e-waste is the visible symptom of the “make, consume, and dispose”
global e-waste generation is around 20 to 50 million metric tons [15],
culture that has permeated the developed world and is now spreading
about 1 to 3% of the global municipal solid waste production of 1636
across the developing countries [29].
million metric tons per year [16]. A recent UNU statistics indicates that
the total annual global volume of WEEE – also referred to as e-waste – Linkage of e-waste generation and GDP growth
is soon expected to reach 40 million metric tons [17]. There are varying
estimates as to the amount of domestic, regional, and global e-waste The economics of e-waste production and consumption have
produced. According to StEP (Solving the E-waste Problem Initiative), been constructed directly correlated with the GDP growth in most of
the 2012 global generation of e-waste totaled 45.6 million metric tons the countries which was illustrated graphically (Figure 1) in a paper
[18]. On the other hand, the Global E-Waste Management Market presented by Robinson [10]. Lu et al. [30] validated the relationship
report (2011 to 2016) projected that the global volume is expected to between China’s GDP per capita, urbanization rate and e-waste
reach 93.5 million metric tons in 2016 from 41.5 million metric tons in generated from 2001 to 2012 (Figure 2). It is apparent that per capita
2011, at Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of 17.6% [19]. The e-waste generation is even higher than per capita GDP and is almost
USEPA has estimated a 5 to 10% annual increase in the generation of double the urbanization rate, indicating that e-waste generation
e-waste globally. Perhaps even more alarming is that only 5% of that will create a big challenge to the whole country. All these projected
amount is being recovered [4]. growth in the electronics sector clearly paint the grim picture and
raise apprehension of unmanaged and unprocessed e-wastes, unless
A WHO report recognized that the total amount of e-waste produced appropriate recycling measures are undertaken.
is exponentially increasing because of multiple and interlinked factors.
Increasing consumer demand and a high obsolescence rate have led to Background of E-waste Recycling and Trade
frequent and unnecessary purchases of the EEE [20]. One of the major
In 1991, the first electronic recycling system was implemented
driving forces of growing e-waste problem is the short lifespan of most
in Switzerland beginning with the collection of used and obsolete
electronic products - less than two years for computers and cell phones
refrigerators. Over the years, all other electric and electronic devices
[21,22]. Life span of computers has dropped in developed countries
were gradually added to the system. A legislation followed in 1998, and
from six years in 1997 to just two years in 2005. Mobile phones have a
since January 2005, it has been possible to return all electronic wastes
lifespan of even less than two years [23]. The International Association
to the sales points and other collection points free of charge. There
of Electronics Recyclers (2006) projected that the current growth and
are two established PROs (Producer Responsibility Organizations):
planned obsolescence rates of the various categories of consumer
Swiss Economic Association for the Suppliers of Information,
electronics, somewhere in the proximity of 3 billion units which would
Communication and Organizational Technology (SWICO), mainly
be scrapped by 2010 or an average of about 400 million units a year.
handling electronic waste and Swiss Foundation for Waste Management
A recent UN University report estimated: by 2020 e-waste from old
(SENS), mainly responsible for electrical appliances. The total amount
computers in South Africa and China will jump by 200 to 400% and by
of recycled e-waste exceeds 10 kg per capita per year [31]. In the 1990s,
500% in India compared to that of the 2007 levels. In 2012 alone, China
governments in the EU countries, Japan and several US states set up
reportedly generated 11.1 million metric tons of e-waste and the United
e-waste 'recycling' systems, but many countries do not have the capacity
States produced 10 million tons [6]. Even the least developed countries
to deal with the sheer quantity of e-waste they generated annually or
(LDC) like Senegal and Uganda are expecting e-waste flows from
with its hazardous nature [32].
personal computers alone to increase 4 to 8-fold by 2020 [24]. Research
data have shown that electronic waste in Europe is growing at three In many cases, the cost of recycling e-waste exceeds the revenue
times the rate of other municipal wastes [25]. The reliable and precise recovered from materials especially in countries with strict environment

188. doi: 10.4172/2252-5211.1000188
Page 3 of 12
[37]. Demand for e-waste recycling in Asia begins to grow when scrap
yards found they could extract valuable metals such as copper, iron,
silicon, nickel and gold, during the recycling process. A mobile phone,
for example, is 19% copper and 8% iron [32]. Much of the informal
e-waste recycling done in scrap yards and homes is done by children.
The e-waste recycling in China is processed in the informal economy
and constitutes a considerable amount of the gross national product
(GNP) of the country [24]. Both the demand for recycled materials
and the potential economic benefit are the main factors promoting the
development of the disassembly (or recycling) industry for e-wastes
[38]. Most of the literatures reported that informal waste recycling
is carried out by poor and marginalized social groups who resort to
scavenging and waste picking for income and survival [39].
Current Management Practices and Regulatory

