Flac

FLAC3D 6.
0
Examples
(an excerpt from FLAC3D Help)
© 2017 Itasca Consulting Group, Inc.

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First Edition (FLAC3D Version 2.1) April 2002
Second Edition (FLAC3D Version 3.0) September 2005
Third Edition (FLAC3D Version 3.1) December 2006
Fourth Edition (FLAC3D Version 4.0) December 2009
Fifth Edition (FLAC3D Version 5.0) October 2012
Sixth Edition (FLAC3D Version 6.0) April 2017
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FLAC3D 6.0
Precis
This document is a reproduction of the section “Examples” from the FLAC3D
Help. It is provided as a convenience to FLAC3D users who would prefer access
to the documentation in a printable form.
With one exception, there is no significant variance between the material
presented here and that which appears in the FLAC3D Help. In cases of
variance, the difference is either a change made to accommodate format in
going from a screen-based media to one intended for paper, or, since the Help
is updated concurrent to code revisions, that the Help file content is more up-
to-date than this document. In any case of variance between the two,
precedence should always be given to the Help.
Regarding the aforementioned variance: in the Help, the first chapter of the
“Examples” section is a second, repeated presentation of “Tutorials,” a
chapter first presented in the section “FLAC3D Modeling.” The “Tutorials”
material is not reproduced here; it may be found in the PDF for “FLAC3D
Modeling.”
Printing Tip
This document uses a facing pages layout. Users who wish to print the
document are advised that printing double-sided, if possible, will produce the
best result. A double-sided copy can be bound or inserted into a ring-binder.
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FLAC3D 6.0
This Document and Help Hyperlinks
The FLAC3D Help, from which this document is excerpted and produced, has
many cross-reference hyperlinks. These are not reproduced here. Elements in
the body-text of the Help that are hyperlinks are colored dark green in this
document. This convention has been adopted to allow for link identification
within the text of this PDF. To see the matter referenced, however, readers
will need to access the equivalent link in the Help file.
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FLAC3D 6.0
Examples: Table of Contents
Examples: Table of Contents

Example Applications …………………………………………………………………………………… 7
Influence of Slope Curvature on Stability …………………………………………………… 9
Pillar Loads at Intersecting Tunnels ……………………………………………………….. 15
Excavation in a Saturated Soil …………………………………………………………………. 29
Excavation and Support for a Shallow Tunnel ………………………………………….. 39
Grid Generation for Intersecting Tunnels …………………………………………………. 53
Pressurized Cylindrical Cavern ………………………………………………………………… 65
Prediction of Borehole Closure in a Salt Formation ………………………………….. 75
Axial and Lateral Loading of a Concrete Pile ……………………………………………. 87
Undrained Cylindrical Cavity Expansion in a Cam-Clay Medium ……………….. 97
Simulation of Pull-Tests for Fully Bonded Rock Reinforcement ……………… 105
Wheel Load over a Buried Pipe ……………………………………………………………….. 133
Embankment Loading on a Cam-Clay Foundation ………………………………….. 143
Impermeable Concrete Caisson Wall with Pretensioned Tiebacks …………… 153
Dewatered Construction of a Braced Excavation …………………………………….. 177
Installation of a Triple-Anchored Excavation Wall ………………………………… 211
Reinforced Tunnel Excavation ……………………………………………………………… 233
Subsidence above Horizontal Cut …………………………………………………………. 247
Punch Indentation of a Bonded Material ………………………………………………. 253
Sleeved Triaxial Test of a Bonded Material …………………………………………… 267
Verification Problems ……………………………………………………………………………….. 287
Cylindrical Hole in an Infinite Mohr-Coulomb Material ……………………….. 289
Cylindrical Hole in an Infinite Hoek-Brown Medium ……………………………. 301
Rough Strip Footing on a Cohesive Frictionless Material ………………………. 309
Smooth Circular Footing on an Associated Mohr-Coulomb Material …….. 319
Smooth Square Footing on a Cohesive Frictionless Material …………………. 327
Uniaxial Compressive Strength of a Jointed Material Sample ………………… 335
FLAC3D 6.0
Drained and Undrained Triaxial Compression Test
on a Cam-Clay Sample ………………………………………………………………………. 341
Lined Circular Tunnel in an Elastic Medium with Anisotropic Stresses …. 359
Development of Plastic Hinges in a Statically Loaded Beam …………………. 383
Simply Supported Isotropic Rectangular Plate under Combined
Lateral and Direct Loads ……………………………………………………………………. 395
Simply Supported Orthotropic Plate …………………………………………………….. 403
Cylindrical Concrete Vault ……………………………………………………………………. 423
Free Vibration of a Cantilever Beam ……………………………………………………… 435
Simple Slope in Hoek-Brown Material …………………………………………………. 443
FLAC3D 6.0
Example Applications 1
Example Applications
Section Outline
• Influence of Slope Curvature on Stability
• Pillar Loads at Intersecting Tunnels
• Excavation in a Saturated Soil
• Excavation and Support for a Shallow Tunnel
• Grid Generation for Intersecting Tunnels
• Pressurized Cylindrical Cavern
• Prediction of Borehole Closure in a Salt Formation
• Axial and Lateral Loading of a Concrete Pile
• Undrained Cylindrical Cavity Expansion in a Cam-Clay Medium
• Simulation of Pull-Tests for Fully Bonded Rock Reinforcement
• Wheel Load over a Buried Pipe
• Embankment Loading on a Cam-Clay Foundation
• Impermeable Concrete Caisson Wall with Pretensioned Tiebacks
• Dewatered Construction of a Braced Excavation
• Installation of a Triple-Anchored Excavation Wall
• Reinforced Tunnel Excavation
• Subsidence above Horizontal Cut
• Punch Indentation of a Bonded Material
• Sleeved Triaxial Test of a Bonded Material
This section provides documentation on a series of example application problems

that have been solved using FLAC3D. These example applications demonstrate the
various classes of problems to which FLAC3D may be applied.
For a complete list of all illustrative examples in this documentation, refer to

Index: Examples.
The problems in this section represent only a sample of potential applications for
FLAC3D. The examples presented to users are updated on a regular basis. We also
invite users to submit their own examples for inclusion, or inform us of any type
of problem that they would like to see in this section.
FLAC3D 6.0
2 Examples • Example Applications
FLAC3D 6.0
Influence of Slope Curvature on Stability 3
Influence of Slope Curvature on Stability
Problem Statement
Actual slopes are not infinitely long and straight: usually, they are curved in both
plan and elevation. The effect of slope curvature can really only be analyzed with
a three-dimensional model.
Hoek and Bray (1981) observed that the lateral restraint provided by material on
either side of a potential slope failure will increase as the slope becomes more
concave. They recommend that when the radius of curvature of the slope is less
than the height of the slope, the allowed slope angle can be 10° steeper than the
angle suggested by conventional two-dimensional stability analyses. Further, for
radii of curvature greater than twice the slope height, the maximum slope angle
given by a two-dimensional analysis should be used.
The model shown in Figure 1 represents a quarter-section of an open pit. The

height of the slope is 25 m, and the slope angle is 2 vertical to 1 horizontal
(approximately 63°). It is expected that plane-strain conditions will prevail along
the plane y = -30 (see Figure 2), while axisymmetric conditions will be
predominant at the plane x = 0 (see Figure 3).
The free water surface imposed in this problem is shown in Figure 4. This
surface intersects the top of the model 50 m behind the toe of the slope, and
there is seepage on the bottom half of the slope face. This water table, under
steady-state conditions, will lead to the pore-pressure distribution shown in
Figure 5.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 1: “Bathtub” model to evaluate slope curvature.
Figure 2: Vertical plane through model at y = -30.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 3: Vertical plane through model at x = 0.
Figure 4: Free water surface.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 5: Pore-pressure contours.
The strength parameters chosen for this model are selected for comparison of
FLAC3D results to circular failure charts published by Hoek and Bray (1981).
Figure 6 shows which chart to use as a function of the groundwater flow
conditions. In our case, the chart used is number 4. For example, if we assume a
friction angle of 45° (tanϕ = 1) and a factor of safety F = 1, then we can draw a
horizontal line in chart number 4 (see Figure 7) until we intersect the slope angle
of 63°. If we draw a vertical line, we obtain a value of 0.06 for c/γHF. For a
specific weight, γ, of 25,000 N/m3 and a height, H, of 25 m, we obtain a cohesion
of 37.5 kPa.
For our analysis, we select a cohesion value of 100 kPa in order to start with a
stable slope. The value for c/γHtanϕ is then 0.16 and, using Figure 7, the value for
c/γHF is 0.1 and F is 1.61.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 6: Chart number as a function of groundwater flow conditions (adapted

from Hoek and Bray 1981).
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 7: Circular failure chart number 4 (Hoek and Bray 1981).
Modeling Procedure
The FLAC3D model shown in Figure 1 was created interactively using the Building
Blocks pane. The State Record pane was used to convert the result to a data file
called “geometry.f3dat”. The contents of the Building Blocks pane can be be
viewed after restoring any of the resulting data files.
The free water surface is imported from a DXF file. In this case, the DXF file is
created via FISH in the file “create-water.f3dat”, but it could just as easily have
come from any source.
The model is assigned a Mohr-Coulomb material model and several properties:
bulk modulus 200 MPa

shear modulus 100 MPa
FLAC3D 6.0
friction angle 45°

cohesion 100 kPa
tension limit 100 kPa
The mass density of the dry material is 2500 kg/m3, the mass density of the
saturated material is 2600 kg/m3, and gravity is specified at 10 m/sec2 acting in
the negative z-direction. The geometry-count range element is used to assign the
saturated density to zones below the water table surface. Roller boundaries are
placed along the sides of the model, and the bottom of the model is pinned.
The factor of safety is calculated by the strength reduction method using the
model factor-of-safety command. The convergence criteria is changed to a
local-ratio of 1e-3, as this is a stricter condition than the default.
A value of 1.70 is calculated for F. This is slighly higher than the factor of safety
produced by the circular failure chart, which suggests that there is a slight effect
of slope curvature on the stability. The resulting failure surface is depicted by the
displacement contour plot shown in Figure 8; the plot is made after restoring the
file “slopefos-Unstable.f3sav”. This plot shows that a “scoop-shaped” failure
surface develops along the long side of the bathtub, but the slope is stable at the
end.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 8: Displacement contours in the FLAC3D model at the failure state.
This problem was also run with the two-dimensional program FLAC in both
plane-strain mode (see data file “SL-PS.DAT”) and axisymmetry mode (see data
file “SL-AXI.DAT”). The model geometry was created to match that in the
vertical section through the FLAC3D model (see Figure 9).
The calculation for factor of safety in the plane-strain model matches that from
the circular failure chart, F = 1.61. The displacement contour and vector plot at
failure shows a similar failure surface to that from FLAC3D. Compare Figure 8 to
Figure 11, which plots displacement contours and vectors on a vertical plane
through the FLAC3D model at y = -30.
The factor of safety calculation for the axisymmetric model produces a value for
F = 2.35. This further indicates that the greater curvature produces a more stable
slope.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 9: The FLAC model grid.
Figure 10: Displacement contours and vectors for plane-strain FLAC model.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 11: Displacement contours and vectors for FLAC3D model along a vertical
plane at y = -30.
Reference
Hoek, E., and J. W. Bray. Rock Slope Engineering, 3rd Ed. London: The Institute of
Mining and Metallurgy (1981).
Data File
SlopeCurvature.f3dat
;-------------------------------------------------------------
; influence of slope curvature on stability of an open pit
;-------------------------------------------------------------
model new
fish automatic-create off
model title 'Influence of slope curvature on stability of an open pit'
; Model created using Building-Blocks, data file exported from State Record
call 'geometry' suppress
zone generate from-building-blocks set 'CurvedSlope'
FLAC3D 6.0
; initialize gravity
model gravity 10
; Import water table from DXF file.

geometry import 'water.dxf'
zone water density 1000
zone water set 'water'
; assign Mohr Coulomb model and properties

zone cmodel assign mohr-coulomb
zone property bulk 2e8 shear 1e8 friction 45 cohesion 1e5 tension 1e5
; boundary conditions
zone gridpoint fix velocity-x range union position-x 0 position-x 80
zone gridpoint fix velocity-y range union position-y -40 position-y 80
zone gridpoint fix velocity range position-z -15
; Initialize unsaturated density

zone initialize density 2500
; Initialize saturated density below water table
zone initialize density 2600 ...
range geometry-space 'water' count 1 direction (0,0,1)
; initialize stresses
zone initialize-stresses total
; histories
history interval 10
model history mechanical ratio-local
zone history displacement-x position (24.5, -40,25)
zone history displacement-z position (24.5, -40,25)
zone history displacement-x position (24.5, 0,25)
zone history displacement-y position (24.5, 0,25)
zone history displacement-z position (24.5, 0,25)
zone history displacement-y position ( 0,24.5,25)
zone history displacement-z position ( 0,24.5,25)
; calculate fos
model factor-of-safety ratio-local 1e-3
return
FLAC3D 6.0
FLAC3D 6.0
Pillar Loads at Intersecting Tunnels 15
Pillar Loads at Intersecting Tunnels
Problem Statement
The mine layout shown in Figure 1 is representative of the production level in a
mass-caving mining operation. The roadways are usually developed ahead of the
mining and are initially subjected to the in-situ stress state. As mining
progresses, the pillars are submitted to an increased vertical load.
The purpose of this example is to first study the initial response of the
excavation (under in-situ stresses), and to then establish the peak load the
pillars can carry. Also to be determined is how much stronger this pillar is than a
square pillar of the same width and height.
Figure 1: Mine layout.

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FLAC3D 6.0
The initial stress state considered is
σxx = 25 MPa (east-west)
σyy = 30 MPa (north-south)
σzz = 17 MPa (vertical)
The rock mass material properties are found in Table 1.
Table 1: Rock Mass Material

Properties
bulk modulus 14.1 GPa

shear modulus 8.9 GPa
friction angle 35° (peak)
cohesion 4 MPa (peak)
dilation angle 5°
tensile strength 0.5 MPa
The rock mass is fair to good quality mass (Geologic Strength Index, 70)
and behaves as a strain-softening material with a 0.5% critical plastic shear
strain and a total loss of cohesion and a drop in friction angle of five degrees
after a 2% plastic shear strain assuming the resolution of the pillar (number of
zones along the pillar height) is 20.
Modeling Procedure
The FLAC3D model was used to study a quarter-section of a pillar as a result of
symmetry considerations, as indicated in Figure 1. Figure 2 shows the final grid
created using the built-in building-blocks block create tool of FLAC3D.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 2: Final model grid.
The boundary conditions for the initial response are roller boundaries along the
sides and bottom of the model, and an applied vertical stress of 17 MPa at the top
of the model. In order to establish the peak load the pillar can carry, the vertical
velocity of the top of the model is fixed at a constant value of -4 × 10 -6 m/step.
The sum of the reaction forces at the base of the model is obtained via the FISH
function s_base.
The data file for this problem, “pillar.f3dat”, is listed at the end of this section.
Results
Figure 3 shows contours of displacement magnitude after the excavation of the
tunnels. As expected, most of the floor heave (about 5.4 mm) and crown
displacement (about 9.0 mm) takes place at the intersection. Figure 4 shows the
state of plasticity at mid-height of the pillar. The extent of the failed zones
ranges from 67 cm in the center of the pillar to 1.5 m in the intersection. Figure 5
shows contours of vertical stresses at mid-height of the pillar. The vertical
stresses in this plane are close to the minimum principal stresses, i.e., greatest
negative stress, σ1), so the greatest compressive stresses are located in proximity
to the boundary of the plastic region near the corner of the pillar. Figure 6 shows
FLAC3D 6.0
contours of the minimum principal stress inside the pillar. At this point, the core
of the pillar is relatively unstressed, and the stress concentrations around the
tunnels are the most prominent feature.
At this point, the pressure boundary condition at the top of the model is replaced
with a velocity boundary condition. Figure 7 shows the evolution of the average
vertical stress on the base (i.e., the sum of the vertical reaction forces at the base
of the model divided by the area of the base: 13 m × 7.5 m). Note that the average
vertical stress in the pillar will be larger by a factor, F, equal to
The peak average vertical stress on the base is approximately 31.9 MPa, so the
peak average vertical stress in the pillar is 51.4 MPa.
The stresses in the pillar are compared when submitted to an average vertical
stress on the base of 29 MPa before and after the peak stress. Figure 8 and Figure
9 show the extent of failure before and after peak. Note that roughly 30% of the
cross-section of the pillar remains elastic after the peak stress has been reached.
This is consistent with observations made by Wagner (1980). Figure 10 and
Figure 11 show contours of vertical stress before and after peak. Even though the
average vertical stress in the pillar is the same for both figures, the greatest
compressive stress is higher and the de-stressed area is larger after peak.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 3: Displacement contours after excavation of tunnels.
Figure 4: Plasticity state at pillar mid-height after excavation of tunnels.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 5: Vertical stress contours at pillar mid-height after excavation of

