CANTUBA, CASSANDRA B.

BUILDING TECHNOLOGY 3
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CONCRETE
Basic ingredients of concrete
Concrete is a mixture of cement, water, fine aggregate (sand) and coarse aggregate
(gravel or crushed rocks) in which the cement and water have hardened by a chemical
reaction – hydration – to bind the nearly (non - reacting) aggregate.

The importance of the ingredients should be known before there are used in cement
concrete.

Cement
Cement is binding material in the cement concrete. This concrete is used for different
engineering works where strength and durability are of prime importance.
Functions of cement:
· It fills up voids existing in the fine aggregate and makes the concrete impermeable.
· It provides strength to concrete on setting and hardening.
· It binds the aggregate into a solid mass by virtue of its setting and hardening properties
when mixed with water.

Aggregate
Aggregates are used in two size groups to provide good quality of concrete:
· Fine aggregate (sand) particle size less than 4.75mm
· Coarse aggregate – Particle size more than 4.75mm

Fine aggregate (sand):

Sand consists of small angular or rounded grains of silica. Sand is commonly used as the
fine aggregate in cement concrete. Both natural and artificial sands are used for this
purpose.
Functions of sand:
1. It fills the voids existing in the coarse aggregate.
2. It reduces shrinkage and cracking of concrete.
3. By varying the proportion of sand concrete can be prepared economically for
any required strength
4. It helps in hardening of cement by allowing the water through its voids.
5. To form hard mass of silicates as it is believed that some chemical reaction
takes place between silica of sand and constituents of cement.
Requirements:
1. Fine aggregate should consist of coarse angular sharp and hard grains.
2. It must be free from coatings of clay and silt.
3. It should not contain any organic matter.
4. It should be free from hygroscopic salt.
5. It should be strong and durable and chemical inert.
6. The size of sand grains should pass through 4.75mm sieve and should be
entirely retained on 75 micron sieve.
Coarse aggregate:
Functions of coarse aggregates:
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1. Coarse aggregate makes solid and hard mass of concrete with cement and
sand.
2. It increases the crushing strength of concrete.
3. It reduces the cost of concrete, since it occupies major volume.
Requirements:
1. Coarse aggregate used may be crushed stone, gravel and broken bricks.
2. Crushed stone: It is an excellent coarse aggregate provided. It is obtained by
crushing granite, sandstone and close grained limestone.
3. Crushed granite chips are commonly and advantageously used in reinforced
cement concrete.
4. Broken bricks well burnt and over burnt bricks are broken into suitable size and
used as aggregate. It should be well watered before its use. Broken bricks are
used as aggregate for concrete in foundations and under floors.
5. But generally crushed stone is only used as coarse aggregate.

Water
The water is used in concrete plays an important part in the mixing, laying compaction
setting and hardening of concrete. The strength of concrete directly depends on the
quantity and quality of water is used in the mix.
Functions of water:
1. Water is only the ingredient that reacts chemically with cement and thus setting
and hardening takes place.
2. Water acts as a lubricant for the aggregate and makes the concrete workable.
3. It facilitates the spreading of cement over the fine aggregate.

Concrete admixtures
Concrete admixtures are added to change the properties of concrete to make it function
as required.
Admixtures are used to modify properties of both fresh and hardened concrete.
Functions of admixtures to modify fresh concrete properties:
a) To increase workability without increasing water content or to decrease the water
content at the same workability.
b) To retard or accelerate both initial and final setting times.
c) To reduce or prevent settlement.
d) To create slight expansion in concrete and mortar.
e) To modify the rate or capacity for bleeding or both.
f) To reduce segregation of concrete, mortars and grouts.
g) To improve penetration and or pump ability of concrete, mortars and grouts.
h) To reduce rate of slump loss.
Functions of admixtures to modify hardened concrete properties:
a) To retard or reduce heat generation during early hardening.
b) To accelerate the rate of strength development.
c) To increase the strength of concrete or mortar (Compressive, tensile or flexural).
d) To increase the durability or resistance to severe conditions of exposure including the
application de-icing salts.
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e) To decrease the capillary flow of water.