Figure 1: Number of PCs per country related to the country’s GDP for 161
Framework
countries (Adapted from or Source: [10]).
E-waste management practices
The existing management practices in US and Europe exerts greater
economic impact on global trade and recycling due to generation of
large volume of e-wastes. So far, legislation on WEEE is mainly driven
by certain EU countries and their directive on WEEE. Most developing
nations in the world are lagging behind in the development of similar
regulations, in particular their enforcement [25]. In particular, various
reports and studies by the mainstream Medias (e.g., Cbsnews.com,
National Geographic, Scientific American)[cited in 40], environmental
organization (e.g., Green peace [16], and researchers [26] have found
primitive waste management practices in India and various countries
in Africa and Asia. Existing e-waste recycling operations in Guiyu have
gained a particular attention [40].
In the United States under most circumstances, e-waste can legally
be disposed-off in a municipal solid waste landfill or recycled with little
environmental regulatory requirements. The USEPA’s 2011 report on
e‐waste shows that 2.4 million metric tons of e‐waste were disposed in
Figure 2: Urbanization rate in China with GDP/Cap, WEEE/cap Adapted 2010 in the United States (Table 1). The USEPA report also elucidated
from or Source: [30].
that residential households store 5 times more computer products (by
weight) than that in the commercial establishments. Approximately 2.37
regulations. Therefore, e-waste mostly ends up dumped in countries million short tons of electronics are ready for end-of-life management,
where environmental standards are low or nonexistent and working representing an increase of more than 120% compared to that in the
conditions are poor. Historically, Asian countries have been a popular 1999s [4]. As shown in Figure 3 that a large number of three major
dumping ground for e-waste, but as regulations have tightened in electronic devices were ready for end of life management in 2009,
these countries over time, this trade has moved to other regions of the which eventually may add up the total volume as those are added in
world, particularly West Africa [33]. Several studies reported that one waste stream. Most recent report published by the USEPA in February
of the illegal recycling nucleus have grown in China over the years is a 2014 shows; US generated 3.42 million metric tons of e‐waste. Of this
place named “Guiyu”. The e-waste recycling reportedly began in Guiyu amount, only 29.2 % was recycled, (up from 10% in 2000). The rest
in the late 1980s. Laqiao is a town of 400,000 people in Taizhou and 71% of the e-waste was landfilled or incinerated [43]. Data presented
currently is the main e-waste recycling site in China. At least 10% of in Figure 4 shows that a slow growth in generation of e-waste as well
the population in Laqiao participates in e-waste recycling which first rise in recycling practices by weight in 2012, i.e. 4.3% increase from
started in the 1970s [18,34]. A report by Toxics Link found that 70% of previous year [42].
the e-waste collected at recycling units in New Delhi, India, was actually Increasing concerns about e-waste landfill disposal have led federal
exported or dumped by developed countries, and about 50 to 80% of and state environmental agencies to encourage recycling in the United
these e-wastes collected for recycling in the western US region are being States. Although there may be limited data regarding how e-waste
exported to Asia [35,36]. About 90% of those e-wastes sent to China for is managed, the consequences of e-waste export to the developing
recycling [35,36]. There are also e-waste recycling sites in Bengaluru countries that handle it improperly are becoming increasingly evident.
and Delhi, India. In West Africa, e-waste recycling sites are located in Reliable data regarding how much e-waste is generated, how it is
Nigeria (Lagos) and Ghana (Accra, Agbogbloshie) [14,18,25]. managed, and where it is processed (either domestically or abroad) is
The e-waste is informally processed in many countries of the world, largely unavailable. Because e-waste recycling is largely unregulated,
but a high-volume of informal e-waste recycling has been reported in virtually no data are available to track its fate [44]. The EU, Japan,
China, Ghana, Nigeria, India, Thailand, the Philippines, and Vietnam South Korea, Taiwan and several US states have introduced legislation
making producers responsible for their end-of-life products. The EU

188. doi: 10.4172/2252-5211.1000188
Page 4 of 12
Total Disposed ** (tons) Trashed (tons) Recycled (tons) Recycling rate (%)
Computers 423,000 255,000 168,00 40%
Monitors 595,000 401,000 194,000 33%
Hard Copy Devices 290,000 193,00 97,000 33%
Keyboards and Mice 67,800 61,400 6,460 10%
Televisions 1,040 864,000 181,000 17%
Mobile Devices 19,500 17,200 2,240 11%
TV peripherals* Not included Not included Not included Not included
Total (in tons) 2,440,000 1,790,000 649,000 27%
What’s included here?

Computer products include CPUs, desktops and portables.
Hard copy devices are printers, digital copiers, scanners, multi-functions and faxes.
Mobile devices are cell phones, personal digital assistants (PDAs), smartphones, and pagers
*Study did not include a large category of e-waste: TV peripherals, such as VCRs, DVD players, DVRs, cable/satellite receivers, converter boxes, game
consoles.
**”Disposed” means going into trash or recycling. These totals don’t include products that are no longer used, but which are still stored in homes and
offices.
Source: EPA, Adapted from [41]
Table 1: E-Waste by the Ton in 2010 –Trashed or Recycled in USA.
has banned the use of certain hazardous substances in electrical