tunnels.
Figure 6: Minimum principal stress contours in pillar after excavation of

tunnels.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 7: History of the average vertical stress on the base.
Figure 8: Plasticity state in pillar at 29 MPa average vertical stress, before peak
stress.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 9: Plasticity state in pillar at 29 MPa average vertical stress, after peak
stress.
Figure 10: Vertical stress contours at 29 MPa average vertical stress, before peak
stress.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 11: Vertical stress contours at 29 MPa average vertical stress, after peak
stress.
Figure 12: History of the average vertical stress on the base for a square pillar.
FLAC3D 6.0
Discussion
Pillar Strength
Many of the published pillar strength formulae are usually expressed by an
empirical power relation of the form
in which k is a strength parameter, V is the pillar volume, R is the width/height

ratio of the pillar, and a and b are empirical parameters.
These expressions are based on square pillars and do not take into account the
length of the pillar. Wagner (1980) defined an effective width for irregular pillars
as
in which A is the operating area and C is the pillar’s perimeter. For rectangular
pillars, the effective width is
in which w is the width and l is the length of the pillar. Using these equations, it
can be established that a rectangular pillar will be stronger than a square pillar of
the same width and height by a factor, , of
This equation, along with the values of a and b published by different authors,
can be used to predict the strength of a square pillar.
Table 2: Predicted Square-Pillar Strength
Predicted Strength
Source a (m) b (m)
(MPa)
Salamon and Munro -0.067 0.59 44.11
(1967)
Greenwood et al. (1939) -0.111 0.72 43.81
Holland and Gaddy -0.167 0.83 44.12
FLAC3D 6.0
Predicted Strength
Source a (m) b (m)
(MPa)
(1957)
The data file pillar-sq.f3dat models one-eighth of a square pillar with the same
properties and initial stress conditions as the rectangular pillar studied earlier.
Figure 12 shows the evolution of the vertical stress at the base of this model. The
peak stress in the pillar will be
which compares favorably with the strength predicted using Wagner’s approach.
Grid Dependency
A strain-softening material is more prone to produce shear bands (localization).
The shear bands in FLAC3D collapse down to the smallest width that can be
resolved by the grid, which is one grid-width if the band is parallel to the grid, or
about three grid-widths if the band cuts across the grid at an arbitrary angle.
Although the overall physics of band formation is modeled correctly by FLAC3D,
band thickness and band spacing are grid-dependent. Furthermore, if the strain-
softening model is used with a weakening material, the load/displacement
relation generated by FLAC3D for a simulated test is strongly grid-dependent.
This is because the strain concentrated in a band depends on the width of the
band (in length units), which depends on zone size, as previously seen. Hence,
smaller zones lead to more softening, because we move out more rapidly on the
strain axis of the given softening curve. To correct this grid-dependence, some
sort of length scale must be built into the constitutive model. There is
controversy, at present, concerning the best way to do this. It must be recognized
that the grid size and angle affect the results: models must be calibrated for each
grid used.
In the absence of data for calibration, a critical plastic shear strain of = 0.5%
is suggested as a starting point for modeling high-quality, massive, in-situ rock
with few widely spaced discontinuities and fair to good joint conditions (
70). This value of strain assumes that approximately 20 zones are used to resolve
the critical dimension controlling stability within the numerical model (e.g.,
pillar height). If a different resolution ( ) than 20 zones is used, this critical
strain value should be scaled by a factor of /20. A minimum resolution of 10~15
FLAC3D 6.0
zones is recommended for detailed studies of rock mass performance. If a lower

or higher quality rock mass is to be modeled, this critical strain value should be
scaled by a factor of . Caution should be used when simulating
rock masses of very high quality ( > 90) due to instabilities that can arise
from the use of perfect (or near-perfect) brittleness. In summary, the
recommended starting point for critical plastic shear strain is:
In this example, both models are assuming fair to good quality mass ( 70).
The model by the data file “pillar-sq.f3dat” is with uniform zones ( = 20) so
the softening rate does not need to be scaled. However, the model by the data file
“pillar.f3dat” is with irregular zones. It is hard to use the scaling equation in a
straightforward manner, but its equivalent resolution is between 16 and 20, so the
softening rate is scaled by a factor of 0.9 by assuming = 18.
More detailed discussions on grid dependency of a softening model for a

generalized case are in <link to location in the User’s Guide section>.
References
Greenwald, H. P., H. C. Howarth and I. Hartmann. “Experiments on Strength of
Small Pillars of Coal of the Pittsburgh Bed,” U.S. Bureau of Mines, Technical
Paper No. 605 (1939).
Holland, C. J., and F. L. Gaddy. “Some Aspects of Permanent Support of

Overburden on Coal Beds,” in Proceedings of the West Virginia Coal Mining Institute,
pp. 43-66 (1957).
Salamon, M. D. G., and A. H. Munro. “A Study of the Strength of Coal Pillars,” J. S.

Afr. Inst. Min. Metall., 68, 55-67 (1967).
Wagner, H. “Pillar Design in Coal Mines,” J. S. Afr. Inst. Min. Metall., 81, 37-45
(1980).
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FLAC3D 6.0
Data Files
pillar.f3dat
;-------------------------------------------------------------
; evolution of peak load in a rectangular pillar
;-------------------------------------------------------------
model new
model title 'Pillar load at intersecting tunnels'
; Model geometry - created with building-blocks and exported from state pane
call 'geometry'
zone generate from-building-blocks
zone face skin
; Constitutive model and properties
zone cmodel assign strain-softening
zone property bulk 14.1e9 shear 8.87e9 tension 5e5 friction 35 ...
cohesion 4e6 dilation 5 table-friction 'fric' ...
table-cohesion 'coh'
table 'fric' add (0, 35) (0.0045, 35) (0.018,30) (1,30)
table 'coh' add (0,4e6) (0.0045,4e6) (0.018, 0) (1, 0)
; Initialize stresses
zone initialize stress xx -25e6 yy -30e6 zz -17e6
; Boundary conditions
zone face apply velocity-normal 0 range group 'West1' or 'West2' or 'East'
zone face apply velocity-normal 0 range group 'South1' or 'South2' or 'North'
zone face apply velocity-normal 0 range group 'Bottom1'
zone face apply stress-normal -17e6 range group 'Top2'
; Solve for initial excavation
model solve ratio-local 1e-3
model save 'pillar1'
; Apply velocity to top, take history of pillar load
zone face apply velocity-normal -4e-6 range group 'Top2'
[global dim1 = 13.0]
[global dim2 = 7.5]
call 'pillar-load'
history interval 50
fish history name 'load' @load
model step 4000 ; -1.6e-2 total top displacement
model step 3600 ; -3.04e-2 total top displacement
pillar-sq.f3dat
;-------------------------------------------------------------
; evolution of peak load in a square pillar
;-------------------------------------------------------------
model new
model title 'Evolution of peak load in a square pillar'
; Create geometry, in this case simple to use zone create
FLAC3D 6.0
zone create brick size (22,22,10) point 0 (2,2, -2) point 1 (7.5,2, -2) ...
point 2 (2,7.5, -2) point 3 (2,2,0)
zone create brick size (30,30,10) point 0 (0,0, -5) point 1 (7.5,0, -5) ...
point 2 (0,7.5, -5) point 3 (0,0,-2)
zone create brick size (30,30,10) point 0 (0,0,-10) point 1 (7.5,0,-10) ...
point 2 (0,7.5,-10) point 3 (0,0,-5) ...
ratio 1 1 0.9
zone face skin ; Name model boundaries
; Assign constitutive model and properties
zone cmodel assign strain-softening
zone property bulk 14.1e9 shear 8.87e9 friction 35 cohesion 4e6 ...
dilation 5 table-friction 'fric' table-cohesion 'coh'
table 'fric' add (0, 35) (0.005, 35) (0.02,30) (1,30)
table 'coh' add (0,4e6) (0.005,4e6) (0.02, 0) (1,0)
; Initialize stresses
zone face apply velocity-normal 0 range group 'West2' or 'East'
zone face apply velocity-normal 0 range group 'South2' or 'North'
zone face apply velocity-normal 0 range group 'Top2'
zone face apply stress-normal -17e6 range group 'Bottom'
; Solve to initial equilibrium
; Apply Velocity to top and fix bottom
zone face apply velocity-normal 0 range group 'Bottom'
zone face apply velocity-normal -2e-6 range group 'Top2'
[global dim1 = 7.5]
[global dim2 = 7.5]
call 'pillar-load'
history interval 50
;
model step 5000
model save 'pil_sq'
FLAC3D 6.0
Excavation in a Saturated Soil 29
Excavation in a Saturated Soil
Problem Statement
An excavation is planned in a saturated soil layer resting on an impervious base.
The soil layer has a thickness of 12 m. The level of the phreatic surface is
constant and corresponds to the soil top-surface. The excavation will have a
square cross-section of dimensions 8 m × 8 m, and a depth of 5 m. In
preparation for this work, the excavation site has been surrounded by vertical
impervious walls 1 m thick that extend 2 m below the excavation bottom. After
excavation, pumps are installed to lower the water level to the excavation
bottom. The problem is to assess the total upheave at the excavation bottom
resulting from excavation and drainage.
The problem is three-dimensional but, by symmetry, a quarter of the domain

may be considered in the analysis. A system of coordinate axes is defined with
the origin at the center of the excavation in the plane of the soil surface, and the
z-axis pointing downward. In this example, boundaries at |x| = 12 m and |y| = 12
m are viewed as planes of symmetry. Figure 1 provides a sketch of the problem
conditions.
The soil is considered as an elastic material. The soil and water have several
properties:
bulk modulus K 390 MPa

shear modulus G 280 MPa
soil dry density ρd 1200 kg/m3
water density ρw 1000 kg/m3
wall density ρwall 1500 kg/m3
permeability k 10-12 m2/Pa-s

porosity n 0.3
fluid bulk modulus Kf 2.0 GPa
FLAC3D 6.0
The modulus g of the gravity vector may be approximated as 10 m/s 2. The initial
state corresponds to a state of equilibrium (after installation of the walls), in
which the horizontal isotropic stresses are such that σ’xx = σ’yy = 0.4σ’zz.
Figure 1: Excavation – quarter-section.
Modeling Procedure
The FLAC3D model has the dimensions 12 m × 12 m × 12 m; the grid has a total of
12 × 12 × 12 cubic zones of the dimensions 1 m × 1 m × 1 m. A fluid null model is
assigned to the zones within the excavation and wall volumes, and a mechanical
null model is assigned to the zones within the excavation. (See Figure 2 for a plot
of the grid with the excavation removed.)
Note that, in this problem, the value ρd + nρw for the saturated density of soil is
equal to the wall density. Hence, the initial state is characterized by the uniform
pore-pressure distribution p = ρwgz and the vertical stress distribution σzz = -(ρd
+ nρw)gz. The horizontal stresses are found to be σxx = σyy = -[0.4ρd +
(0.4(n-1)+1)ρw]gz. Those stresses are applied at the excavation walls to model the
initial undisturbed stage.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 2: Model and history locations.
As an illustration of the modeling procedure for a staged excavation, the analysis

is divided into three stages. In the first stage, applied stresses at the excavation
walls are changed to the isotropic value σxx = σyy = σzz = - ρwgz, corresponding to
the water pressure in the undrained excavation. The pore pressure is fixed at the
excavation bottom and at the soil surface. Flow of water is prevented using the
command model fluid active off. The model is cycled to equilibrium to simulate
a rapid (undrained) excavation process in the fluid-flow time scale.
In the second stage, the pressures are removed from the excavation walls, and
flow of water is again disallowed. The model is cycled to model the effect of rapid
lowering of the water table inside the excavation.
In the third stage, the pore pressure is fixed at the value zero at the excavation
bottom, flow of water is allowed, and the model is cycled further. The pore
pressure is monitored at a point located 1 m below the excavation center (red ball
in Figure 2) to detect when steady-state flow conditions are reached. No effort is
made to represent the true time scale of consolidation effects; we are simply
interested in the final steady state.
The data file for this problem, “excav.f3dat,” is listed in main data file.
FLAC3D 6.0
Results
The pore-pressure contours at the end of each of the three stages are shown in
Figure 3, Figure 4 and Figure 5.
Figure 3: Pore-pressure contours after undrained excavation.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 4: Pore-pressure contours after rapid drainage of the excavation.
Figure 5: Pore-pressure contours after groundwater flow reaches steady state.
FLAC3D 6.0
Histories of the vertical displacement at three points at the excavation base (balls
in Figure 2) are taken. Results are presented in Figure 6. Heave at the excavation
base is shown to occur during the first and second stages. This is caused by the
removal of soil and drainage of water inside the excavation. During the third
stage, a slight settlement occurs at the base as a result of groundwater flow into
the region.
The steady-state flow of groundwater into the excavation at the third stage is
shown by the flow vector plot in Figure 7.
break
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 6: Vertical displacement histories at three points in the excavation base.
Figure 7: Steady-state fluid flow into the excavation.
FLAC3D 6.0
Data File
ExcavationInSaturatedSoil.f3dat
;------------------------------------------------------
; Excavation in a saturated soil
;------------------------------------------------------
model new
model title 'Excavation in a saturated soil'
model config fluid
; --- geometrical model ---

zone create brick point 1 (12,0,0) point 2 (0,12,0) point 3 (0,0,12) ...
size 12 12 12 rat 1 1 1
zone group 'soil'
zone group 'excavate' range position (0,0,0) (4,4,5)
zone group 'wall' range union position (4,0,0) (5,5,7) ...
position (0,4,0) (4,5,7)
zone face skin ; Label model boundaries
; --- fluid flow model ---

zone fluid cmodel assign isotropic
zone fluid property permeability 1e-12 porosity 0.3
zone initialize fluid-density 1e3
zone gridpoint initialize fluid-modulus 2.0e9
zone gridpoint initialize fluid-tension -1e-3
zone gridpoint initialize pore-pressure 0 gradient (0,0,1e4)
zone fluid cmodel assign null range group 'wall'
; --- mechanical model ---

zone cmodel assign elastic
zone property bulk 3.9e6 shear 2.8e6 density 1.2e3
zone property density 1.5e3 range group 'wall'
; --- initialize stress field to gravity ---

model gravity (0,0,10)
zone initialize-stresses ratio 0.8 total
; --- excavate and label excavation boundaries ---
zone cmodel null range group 'excavate'
zone fluid cmodel assign null range group 'excavate'
zone face group 'Base' range position (0,0,5) (4,4,5)
zone face group 'Side' range union position (4,0,0) (4,4,5) ...
position (0,4,0) (4,4,5)
; --- boundary conditions

zone face apply velocity-normal 0 range group 'East' or 'West'
zone face apply velocity-normal 0 range group 'North' or 'South'
zone face apply velocity-normal 0 range group 'Top'
zone gridpoint fix pore-pressure range union group 'Bottom' or 'Base'
zone face apply stress-normal 0 gradient (0,0,-1.2e4) range group 'Side'
zone face apply stress-normal -7.5e4 range group 'Base'
FLAC3D 6.0
; --- initial state ---

model solve ratio-local 1e-4 ; check initial equilibrium
; --- histories ---

zone history name 'zdis1' displacement-z position (0,0,5)
;
; --- excavation ---
model fluid active off
; apply fluid pressure at walls
zone face apply stress-normal 0 gradient (0,0,-1.e4) range group 'Side'
zone face apply stress-normal -5.e4 range group 'Base'
model save 'excavation1'
;
; --- drainage ---
zone face apply-remove stress-normal ; remove original static stresses
zone face apply stress-normal 0 gradient (0,0,-1.e4) ...
servo reduce lower-bound 2e-2 ratio local range group 'Side'
zone face apply stress-normal -5.e4 ...
servo reduce lower-bound 2e-2 ratio local range group 'Base'
;
;
; --- percolation ---
model fluid active on
zone gridpoint fix pore-pressure 0 range group 'Base'
model cycle 9000
FLAC3D 6.0
FLAC3D 6.0
Excavation and Support for a Shallow Tunnel 39
Excavation and Support for a Shallow Tunnel
Problem Statement
A shallow tunnel is excavated in soft ground in an urban area. It is important to
minimize the impact of the tunnel on existing structures and services. Surface
settlements will depend on both the excavation method and the type of tunnel
reinforcement. The surface settlement resulting from an advancing tunnel is
very much a three-dimensional problem. Special three-dimensional
considerations, which include the proximity of the ground surface and the effects
at the end of the tunnel, are taken into account.
Surface settlement is calculated for the following construction method. The