f) To decrease the permeability to liquids.
g) To control the expansion caused by the reaction of alkalis with certain aggregate
constituents.
h) To produce cellular concrete.
i) To increase the bond of concrete to steel reinforcement.
j) To increase the bond between old and new concrete.
k) To improve impact resistance and abrasion resistance.
CIV-E1010 Building Materials Technology (5 cr) (6/31)
l) To inhibit the corrosion of embedded metal.
m) To produce coloured concrete or mortar.
The classification of concrete admixtures is presented as follow:
1. Set-Retarding:
Set retarding concrete admixtures are used to delay the chemical reaction that takes
place when the concrete starts the setting process.
2. Air-Entrainment:
Air entrained concrete can increase the freeze-thaw durability of concrete. Other benefits
from this admixture are:
• High resistance to cycles of wetting and drying
• High degree of workability
• High degree of durability
The entrained air bubbles act as a physical buffer against the cracking caused by the
stresses due to water volume augmentation in freezing temperatures. Air entrainers are
compatible with almost all the concrete admixtures. Typically for every 1% of entrained
air, compressive strength will be reduced by about 5%.
3. Water-Reducing:
Water-reducing admixtures are chemical products that when added to concrete can
create a desired slump at a lower water cement ration than what is normally designed.
Water-reducing admixtures are used to obtain specific concrete strength using lower
cement content.
4. Accelerating:
Accelerating concrete admixtures are used to increase the rate of concrete strength
development, or to reduce concrete setting time. Calcium chloride could be names as the
most common accelerator component; however, it could promote corrosion activity of
steel reinforcement. Accelerating admixtures are especially useful for modifying the
properties of concrete in cold weather.
5. Shrinkage Reducing:
Shrinkage reducing concrete admixtures are added to concrete during initial mixing. This
type of admixture could reduce early and long term drying shrinkage.
6. Super plasticizers:
The main purpose of using super plasticizers is to produce flowing concrete with very high
slump in the range of 200 - 250 mm to be used in heavily reinforced structures and in
placements where adequate consolidation by vibration cannot be readily achieved. The
other major application is the production of high-strength concrete at w/c's ranging from
0.3 to 0.4. High workability concrete
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CIV-E1010 Building Materials Technology (5 cr) (7/31) containing super plasticizer can
be made with a high freeze-thaw resistance, but air content must be increased relative to
concrete without super plasticizer.
7. Corrosion-Inhibiting:
Corrosion-inhibiting admixtures fall into the specialty admixture category and are used to
slow corrosion of reinforcing steel in concrete. Corrosion inhibitors can significantly
reduce maintenance costs of reinforced concrete structures throughout a typical service
life of 30 – 40 years.

DIFFERENT CONCRETE MIXTURES

Concrete mix design is the process of finding the proportions of concrete mix in terms
of ratios of cement, sand and coarse aggregates. For e.g., a concrete mix of proportions
1:2:4 means that cement, fine and coarse aggregate are in the ratio 1:2:4 or the mix
contains one part of cement, two parts of fine aggregate and four parts of coarse
aggregate. The concrete mix design proportions are either by volume or by mass. The
water-cement ratio is usually expressed in mass.
Types of Concrete Mix Design
1. Nominal Mixes
In the past the specifications for concrete prescribed the proportions of cement, fine and
coarse aggregates. These mixes of fixed cement-aggregate ratio which ensures
adequate strength are termed nominal mixes. These offer simplicity and under normal
circumstances, have a margin of strength above that specified. However, due to the
variability of mix ingredients the nominal concrete for a given workability varies widely in
strength.
2. Standard mixes
The nominal mixes of fixed cement-aggregate ratio (by volume) vary widely in strength
and may result in under- or over-rich mixes. For this reason, the minimum compressive
strength has been included in many specifications. These mixes are termed standard
mixes.
3. Designed Mixes
In these mixes the performance of the concrete is specified by the designer but the mix
proportions are determined by the producer of concrete, except that the minimum cement
content can be laid down. This is most rational approach to the selection of mix
proportions with specific materials in mind possessing more or less unique
characteristics. The approach results in the production of concrete with the appropriate
properties most economically. However, the designed mix does not serve as a guide
since this does not guarantee the correct mix proportions for the prescribed performance.
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For the concrete with undemanding performance nominal or standard mixes (prescribed
in the codes by quantities of dry ingredients per cubic meter and by slump) may be used
only for very small jobs, when the 28-day strength of concrete does not exceed 30 N/mm2.
No control testing is necessary reliance being placed on the masses of the ingredients.
PROPORTIONING CONCRETE
The process of relative proportions of cement, sand, coarse aggregate and water, so as
to obtain a concrete of desired quality is known as the proportioning of concrete.
The proportions of coarse aggregate, cement and water should be such that the resulting
concrete has the following properties:
1. When concrete is fresh, it should have enough workability so that it can be placed
in the formwork economically.
2. The concrete must possess maximum density or in the other words, it should be
strongest and most water-tight.
3. The cost of materials and labour required to form concrete should be minimum.
The determination of the proportions of cement, aggregates and water to obtain the
required strengths shall be made as follows:
a) By designing the concrete mix, such concrete shall be called design mix concrete, or
b) By adopting nominal mix, such concrete shall be called nominal mix concrete.
 Design mix concrete is preferred to nominal mix.
 Concrete of each grade shall be analysed separately to determine its standard
deviation.