and electronic products from July 2006, to facilitate safer recycling.
However, the e-waste recycling sector in many Asian countries remains
largely unregulated [23]. Restrictions on the use of certain chemicals are
included in the EU Directive on Restrictions on Hazardous Substances
– RoHS [45]. This directive has served as a useful guide for other
developed countries, for example, China has recently drafted similar
administrative measures [46].
International, Regional and national efforts to manage
E-waste
Figure 3: Management of used and end of life electronics in USA during 2009 Global management of WEEE falls under the Basel Convention
[Data sources EPA]. on the Control of Trans- boundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes
and their Disposal. The Convention was opened for signature on 22
March 1989, and enforced on 5 May 1992. Until 2006, the convention
was ratified by 168 nations (Figure 5, Source Basel Convention). The
sixth meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the Basel Convention
(convened in 2002) recognized that the issue of e-waste recycling
required urgent and in-depth supervision, particularly in the Asia-
Pacific regional countries. This program was further strengthened
at the ninth meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the Basel
Convention in 2006, with the adoption of the Nairobi Declaration
on the Environmentally Sound Management (ESM) of Electrical and
Electronic Waste (decision IX/6). By this decision, the secretariat
was requested to facilitate work and activities on the ESM of e-waste,
focusing on the management needs of the developing countries and
Figure 4: EPA data from “Municipal Solid Waste Generation, Recycling and
countries with economies in transition. The Secretariat of the Basel
Disposal in the United States, 2012 ,” Feb 2014; These EPA numbers are for Convention, in consultation with selected countries in this region
“selected consumer electronics” which include products such as TVs, VCRs, and the Basel Convention Regional Centers in China (BCRC China),
DVD players, video cameras, stereo systems, telephones, and computer Indonesia (BCRC-SEA) and the South Pacific (SPREP), developed a
equipment. [Adapted from 42].
proposal for a pilot project on the ESM of e-waste products [47]. Under
the Basel Convention, e-wastes are classified under Annex VIII entries

188. doi: 10.4172/2252-5211.1000188
Page 5 of 12
A1180, A1190, A1150 and A2010 and also under Annex IX as B1110. The taskforce released the National Strategy for Electronics Stewardship
e-wastes are characterized as hazardous wastes under the Convention (“NSES” or “National Strategy”), establishing an innovative, flexible,
when they contain reactive chemical components such as accumulators pragmatic, and yet unified framework to evolve electronics stewardship.
and other batteries, mercury switches, glass from cathode-ray tubes and The actions identified in the NSES provide a roadmap to ensure that
other activated glass, PCB-containing capacitors or when contaminated electronics are designed, purchased, and managed in a more sustainable
with cadmium, mercury, lead or PCBs. Also, precious-metal ash from manner, help protect human health and the environment from harmful
the incineration of printed circuit boards, LCD panels and glass waste effects associated with the unsafe handling and indiscriminate disposal
from cathode-ray tubes and other activated glasses are characterized as of used electronics, and simultaneously promote new and innovative
hazardous wastes. To address the environmental issues related to the technologies of the future [52].
increasing trans-boundary movements of these wastes, and to ensure
Another larger producer of e-waste, the EU countries follow
that their storage, transport, treatment, reuse, recycling, recovery and
the WEEE Directive of the European Parliament and of the Council
disposal is conducted in an environmentally sound manner, a proactive
(2002/96/EC), which entered into force in 2003. Despite extensive
approach is essential. The plastics associated with e-wastes may need to
legislation targeting the e-waste problem, experience in the first few
be covered, under Annex II of the Basel Convention [48]. Despite the
years of implementation of the WEEE Directive has shown that it is
existence of these agreements and conventions, the transfer of WEEE
facing difficulties. Less than half of the collected e-waste is currently
from the United States, Canada, Australia, Europe, Japan and Korea to
treated and reported according to the Directive’s requirements [53].
China, India, Bangladesh and Pakistan remains relatively high [5, 16,
Given that the processing of WEEE involves a variety of problems,
49]. Although Basel Convention regulates e-waste, it does not ban a
European Directive PE-CONS 2/12, which is due to enter into force on
country’s right to export it entirely.
15 August 2018, provides for the grouping of all EEE into six categories
In the United States, concerns regarding the potential impact of instead of the current used ten categories (which remain valid from
exporting e-waste for processing in the developing countries have led August 2012 until August 2018) [54].
to increased scrutiny from members of the public and environmental
Presently, most developing countries are lacking in regulatory
organizations, as well as members of Congress. The US Government
instruments, especially those are the recipients of most of the e-waste
Accountability Office (GAO) stated that concerns have grown, that
products. Among those major e-wastes informal processing hubs, China
some U.S. companies are exporting these e-wastes to the developing
and few African countries are in the process of formulating regulatory
countries, where unsafe and/or unregulated recycling practices can cause
framework to prevent future environmental degradation as a result
serious health hazards and environmental problems. Currently, U.S.
of growing e-waste generation and processing. Recently, the Chinese
regulatory controls do little to stem the export of potentially hazardous
government issued a variety of laws, regulations, policies, standards,
used electronics, primarily due to (a) Narrow scope of regulatory
and technical guidance to manage and control the EEE Production
control (U.S. hazardous waste regulations do not consider most used
and WEEE recycling [55]. Beginning July 1, 2004, collection, storage
electronic products, such as computers, printers, and cell phones, as
and disposal of hazardous wastes including e-waste require business
hazardous, instead, under U.S. law, only exports of CRTs are regulated
licensing [56]. Measures for the Control of Pollution from Electronic
as hazardous waste) and (b) Regulatory controls easily circumvented
Information Products, which is the counterpart of the EU RoHS
(The export of CRTs from the United States in apparent violation of
directive, restricted the use of six hazardous substances (i.e. Pb, Hg, Cd,
the CRT rule seems widespread, despite adoption of the CRT rule in
Cr, PBB or PBDE) during the production, sale, and import of electronic
2006). The USEPA has done a very little to enforce the CRT rule (EPA
information products in China destined for export [25,57]. However,
has taken few steps to enforce the CRT rule since the rule took effect
there are few loopholes in this ordinance. For example, no deadline
in January 2007) [50]. On May 21, 2009, Representative Gene Green
for the restriction has been fixed yet. Moreover, this regulation only
introduced H.R. 2595, a bill that would amend the Solid Waste Disposal
applies to mainland China, not to Hong Kong or Macao; nevertheless,
Act (42 U.S.C. 6921) to establish certain e-waste export restrictions.
Hong Kong has already become the main receiving hub for used
There have also been several congressional hearings on issues associated
electrical and electronic products imported into China [55]. In 2008,
with e-waste management, one of which specifically addressed issues
the ‘Administrative Measures on Pollution Prevention of WEEE’
associated with e-waste exports [51]. In July 2011, a tri-organizational
was enacted in order to prevent the pollution caused by the storage,
transport, disassembly, recycling and disposal of e-waste. This policy
also established a licensing scheme for e-waste recycling companies.
Finally, in January 2011 the ‘Regulation on Management of Recycling
and Disposal of Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment’ was
adopted. This regulation is similar to the EU WEEE Directive (Directive
2012/19/EU) as it makes e-waste collection and recycling mandatory
[58].
Trade and Illegal Export beyond Regulatory Framework