method applies a combination of support measures to reinforce the rock ahead of
the tunnel face. The components of the method are:
a. excavation of a 3 m cut;
b. installation of a steel arch support;
c. construction of a 4 m long, 22 cm thick angled slot above the

tunnel and filled with concrete to act as a pre-support shield;
d. installation of a shotcrete lining between steel supports; and
e. installation of horizontal cable bolts in the tunnel face.
A thick concrete liner is installed behind the advancing tunnel face. Figure 1
illustrates the components of the method. In order to evaluate the influence of
the support method on surface settlement, every component should be simulated
by the numerical analysis.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 1: Components of the tunnel support method.
Modeling Procedure
A vertical plane of symmetry through the center of the tunnel is assumed, and
only one-half of the tunnel is modeled. A 50 m length of the tunnel is
represented in the model; the floor of the tunnel is located 39.5 m below the
ground surface. A system of coordinate axes is defined with the origin at the floor
of the tunnel; the z-axis points upward and the y-axis points along the axis of
the tunnel. The FLAC3D grid is shown in Figure 2. The model contains
approximately 15,000 zones; 50 zones are located along the axis of the tunnel.
The tunnel is constructed in a weak rock that is modeled as a Mohr-Coulomb

material with a cohesion of 50 kPa and a friction angle of 20°. The mass density
of the material is 2200 kg/m3.
The initial stress state corresponds to gravitational loading with the following
relation between vertical and horizontal stresses: σ’zz = σ’xx = 2.0σ’yy.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 2: Tunnel model grid.
The pre-support concrete and shotcrete are modeled with shell structural
elements, while the concrete tunnel lining is modeled with zones (the thickness
of the concrete lining is large compared to the radius of the tunnel) that are
assigned properties representing the lining material. The FLAC3D zones provide a
reasonable approximation for bending of thick liners, because each zone consists
of two overlays of five tetrahedral subzones. Figure 3 shows the shell structural
elements that represent the pre-support concrete and shotcrete (after excavation
of 30 m of the tunnel). The concrete lining is shown in Figure 4.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 3: Structural elements (shells and cables) installed at construction step 10

(30 m excavation).
The lining components are modeled as elastic materials with the properties listed
in Table 1 and Table 2.
Table 1: Properties of the Pre-Support

Concrete and Shotcrete
Young’s modulus E 10.5 GPa

Poisson’s ratio ν 0.25
Table 2: Properties of the Concrete Liner
Young’s modulus E 31.4 GPa

Poisson’s ratio ν 0.25
FLAC3D 6.0
Only one layer of shell structural elements is used in the analysis to represent
both the pre-support concrete and shotcrete, while its thickness is varied
accordingly. Note that the steel arch support is not explicitly modeled in this
example. Its effect is combined with that of the shotcrete.
See Table 3 for properties of the cable material and the grout in the horizontal
cable bolts installed at the tunnel face.
Table 3: Cable Properties
cable modulus 45 GPa

cable area 1.57 × 10-3 m2
cable ultimate tensile capacity 250 kN
grout bond stiffness 1.75 × 107 N/m2
grout cohesive strength 2.0 × 105 N/m
A combination of 9 m, 12 m, and 15 m length bolts are installed. The bolt

installation process uses (alternately) three different bolt patterns.
The tunnel is constructed in two phases. First the upper, arched portion of the
tunnel is excavated and supported. Then the lower portion of the tunnel is
excavated and supported. In this example, only the first stage analysis is
illustrated; the second stage construction would follow the same procedure as
demonstrated here.
The excavation and support installation for the first phase are conducted
incrementally, following the two-step sequence shown in Figure 1. A FISH
function, excavate, defined in the file “tunnel-excavation.f3fis” is used to
control the excavation and support installation processes. For each step, the
excavation is advanced 3 m and the pre-support concrete shield, cable bolts,
shotcrete, and thick concrete liner are installed at the specified distances from
the tunnel face.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 4: Groups of zones in the model.
In order to install a continuous lining with shell elements, the new shell element
is given the same identification number as the existing shell element from the
previous step. The new shell will then use the existing nodes at the connection
with the existing shell. New shells have zero stresses initially.
The ground surface settlement and tunnel closure are monitored throughout the
construction. These values are recorded at the end of each construction step and
stored in tables.
A total of fifteen sequential excavation and support steps are performed. Each
construction step is run to equilibrium, using a ratio-local of 1e-3 as the criteria.
Results
Selected results are shown in Figure 5 through Figure 11. Displacement histories
at one point along the tunnel (30 m from the beginning of the tunnel) are plotted
in Figure 5. Vertical displacement (at the ground surface and at the tunnel
crown) and horizontal displacement (at the base of the tunnel sidewall) at the 30
m location are plotted against the 50 m excavation length.
FLAC3D 6.0
The extent of the plasticity region around the tunnel after 30 m of excavation is
shown in Figure 6. The different colors distinguish between shear and tensile
failure. The suffix n (e.g., shear-n) indicates that the zone is now at active failure;
the suffix p indicates that the zone has failed during a previous excavation step.
The vertical displacement contours in the model after 30 m of excavation are
shown in Figure 7.
The contours of stress resultant Mxx are shown in Figure 8 and Figure 9 after 15
m and 27 m excavations, respectively. The results are presented with respect to
the local coordinate system with the x-axis coinciding with the global y-axis.
The axial forces in the cables are shown in Figure 10 and Figure 11 after 15 m and
27 m excavations, respectively.
Figure 5: Displacement histories at 30 m position along the tunnel: table 1 =

ground surface at x = 0; table 2 = tunnel crown; table 3 = tunnel sidewall.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 6: Plasticity region after 30 m of excavation.
Figure 7: Vertical displacement contours after 30 m of excavation.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 8: Bending moments in pre-support concrete and shotcrete after 15 m

excavation (tunnel and liner zones hidden from view).
Figure 9: Bending moments in pre-support concrete and shotcrete after 27 m

excavation (tunnel and liner zones hidden from view).
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 10: Axial forces in cables after 15 m excavation.
Figure 11: Axial forces in cables after 27 m excavation.
FLAC3D 6.0
Data Files
ExcavationAndSupportOfShallowTunnel.f3dat
;-----------------------------------------------------
; ---- Excavation and Support for a Shallow Tunnel ---
;-----------------------------------------------------
model new
model title 'Excavation and Support for a Shallow Tunnel'
;generate grid using the extruder tool
call 'geometry.f3dat' suppress
zone generate from-extruder
; assign Mohr-Coulomb material model and properties
zone property bulk 4e8 shear 1.5e8 friction 20 cohesion 50e3 ...
tension 5e3 dilation 3 density 2200
zone property bulk 50e6 shear 18e6 friction 20 cohesion 25e3 ...
tension 0 dilation 0 density 2200 range group 'soil'
; assign boundary conditions
; assign initial stress state
model gravity 10
zone initialize-stresses ratio 1.0 0.5
; monitor variables in model
zone history displacement-z position (0,0,5.)
zone history displacement-x position (7,0,0)
zone history displacement-z position (0,0,0)
zone history displacement-z position (0,0,35)
; Save initial geometry
model save 'geometry'
; Define cable patterns
call 'tunnel-cable.f3dat'
; install initial cables, as if in middle of sequence
struct cable import from-geometry 'cables' ...
segments 15 id 1 offset (0,-6,0) range group '1'
segments 15 id 2 offset (0,-3,0) range group '2'
segments 15 id 3 range group '3'
struct cable delete range position-y -100 0 ; Remove elements outside model
struct cable property young 45e9 cross-sectional-area 1.57e-3 ...
grout-perimeter 1.0 yield-tension 25e4 ...
grout-stiffness 17.5e6 grout-cohesion 20e4 ...
range id 1 3
; install pre-support concrete
struct shell create by-face ...
internal id 10 range group 'shell' position-y 0 1
struct shell property isotropic 10.5e9,0.25 thickness 0.3 ...
FLAC3D 6.0
density 2500 range id 10

; We define some points and tables to take data as we excavate
[global surface_gp = gp.near(0,30,35)]
[global crown_gp = gp.near(0,30,5.5)]
[global spring_gp = gp.near(7,30,0)]
table 'surface' label 'ground surface at tunnel center line'
table 'crown' label 'tunnel crown'
table 'sidewall' label 'tunnel sidewall'
; Save initial state of model
model save 'initial'
zone results model-mechanical on
; This FISH function actually performs the excavation and support sequence
call 'tunnel-excavation.f3fis'
@excavate
; Save final state
model save 'excavation'
tunnel-excavation.f3fis
;
; FISH function to control excavation and support sequence
;
fish define excavate
; Do 16 excavation steps
loop global cut (1,16) ; Cut is global just so we can see where
; we are in the FISH browser
local y0 = 3*(cut-1) ; Start of cut
local y1 = y0 + 3 ; 3m depth of cut
local id = 10 ; ID number of shell
; id = 10*(cut+1) ; use if shells unconnected
local idx = ((cut-1)%3) + 1 ; Index of cable pattern
io.out(' EXCAVATION STEP ' + string(cut) + ' CABLE PATTERN ' ...
+ string(idx))
; Install pre support concrete, excavate, and delete cables
; in the excavated area.
command
; install pre support concrete
struct shell create by-face internal id @id ...
range group 'shell' position-y [y0+1] [y1+1]
struct shell property isotropic (10.5e9,0.25) thickness 0.3 ...
density 2500 range position-y [y0+1] [y1+1]
; excavate next cut
zone cmodel assign null ...
range group 'tunnel' or 'concrete liner' position-y @y0 @y1
; delete-cables in the excavated area
struct cable delete range position-y @y0 @y1
; install new cables from pattern
struct cable delete range id @idx
struct cable import from-geometry 'cables' segments 15 id ...
@idx offset (0,@y1,0) range group [string(idx)]
struct cable property young 45e9 cross-sectional-area 1.57e-3 ...
grout-perimeter 1.0 yield-tension 25e4 ...
FLAC3D 6.0
grout-stiffness 17.5e6 grout-cohesion 20e4

; Increase shell thickness to represent shotcrete
struct shell property isotropic 10.5e9,0.25 thickness 0.5 ...
density 2500 range position-y [y0-2] [y1-2]
end_command
if y1+15 > 51 then ; Delete cable elements outside model if necessary
command
struct cable delete range position-y 51 100
end_command
end_if
; Bring back concrete liner modeled as zones.
if cut > 1 then
command
zone cmodel assign elastic ...
range group 'concrete liner' position-y [y0-3] [y1-3]
zone property bulk 20.7e9 shear 12.6e9 ...
range group 'concrete liner' position-y [y0-3] [y1-3]
end_command
end_if
; Solve to equilibrium
command
end_command
; Store displacements in tables
table('surface',3*cut) = gp.disp.z(surface_gp)
table('crown',3*cut) = gp.disp.z(crown_gp)
table('sidewall',3*cut) = gp.disp.z(spring_gp)
; Export results
command
model results export ['excavation-'+string(cut*3)]
end_command
end_loop
end
FLAC3D 6.0
FLAC3D 6.0
Grid Generation for Intersecting Tunnels 53
Grid Generation for Intersecting Tunnels
Problem Statement
As demonstrated in the preceding example, FLAC3D is well-suited to simulate the
behavior of an advancing tunnel excavation and support. The program can also
be applied to examine the three-dimensional problem of tunnel intersections.
However, the creation of model grids for intersecting tunnel simulations can be a
formidable task.
This example illustrates how to build intersecting tunnels using the FLAC3D
Building Blocks pane of the GUI.
Two example models are created to demonstrate this capability. The first
example is a 45° intersection of two tunnels of equal size. The second example is
the intersection of a small service tunnel with two parallel main tunnels.
Modeling Procedure
Intersection of Tunnels at 45°

If intersecting tunnels are the same height and shape (horseshoe-shaped), then,
using Building Blocks, the geometry construction is divided in several steps.
The first step is to create the basic geometry of intersecting tunnels, with
everything being flat lines.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 1: Basic geometry of intersecting 45° tunnels—flat lines.
In the second step, by using curved lines (arcs and splines) and control points,
shape the curved line geometry of the intersection tunnels.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 2: Basic geometry of intersecting 45° tunnels—curved lines.
The third step is to fill the model space with blocks representing rock, assign
groups for tunnels and rock mass, and assign zone sizes along edges for proper
zoning.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 3: FLAC3D grid for 45° horseshoe-shaped tunnel intersection.
The Intersection of a Service Tunnel with Two Main Tunnels

Again, the task is divided in several steps.
In the first step, intersection geometry of one main tunnel and a service tunnel is
created. In this case, it is basic geometry without details of exact intersection
surfaces.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 4: Service tunnel basic geometry—no intersection surfaces.
The second step is to work out the proper intersection of one main tunnel and a
service tunnel.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 5: Proper intersection of one main tunnel and a service tunnel.
In the third step, using results of the previous step, copy the intersection of one
main tunnel and a service tunnel to create a second intersection using |Copy/
Paste| blocks.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 6: Copy results of step 2 to create the second intersection.
Next, connect pieces together to create one service tunnel going through two
main tunnels (using |snap-on| and |merge point| in Building Blocks).
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 7: One service tunnel going through two main tunnels.
The fourth step is to fill in blocks representing the rest of the model (“rock”
mass) and adjust zone sizes along edges for proper zoning (also assign the group
“Tunnels”, “ServiceTunnel”, and “Rock”).
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 8: FLAC3D grid of one service tunnel going through two main tunnels.
The data file “IntersectingTunnels.f3dat” contains the FLAC3D commands to

create the grid for the example “Intersection of tunnels at 45°”.
The data file “ServiceTunnel.f3dat” contains the FLAC3D commands to create the
grid for the example “The Intersection of a Service Tunnel with Two Main
Tunnels”.
All of the subsequent commands that are called are results of the state record
saved commands issued interactive by the Building Blocks pane.
break
FLAC3D 6.0
Data Files
IntersectingTunnels.f3dat
;-------------------------------------------------------------
; Generation of tunnel intersection at 45 degree angle
;
;-------------------------------------------------------------
model new
model title 'Intersection of tunnels at 45 degrees'
; building basic topology: flat lines (and plotting it as zones in png files)
call "GeometryTunnel45flatLines.f3dat"
model save 'tunnel45-1'
; making curved lines to conform the targeted tunnel shape

; (and plotting it as zones in png files)
zone delete
call "GeometryTunnel45CurvedLines.f3dat"
model save 'tunnel45-2'
; filled space with blocks and tune for better zoning ...
; for the static problem (more refined near tunnels)
zone delete
call "GeometryTunnel45RefinedForZonning.f3dat"
model save 'tunnel45-final'
ServiceTunnel.f3dat
model new
model title 'The Intersection of a Service Tunnel with Two Main Tunnels'
; first part: creates basics geometry of one main tunnel intersecting
; with service tunnel (no intersection survaces here)
call "GeometryServiceTunnel_part1"
model save 'service-1'
; second part: deals with exact following of intersection

; of the surfaces of two tunnels
zone delete
; third part: by copy-paste

zone delete
FLAC3D 6.0
; fourth part: by copy-paste from the second part and snapping-merge,

; completes service tunnel intersecting two main tunnels
zone delete
; Fifth part: fills the rest of the model space with blocks and
; assigns zone-sizes per edge for zoning (here also group assignment
; for main "Tunnels", "ServiceTunnel" and "Rock" mass)
zone delete
model save 'service-final'
FLAC3D 6.0
FLAC3D 6.0
Pressurized Cylindrical Cavern 65
Pressurized Cylindrical Cavern
Problem Statement
A pressurized cylindrical cavern is excavated in bedded salt.[*] The salt bed is
sandwiched between 15-m thick layers of a stiff elastic material (Material 2)
above and below the salt bed. The far-field in-situ state of stress is anisotropic.
The objective of the analysis is to determine the closure of the cavern and the
change in the state of stress in Material 2 along the interface with the salt.
The salt is 60 m thick and is assumed to be infinite in horizontal extent. The

cylindrical cavern has a diameter of 90 m, a height of 30 m, and is located in the
middle of the salt bed (i.e., a 15 m layer of salt exists between the top and bottom
of the cavern and the stiff elastic layers).
The far-field in-situ state of stress is (compressive stresses are negative):
σxx = -56 MPa (east-west)
σyy = -28 MPa (north-south)
σzz = -35 MPa (vertical)
The salt exhibits a creep behavior that is characterized by a single-component

power law. The rock mass properties for the salt, the stiff elastic layer (Material
2), and the overburden rock (Material 3) are summarized in Table 1.
break
FLAC3D 6.0
Table 1: Material Properties for a Pressurized Cylindrical Cavern in Salt
Salt Material 2 Material 3