Standard Deviation

Where, ∆= deviation of the individual test strength from the average strength of n samples.
n = Number of sample test results.

METHODS OF PROPORTIONING CONCRETE

(1) Arbitrary Method
The general expression for the proportions of cement, sand and coarse aggregate is 1 :
n : 2n by volume.
1 : 1 : 2 and 1 : 1.2 : 2.4 for very high strength.
1 : 1.5 : 3 and 1 : 2 : 4 for normal works.
1 : 3 : 6 and 1 : 4 : 8 for foundations and mass concrete works.
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Recommended Mixes of Concrete

The concrete as per IS 456: 2000, the grades of concrete lower than M20 are not to be
used in RCC work.

M10 1:3:6

M15 1:2:4

M20 1 : 1.5 : 3

M25 1:1:2
(2) Fineness Modulus Method:
The term fineness modulus is used to indicate an index number which is roughly
proportional to the average size of the particle in the entire quantity of aggregates.
The fineness modulus is obtained by adding the percentage of weight of the material
retained on the following sieve and divided by 100.
The coarser the aggregates, the higher the fineness modulus.

Sieve is adopted for:

All aggregates : 80 mm, 40 mm, 20 mm, 10 mm, and Nos. 480, 240, 120, 60, 30 and 15.
Coarse aggregates : mm, 40 mm, 20 mm, 10 mm, and No. 480.
Fine aggregates : Nos. 480, 240, 120, 60, 30 and 15.
Proportion of the fine aggregate to the combined aggregate by weight

R=

Where, P = desired fineness modulus for a concrete mix of fine and coarse aggregates.
P₁ = fineness modulus of fine aggregate
P₂ = fineness modulus of coarse aggregate.
(3) Minimum Void Method (Does not give satisfactory result)
The quantity of sand used should be such that it completely fills the voids of coarse
aggregate. Similarly, the quantity of cement used shown such that it fills the voids of sand,
so that a dense mix the minimum voids is obtained.
In actual practice, the quantity of fine aggregate used in the mix is about 10% more than
the voids in the coarse aggregate and the quantity of cement is kept as about 15% more
than the voids in the fine aggregate.
(4) Maximum Density Method: (Not very Popular)

P=100

Where, D = maximum size of aggregate (i.e. coarse aggregate)