The INTERPOL research by Pollution Crime Working Group
(PCWG) has uncovered that there are huge potential for informal
networks of criminals to profit from the illegal export of e-waste to the
developing countries. The two most common methods of illegal export
are mislabeling containers to conceal e-waste and mixing waste with a
legitimate consignment, such as end-of life vehicles [59]. The primary
Figure 5: Parties in Basel Convention until 2006. (Source: Adapted from Basel
Convention).
driver of this trade is that e-waste contains valuable components, is easy

188. doi: 10.4172/2252-5211.1000188
Page 6 of 12
to source and relatively cheap to ship, and the risk of being caught is higher levels of chemicals and metals in human-derived biological
generally low [60]. In East Asia and the Pacific, the illicit trade appears samples [18,68,69]. What is known is that the pollution generated by
to be driven by recycling for metals to be used in manufacturing. e-waste handling and processing brings about toxic or genotoxic effects
Within the region, China is the main destination for e-waste, despite on the human body, threatening the health not only of workers but also
the fact that the country banned the import of used electronic and of current residents and future generations living in the local
electrical equipment in 2000. Globally, it is estimated that 80% of environment [70]. Most people are uninformed of the possible negative
e-waste is shipped to Asia (including India) – with 90% of that amount impact of the rapidly increasing use of electronic devices. When these
destined for China [61]. An investigation carried out by a UK-based products are placed in landfills or incinerated, they pose health risks
NGO, the Environmental Investigation Agency (EIA), revealed due to the hazardous materials they contain [71]. Computers and
criminal syndicates involved in trafficking e-waste. These groups were display units contain a significant amount of diverse chemical
also involved in other crimes such as theft, human trafficking, fraud, compounds that are hazardous to human health if they are not disposed
drugs and firearms trafficking, and money laundering [62]. Most of the of properly. Monitors and televisions compose 40% of total lead and
studies recognized that illegal trade of e-waste is predominantly driven 70% of all heavy metals found in landfills. These heavy metals and other
by high economic return, and the globalization of the illegal e-waste toxins that can leach into the soil and groundwater from landfills,
trade has increased corporate or “white-collar” crime. East Asia plays a evaporate into the air, and enter the air through incineration [72]. Many
prominent role in the illegal trade of both e-waste and ozone depleting researchers have indicated that different types of chemicals and
substances (ODS). The Asia-Pacific region is a major recipient of illicit pollutants released from e-waste into the environment as a consequence
e-waste. It is estimated that up to 10 million metric tons of e-waste are improper handling and processing [21,35,69,73,74] and they can
traded illegally into and around the region annually, with a potential accumulate in the human body through various pathways. Inhalation of
value of at least US $ 3.75 billion. Considering that the global market contaminated air and dust is believed to be one of most important
for e-waste, including legal exports, has been predicted by the UNEP pathways. Some pollutants such as PCDD/Fs, PCBs, PBDEs, PAHs,
to be valued at around US $ 11 billion by 2009 [1], the scale of the cadmium, chromium, lead, and arsenic have been identified in
estimate of US $ 3.75 billion of illegal e-waste in East Asia is reasonable atmospheric particles in- and around the e-waste dismantling areas in
[63]. A presence of the informal economy makes solid estimates of China [21,69,75]. Long-range transport of pollutants has also been
the value for the sector difficult. In another report by the UNEP using observed, which suggests a risk of secondary exposure in remote areas.
an estimate previously used by the INTERPOL of an average value of Atmospheric pollution due to burning and dismantling activities seems
e-waste at US $ 500 per metric ton [59], the range of e-waste handled to be the main cause of occupational and secondary exposure [25]. The
informally or unregistered, including illegally, amounts to US $ 12.5 BAN studies have identified a range of potential occupational safety
to 18.8 billion annually [64]. In spite of national and international hazards including silicosis, toxic exposure to dioxins, mercury and
efforts, unaccounted e-waste in USA and EU countries is exported to other metals and carcinogens through inhalation of fumes while
developing countries. Although it is illegal in EU, such exports have processing e-waste or from local drinking water and food sources
been classified as legal recycling by the USEPA [16]. In the case of EU, contaminated by e-waste by-products [76]. The potential adverse health
despite strong legislations, a major source of e-waste which is illegally effects of exposure to e-waste have been reviewed recently and may take
exported and dumped in developing countries. An estimated 75% of the account of changes in lung function, thyroid function, hormone
e-waste generated in the EU, equivalent to 8 million metric tons a year, expression, birth weight, birth outcomes, childhood growth rates, mental
is unaccounted for [65]. It is believed that most of these 8 million metric health, cognitive development, cytotoxicity, and genotoxity [18,37,77]. The
tons were trafficked in several developing countries. The evolution of toxicity of many individual substances found in e-waste is well
crime, even transnational organized crime, in the waste trading sector documented in several studies, however, the toxicity of the mixtures of
is a major threat. Whether the crime is associated with direct dumping substances likely to be encountered through e-waste recycling is less
or unsafe waste management, it is creating multi-faceted consequences well known. Heavy metals and halogenated compounds appear to have
that must be addressed urgently [64]. The first INTERPOL operation a major influence on public health [18,57]. Direct exposure entails skin
targeting the illegal trade of e-waste resulted in the seizure of more contact with harmful substances, the inhalation of fine and coarse
than 240 metric tons of electronic equipment and electrical goods and particles, and the ingestion of contaminated dust. Individuals who
the launch of criminal investigations into some 40 companies involved directly engage in e-waste recycling with poor protection incur high
in all aspects of the illicit trade [66]. Despite empirical data suffering levels of direct, occupational exposure [18,34,78]. In most of the
from high uncertainties, the scale of the e-waste trade, its impacts recycling operations involve burning the plastic coverings of materials
across spheres, and its links to crime are difficult to contest. Although to extract metals for scrap, openly burning circuit boards to remove
the crime itself often involves less structured and centralized groups solder or soaking them in acid baths to strip them for gold or other
than other crimes, the severity of its impacts and its relation with other metals. Acid baths are then dumped into surface water which severely
crimes suggest the seriousness of this issue [58]. impact fresh water ecosystems. Despite the fact that uncontrolled open
strong acid leaching of e-waste is officially banned and considered
Environmental and Human Health Impact illegal, this practice is on-going in Guiyu, China. One such operation
Globalization of e-waste has adverse environmental and public was identified during field sampling. Data presented in Table 2 have
health implications as the developing countries face economic shown show comparison of e-waste processing site in China with some
challenges and lack the infrastructure for proactive management of riverine systems in Australia [79] and the USA [80]. Data indicated that
hazardous wastes [67]. The degree of hazard posed to workers and the two rivers in Guiyu, Lianjian and Nanyang were considerably enriched
environment varies greatly depending on the individuals involved and with Cd, Co, Cu, Ni, Pb and Zn. The Pearl River Economic Zone is one
the nature of operations. The short- and long-term effects of exposure of the largest light industrial bases in China, and ‘‘dissolved’’ metal
to hazardous e-wastes are not fully understood, however, there are concentrations in urban and rural beaches of the Pearl River were
research conducted on the association between e-waste exposure and determined by Ouyang et al. [81]. It was found that Nanyang river of
Guiyu was noticeably more polluted with Cd, Co, Cu, Ni, Pb and Zn