Elastic Properties:
Young’s Modulus in psi 10e6 30e6 10e6
Young’s Modulus in 68.9475 206.8428 68.9475
MPa
Poisson’s Ratio 0.3 0.3 0.3
Creep Properties:
A 3.9 × 10-7 MPa-4.9 yr-1
n 4.9
Modeling Procedure
The FLAC3D model is constructed using the 2D Extruder pane with the z-axis as
the axis of rotation of the cylindrical cavern. The xy-plane is a plane of symmetry
because of the problem geometry and anisotropic stress state. Figure Figure
#cavern-grid0 shows the FLAC3D grid for this problem. Only one-eighth of the
cavern is modeled because of the symmetry conditions. Three or the four meshes
in the figure displays various groups assigned interactively in the extruder. The
last mesh in the lower right shows the face groups assigned with the zone face
skin command.
The x = 0, y = 0, and z = 0 planes are symmetry planes and have rollered

boundary conditions. The far-field boundary at x = 250 m is fixed in the
x-direction, and the boundary at y = 250 m is fixed in the y-direction. A vertical
stress of -35 MPa is applied at the top boundary (z = 250 m). The model is
subjected to an initial in-situ stress-state of σxx = -56 MPa, σyy = -28 MPa, σzz =
-35 MPa. A gravitational stress-gradient is not considered in this analysis.
The cavern is to be excavated over a period of 0.1 year. The excavation is

simulated by reducing the normal pressure exerted along the cavern periphery
from the in-situ stress value to a value of 7 MPa after 0.1 year. The pressure is
then held constant at 7 MPa for a total time of 1 year.
This analysis is divided into three stages. In the first stage, the model is brought
to a pre-excavation stress state that is considered to be compatible with the far-
field in-situ stresses and the creep behavior assumed for the salt. In the second
FLAC3D 6.0
stage the cavern is excavated by using a table, load, to reduce the pressure at the
cavern wall linearly from the initial stress state to 7 MPa in 0.1 year. Finally, in
the third stage, the creep response of the model is followed for a total time of 1
year.
Figure 1: FLAC3D grid for pressurized cylindrical cavern in salt.
Discussion
The salt will creep under the imposed anisotropic stress field, even without the
presence of an excavation. This is because the creep rate in the power-law
formulation is a function of deviatoric stress. For the first stage, in order to
approach a stress state that is reasonably compatible with both the imposed
stress conditions and the creep behavior, initial isotropic stresses of -35 MPa are
specified for the zones representing the salt bed. As the contours of σxx in Figure
2 show, there is a stress discontinuity across the salt and Material 2 interface.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 2: Contours of σxx (pre-excavation).
In the second stage, the effect of the excavation on the stresses within the stiff
layer, Material 2, can be seen in Figure 3. This figure includes a plot of σxx
contours and principal stress tensors on a vertical plane through the cavern at 0.1
year. The plot for σxx contours and principal stresses after 1 year of creep is also
shown in Figure 4. The development of higher horizontal stresses across Material
2 directly above the excavation is observed in Figure 3; this stress is reduced with
creep, as evidenced in Figure 4.
break
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 3: Contours of σxx on a vertical plane through the cavern after 0.1 year (at
the end of excavation).
Figure 4: Contours of σxx on a vertical plane through the cavern after 1 year
(post-excavation).
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 5 shows a history of displacements of three locations around the cavern

periphery after 1 year. Figure 6 and Figure 7 show displacement vectors on a
vertical plane and a horizontal plane, respectively, through the center of the
cavern. These three figures indicate that the greatest displacements are in the
horizontal (x- and y-) direction. After 1 year, a maximum of approximately 0.41
m displacement occurs in the horizontal (negative x- and y-) direction, and
approximately 0.05 m displacement occurs in the vertical (negative z-) direction.
Figure 5: Displacement histories for a 1-year period (post-excavation) at three

locations around the cavern periphery: x-displacement at cavern East;
y-displacement at cavern North; z-displacement at cavern roof.
break
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 6: Displacement vectors on the vertical plane through the cavern center
at 1 year (post-excavation).
Figure 7: Displacement vectors on the horizontal plane through the cavern

center at 1 year (post-excavation).
FLAC3D 6.0
Endnote
[*] This problem is derived from information furnished by Dr. Marc C. Loken,
RE/SPEC Inc., Rapid City, South Dakota.
Data File
PressurizedCylindricalCavern.f3dat
;-------------------------------------------------------------------
; Creep of Cylindrical Cavern
; anisotropic in-situ stress field
; (units: m, MPa, year)
;-------------------------------------------------------------------
model new
model title 'Pressurized cylindrical cavern'
model configure creep
; create model (quarter-symmetry), created interactively
; and exported from State Pane
; Also assigns groups to salt layers, mat1 and mat2, cavern,
; and cavern walls + floor
call 'geometry'
; Assign material model and properties
zone cmodel assign power range group 'salt1' or 'salt2'
zone cmodel assign elastic range group 'mat2'
zone cmodel assign elastic range group 'mat3'
; material properties - E = 10e6 or 30e6 psi
; converted to MPa by factor 0.00689476
zone property young [10e6*0.00689476] poisson 0.3 ...
range group 'salt1' or 'salt2'
zone property constant-1=3.9e-7 exponent-1=4.9 ...
range group 'salt1' or 'salt2'
zone property young [30e6*0.00689476] poisson 0.3 range group 'mat2'
zone property young [10e6*0.00689476] poisson 0.3 range group 'mat3'
; boundary and initial conditions
zone face apply stress-normal -35 range group 'Top'
zone initialize stress xx -56 yy -28 zz -35
zone initialize stress xx -35 yy -35 zz -35 range group 'salt1' or 'salt2'
model creep active off
zone gridpoint initialize velocity (0,0,0)
model save 'cavern-init'
; excavate cavern
zone cmodel assign null range group 'cavern' group 'salt1'
table 'load' add (0,-35) (0.1,-7) (1.0,-7)
FLAC3D 6.0
zone face apply stress-normal 1 table 'load' time creep ...

range group 'wall' or 'floor'
; histories
model history name 'ctime' creep time-total
zone history name 'xclose' displacement-x position (45, 0, 0)
zone history name 'yclose' displacement-y position ( 0,45, 0)
zone history name 'zclose' displacement-z position ( 0, 0,15)
;
zone gridpoint initialize displacement (0,0,0)
model creep active on
model creep time-total = 0.0
model creep timestep starting 1.0e-5
model creep timestep minimum 1.0e-5
model creep timestep auto
; solve for 0.1 yr excavation
model creep timestep maximum 5.0e-5
model solve time-total 0.1
model save 'cavern-010'
; solve for 1 yr of creep
model creep timestep maximum 1.2e-4
model save 'cavern-100'
FLAC3D 6.0
FLAC3D 6.0
Prediction of Borehole Closure in a Salt Formation 75
Prediction of Borehole Closure in a Salt

Formation
Problem Statement
Two rooms and a cross-drift are mined in a salt formation at a depth of about
600 m below the ground surface. A horizontal borehole is drilled in the pillar
separating the two rooms. The creep closure of this borehole is driven by the
shear stresses induced by the excavation process. Closure is estimated in this
example using the WIPP-reference model for the salt. The simulation covers a
period of 7.7 years and accounts for the instantaneous mining and drilling events
at time zero. This example problem is a simplified model of the Intermediate
Scale Borehole Test performed by Sandia National Laboratories (see Argüello,
1991).
Modeling Procedure
The plane perpendicular to the borehole axis and located halfway between the
rooms is a plane of symmetry for this problem. A system of coordinate axes is
selected with its origin on the symmetry plane, the x-axis is oriented along the
borehole axis, and the z-axis pointing upward. The domain under consideration
is bounded by the symmetry plane and five far-field planes, with two horizontal
planes located at |z| = 53.36 m and three vertical planes at |y| = 44.51 m and x =
-39.62 m. The layout of the room, drift, and borehole is presented in Figure 1,
with the plane of symmetry in front and the top half of the model removed for
illustration. The test room is 5.49 m wide by 5.49 m high and 30.48 m long; its
axis runs parallel to the symmetry plane. The cross-drift is 4.27 m wide by 3.66
m high and cuts through the model. The borehole drilled through the pillar is
0.91 m in diameter, 9.14 m long, and located approximately 1.57 m above the
floor at the mid-length of the room.
The boundary conditions include an applied pressure of 13.57 MPa across the top
of the model, to represent loading from the overburden, and roller boundaries on
the sides. Gravity loading is included in the calculation with a mass density of
2300 kg/m3 for the rock and a gravitational acceleration of 9.79 m/sec 2. The
FLAC3D 6.0
initial stress-state is lithostatic (i.e., isotropic with a linear depth variation). The
test room, cross-drift, and borehole are assumed to be excavated instantaneously
at time t = 0. The temperature is held constant at 300 K throughout the entire 7.7
year simulation.
It is assumed that the formation is composed entirely of halite, modeled using a

WIPP model with several properties:
bulk modulus, K 1.65 GPa

shear modulus, G 1.00 GPa
WIPP-model exponent, n 4.90
WIPP-model constant, D 5.79 × 10-36 Pa-4.9 s-1
activation energy, Q 12,000 cal/mol

WIPP-model constant, A 4.56
WIPP-model constant, B 127.0
secondary creep rate, 5.39 × 10-8 s-1
The universal gas constant, R (also used in the model), has the value 1.987 cal/
mol-K.
The FLAC3D model shown in Figure 1 and Figure 2 is created from three layers of
zones running parallel to the symmetry plane; the layers correspond to the pillar,
room, and far-field regions. Each layer is composed of radial-cylinder primitive
shapes in the vicinity of the borehole and brick primitive shapes farther out. A
close-up view of the borehole region is shown in Figure 3. Primitives are
generated in the domain corresponding to positive values of the y- and
z-coordinates and then reflected across the z = 0 and y = 0 planes. The final grid
has a total of 4896 zones.
The WIPP model with the properties listed above is assigned to the zones. Note
that the temperature is initialized for this run as a zone property. Salt density
and components of the gravity vector are specified, and the large-strain mode is
selected. The stresses are initialized to correspond to a lithostatic stress-state,
and the roller-type and pressure boundary conditions are applied. Histories of
gridpoint displacements are taken in the y- and z-directions at four locations
along the borehole axis corresponding to x = 0, x = -3.5 m, x = -6.1 m and x =
-9.14 m. The pillar response is also monitored by taking histories of the vertical
FLAC3D 6.0
displacements at the pillar roof and floor at two points (C and B) along the drift,
and two points (D and A) along the borehole axis, located at x = 0 and x = -9.14
m, respectively.
Figure 1: Model geometry—bottom half.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 2: Model geometry—front view.
Figure 3: Borehole region.
FLAC3D 6.0
Instantaneous excavation of the drift room and borehole is simulated by

assigning the null model to the zones located in the corresponding volumes. The
creep behavior is prevented by setting model creep active to off, and the model
is cycled to equilibrium (corresponding to an average force ratio of 1e-5) to
establish the initial “instantaneous” elastic response of the system (at the time
scale of the creep process).
The creep response is then requested by setting model creep active to on. The
creep timestep is initialized at 200 seconds, and the upper bound for its value is
set to 40,000 seconds. The automatic timestep selection is activated by setting
model creep timestep automatic to on. The model is cycled to an age of 7.7 years
before the results are analyzed.
The model requires approximately 261 MB RAM and takes roughly 1 minute to
run the complete simulation on a 3.4 GHz Intel i7 computer.
Discussion
Figure 4 shows displacement histories at points C, D, B, and A at the pillar floor
and roof. At the end of the simulation, the pillar shortening, defined as the
relative vertical displacement between roof and floor, is largest (with a value of
approximately 17.6 cm) at the intersection of room and drift (point B), and
smallest (with a value of approximately 6.6 cm) at the center of the pillar (point
D). It is approximately 9 cm at the borehole end (point A) and 10.5 cm at the
pillar mid-length along the drift (point C).
The borehole deformation is shown in Figure 5 and Figure 6, where vertical and
horizontal displacements of the borehole walls are plotted after 7.7 years at four
locations along the borehole length, corresponding to x = 0, x = -3.5 m, x = -6.1
m, and x = -9.14 m. The vertical closure is seen to decrease from the pillar center
to the room, with estimated values of 10.3 cm, 9.4 cm, 8.6 cm, and 7.8 cm at each
of the preceding locations. The vertical closure follows the same trends with
values of 9.7 cm, 8.7 cm, 6.3 cm, and 4.2 cm, respectively. The preceding values
indicate that an ovalling of the hole, which is less pronounced as the center of
the pillar is approached, takes place. The borehole floor elevation appears to be
increasing, and its axis appears to bend to the left from the pillar center toward
the room.
FLAC3D 6.0
Displacement contours around the borehole near the pillar center are plotted in
Figure 7. The displacement contours in a vertical plane around the room and
borehole are shown in Figure 8, and those around the room and drift in Figure 9,
7.7 years after the excavation.
Although the actual numbers quoted in this example should be analyzed with
great caution given the relatively small number of zones used along the borehole
axis, they seem to reflect the general trend observed in the Intermediate Scale
Borehole Test referenced at the beginning of this example. It should be
emphasized, though, that the model is intended as an example. Issues that may
affect the borehole closure, such as excavation sequencing, tunnel support, and
stratigraphy, are not addressed.
References
Argüello, J. G. Pretest 3D Finite Element Analysis of the WIPP Intermediate Scale
Borehole Test, Sandia National Laboratories, SAND90-2055 (1991).
break
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 4: Roof and floor displacements.
Figure 5: Borehole vertical displacements at four locations along the borehole

axis.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 6: Borehole horizontal displacements at four locations along the

borehole axis.
Figure 7: Displacements around the borehole at x = 0.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 8: Displacement contours around the room and borehole.
Figure 9: Displacement contours around the room and drift.
FLAC3D 6.0
Data File
BoreholeClosureInSaltFormation.f3dat
;-------------------------------------------------------------------
; Prediction of Borehole Closure
; in a Salt Formation
;-------------------------------------------------------------------
model new
model title 'Prediction of Borehole Closure in a Salt Formation'
model configure creep
; create geometry built interactive in Building Blocks
; and exported from the State Pane
call "geometry" suppress
; --- group definitions ---
zone group 'drift' range position (-39.63,-19.51,-1.57) (0,-15.24,2.09)
zone group 'room' range position (-14.63,-15.24,-1.57) (-9.14,15.24,3.92)
zone group 'bhole' range cylinder end-1 (0,0,0) end-2 (-9.14,0,0) rad 0.46
zone group 'empty' slot 'excav' range group 'drift' or 'room' or 'bhole'
; --- mechanical model ---
zone cmodel assign wipp
zone property shear 1.e9 bulk 1.65e9 density 2300
zone property constant-gas 1.987 activation-energy 12e3 ...
exponent 4.9 constant-d 5.79e-36
zone property constant-a 4.56 constant-b 127 ...
creep-rate-critical 5.39e-8 temperature 300
; --- settings ---
model gravity (0,0,-9.79)
model largestrain on
; --- initial conditions ---
zone initialize-stresses overburden -13.57e6
; --- boundary conditions ---
zone face skin ; Label outer boundaries
zone face apply velocity-normal 0 range group 'West' or 'East'
zone face apply stress-normal -13.57e6 range group 'Top'
; --- take some histories ---
history interval 10
model history creep time-total
zone history displacement-y position ( 0 ,-.46, 0 ) ...
label "X = 0 Left"
zone history displacement-y position ( 0 , .46, 0 ) ...
label "X = 0 Right"
zone history displacement-z position ( 0 ,0 , -.46) ...
label "X = 0 Bottom"
zone history displacement-z position ( 0 ,0 , .46) ...
label "X = 0 Top"
zone history displacement-y position (-3.5 ,-.46, 0 ) ...
label "X = -3.5 Left"
zone history displacement-y position (-3.5 , .46, 0 ) ...
FLAC3D 6.0
label "X = -3.5 Right"