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P = percentage of material finer than diameter d (by weight)

d = maximum size of fine aggregate.
A box is filled with varying proportions of fine and coarse aggregates. The proportion
which gives heaviest weight is then adopted.
(5) Water – Cement Ratio Method:
According to the water – cement ratio law given by Abram as a result of many
experiments, the strength of well compacted concrete with good workability is dependent
only on the ratio.
 The lower water content produces stiff paste having greater binding property and hence
the lowering the water-cement ratio within certain limits results in the increased strength.
 Similarly, the higher water content increases the workability, but lower the strength of
concrete.
 The optimum water-cement ratio for the concrete of required compressive strength is
decided from graphs and expressions developed from various experiments.
 Amount of water less than the optimum water decreases the strength and about 10% less
may be insufficient to ensure complete setting of cement. An increase of 10% above the
optimum may decrease the strength approximately by 15% while an increase in 50% may
decrease the strength to one-half.
 According to Abram’s Law water-cement law, lesser the water-cement ratio in a
workable mix greater will be the strength.
 If water cement ratio is less than 0.4 to 0.5, complete hydration will not be secured.
 Some practical values of water cement ratio for structure reinforced concrete
0.45 for 1 : 1 : 2 concrete
0.5 for 1 : 1.5 : 3 concrete
0.5 to 0.6 for 1 : 2 : 4 concrete.
Concrete vibrated by efficient mechanical vibrators require less water cement ratio, and
hence have more strength.
Thumb Rules for deciding the quantity of water in concrete:
(i) Weight of water = 28% of the weight of cement + 4% of the weight of total aggregate
(ii) Weight of water = 30% of the weight of cement + 5% of the weight of total aggregate

DIFFERENT DEFECTS OF CONCRETE MIXTURE

Cracking
Cracking may result from one or more of the following:
1.) Restraint: Restraint of movements brought about by drying shrinkage or thermal
contraction due to poor practice such as:
a.) Contraction joints/construction joints are too far apart
b.) Contraction joints are not deep enough (1/4 slab depth)
c.) Slabs are strongly restrained at perimeters
d.) No isolated joints around columns
e.) No joint at re-entrant angles
f.) Low strength, high w/c ratio
g.) Deficient curing
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h.) Bonding to subterranean structures such as footing pads

2.) Uneven support by a poorly prepared sub-grade, poor drainage, or uneven support
due to curling
3.) Expansive clay in the sub-grade.
4.) Sulfates in sub-grade moisture
5.) Placing concrete over preformed joint filler
6.) Improper jointing and sealing
7.) Structural overloading.
8.) Impact
9.) Disruption from alkali-silica reaction
10.) Disruption from corrosion of reinforcing steel
11.) Freezing and thawing along edges and at corners
12.) Earth movement from contiguous construction.

Crazing and Map Cracking

• Crazing is the development of a network of fine random cracks or fissures on the surface
of concrete or mortar due to shrinkage of the surface layer. Crazing cracks are shallow
(rarely deeper than 3 mm). No significant effect on wear resistance or durability, but
mainly unsightly

Causes
a.) poor or inadequate curing
b.) Too wet mix, excessive floating, or excessive paste
and fines at the surface
c.) Finishing while there is bleed water on the surface
d.) Sprinkling cement on the surface to dry up the bleed
water
e.) Carbonation – chemical reaction between cement and
carbon monoxide, or dioxide.
Prevention
• Start curing as soon as possible
• Use moderate slump
• Reduce the effect of water absorption by the sub-grade
• DO NOT
– Sprinkle or trowel dry cement or cement with fine sand
– Sprinkle water to facilitate finishing
– Perform finishing operation while bleed water is present
– Overwork or over finish the surface
– Cure with water much colder than the concrete
– Allow alternates wetting and drying at early age
– Over use jitterbugs, vibrating screeds and bull-floats
– Allow too much clay and dirt in aggregates

Dusting
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Causes
• Overly wet mixes
• Floating and troweling bleed water into the surface
• Clay, dirt, and organic materials in the aggregate
• Use of dry cement shakes to dry the surface for earlier finishing
• Water applied to the surface by finishers
• Uneven heaters for cold weather protection
• Inadequate curing, especially in dry weather
• Inadequate ventilation in enclosed spaces
• Inadequate protection of the fresh concrete from rain, snow, or drying wind.
Repair
• Sandblast, shot blast or use a high-pressure washer to remove the weak surface layer
• Eliminate dusting by applying hardeners, such as sodium silicate (water glass), or epoxy
sealers, or cement paint.
• In severe cases, place a topping course on durable substrate concrete (may use wet
grinding).