188. doi: 10.4172/2252-5211.1000188
Page 7 of 12
Cd Pb Co Cu Ni Zn
Locations (Mean ± (Mean ± (Mean ± (Mean ± (Mean ± (Mean ± Refs
SD) SD) SD) SD) SD) SD)
0.091 ± 1.48 ± 0.86 ± 7.80 ± 30.6 ±
Lianjiang, Guiyu 36.6 ± 6.2 Coby S et al., 2007[82]
0.010 0.09 0.096 1.70 4.2
0.315 ± 1.81 ± 3.62 ± 50.8 ± 106 ±
Nanyang, Guiyu 52.4 ± 7.6 Coby S et al., 2007 [82]
0.032 0.30 0.82 10.0 10
0.045a
(0.009- 0.24 0.81a 0.88a Markich and
Hawkesbury-Nepean 0.111a 0.26
0.111)b (0.16- (0.20- (0.21- Brown, 1998[79]
River, Australia (0.027-0.321) (0.18-0.39)
0.35) 2.13) 2.37)
Gobeil
St. Lawrence
0.022 0.0644 0.062 0.996 1.767 0.812 et al., 2005[80]
River Mouth, USA
0.127
0.577 0.418 Ouyang
Pearl River (Urban), (0.010- 13.96 28.57 61.847
(0.10- (0.050- et al., 2006[80]
China 1.340)b (1.20-95.41)b (0.98-178.89)b (1.74-706.25)b
2.64)b 2.230)b
0.041
Pearl River (Rural), 0.429 0.122 Ouyang
(0.01- 5.358 7.016 6.008
China (0.14- (0.04- et al., 2006[81]
0.13)b (1.28-21.65)b (0.35-29.78)b (2.38-14.21)b
1.81)b 0.34)b
Table 2: Comparison of dissolved metal concentration in freshwater at Guiyu, Australia and USA (µg/L) Data Source: Adapted from source [82].
a
Geometric mean, b Range
than that of the urbanized region of the Pearl River, suggesting a diseases [25]. Moreover, there has been a surge in cases of leukemia and
significant discharge of these metals in Nanyang [82]. Figures 6 and 7 high concentrations of lead in blood reported [57]. According to the
also show the higher concentration of heavy metal Pb, Cd, Co, Cu, Ni China Labor Bulletin, e-waste recycling activities have contributed to
and Zn concentrations presented in the study by Coby et.al, and also elevated blood lead levels in children and high incidence of skin
data adapted from other studies cited in [82]. Several studies attempted damage, headaches, vertigo, nausea, chronic gastritis, and gastric and
to establish a link between (direct and indirect) children workers in duodenal ulcers [88]. Due to the existence of numerous e-wastes
e-waste facilities and their health impact. It is currently hard to estimate recycling sites in the Guiyu region is believed to be one of the most
to what extent children work specifically on e-waste disposal sites; heavily chromium-polluted areas in China. Several research studies
however, many studies reported that children’s comprising a significant focused on levels of chromium concentrations among children and its
proportion of all workers on these sites. The difficulty in estimation consequent impacts on neonates. Li et al. [89] found that Umbilical
results largely from a lack of data segregation for e-waste, as a cord blood chromium levels (UCBCLs) in neonates from Guiyu city
considerable knowledge base exists for child laborers working as had several folds higher than the normal values. A significant difference
“scavengers” or “waste-pickers” [83]. One case study cited in [83] was in UCBCLs in neonates was observed between Guiyu group and the
led by Cuadra (2005) specifically investigated heavy metals exposure of control group. Based on their study, the authors concluded that,
child scavengers in the city of Managua, Nicaragua. Blood analysis of although the UCBCLs of neonates in 2007 had somewhat decreased
children, who worked as scavengers, showed that the children working compared with that of 2006, it was still a serious threat to neonates'
at the waste disposal site had higher levels of lead in their blood health around the e-waste recycling areas [86]. In another study
compared with the non-working reference groups. Among the child conducted by Xijin et al. [90] a total of 149 children from Guiyu and
workers at the waste disposal site, as many as 28% had blood lead levels 146 from Chendian of the subjects enrolled in 2008 completed the
greater than the community action level of 100 µg/L recommended by questionnaires. The study found that the blood chromium levels in
the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) [84]. Two other children corresponded to e-waste-related factors, such as occupation of
studies have reported elevated body loadings of heavy metals [85] and either parent in, using the house as an e-waste facility, and residence
persistent toxic substances in children and e-waste workers, respectively, adjacent to e-waste workshops. The median blood chromium in
in Guiyu [86]. Huo et al. [85] studied 165 children in Guiyu and 61 children, whose house was used as family workshops was 45.2 μg/L,
children in Chendian and measured their blood lead levels (BLLs). As whereas blood chromium in children’s house not as a family workshop
expected, BLLs among Guiyu children were much higher than those in was 31.1 μg/L. Similarly, children to born to parents engaged in work
the children of Chendian (p<0.01). Among Guiyu children, 135 (81.8%) related to e-waste recycling and residence adjacent to e-waste
had BLLs >10 μg/dL, whereas 23 (37.7%) in Chendian (p<0.01) had workshops, in comparison with those not related or adjacent to e-waste,
high levels. Among 135 (81.8%) Guiyu children with elevated BLLs, had higher blood chromium levels. Besides the above mentioned ones,
62% and 20% had BLLs >10 μg/dL and 20 μg/dL respectively, but lead numerous studies imported negative impacts of heavy metals pollution
levels >45 μg/dL were not found in any children’s blood. The BLLs of on residents around the e-waste processing sites and workers. Study by
children working in Guiyu increased somewhat with age (p<0.01); Fu et al., [73] focused on resident dietary intake of heavy metals from
older children tended to have higher BLLs than the younger ones. The rice sources and compared the tolerable daily intakes stipulated by the
same study found no evidence for the association in lead concentrations FAO/WHO standards [91] with the mean estimated daily intakes. Lead
or prevalence of elevated BLLs differentiated by sex (both at p>0.05). intake data was recorded (3.7 µg/day.kg.bw) slightly higher than the
Compared to a study by Luo et al. [87] on children aged 1 to 5-year FAO prescribed tolerable intake of (3.6 µg/day.kg.bw). Another research
living in Shantou City (30 km from Guiyu), the average BLL was 7.9 conducted by Zheng et al. [92] indicated that daily intake of heavy
(3.6 μg/dL; approx. 2-time lower than that in Guiyu children. In Guiyu, metals from several food sources (chicken, fish, pork, rice and
it is estimated that about 80% of the children suffer from respiratory vegetables), house dust and groundwater. The study observed the