zone history displacement-z position (-3.5 ,0 , -.46) ...
label "X = -3.5 Bottom"
zone history displacement-z position (-3.5 ,0 , .46) ...
label "X = -3.5 Top"
zone history displacement-y position (-6.1 ,-.46, 0 ) ...
zone history displacement-y position (-6.1 , .46, 0 ) ...
zone history displacement-z position (-6.1 ,0 , -.46) ...
zone history displacement-z position (-6.1 ,0 , .46) ...
zone history displacement-y position (-9.14,-.46, 0 ) ...
zone history displacement-y position (-9.14, .46, 0 ) ...
zone history displacement-z position (-9.14,0 , -.46) ...
zone history displacement-z position (-9.14,0 , .46) ...
;D
zone history displacement-z position (0,-15.24,-1.57) label "D Floor"
zone history displacement-z position (0,-15.24, 2.09) label "D Roof"
;C
zone history displacement-z position (0,0,-1.57) label "C Floor"
zone history displacement-z position (0,0, 2.09) label "C Roof"
;B
zone history displacement-z position (-9.14,-15.24,-1.57) label "B Floor"
zone history displacement-z position (-9.14,-15.24, 2.09) label "B Roof"
;A
zone history displacement-z position (-9.14,0,-1.57) label "A Floor"
zone history displacement-z position (-9.14,0, 2.09) label "A Roof"
; --- instantaneous excavation of drift, room and borehole ---
zone cmodel assign null range group 'empty'
; --- small time elastic response ---
model creep active off
model solve
model save 'wipe1_a'
; --- creep response ---
model creep active on
model creep timestep minimum 0.5e2
model creep timestep maximum 4.e4
model creep timestep upper-multiplier 1
model creep timestep auto
model solve time-total 179755200 ;---> age 5.7 year
model save 'wipe1_b'
model solve time-total 242827200 ;---> total age 7.7 year
model save 'wipe1_c'
;
ret
FLAC3D 6.0
FLAC3D 6.0
Axial and Lateral Loading of a Concrete Pile 87
Axial and Lateral Loading of a Concrete Pile
Problem Statement
The load-deflection response of a single concrete pile foundation is calculated for
loading in both the axial and lateral directions. The pile is first subjected to an
axial load of 100 kN, and then the top of the pile is moved horizontally for a
maximum displacement of 4 cm. The relation of the axial loading to the ultimate
bearing capacity of the pile is determined, and a lateral load-deflection curve is
calculated.
The pile is 0.6 m in diameter, 5 m in length, and is embedded in a homogeneous

clay layer. The groundwater surface is at a depth of 5.5 m. The properties of the
concrete pile and the clay are summarized in Table 1.
Table 1: Material Properties for a Concrete Pile Foundation in Clay
Concrete Pile Clay

Dry density 2500 kg/m3 1230 kg/m3
Wet density - 1550 kg/m3
Elastic Properties:
Young’s modulus 25.0 GPa 100.0 MPa
Poisson’s ratio 0.20 0.30
Bulk modulus 13.9 GPa 83.33 MPa
Shear modulus 10.4 GPa 38.46 MPa
Strength Properties:
Cohesion - 30 kPa
Friction angle - 0.0
FLAC3D 6.0
Modeling Procedure
A vertical plane through the pile axis is a plane of symmetry for this analysis.
The coordinate axes for the FLAC3D model are located with the origin at the top
of the pile, and the z-axis oriented along the pile axis and upward. The model
grid is shown in Figure 1. The top of the model, at z = 0, is a free surface. The
base of the model, at z = -8 m, is fixed in the z-direction, and roller boundaries
are imposed on the sides of the model at |x| = 8 m and y = 8 m.
The axial-bearing capacity of a pile is a function of the skin friction resistance

along the pile shaft and the end-bearing capacity at the pile tip. The skin friction
resistance is modeled by placing an interface between the pile walls and the clay.
The friction and cohesion properties of the interface represent the frictional
resistance between the concrete and the clay. For this example, a friction angle of
20° and a cohesion of 30 kPa are assumed for the interface properties. A second
interface is placed between the pile tip and the clay.
Figure 1: FLAC3D grid for vertical and lateral loading of a concrete pile in clay.
For optimum performance, two separate interfaces are used—one at the pile wall
and one at the pile base. The zone faces are separated in a previous command so
that the gridpoints common to both will be separated as well.
FLAC3D 6.0
The model is first brought to an equilibrium stress-state under gravitational

loading before the installation of the pile. A horizontal water table is created at z
= -5.5 m, and the wet density of the clay is assigned to the zones below the water
table. In the next stage of analysis, the model is brought into equilibrium after
the installation of the pile. The installation is modeled by changing the
properties of the pile zones from the properties representing the clay material to
those representing the concrete pile material. The vertical stress-distribution at
the equilibrium state, including the weight of the pile, is shown in Figure 2.
Figure 2: Contours of vertical stress at the initial stress-state, including the

weight of the pile.
The ultimate bearing capacity of the pile in the axial direction is calculated by
applying a vertical velocity at the top of the pile. The velocity is applied by means
of a “ramp” (i.e., the boundary condition is increased linearly from zero to the
desired value). This is particularly helpful for this problem because of the large
contrast in stiffnesses between the concrete and the clay, which produces a large
contrast in natural periods of this model. Many thousands of timesteps are
required to propagate a loading through the model, because the critical timestep
FLAC3D 6.0
is controlled by the high stiffness of the concrete. If the velocity is applied

suddenly, the inertial effects will dominate initially and make it more difficult to
identify the steady-state response of the system.
The table ramp is used to apply the velocity to the pile top gridpoints. The FISH
function vert_load calculates the axial stress at the top of the pile and stores the
value as a history. For efficiency, the gridpoints on the cap surface are stored in
the symbol cap as a map. A plot of axial stress versus axial displacement at the
pile top is shown in Figure 3, for the condition of the velocity applied as a ramp
from 0.0 to 5x10-8 over 30,000 steps. Note that only a small amount of
oscillation is observed initially in this response.
Combined damping is used for this stage of the analysis because this type of
damping is more efficient at removing kinetic energy from the model for the
prescribed loading condition. For the applied velocity loading, the velocity
components of most of the gridpoints will not change sign. Local damping is not
effective for this situation because the mass-adjustment process depends on
velocity sign-changes. (See the section on mechanical damping in the Theory and
Background section.)
Figure 3: Axial stress versus axial displacement at pile top.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 3 indicates that the ultimate bearing capacity of the pile is approximately
1.1 MPa. The ultimate capacity is a function of the pile-tip bearing and skin
(friction) friction resistance. For example, if the interface cohesion is set to zero,
then the only resistance is provided by the pile tip, and the ultimate capacity is
calculated to be approximately 0.3 MPa. It is recommended that the calculated
pile capacity be compared to field test results in order to determine the
appropriate values to use for interface strength properties.
The analysis is repeated from the initial gravitational loading state to calculate
the response to an axial loading of 100 kN. This loading is achieved by applying
an axial stress of 0.354 MPa to the pile top. The applied stress is approximately a
factor of 3 smaller than the ultimate axial capacity. For this loading, the pile top
moves downward 0.33 mm.
After the model is brought to equilibrium for the 100 kN axial loading, the pile
top is then moved laterally for a deflection of 4 cm. This is accomplished by
applying a horizontal velocity at the pile top. A ramp loading is not used at this
stage because the inertial effects are minor for loading in this direction. A
horizontal velocity of 1x10-7 is applied to the pile cap.
The lateral force-deflection curve for the top of the pile is shown in Figure 4. The
lateral load required to produce 4 cm of deflection is approximately 300 kN. The
displacement of the pile and the plastic state of the soil at this stage are shown in
Figure 5.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 4: Lateral force versus lateral displacement at the pile top.
Figure 5: Pile displacement and plasticity state of soil at 4 cm lateral deflection.
FLAC3D 6.0
A FISH function, tot_reac in the file “p-y.f3dat” is used to monitor soil reaction
along the pile as a function of lateral displacement. tot_reac creates tables of soil
reaction (p) versus lateral displacement (y) at different locations along the pile in
order to generate p-y curves. Calculated p-y curves are shown in Figure 6.
Figure 6: p-y curves at 11 equidistant points along the pile [soil reaction, p (N/
m), versus lateral displacement, y (m)].
Data File
ConcretePile.f3dat
model new
model title 'Axial and lateral loading of a concrete pile'
; create grid interactively from the extruder tool,
; exported to geometry.f3dat from State Record pane.
; Reflect the grid to get a 1/2 space instead of a 1/4 space
zone reflect dip-direction 270 dip 90
; Name intersections of things named in the two extruder views
zone group 'clay' range group 'clay-c' or 'clay-s' or 'wetclay-s'
zone group 'pile' range group 'pile-c' group 'pile-s' or 'remove-s'
zone group 'remove' range group 'remove-s' group 'pile-c' not ;
zone face group 'wall' internal range group 'wall-c' group 'pile'
FLAC3D 6.0
zone face group 'base' internal range group 'base-s' group 'pile'
zone face skin ; Name far field boundaries
; Delete the area marked for removal
zone delete range group 'remove'
;
; setup interfaces - separate using ZONE SEPARATE
; all at once so common nodes are separated
zone separate by-face new-side group 'iwall' slot 'int' ...
range group 'wall' or 'base'
; Want two different interfaces for proper normal direction at corner
zone interface 'side' create by-face range group 'wall' and 'iwall'
zone interface 'base' create by-face range group 'base' and 'iwall'
; Save initial geometric state
;
; Initialize gravity, pore-pressures, density, and stres state
model gravity 10
; water table information
zone water plane origin (0,0,-5.5) normal (0,0,-1)
zone initialize density 1230
zone initialize density 1550 range group 'wetclay-s' ; Wet density
; assign properties to the soil and interfaces - temporarily remove pile cap
zone cmodel assign mohr-coulomb ...
range group 'clay'
zone property bulk 8.333e7 shear 3.846e7 cohesion 30000 fric 0 ...
range group 'clay'
zone cmodel assign elastic range group 'pile'
zone property bulk 8.333e7 shear 3.846e7 range group 'pile'
zone cmodel assign null range group 'remove-s'
zone interface 'side' node property stiffness-normal 1e8 ...
stiffness-shear 1e8 friction 20 cohesion 30000
zone interface 'base' node property stiffness-normal 1e8 ...
stiffness-shear 1e8 friction 20 cohesion 30000
; boundary and initial stress conditions
zone initialize-stress ratio 0.4286
zone interface 'side' node initialize-stresses
zone interface 'base' node initialize-stresses
; Solve to initial equilibrium
zone ratio local
model solve ratio 1e-4
;
; install the pile
model restore 'initial'
zone cmodel assign elastic range group 'pile'
zone property bulk 13.9e9 shear 10.4e9 density 2500 range group 'pile'
model save 'install'
;
FLAC3D 6.0
; vertical loading
zone initialize state 0
table 'ramp' add ([global.step],0) ([global.step+30000],-5e-8) ...
([global.step+58000],-5e-8) ; Increase velocity applied to pile
; over 30,000 steps
zone face apply velocity-normal 1 table 'ramp' range group 'Top'
history interval 250
zone history name 'disp' displacement-z position (0,0,0)
call 'load'
fish history name 'load' @vert_load
zone mechanical damping combined
model step 58000
model save 'vertical-loading'
;
; vertical loading then lateral loading
model restore 'install'
zone face apply stress-zz [-1.0e5/(math.pi*0.3*0.3)] range group 'Top'
model save 'lateral-load-start'
; apply lateral loading as x-velocity on cap
zone face apply velocity-x 1e-7 range group 'Top'
zone history name 'disp' displacement-x position 0,0,0
call 'p-y' suppress ; Calculates p-y curve for pile, when tot_reac is called
@make_pydata ; Generate p-y curve calculation data
@output_structure ; Sanity check of p-y curve data
fish history name 'load' @tot_reac
model step 416500
model save 'lateral-load'
FLAC3D 6.0
FLAC3D 6.0
Undrained Cylindrical Cavity Expansion in a Cam-Clay Medium 97
Undrained Cylindrical Cavity Expansion in a

Cam-Clay Medium
Problem Statement
The stress and pore-pressure changes due to the expansion of a pressuremeter in
a saturated clay mass are analyzed using the model of a cylindrical cavity in an
infinite Cam-clay medium. The effect of the finite length of the measuring device
is not considered.
In the experiment, the radius a of the cavity is expanded up to twice its original
size, a0. The properties of the Cam-clay material, which correspond to a Boston
Blue Clay, are as follows (Carter et al. 1979):
undrained cohesion (Cu) 1 MPa
shear modulus (G) 74 × Cu
soil constant (M) 1.2

slope of normal consolidation line (λ) 0.15
slope of elastic swelling line (κ) 0.03
reference pressure (p1) Cu
specific volume at reference pressure 2.3
( v λ)
The clay is normally consolidated with in-situ stresses σ’r = σ’θ = -1.65 Cu, σ’z =
-3 Cu and initial excess pore pressure ue = 0. The shear modulus of the material
is assumed to remain constant during the simulation. The pressuremeter
membrane is considered impermeable, and the fluid bulk modulus is much larger
than that of the soil so that the numerical simulation can be carried out under
undrained conditions.
FLAC3D 6.0
FLAC3D Model
The FLAC3D model is constructed by taking into consideration the axisymmetric
and plane-strain properties of the problem. A pie slice corresponding to one-
tenth of a quadrant and of height h is considered (see the front view in Figure 1).
The FLAC3D model is of finite extent, but the length L is chosen as very large
compared to a0.
Figure 1: Front view of the model geometry.
The dimensions of the FLAC3D grid correspond to dimensionless values a0/a0 = 1,

L/a0 = 200 and h/a0 = 1. The grid is composed of a single layer of 31 zones of
constant height and variable zone width, graded by a factor 1.1 (see Figure 2),
where the FLAC3D system of reference axes is also represented.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 2: Grid geometry.
Initially, the cavity boundary is fixed, in-situ stresses are installed, and a
pressure boundary condition of magnitude 1.65 Cu is applied at the far
x-boundary. The groundwater configuration (model configure fluid) is selected,
and the no-flow (model fluid active off) and large-strain (model largestrain on)
options are specified.
The pre-consolidation pressure must be supplied to the numerical model. Since

the soil is normally consolidated, this value is calculated from the given initial
state. The corresponding values of mean pressure and deviator stress are p’0 = 2.1
Cu and q0 = 1.35 Cu, and the pre-consolidation pressure, evaluated from the Cam-
clay yield function (see <section 1 in Constitutive Models>),
(1)
is 2.70 Cu. For information, the value of the over-consolidation ratio R, defined
as R = p’c0/p’0, is approximately 1.29 for this problem.
As an illustration, initial values for the specific volume, v0 , and tangent bulk
modulus, K0 , are specified. They correspond to the default values that would
have been assigned by the code at the first step command.
FLAC3D 6.0
By default, the Biot coefficient is equal to one. The Biot modulus (water bulk
modulus divided by porosity) is set to 100 times K0. The maximum bulk modulus
is set to 10 times the initial value.
A compressive velocity of magnitude 10-5 is applied at the cavity boundary for a

total of 100,000 steps, so that the cavity radius has doubled at the end of the
pressure test. Stresses and pore pressure are monitored during the calculation.
The data file for this problem is listed at the end of this section. The Cam-clay
parameters are calculated in the FISH function setProp.
FLAC3D Results and Discussion