Scaling
• Scaling is a scabrous condition of some surface after exposure to freezing and
thawing, in other words, local flaking or peeling of a finished surface of hardened
concrete as a result of freezing and thawing.
• The depth of scaling is usually less than 3 mm.

Causes
• The use of non-air-entrained concrete or too little entrained air.
• Application of excessive amounts of calcium or sodium chloride deicing salts on
concrete with inadequate strength, air entrainment, or curing.
• Any finishing operation while bleed water is on the surface. Consequently, overworking
the surface will result in high w/c ratio, low strength, and reduction in air content.
• Insufficient curing, results in weak surface skin
• Inadequate thermal protection allowing freezing and thawing at a very early age.
• Causes of blistering that increase vulnerability to scaling

Repair
• Prepare the top surface. The top surface must be clean, sound, rough, and textures
surface.
• Apply a thin bonded resurfacing
– Use Portland cement concrete resurfacing
– Use latex modified concrete resurfacing
– Use polymer-modified cementitious-based repair mortar

Pop outs
• Pop outs are roughly cone-shaped pits in the surface of flatwork after a small piece of
concrete has broken away by internal pressure. This pressure is due to expansion, or
chemical change
• Popout holes range from 10 to 50 mm or more in diameter
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• Popouts usually do not diminish the integrity of concrete flat work

• Popouts are usually unsightly
Protective Measures
• Switching to a non-offending source of aggregate for flatwork, if possible
• Two-course construction, using selected of imported aggregate without popout
potential for the top course
• Prohibiting application of impervious layers which aggravate popout problem
• Using low slump to prevent potential popoutcausing particle from floating.

Blisters
• Blisters are hollow, low-profile bumps on
concrete surface.
Blisters occur whenever the surface does not
allow water/air to escape into the
atmosphere.

Causes
• Sticky concrete mix due to excessive
entrained air, poor aggregate gradation, or
excessive fines
• Excessive fines brought to the surface due to; high slum, over-vibration, over-screeding,
excessive bull floating, or improper floating.
• Job or climate conditions due to, rapid drying or setting, slow setting of the concrete
below the surface, too early finishing, or the sub-grade is cooler than the concrete.

Spalling
• Unlike scaling and blistering, spalling is a deeper penetration of the slab. It may seriously
impair the strength or serviceability of the slab.

Causes
• Insufficient depth of cover over reinforcement.
• Inferior mortar and concrete in the cover over reinforcing steel due to over-wet concrete,
loss of entrained air, inadequate curing, excessive bleeding, improper jointing and
sealing, or sever map cracking
• Poor bonding of two-course floors due to; inferior quality of surface concrete in the base
course, unremoved contamination, differences in shrinkage, drying of the bonding grout
before the top course is placed, or excessive pressure developed at joints.

Cracks in Concrete Basement Walls

Causes
• Temperature and drying shrinkage cracks
• Settlement cracks due to non-uniform support or expansive soil.
• Structural cracks due to backfill and heavy equipment use in the fill process too close to
the walls
• Lack of joints or improper jointing practice.
Prevention
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• Uniform soil support is provided

• Concrete is placed at a moderate slump, no excessive water added at the job site.
• Proper construction practices are followed in terms of drop height, formwork,
waterproofing, drainage, etc.
• Control joints are provided every 20 to 30 ft.
• Backfilling is done carefully
• Proper curing practices are followed

SOURCES

 http://civil.emu.edu.tr/courses/civl284/8%20Mix%20design%20calculations.pdf
 http://courses.washington.edu/cm425/mix.pdf
 https://www.tx-taca.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/06/concrete-mixtures-and-
production.pdf
 http://www.ce.memphis.edu/1112/notes/project_2/PCA_manual/Chap09.pdf
 http://www.pdhsource.com/wp-
content/uploads/20100719_concrete_defects_____causes_and_remedies_seg4
_b.pdf
 https://theconstructor.org/concrete/types-of-concrete-mix-design/5984/
 https://theconstructor.org/concrete/concrete-mix-design-procedure-example-
is456/6005/
 https://theconstructor.org/concrete/methods-of-proportioning-concrete/5283/