188. doi: 10.4172/2252-5211.1000188
Page 8 of 12
health impacts focusing on heavy metal levels in blood, impacts of

chromium exposure in neonates, effect on chromosomal aberration,
BFR and thyroid hormones, elevated body burdens of PBDEs, Dioxin
and PCBs, lung of children, etc. A greater part of the research attempted
to establish a likely link between human health impact and the
contributing pollutants from e-waste processing practices. Even so,
there are concerns among researchers and policy makers to establish
the direct coherent link between data and health impacts. A group of
biomedical researchers published review paper in the Lancet Global
Health in 2013. After rigorous screening, a sample of 165 studies were
considered and assessed for eligibility. Among those 23 papers reported
Figure 6: Comparison of Pb and Cd concentration in river waters Data associations between exposure to e-waste or waste electrical and
Source: Adapted from source [82]. electronic equipment and physical health, mental health,
neurodevelopment, and learning outcomes. After comprehensive
review of those studies, the group made a note of caution that few
epidemiological data, weak associations, inconsistent findings across
studies, and poor understanding of biological mechanisms preclude the
establishment of a causal relation between exposure to e-waste and
adverse health outcomes in the assessment of evidence by conventional
epidemiological approaches. However, the widespread production and
use of electronic and electrical equipment, the increasing contamination
of the environment, and the persistence and bioaccumulation of these
chemical components and their residuals warrant special consideration
that e-waste is an emerging public health concern. Evidence suggests
that WEEE is significantly increasing incidences of physical injuries
and chronic disease, threatening not just workers but also current
residents and future generations [37]. These opinions clearly imitate
Figure 7: Comparison of Co, Cu, Ni and Zn concentration in river waters Data
others views that there is a greater need to pursue cohesive and
Source: Adapted from source [82]. integrated research to establish a clear link between exposures in
e-waste processing and human health impact.
higher daily intake, with serious health risks, particularly among the Discussion
children. While Li et al. [93] evaluated the impacts of heavy metals on Challenges and opportunities ahead
neonate’s health; their study determined the levels of placental cadmium
and cord blood cadmium. Among the 423 mothers included in the In future, managing e-waste in a sustainable approach embodies
study from 2004 to 2007, a sample of 289 participants lived in Guiyu a wide variety of challenges as well as opportunities for major
(exposed group) and 134 lived in Chaonan, located 10 km from Guiyu stakeholders e.g., consumers, businesses and national governments.
(control), and had never been exposed to e-waste pollution. The median However, achieving sustainability goal is not a smooth horizontal
placental cadmium was higher for Guiyu neonates than for the controls path of transition but possible if pragmatic strategies entails awareness
(3.61 vs. 1.25μg/L), with 25.6% of Guiyu subjects exhibiting a median campaign, availability of technical tools and training programs,
cord blood cadmium that exceeded the safety limit defined by the and regional and global cooperation of all actors. There is a greater
WHO (5 μg/L), as compared with 14.2% of control neonates (p<0.01). and urgent need for political pledge for integration of existing
In Guiyu, the mean placental cadmium was higher than that for controls fragmental approaches through committed financial mechanism. As
(0.17 ± 0.48 vs. 0.10 ± 0.11 μg/g at p<0.05). The high levels of placental stated in ILO report that, e-waste is a significant cross-cutting issue
cadmium and cord blood cadmium were significantly associated with with global significance, and it therefore requires a cross-sectoral
parents’ occupational and environmental exposure to e-waste recycling implementation. Many stakeholders are involved, including industry
pollutants. Therefore, elevated chromium levels in neonates were players, governments, customs authorities, regulatory agencies,
significantly correlated with improper e-waste recycling and disposal intergovernmental organizations, non-governmental organizations and
and its consequent effects on the environment and human health civil societies. What is needed is a range of interventions, international
hazards. In their recent review paper Qingbin and Jinhui [94] reported cooperation and goal-oriented actions on e-waste [83].
that although many studies have estimated the potential daily intakes of
Recently, the “2013 Geneva Declaration on E-Waste and Children’s
the heavy metals in e-waste recycling sites, it should be noted that the
Health” was published to raise awareness of human health risks by
use of data generated in surveys to estimate dietary exposure, inhalation,
exposures to e-waste. Due to the broad scope and inherent global
soil/dust ingestion and dermal exposure would likely overestimate the
nature of these issues, appropriate solutions are challenging to find
actual exposure. There are several other factors that can affect the daily
[108]. In contrast, Schluep et al. [24] acknowledged that although the
intake. The environmental impacts associated with WEEE have
current data presented are alarming, the situation could be improved
translated directly into a serious public health threat. Many of these
rapidly by the implementation of more benign recycling techniques
threats are already apparent in medical diagnoses and public health
and the development and enforcement of WEEE-related legislation
research. Some long-term risks may be yet to develop, and will still
at the national level, including prevention of unregulated WEEE
needs better understanding [83]. A large number of researches
exports from industrialized countries. Several national, regional and
[85,89,95-107] have produced significant amount data on human

188. doi: 10.4172/2252-5211.1000188
Page 9 of 12
global schemes are in place to keep in check the challenges of e-waste.