The evolution during the expansion of the deviator stress, q/Cu, at the cavity wall
is plotted in Figure 3. The numerical results indicate a failure level at q/Cu =
1.777. This value can be compared to the Cam-clay analytical prediction as
follows. Under undrained conditions, the yield path followed by a normally
consolidated stress point has the form (see the verfication problem Drained and
Undrained Triaxial Compression Test on a Cam-Clay Sample).
where and . The initial value can be derived from

equation (1) above. Using the definition of R, we obtain
and the stress path becomes
Intersection of this stress path with the critical state line or gives
FLAC3D 6.0
The prediction of derived from this formula is 1.771, which is in close

agreement with that obtained numerically.
Figure 3: Deviator stress q/Cu at the cavity wall versus a/a0.
The variation of excess pore pressure and total radial stress at the cavity wall as
the cavity expands is illustrated in Figure 4. These curves show a sharp rise
followed by a gentle slope as pore pressure and radial stress approach a limit
value.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 4: Total radial stress σr/Cu and excess pore pressure ue/Cu at the cavity
wall versus a/a0.
The radial distribution of effective stresses and pore pressure when a = 2 a0 is

plotted in Figure 5. The stresses remain constant in an annulus around the cavity
where the soil is at the critical state. There, the distribution of stresses has been
greatly affected by the process of cavity expansion, with radial and tangential
stresses now in the role of minor and major principal stresses. The excess pore
pressure develops mainly in this region. Farther out, the stresses and pore
pressure are shown to evolve towards their in-situ values. These results compare
well with those presented by Carter et al. (1979).
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 5: Radial distribution of effective stresses and pore pressure when a = 2

a0 plotted versus ln ( r/a0 ) (Table 10 is pore pressure; Tables 11, 12, and 13 are
radial, axial, and tangential components of effective stress).
Reference
Carter, J. P., M. F. Randolph and C. P. Wroth. “Stress and Pore Pressure Changes
in Clay during and after the Expansion of a Cylindrical Cavity,” International
Journal for Numerical and Analytical Methods in Geomechanics, 3, 305-322 (1979).
Data File
CavityExpansion.f3dat
;-----------------------------------------------------------
; Undrained cylindrical cavity expansion in Cam-Clay medium
;-----------------------------------------------------------
model new
model title "Undrained cylindrical cavity expansion in Cam-Clay medium"
model config fluid
; --- model geometry ---
zone create brick point 0 1.0 0.0 1.0 ...
point 1 200.0 0.0 1.0 ...
FLAC3D 6.0
point 2 1.0 0.0 0.0 ...

point 4 200.0 0.0 0.0 ...
point 3 0.9877 0.1564 1.0 ...
point 6 197.5377 31.2869 1.0 ...
point 5 0.9877 0.1564 0.0 ...
point 7 197.5377 31.2869 0.0 ...
size 31 1 1 ratio 1.1 1 1
; --- model properties ---
zone cmodel assign modified-cam-clay
zone property shear 74.
zone property ratio-critical-state 1.2 lambda 0.15 kappa 0.03 ...
pressure-reference 1.0 specific-volume-reference 2.3
zone initialize stress xx -1.65 yy -1.65 zz -3.
call 'utility' suppress ; FISH functions used by the example
@effectivePressure ; Initializes pressure-effective property
zone face apply velocity-normal 0 range group 'North'
zone face apply velocity-normal 0 range group 'South'
zone face apply velocity-normal 0 range group 'Top'
zone face apply stress-normal -1.65 range group 'East'
zone gridpoint fix velocity ...
range group 'West'
zone gridpoint initialize velocity-x 1e-5 ...
range group 'West' group 'South'
zone gridpoint initialize velocity-y -1e-5 local ...
range group 'West' group 'North'
; model settings ---
zone fluid biot on
; --- histories ---
fish history name='srad' @srad
fish history name='p_fl' @p_fl
fish history name='a' @a
fish history name='q' @q
; --- test ---
@setProp ; Initializes biot mod, pressure-preconsolidation, and bulk-maximum
model step 100000
model save 'cavity'
FLAC3D 6.0
Simulation of Pull-Tests for Fully Bonded Rock Reinforcement 105
Simulation of Pull-Tests for Fully Bonded Rock

Reinforcement
Problem Statement
The most common method to determine properties for fully bonded rock
reinforcement (such as grouted cable bolts, resin-grouted steel rebar, or
rockbolts) is to perform pull-tests on small segments of grouted reinforcement
in the field. Typically, segments 50 cm in length or longer are grouted into
boreholes. The ends of these segments are pulled with a jack mounted to the
surface of the tunnel and connected to cable via a barrel-and-wedge-type
anchor. The force applied to the reinforcement and the deformation of the
reinforcement are plotted to produce an axial force-deflection curve. From this
curve, the peak shear strength of the grout bond is determined. The results for
pull-tests on one-half meter segments of several types of cables are illustrated
in Figure 1. These plots are expressed in terms of tons/m versus deformation in
mm.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 1: Field results for pull-tests on various types of cables for a bond length
of 0.5 m and a water/cement ratio of 1/3.
In this example application, FLAC3D is used to model pull-tests of this type. Two
different approaches are available to simulate pull-tests using the structural
elements in FLAC3D:
1. cable elements, which assume the grout behaves as an elastic-

perfectly plastic material with confining stress dependence but no
loss of strength after failure; and
2. modified pile elements, which account for changes in confining

stress, strain-softening behavior of the grout, and rupture of the
reinforcement.
One additional advantage of using the modified pile elements to model

reinforcement behavior is that bending moment resistance can be included. This
behavior is needed when the reinforcement is subjected to shearing, as described
later in Pull-Test with Tensile Rupture and Shear Test on Rockbolts.
FLAC3D 6.0
The purpose of the following examples is to demonstrate the use and capabilities
of both approaches.
Approach 1: Modeling Rock Reinforcement Using Cable

Elements
In the following sections, the pull-tests are simulated using the cable-element
logic. The commands needed to create and view variables associated with cable
elements are described in Cable Commands.
Pull-out Strength without Confinement

First, we consider the case where the confining stress dependence on the
reinforcement shear-bond strength may be neglected. The cable properties
required by FLAC3D’s cable-bolt model must be extracted from the field pull-test
curve. This is easily done when the field test data are presented in terms of force/
unit length versus deformation, as shown in Figure 1. Assuming no yielding in
the cable, the value of the grout shear stiffness, grout-stiffness, is simply the
slope of the curve, with the ultimate bond strength, grout-cohesion, being the
peak-pull strength value per unit length. This assumption is justified by the fact
that the steel normally yields at stresses that are higher than those
corresponding to the pull-out forces, as shown in Figure 1. For example, for a
representative cable of 15 mm diameter and 0.5 m length and an (admissible)
yield strength of 1200 MPa (assumed in the FLAC3D models in the following
sections), the maximum yield force is 212 kN. This value is approximately 50%
greater than the highest pull-out force of 28 tons/m × 0.5 = 140 kN, at which the
grout fails in Figure 1. In addition, in these examples, the compliance of the
reinforcement element and the rock are neglected relative to the compliance of
the grout.
For example, all of the pull-test results shown here have roughly the same
loading slope, so an average value of grout-stiffness is chosen for all:
This value of grout-stiffness is very low, indicating a rather poor grouting job
for the cable. Typical grout-stiffness values would be approximately one order
of magnitude or more higher than this.
FLAC3D 6.0
The value of grout-cohesion for the single 15.2 mm wire is simply the peak shear
resistance in tons/m. In this case, grout-cohesion 17.5 tons/m, or 17.5 × 104 N/
m. To check whether this value of grout-cohesion is reasonable, it can be
converted to grout shear strength by dividing by the approximate surface area of
the wire (assuming the bond fails at the grout/cable interface). We find that the
peak shear strength is 3.66 MPa. This value should roughly equal half the
uniaxial compressive strength of the grout, indicating either a very poor grout, or
that the cable was allowed to rotate during the pull-test, yielding artificially low
grout shear-strength values. [*]
The data file “Pull01.f3dat” is a simple representation of a pull-test using

FLAC3D. The cable end-node is pulled at a small, constant y-oriented
velocity—see Figure 2. A FISH function is used to sum the reaction forces and
monitor nodal displacement generated by the pull-tests for comparison to field
test results.
Figure 2: Sketch of geometry of FLAC3D model for pull-test.
FLAC3D 6.0
A plot of the relation between pull force and cable displacement (histories force
and disp, respectively) for the case of a single 15.2 mm cable is shown in Figure
3. This figure illustrates the general force-displacement behavior given in Figure
1. The peak force is reached at a displacement of approximately 17 mm. After this
point, the cable is simply pulled out of the borehole in much the same fashion as
a block sliding on a plane.
Figure 3: Pull force in N/m versus cable displacement in meters for the case of a
single 15.2 mm grouted cable.
Figure 4 to 6 show the axial force distribution on the cable for displacements of
10 mm, 16.5 mm, and 17.5 mm, respectively. Note that cable-bond slip
progresses rapidly after peak strength is reached at the first cable element.
Superimposed on the axial forces are locations at which the grout bond is
yielding. At 10 mm (Figure 4), the grout bond has not failed. At 16.5 mm (Figure
5), bond failure is initiated and rapidly propagates (Figure 6) down the entire
cable length. At that stage, the force on the cable end is simply the sum of
grout_cohesion × (where is the length of cable segments) for all n-slipping
segments. If the embedded length were long enough, the cable axial force would
eventually reach the yield force of the cable itself. The cable should then break
FLAC3D 6.0
when the extension strain equals the ultimate breaking strain of the cable
(generally around 3%). An example illustrating tensile rupture of the element is
given in Pull-Test with Tensile Rupture.
break
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 4: At 10 mm deformation: Plot of axial force and cable grout yield points
for pull-test simulation on a 15.2 mm cable bolt.
Figure 5: At 16.5 mm deformation: Plot of axial force and cable grout yield
points for pull-test simulation on a 15.2 mm cable bolt.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 6: At 17.5 mm deformation: Plot of axial force and cable grout yield
points for pull-test simulation on a 15.2 mm cable bolt.
Pull-out Strength with Confinement

The cable shear bond strength will, in general, increase with increasing effective
pressure (p’) acting on the cable. A linear law is implemented in FLAC3D whereby
the cable shear bond strength is defined as a constant (grout-cohesion) plus the
effective pressure on the cable multiplied by the cable perimeter ( grout-permeter)
times the tangent of the friction angle (grout-friction). This pressure
dependence is activated automatically in FLAC3D by issuing the cable properties
grout-permeter and grout-friction. Note that in this case, the input data for
grout-cohesion must correspond to the shear bond strength in a cable pull-test
carried out without confining pressure. Numerical results of pull-tests on the
15.2 mm cable are presented in Figure 7 and 8 for a friction angle of 30° and two
levels of initial confining pressure, namely p’ = 2 and 4 MN/m2. Compare these
figures to Figure 3. These figures indicate an increasing failure level with
increasing initial confining pressure, illustrating the frictional character of the
cable-rock interface. Results for the pull-test with confined pressure on the 15.2
mm cable were obtained using the data files “Pull02.f3dat” and “Pull03.f3dat”.
break
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 7: Pull-test on 15.2 mm cable, p’ = 2 MN/m2.
Figure 8: Pull-test on 15.2 mm cable, p’ = 4 MN/m2.
FLAC3D 6.0
Approach 2: Modeling Rock Reinforcement Using Modified

Pile Elements
In the following sections, the modified pile-element logic in FLAC3D is used to
model rock reinforcement. The purpose of the following examples is to illustrate
modeling procedures with the modified pile elements. In addition to a
demonstration of the features that simulate pull-tests, this section also presents
examples related to the simulation of shear tests on rockbolts (see Shear Test on
Rockbolts and Shear Test on Rockbolts with Rupture). The tests in this section
assume that conditions are representative of a 25 mm diameter grouted bolt with
grout properties the same as those defined in Pull-out Strength without
Confinement.
Commands needed to create and view variables associated with the modified
elements are described in Pile Commands. Note that the modified pile-element
formulation is activated by giving the structure pile property rockbolt-flag on
command.
Pull-out Strength without Confinement

The data file “Pulltest04.f3dat” creates a pull-test without confinement. The
problem is equivalent to that described in Pull-out Strength without
Confinement. Compared with the model in file “Pulltest01.f3dat”, the current
model considers a larger diameter bolt and a free length of bolt that extends out
of the block. The load is applied at the tip of the reinforcement by prescribing a
constant velocity, as was done before. A FISH function, force, is used to sum the
reaction forces and monitor nodal displacement generated by the pull-test.
Figure 9 represents the relation between axial force (per unit length of cable) and
displacement at the tip of the bolt, for a total displacement of 20 mm. The figure
shows that the maximum pull-out load is comparable to the one obtained with
Approach 1 in Pull-out Strength without Confinement (the slight difference may
be attributed to the different bolt size and the free length of bolt included in this
model). Figure 9 also shows the default perfectly plastic behavior of the grout
once the maximum cohesion is exceeded.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 9: Pull force in N/m versus cable displacement in meters for the case of
single 25 mm grouted rockbolt.
Pull-Test with Displacement Weakening

The data file “Pulltest05.f3dat” defines a pull-test similar to the one described in
the previous section, Pull-out Strength without Confinement, but with post-peak
weakening of shear bond strength. The bond strength softening of the grout is
defined with the keyword coupling-cohesion-table, as described in Rockbolt
Behavior. The relation between shear displacement and cohesion weakening is
prescribed through table cct (Note that softening of the friction of the grout
could also be defined using the keyword coupling-friction-table).
Figure 10 represents the relation between axial force (per unit length of the
bonded reinforcement) and displacement at the tip of the reinforcement for a
total displacement of 40 mm. The figure clearly shows the weakening of
cohesion after the maximum pull-out load is reached.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 10: Pull force in N/m versus reinforcement displacement in meters for the
case of a single 15.2 mm grouted reinforcement—with displacement weakening.
Pull-Test with Confinement

The data file “Pulltest06.f3dat” shows how a pull-test with confinement is
simulated using the modified pile logic. The model is equivalent to the one
discussed in Pull-out Strength with Confinement, this time for a confining
stress, 4 MN/m2. As described in Behavior of Shear Coupling Springs a linear law
is implemented in the modified pile logic, whereby the reinforcement shear
strength is defined as a constant (coupling-cohesion-shear) plus the effective
pressure on the reinforcement multiplied by the reinforcement perimeter
(perimeter) times a friction angle (coupling-friction-shear). This pressure
dependence is activated automatically in FLAC3D by issuing the reinforcement
properties (perimeter) and (coupling-friction-shear).
Figure 11 represents the relation between axial force (per unit length of the
grouted reinforcement) and displacement at the tip of the reinforcement for a
total displacement of 40 mm. The results are comparable to those shown in
Figure 8.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 11: Pull force in N/m versus reinforcement axial displacement in meters
for the case of a single 25 mm grouted bolt—uniform 4 MN/m 2 confinement.
Pull-Test with Confinement — User-Defined Behavior

This example shows the use of the option coupling-confining-table to define a
“mean” value σc of confining stress on the rockbolt for cases in which the
principal stresses σx and σy perpendicular to the axis of the rockbolt are not the
same.
Figure 12 shows the results obtained numerically for the relation between
confining and deviatoric stresses in the case of a rockbolt with a diameter of 25
mm. In the figure, the horizontal axis represents the normalized deviatoric stress,
defined as
while the vertical axis represents the normalized confining stress,
FLAC3D 6.0
The relation was obtained from pull-test models in FLAC3D, considering different
values of deviatoric stresses in the plane perpendicular to the axis bolt. The mean
confining stress was obtained by measuring the force required to pull out a
bolt of length and perimeter with a grout of friction using the expression
The data file “Pulltest07.f3dat” creates a model that illustrates the use of the
coupling-confining-table option and the relation represented in Figure 12. The
results obtained with this data file are shown in Figure 13. In this example, one of
the principal stresses on the plane perpendicular to the axis of the rockbolt is
zero. Note that the pull-out resistance in Figure 13 is greatly reduced compared
to Figure 11 as a result of the zero stress in the lateral direction.
Figure 12: Example of relation between normalized confining stress and

normalized deviator stress obtained numerically for a 25 mm rockbolt.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 13: Rockbolt pull force in N/m versus rockbolt axial displacement in
meters for the case of a single 25 mm grouted bolt—lateral confinement defined
by the relationship represented in Figure 12.
Pull-Test with Tensile Rupture

This example shows the definition of limiting axial yield force and limiting axial
strain for the rockbolt, using the options tensile-yield and tensile-failure-
strain, respectively.
The data file “Pulltest08.f3dat” sets up a model that considers a limiting tensile
force of 1.5 × 105 N and a limiting axial strain of 1 × 10-4. The results from this
model are shown in Figure 14. The diagram shows that the limiting tensile force
is reached after a pull-out displacement of approximately 2.6 cm. Note that after
this limiting force is reached, the pull-out force rapidly decreases to zero,
indicating the rupture of the rockbolt.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 14: Rockbolt pull force in N/m versus rockbolt axial displacement in
meters for the case of a single 25 mm grouted bolt—with tensile rupture.
Shear Test on Rockbolts

This section and the next present two examples of shear tests. The tests are
similar to the pull-tests described above, except that a velocity acting on a plane
perpendicular to the axial direction of the bolt is applied to the top of the bolt.
The data file “Shear01.f3dat” shows how the model is created. Note that in the
case of a shear test on rockbolts, values of stiffness and strength for the normal
coupling springs (that were not needed in the pull-tests) need to be defined.
Figure 15 shows a plot of shear force versus shear displacement. We select a
stiffness value of 1010 N/m/m and cohesive strength of 108 MPa/m in order to
illustrate the shear behavior within a shear displacement range of 6 mm. These
values do not represent a specific material and should be adjusted to fit
experimental data.
The figure also includes a view of the model after the test. The large
displacement of the rockbolt near the rock surface is the result of the yielding of
the normal coupling springs, which simulates crushing of the rock.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 15: Rockbolt shear force in N versus rockbolt shear displacement in

meters for the case of a single 25 mm grouted bolt.
Shear Test on Rockbolts with Rupture

The data file “Shear02.f3dat” presents a model similar to the one described in
Shear Test on Rockbolts, but with the added option of bending rupture. The
failure is controlled by specified values of limiting (yield) bending moment and
limiting tensile strain (these values are assigned using the keywords plastic-
moment and tensile-failure-strain, as described in Pile Commands).
The results obtained with the data file “Shear02.f3dat” are shown in Figure 16.
Note that the relation between applied force and lateral displacement shows
some oscillation after rupture. This oscillation is the normal response following
the sudden rupture of the bolt.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 16: Rockbolt shear force in N versus rockbolt shear displacement in

meters for the case of a single 25 mm grouted bolt—with tensile rupture.
Endnote
[*] This effect is explored in some detail in Hyett et al. (1992).
References
Hyett, A. J., W. F. Bawden and R. D. Reichert. “The Effect of Rock Mass
Confinement on the Bond Strength of Fully Grouted Cable Bolts,” Int. J. Rock Mech.
Min. Sci. & Geomech. Abstr., 29(5), 503-524 (1992).
Data Files
Pull01.f3dat
; ==================================================================
; Simulation of pull-test for grouted reinforcement
; ==================================================================
model new
[global t = 'Pull Test for Grouted Cable Anchor ']
FLAC3D 6.0
[t += '(no external confinement, fric=0)']

model title [t]
; Create a single rock block and set its material properties.
zone create brick size 4 7 4 point 1 (0.4,0,0) point 2 (0,0.7,0) ...
point 3 (0,0,0.4)
zone property bulk 5e9 shear 3e9
; Create a single cable and set its associated properties
struct cable create by-line (0.2,0.0,0.2) (0.2,0.5,0.2) segments 10
struct cable property cross-sectional-area 181e-6 young 98.6e9 ...
yield-tension 0.232e6 grout-stiffness 1.12e7 ...
grout-cohesion 1.75e5 grout-friction 0.0 ...
grout-perimeter 7.85e-2
; Fix free end of rock block and apply velocity to cable end
zone face apply velocity-normal 0 range position-y 0
struct node fix velocity-x range position-y 0
struct node initialize velocity-x -1e-6 local range position-y 0
call 'force' suppress ; FISH function to calculate reaction force on zones
; Set up histories for monitoring model behavior
history interval 10
fish history name 'force' @force
struct node history name 'disp' displacement-y component-id 1
; Apply velocity to achieve total displacement of 2.0 cm
model cycle 10000
model save 'pull-1-1'
model cycle 6500
model cycle 1000
model cycle 2500
Pull02.f3dat
; ==================================================================
; confinement 2 MPa
; ==================================================================
model new
model title 'Pull Test for Grouted Cable Anchor - Confinement 2 MPa, fric=30'
point 3 (0,0,0.4)
zone initialize stress xx -2e6 zz -2e6
zone face apply stress-normal -2e6 range union position-x 0 ...
position-x 0.4 position-z 0 ...
position-z 0.4
FLAC3D 6.0

history interval 10
model cycle 45000
;
model save 'pull-2'
Pull03.f3dat
; ==================================================================
; confinement 4 MPa
; ==================================================================
model new
model title 'Pull Test for Grouted Cable Anchor - Confinement 4 MPa, fric=30'
point 3 (0,0,0.4)
zone initialize stress xx -4e6 zz -4e6
zone face apply stress-normal -4e6 range union position-x 0 position-x 0.4 ...
position-z 0 position-z 0.4
history interval 10
model cycle 45000
FLAC3D 6.0
;
model save 'pull-3'
Pull04.f3dat
; ==================================================================
; using modified pile elements
; ==================================================================
model new
model title 'Pull-test using modified pile elements'
point 3 (0,0,0.6)
zone face apply velocity-normal 0.0 range position-z 0.6
; Create a pile element and assign properties
struct pile create by-line (0.2,0.2,0.1) (0.2,0.2,0.7) segments 12
struct pile property rockbolt-flag on
struct pile property young 200e9 poisson 0.25 cross-sectional-area 5e-4 ...
perimeter 0.08
struct pile property tensile-yield 2.25e5 ; ultimate tensile strength
struct pile property moi-y 2.0e-8 moi-z 2.0e-8 moi-polar 4.0e-8 ; 0.25*pi*r^4
struct pile property coupling-cohesion-shear 1.75e5 ...
coupling-stiffness-shear 1.12e7
struct pile property coupling-cohesion-normal 1.75e5 ...
coupling-stiffness-normal 1.12e7
; Set up pull out test
struct node fix velocity-x range position-z 0.7
struct node init velocity-x 1e-6 local range position-z 0.7
call 'pileforce' suppress ; FISH function calculates reaction force on zones
history interval 10
struct node history name 'disp' displacement-z position (0.2,0.2,0.7)
; Achieve a total displacement of 2.0 cm
model cycle 20000
;
model save 'pull-4'
Pull05.f3dat
; ==================================================================
; using modified pile elements - Softening of cohesion
; ==================================================================
model new
model title 'Pull-test using modified pile elements - cohesion softening'
FLAC3D 6.0

point 3 (0,0,0.6)
perimeter 0.08
struct pile property coupling-cohesion-table 'cct'
; change in cohesion with relative shear displacement
table 'cct' add (0,1.75e5) (0.025,1.75e4)
struct node initialize velocity-x 1e-6 local range position-z 0.7
history interval 10
model cycle 40000
;
model save 'pull-5'
Pull06.f3dat
; ==================================================================
; using modified pile elements - Confinement 4 MPa
; ==================================================================
model new
[global t = 'Pull-test using modified pile elements - ']
[t += 'Confinement 4 MPa, fric=30']
model title [t]
point 3 (0,0,0.6)
FLAC3D 6.0

perimeter 0.08
struct pile property coupling-friction-shear 30.0
; Install in situ stresses
zone initialize stress xx -4e6 yy -4e6
position-y 0 position-y 0.4
struct node init velocity-x 1e-6 local range position-z 0.7
history interval 10
model cycle 40000
;
model save 'pull-6'
Pull07.f3dat
; ==================================================================
; using modified pile elements - Confinement 4 MPa (w/table)
; ==================================================================
model new
[t += 'Confinement 4 MPa (w/table)']
model title [t]
point 3 (0,0,0.6)
perimeter 0.08
FLAC3D 6.0
; define table for confining stress correction factor
table 'cct' add (0,0.5) (0.3,0.48) (0.5,0.45) (0.6,0.39) (0.68,0.36)
struct pile property coupling-confining-table 'cct'
; note : (snn-szz)/(snn+szz) is 1 , so cfac=0.36
zone initialize stress xx -4e6
zone face apply stress-normal -4e6 range union position-x 0 position-x 0.4
history interval 10
model cycle 40000
;
model save 'pull-7'
Pull08.f3dat
; ==================================================================
; Definition of failure due to maximum tensile strain or stress
; ==================================================================
model new
[t += 'tensile strain causes rupture']
model title [t]
; Create a single rock block and set its material properties
point 3 (0,0,0.6)
zone mech damping combined
perimeter 0.08
FLAC3D 6.0

struct pile property tensile-failure-strain 1.0e-4 ; ultimate tensile strain
zone initialize stress xx -4e6 yy -4e6
history interval 10
model cycle 40000
;
model save 'pull-8'
Shear01.f3dat
; ==================================================================
; Simulation of shear test for a grouted bolt
; ==================================================================
model new
model title 'Shear test using pile elements'
point 3 (0,0,0.6)
zone face skin ; Label the model boundaries
zone property bulk 5e10 shear 3e10 density 2000
struct node group 'Top' range position-z 0.628 ; Tag the node at the top
; with a name
perimeter 0.08
; ultimate tensile strength
FLAC3D 6.0
struct pile property tensile-yield 2.25e5

struct pile property moi-y 2.0e-8 moi-z 2.0e-8 moi-polar 4.0e-8
; 0.25*pi*r^4
; Set up shear test (need to fix local nodal axes at the top node,
; to avoid axes rotating with element)
struct node fix system-local range group 'Top'
struct node initialize velocity-x 1e-6 local range group 'Top'
struct node fix velocity-x range group 'Top'
call 'shearforce' ; FISH function to calculate force on the grid
struct node history name 'disp' displacement-x position (0.15,0.15,0.628)
model cycle 50000
;
model save 'shear-1'
Shear02.f3dat
; ==================================================================
; Simulation of shear test for a grouted bolt
; using modified pile elements - Bending moment rupture
; ==================================================================
model new
model title 'Shear test using pile elements - Bending moment rupture'
point 3 (0,0,0.6)
zone face skin ; Label the model boundaries
zone property bulk 5e10 shear 3e10 density 2000
struct node group 'Top' range position-z 0.628 ; Tag the node at the top
; with a name
perimeter 0.08
; ultimate tensile strength
struct pile property tensile-yield 2.25e5
FLAC3D 6.0
; ultimate moment and tensile strength

struct pile property plastic-moment 5e3 tensile-failure-strain 1e-4
struct pile property moi-y 2.0e-8 moi-z 2.0e-8 moi-polar 4.0e-8
; 0.25*pi*r^4
; Set up shear test (need to fix local nodal axes at the top node,
; to avoid axes rotating with element)
struct node fix system-local range group 'Top'
struct node initialize velocity-x 1e-6 local range group 'Top'
struct node fix velocity-x range group 'Top'
call 'shearforce' ; FISH function to calculate force on the grid
struct node history name 'disp' displacement-x position (0.15,0.15,0.628)
warning off
model cycle 20000
;
model save 'shear-2'
FLAC3D 6.0
FLAC3D 6.0
Wheel Load over a Buried Pipe 133
Wheel Load over a Buried Pipe
Problem Statement
A steel pipe is buried at a shallow depth beneath a roadway. An analysis is
required to evaluate the effect of wheel loading on the deformation at the road
surface, the deflection of the pipe, and stresses within the pipe.
The top of the pipe is 1.4 m beneath the road surface. The pipe has an outer
diameter of 4 m and is 0.12 m thick. The pipe excavation is 14 m wide and 5.8 m
deep. The pipe is placed on a 0.4 m thick layer of soil backfill, and then soil is
compacted around the pipe.
A wheel load is applied above the pipe at a distance of 1.25 m from the y = 0
plane. The wheel load is applied to four gridpoints on the surface. If the load is
assumed to be carried by 1/2 of each zone connected to the gridpoints, then the
wheel area can be assumed to be 1.275 m2. The wheel load is increased until
failure occurs in the soil. The analysis determines the failure load and the
resulting soil settlement, pipe displacement, and stresses.
Modeling Procedure
The FLAC3D model assumes symmetric conditions about a vertical plane through
the center of the pipe and a vertical plane midway between the wheel loads. The
model grid is shown in Figure 1. The x = 0 plane corresponds to the vertical plane
through the center of the pipe, and the y = 0 plane corresponds to the plane
midway between wheel loads. The model contains 1344 zones, with finer zoning
in the vicinity of the applied wheel load.
For these model conditions, it is assumed that, if the pipe buckles, this will occur
in the circular plane of the pipe. Buckling along the pipe is considered unlikely
and is excluded in the analysis. A full model of the pipe is required if buckling
along the pipe is expected.
The soil backfill is represented as a Mohr-Coulomb material with several

properties listed in Table 1:
FLAC3D 6.0
Table 1: Soil Properties
density 2000 kg/m3

shear modulus 0.30 × 108 Pa
bulk modulus 0.65 × 108 Pa
friction angle 34°
dilation angle 20°
cohesion 5.0 × 103 Pa
tensile strength 103 Pa
The wheel load is simulated by applying a constant velocity to the gridpoints

within the wheel load area. A z-direction velocity of -2.5 × 10-5 m/step is applied
for 6000 steps. The wheel-bearing pressure is monitored during loading with a
FISH function, wload.
Figure 1: Shallow pipe model.
FLAC3D 6.0
The steel pipe is represented by structural (shell) elements. Figure 2 shows the
shell element geometry. The pipe consists of 448 structural elements and 255
structural nodes. The Young’s modulus of the steel is 227 GPa and the Poisson’s
ratio is 0.25.
This analysis is performed in large-strain mode to provide a clearer

representation of the settlement profile of the soil. The model is first run to an
equilibrium state under gravitational loading; the maximum initial displacement
is 1.11 mm at the road surface and 0.92 mm at the crown of the pipe. The
displacements are reset to zero, and the z-velocity is then applied to simulate the
wheel load.
Figure 2: Structural shell (SEL) elements representing pipe.
Results and Discussion

The displacement at the road surface due to the wheel load is 15 cm after 6000
steps. Figure 3 plots the wheel-bearing pressure versus the surface settlement.
This plot indicates that the wheel-bearing pressure at which failure of the soil
occurs is approximately 400 kPa. The pressure continues to increase as a result
of the support provided by the pipe: the pressure reaches 750 kPa after 6000
steps.
FLAC3D 6.0
The surface settlement is shown by the displacement contour and vector plot in
Figure 4. This plot illustrates the region of maximum deflection directly beneath
the wheel load. A profile of the grid displacement along the axis of the pipe is
shown in Figure 5, and a profile normal to the pipe axis is shown in Figure 6.
The histories of vertical displacement at the road surface beneath the wheel load
and at the top of the pipe are plotted in Figure 7. At 15 cm surface displacement,
the top of the pipe has deflected 2.6 cm. Figure 8 plots contours of displacement
within the shell elements. Note that these are total displacements (including
displacement due to gravity).
The distribution in stress at the interior pipe surface is shown by the contour plot
of minimum (i.e., major) principal stress in Figure 9. The FISH function mises
calculates the maximum von Mises stress invariant in the pipe. The maximum
von Mises stress is at the inner pipe surface and is calculated to be approximately
200,000 kPa.
Figure 3: Wheel-bearing pressure (kPa) versus surface settlement (m).
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 4: Displacement (m) resulting from the wheel load.
Figure 5: Displacement (m) on a vertical plane along the pipe axis.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 6: Displacement (m) on a vertical plane normal to the pipe axis.
Figure 7: History of vertical displacement (m) at the road surface (solid line)
and at the pipe crown (dashed line) beneath the wheel load.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 8: Contours of deflections (m) in the pipe resulting from gravitational

loading and the wheel load.
Figure 9: Contours of minimum principal stress (kPa) in pipe resulting from

gravitational loading and wheel load.
FLAC3D 6.0
Data File
WheelLoadOverBuriedPipe.f3dat
; ==================================================================
; FLAC3D analysis of a wheel load over a buried pipe
; ==================================================================
model new
model title 'Wheel Load over a Buried Pipe'
; generate geometry from extruder tool, saved from State Record
; Tag the face to be loaded
zone face group 'loadedFace' range position-x -0.1 0.9 ...
position-y 0.9 1.6 position-z 3.3 3.6
; assign Mohr-Coulomb model to soil (stress units: kPa)
model gravity 10
zone property bulk 65000 shear 30000 density 2.0
zone property cohesion 5.0 friction 34 tension 1.0 dilation 20
;
; Apply roller boundaries
zone face apply velocity-normal 0 range group 'East' or 'West2' or 'West1'
;
zone history name 'zwheel' displacement-z position (0,1,3.4)
zone history name 'zpipe' displacement-z position (0,1,2)
; add pipe
struct shell create by-face range group 'pipeFace' ; Group assigned
; in extruder.
struct shell property isotropic 227e6 0.25 thickness 0.012
; Boundary conditions for shell
struct node fix velocity-y rotation-x rotation-z range position-y 0
struct node fix velocity-y rotation-x rotation-z range position-y 12
struct node fix velocity-x rotation-y rotation-z range position-x 0
; Solve for initial gravity loading.
; Reset displacements
; apply wheel load at surface
zone face apply velocity-z -2.5e-5 range group 'loadedFace'
call 'load' suppress ; FISH function to calculate wheel load
model step 6000 ; 0.15 total displacement on wheel
; stress recovery ...
struct shell recover surface (1,2,3)
struct shell recover stress depth-factor 1.0
FLAC3D 6.0
call 'mises' suppress ; FISH function to find maximum von-mises stress