Fewer options offer a step forward towards sustainable solution e.g.,
Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR), Waste Take back, efforts to
control illegal trafficking and StEp program to better coordinate global
management of e-waste.
EPR/E-waste takeback
Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR), as a principle, emerged
in academic circles in the early 1990s. It is generally seen as a policy
principle that requires manufacturers to accept responsibility for all
stages in a product’s lifecycle, including EoL management. There are
three primary objectives of the EPR principle: Manufacturers shall be Figure 8: Flow of materials and finances in the Swiss e-waste management
system, Source: Adapted from [111].
incentivized to improve the environmental design of their products
and the environmental performance of supplying those products;
Products should achieve a high utilization rate; and Materials should Another successful effort is the establishment of StEp, which
be preserved through effective and environmentally-sound collection, became active in 2007, is coordinated by the UN University, the think-
treatment, reuse, and recycling. Often EPR is narrowly defined as to tank and research arm of the UN that hosts the Step Secretariat. Since
be almost a synonym with a mandatory take-back system or some sort commencement, the (StEP) initiative in solving the e-waste problem
of financial responsibility. The establishment of feedback loops from is well positioned to make a difference towards the development and
the downstream EoL management into the upstream design phase is at practical implementation of sustainable solutions. One of the
the core of the EPR principle, and is what can distinguish EPR policies pragmatic initiatives of StEp is to bring major stockholders on board
from the implementation of a mere take-back system [29]. Gregory e.g., IGO’s, industry, governments, NGOs, environmental groups and
et al. [109], proposed e-waste take-back system as means of solution, academia to achieve common goals of developing and implementing
whose main functions are collection, processing, system management, e-waste strategies. The shared expertise and common vision of
and financing scheme. Meanwhile, several examples of current system StEp’s members focus on seven key areas: Reducing the materials
models have been presented in the United States (such as California, used in manufacturing; Reusing equipment or components when
Maine, and Minnesota), and Belgium, France, and Germany, in the practical; Refurbishing when possible; Recovering materials from
EU. Even though some successful stories of e-waste take-back system obsolete equipment; Recycling the biggest possible level of materials;
currently exist, but several challenges still remain unresolved including Developing policy recommendations for sustainable solutions and
(i) how to balance the harmonization between manufacturers and Administer trainings for key stakeholder groups. StEP’s five Task Forces
recyclers with respect to finance, operations, technologies, market, and are advancing the e-waste agenda on many fronts. StEp takes a life-cycle
so forth?, (ii) how to deal with different business models of stakeholders approach to the global e-waste dilemma looking at the areas policy,
from various industries?, (iii) how to determine the number of policy redesign, reuse, recycle and capacity building. For 2014 and 2015, Step
in law, leaving others to be industrial standards?, and (iv) how to members have agreed to work on six projects to remaining Task Force
ensure that obligations are met by the stakeholders? [26]. Up until work. Each project is led by two Step members, usually one representative
now, few developed countries took initiatives to embrace EPR for from industry and one non industry actor [6]. Global initiatives have
e-waste management with some success, while challenges still remains already been enacted at both the voluntary standard and regulatory
to achieve complete realization of EPR principles. Over 25 nations levels in recognition of the importance in the responsible management
have some form of EPR program. EPR is most commonly applied of e-waste [113]. Over the past decade, China has made great advances
for packaging waste, the most famous being Germany’s packaging to advocate better e-waste collection and recycling in both public and
ordinance. However, batteries, electronic and electrical appliances and private sectors. There is a visible increase in domestic and foreign
automobiles are also increasingly scrutinized under EPR programs. investments into recycling field, accompanied by encouraged transfer
Electronic and electrical products are a major focus of EPR policies of international recycling technologies and western waste management
around the world [110] especially in Europe, where over the last couple principles [114]. Under the auspices of EU, the UN-StEp program
of years, several countries have favored an EPR based e-waste policy. at different steps (e.g., capacity building, policy intervention) are
One of the holistic EPR strategies has implemented in Switzerland: over undergoing in several Asian and African countries. At this outset as one
10 years of success in a close loop system – very little waste into land-fill of the largest producers and processor of e-waste, China necessitates to
and 75% of the material was returned to the raw materials cycle. Figure fill-up the loophole of their regulatory instruments and be proactive
8 illustrates the circular flow of materials aims to optimize a closed loop in collaborating with the global community to deal with massive
material cycle, with the raw materials converted to finished EEE going e-waste related environmental issues. A schematic diagram of global
through the retail and consumption stages and then at the end-of-life cooperation is proposed in Figure 9. Minute details for the suggested
being collected and recycled to be put back into the production of new global cooperation may be debatable, the contemplations suggested
goods [111]. Some rapidly emerging economies, such as China, India above for the life cycle of electronics has to be improved significantly
and Indonesia have started to develop EPR programs even though to avoid an accelerated loss of scarce raw materials, emission of toxics
these are generally not yet fully implemented and functioning. Malaysia into the environment, and most importantly to protect human health
and Thailand are also embarking the path towards EPR for e-waste, and ecosystem services.
although these initiatives generally rely on voluntary participation of
producers [112]. Conclusion
Emergence of StEP E-waste is omnipresent. It is characterized by its unusual chemical
composition and the difficulties associated with determining its mass

188. doi: 10.4172/2252-5211.1000188
Page 10 of 12
material market must be established.

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E-Waste Trading Impact on Public Health and Ecosystem Services in

Article · January 2016

Shamim Ahsan Mursheda Ali

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E-Waste Trading Impact on Public Health and Ecosystem Services in

Int J Waste Resources

Int J Waste Resources

Current Management Practices and Regulatory

Int J Waste Resources

Computers 423,000 255,000 168,00 40%

Monitors 595,000 401,000 194,000 33%

Hard Copy Devices 290,000 193,00 97,000 33%

Keyboards and Mice 67,800 61,400 6,460 10%

Televisions 1,040 864,000 181,000 17%

Mobile Devices 19,500 17,200 2,240 11%

TV peripherals* Not included Not included Not included Not included

Total (in tons) 2,440,000 1,790,000 649,000 27%

What’s included here?

has banned the use of certain hazardous substances in electrical

Int J Waste Resources

Trade and Illegal Export beyond Regulatory Framework

Int J Waste Resources

Int J Waste Resources

Int J Waste Resources

health impacts focusing on heavy metal levels in blood, impacts of

Int J Waste Resources

global schemes are in place to keep in check the challenges of e-waste.

Int J Waste Resources

material market must be established.

2. UNEP DEWA/GRID-Europe (2005) E-waste, the hidden side of IT equipment’s

3. UNU, (2013) Solve the E-waste Problem (StEP), Massachusetts Institute of

4. EPA 530-S-11-001, May (2011) “Electronics Waste Management in the United

5. Terazona A, Murakami S, Abe N, Inanc B, Moriguchi Y, et al. (2006), Current

6. StEP initiative, StEP Annual Report (2013/14).

8. Ladou J, and Lovegrove S (2008) Export of electronics equipment waste. Int J

Int J Waste Resources

Int J Waste Resources

95. Guo Y, Huo X, Li Y, Wu K, Liu J, Huang J, et al. (2010) Monitoring of lead,

96. Guo Y, Huo X, Wu K, Liu J, Zhang Y, et al. (2012) Carcinogenic polycyclic

97. Han G, Ding G, Lou X, Wang X, Han J, et al. (2011) Correlations of

Int J Waste Resources

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