list @mises
; Save the final state
model save 'load'
FLAC3D 6.0
FLAC3D 6.0
Embankment Loading on a Cam-Clay Foundation 143
Embankment Loading on a Cam-Clay Foundation
Problem Statement
The response of a saturated soil foundation to loading by a long embankment is
studied in this example. The analysis is carried out for a slice of soil foundation
of unit thickness normal to the embankment axis. The foundation is 10 meters
deep, and the groundwater free surface is at the ground level. The embankment
is 8 meters wide. The soil behavior corresponds to a Cam-clay material. The
initial stress and pore pressure states correspond to equilibrium under gravity
with a ratio of horizontal to vertical effective stress of 6/13. The weight of the
embankment is simulated by an applied surcharge and drainage occurs at the soil
surface.
The soil has several properties, which are listed in Table 1.
drained Poisson’s ratio (ν) 0.3

soil constant (M) 0.888
slope of normal consolidation line (λ) 0.161
slope of elastic swelling line (κ) 0.062
reference pressure (p1) 100.0 Pa
specific volume at reference pressure (vλ) 2.858
porosity 0.3
dry density (ρ) 2 × 103 kg/m3
The clay is lightly over-consolidated, and the initial value of the cap pressure, pc,
is equal to 1.6 × 105 Pa in the example. (Note that for a normally consolidated
soil, the value for pc is equal to 1.579 × 105 Pa at the base of the clay layer, where
p = 8.33 × 104 Pa and q = 7.0 × 104 Pa.) The drained Poisson’s ratio of the material
is assumed to remain constant during the simulation.
FLAC3D 6.0
The foundation has a permeability, k, of 10-12 (m/s)/(Pa/m). The soil moduli are
functions of the mean effective pressure and the soil-specific volume, quantities
that vary in space and evolve during the simulation. The average value of K + 4/3
G, however, stays of the order of 106 Pa, or two orders of magnitude lower than
the water bulk modulus (Kw is 2 × 108 Pa). The diffusivity, c, is thus controlled by
the soil material in this example. Its magnitude can be estimated from the
formula c = k(K + 4/3 G), and is of the order of 10-6 m2/s. The time scale for the
diffusion process can be estimated using tc = L2/c, where L is the model height.
Using L = 10 m, we have that tc is of the order of three years. Compared to that
time, construction of the embankment may be assumed to occur instantaneously.
An undrained analysis is first conducted to evaluate the foundation settlement in
the short-term after building of the embankment; the long-term response is
then monitored after allowing drainage from the soil surface.
Modeling Procedure
The model, represented in Figure 1, takes advantage of half-symmetry. The size
is 20 meters wide and 10 meters deep. Note that the width of the model is not
necessarily large enough to accurately represent an extensive soil layer; the
model is intended for illustrative purposes only. The mechanical boundary
conditions correspond to roller boundaries on both sides of the plane of analysis
(y-direction), roller boundaries along the symmetry line and the far boundary of
the model (x-direction), and to fixed displacements in the x-, y-, and z-direction
at the model base. The maximum bulk modulus of the clay ( bulk-maximum) is set
to 5 × 106 Pa, a value that is approximately twice the initial value of the actual
bulk modulus (bulk) at the bottom of the clay layer.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 1: Model geometry.
The first stage of the simulation corresponds to the short time response of the
system in which no flow is assumed to take place. The command model fluid
active off is specified. Loading by the embankment is simulated by progressive
application of a pressure of 50 kPa on a 4 meter section of the model top
boundary (to reproduce proportional loading conditions). Once the full load is
attained, the model is cycled to equilibrium. During this stage, pore pressures
develop as a result of volumetric deformations, but do not dissipate.
In the second stage, fluid flow is allowed to develop by issuing the command
model fluid active on. Water then drains through the top of the model where the
pore pressure is fixed at zero, and additional settlement takes place under the
embankment. The model solve fluid time-total command, used to perform the
coupled simulation, requires parameters that determine the accuracy of the
solution. These parameters may need to be adjusted if different properties or
model conditions are used. Refer to Coupled Flow and Mechanical Calculations
for a discussion on these topics. Stresses, pore pressures, and vertical
displacements are monitored during the calculation. The data file for this
problem is listed in the end of this page.
FLAC3D 6.0

Displacement vectors, vertical displacement contours, and the pore pressure
distribution at the end of the undrained and drained numerical simulations are
presented in Figure 2 to Figure 7. The vertical displacement histories in Figure 8,
recorded at four monitoring points, indicate that the maximum settlement under
the embankment increases from approximately 0.14 m to 0.19 m as a result of
drainage. Note that the displacement vectors in Figure 3 and vertical
displacement contours in Figure 5 correspond to the combined undrained and
drained displacements.
In Figure 9, the graph of pore pressure evolution at two monitoring points

confirms that a steady-state flow has been reached by the end of the drained
simulation.
break
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 2: Displacement vectors—undrained response.
Figure 3: Displacement vectors—end of drained simulation.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 4: Vertical displacement contours—undrained response.
Figure 5: Vertical displacement contours—end of drained simulation.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 6: Pore pressure contours—undrained response.
Figure 7: Pore pressure contours—drained response.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 8: Vertical displacement histories—drained response.
Figure 9: Pore pressure histories—drained response.
FLAC3D 6.0
Data File
EmbankmentLoad.f3dat
;-----------------------------------------------------------
; Loading by an embankment on a Cam-clay foundation
;-----------------------------------------------------------
model new
model title "loading by an embankment on a Cam-clay foundation"
model config fluid
; -- Create zone geometry
zone create brick point 0 (0,0,0) point 1 (20,0,0) point 2 (0,1,0) ...
point 3 (0,0,10) ...
size 20 1 10
; --- mechanical model and properties ---
zone property poisson .3 bulk-maximum 5e6 density 2000
zone property ratio-critical-state 0.888 lambda 0.161 kappa 0.062
zone property pressure-preconsolidation 160e3 pressure-reference 1e3 ...
specific-volume-reference 2.858
; -- fluid model and properties
zone fluid biot off
zone fluid property permeability 1e-12 porosity .3
zone gridpoint initialize fluid-modulus 2e8
zone gridpoint initialize fluid-tension -1e20
zone initialize fluid-density 1e3
; --- initial conditions ---
model gravity 10
zone gridpoint initialize saturation 1
zone initialize-stresses ratio 0.7
zone gridpoint initialize pore-pressure 1e5 gradient (0,0,-1e4)
call 'pressure-effective' suppress ; FISH to initialize the CamClay
; property of mean effective stress
@pressure_effective
zone face apply velocity (0,0,0) range group 'Bottom'
zone face apply pore-pressure 0 range group 'Top'
zone face apply stress-normal=-5e4 servo ramp ratio local ...
range position-x 0 4 group 'Top'
; --- settings ---
model mechanical active on
; --- histories ---
zone history name 'z0' displacement-z position (0,0,10)
FLAC3D 6.0
zone history name 'pp1' pore-pressure position (0.5,0.5,9.5)

zone history name 'pp2' pore-pressure position (1.5,0.5,7.5)
; --- undrained response ---
model save 'undrained'
; --- drained response ---
model history name 'time' fluid time-total
model fluid substep 100
model mechanical substep 10
model mechanical slave
model solve time-total 1e5 or mechanical ratio 5e-5
model mechanical substep 50
model solve time-total 1.e8 or mechanical ratio 5e-5
model save 'drained'
FLAC3D 6.0
Impermeable Concrete Caisson Wall with Pretensioned Tiebacks 153
Impermeable Concrete Caisson Wall with

Pretensioned Tiebacks
Problem Statement
This example demonstrates a modeling procedure to simulate the staged
construction of a vertical excavation supported by an impermeable concrete
caisson wall with pretensioned tiebacks. [*] The excavation is approximately 84
m long by 36.5 m wide, and the final excavation depth is 23.5 m. The wall is 1.07
m thick and is composed of interlocking concrete caissons with a length of 26.5
m. Soldier piles are installed along the wall at 2.25 m spacing, and inclined,
pretensioned tiebacks are connected to and extend from the soldier piles. Figure 1
illustrates a quarter-section of the excavation with the wall, soldier pile, and
tieback support. The system of coordinate axes are defined for this example such
that the origin is beneath the center of the excavation with the z-axis pointing
upward. The final depth of the excavation is at z = 26.5 m, and the ground
surface is at z = 50 m.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 1: Excavation with concrete caisson wall including soldier piles and
inclined tiebacks (quarter-section view).
The purpose of this analysis is to evaluate the stability of the excavation in terms
of the displacement of the wall and the development of forces in the tiebacks.
The analysis is performed as follows.
1. Initial equilibrium is established with the concrete wall and

soldier piles installed to a depth of 26.5 m prior to excavation.
The initial state includes the pore pressure distribution
accounting for the water table at elevation z = 39.5 m and the
impermeable wall. The K0 value (coefficient of earth pressure at
rest) for this problem is 0.6.
2. The excavation is made in five cuts. The excavation depths for

each cut are summarized in Table 1. The zones associated with
each cut are labeled in Figure 2.
FLAC3D 6.0
Table 1: Excavation Depths
Cut Excavation Depth (m)

1 3.5
2 8.0
3 13.0
4 17.5
5 23.5
3. After each of the first four cuts, a row of tiebacks is installed, and
these tiebacks are pretensioned before the next cut is made.
4. Cuts 3 through 5 are below the water level. Before each of these
cuts, the excavation is dewatered to 1 m below the excavation
depth for that cut. The zones associated with each dewatering
step are labeled in Figure 2.
Figure 2: Group names applied to zones in the Building Block and Model panes.
FLAC3D 6.0
There are two aspects of this example that are highlighted. First, the tiebacks are
pretensioned using the structure cable apply tension command, which assigns
an axial force to the ungrouted cable elements while the model is cycled to
equilibrium. Second, the procedure to simulate dewatering uses the fluid flow
calculation in FLAC3D to produce a pore-pressure distribution that closely
corresponds to the boundary conditions applied for the dewatering stage. This
approach provides pore pressures around the excavation that are expected to
reflect the field condition better than using the zone water command will. The
zone water command does not provide as precise a calculation for pore pressures
in the vicinity of the wall as the flow calculation.
The stratigraphy consists of five horizontal soil layers of different thicknesses.

The soils are shown in Figure 2, and the soil properties are summarized in Table
2.
The initial water level is located 10.5 m below the ground surface ( z = 39.5 m),
near the top of Soil 3.
Table 2: Thicknesses and Drained Properties for Soil Layers
Soil 1 Soil 2 Soil 3 Soil 4 Soil 5

Thickness (m) 3.0 7.0 10.0 5.0 25.0
Dry density (kg/m3) 1830 2000 2050 2100 2250
Bulk modulus (MPa) 25.0 81.9 147.0 333.0 833.0
Shear modulus (MPa) 11.6 37.8 68.0 154.0 625.0
Cohesion (MPa) 0.025 0.0 0.0 0.35 15.0
Friction angle (degrees) 26 34 38 42 45
Dilation angle (degrees) 0 2 5 5 0
Mobility coefficient 10-7 10-7 10-7 10-7 10-7
(m2/(Pa-sec))
Porosity 0.18 0.18 0.13 0.15 0.15
The properties of the concrete wall, soldier piles, and tiebacks are summarized in
Table 3, Table 4, and Table 5, respectively. The soldier piles are located at a
spacing of 2.25 m along the wall. Four rows of tiebacks are installed and
FLAC3D 6.0
connected to the soldier piles during construction. The tiebacks have an

inclination of approximately 25° and are pretensioned after installation at the
loads listed in Table 5.
Table 3: Properties of the Concrete Caisson Wall
Thickness (m) 1.07

Density (kg/m3) 2500
Young’s modulus (GPa) 25.0
Poisson’s ratio 0.4
Cohesion (MPa) 4.0
Friction angle (degrees) 45
Tensile strength (MPa) 2.0
Table 4: Properties of Soldier Piles
Area (m2) 0.0144

Spacing (m) 2.25
Moment of inertia (m4) 8.75 × 10-4
Table 5: Properties of Tiebacks
Row 1 Row 2 Row 3 Row 4

Area (m2) 0.00554 0.00554 0.00554 0.00554
Total length (m) 21.897 19.691 17.187 14.398
Bonded length (m) 12.0 12.0 12.0 12.0
Pretension (MN) 0.80 0.90 1.15 1.15
Spacing (m) 2.25 2.25 2.25 2.25
Young’s modulus (GPa) 205.0 205.0 205.0 205.0
Tensile yield strength (MN) 1.534 1.534 1.534 1.534
Bond stiffness (MN/m/m) 560.0 560.0 560.0 560.0
FLAC3D 6.0
Row 1 Row 2 Row 3 Row 4

Bond strength (MN/m) 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15
Bond friction (degrees) 25 25 25 25
Modeling Procedure
A FLAC3D model of a quarter-section of the excavation is created using the
Building Block pane, as shown in Figure 2. The model contains a coarse mesh and
short distances to model boundaries in order to speed the calculation for
demonstration purposes. The soil layers are assigned names using the Building
Block pane, and the Model pane is used to assign names to the excavation
sequence and dewatering sequence.
The fluid-flow configuration is used in this analysis in order to simulate the

excavation dewatering. The soil properties in Table 2 are entered as the “dry”
properties. Saturated properties (e.g., wet densities) are calculated automatically
in the fluid-flow configuration. The pore pressure is initialized using the zone
water command. The in-situ stress state is obtained by the command zone
initialize-stresses, provided that the zone density, saturation, and porosity as
well as the pore pressure have been assigned.
The concrete wall is added at the initial stage by assigning the material
properties in Table 3 to zones at the location of the wall. See Figure 2. In order to
model the wall as impermeable, the fluid null model ( zone fluid cmodel assign
null) is assigned to the wall zones, and the porosity and pore pressures in these
zones are set to zero. (By setting the porosity to zero, the bulk density will not be
affected.) Note that the addition of the wall is done in two steps. First, the wall is
made impermeable and the model is equilibrated. Then, the mechanical
properties of the wall zones are changed and the model is equilibrated again. In
this way, the total stress only reflects the stress change due to the weight of the
wall, and the pore pressure remains hydrostatic around the wall. The initial pore
pressure distribution for the model with the wall in place is shown in Figure 3.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 3: Initial pore pressure distribution.
The FISH function createStructure defined in the file “struct-geometry.f3dat”

lays out positions of the soldier piles and cable tiebacks using the geometry logic
in the set structure. This description could just as easily have been imported as
CAD data.
The soldier piles are also installed at this stage using structural beam elements,
using the structure beam import from-geometry command. The soldier piles are
created at 2.25 m spacing within the wall zones. By using beam elements, the
soldier piles are rigidly connected to the wall zones at the beam nodes. The
soldier pile locations are indicated by the vertical lines in Figure 4.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 4: Locations of soldier piles (vertical lines) and tiebacks (inclined lines).
The excavation cuts are made by nulling zones within a cut region. The
“excavation” is done incrementally by nulling zones in stages within each cut. In
this way, transient effects on model response are minimized.
A row of tiebacks is added after each cut by using the structure cable import
from-geometry command in two steps representing the ungrouted and grouted
sections. Note that the snap keyword is used during creation to ensure that the
end nodes fall in the same location as an existing beam or cable node, and the
structure node join command is used to create rigid links between nodes in the
same location, ensuring that the tiebacks are linked to the soldier piles and that
each tieback segment is connected. The tieback geometry is shown in Figure 4.
A row of tiebacks is installed after each stage. After the tiebacks are created, they
are assigned properties as listed in Table 5. Note that the tieback segment closest
to the soldier pile is unbonded (structure cable property grout-cohesion 0.0).
FLAC3D 6.0
The tiebacks are pretensioned using the command structure cable apply
tension on the ungrouted portion. The model is then cycled to equilibrium, and
the applied axial force condition is made inactive. The axial force in these
elements will remain, but after the condition is inactivated, the elements will
respond normally to changes.
Figure 5: Axial forces in the first row of tiebacks after pretensioning.
Dewatering is simulated for Cuts 3, 4, and 5 by setting the pore pressure to zero
over the drained depth, 1 m below the excavation depth for each cut. The model
response to dewatering is calculated in two steps. First, a fluid flow-only
calculation is made to bring the model to a steady-flow state for the changed
pore-pressure condition. Then, a mechanical-only calculation (with fluid
modulus set to zero to prevent additional generation of pore pressure) is made.
Figure 6, 7, and 8 show the pore pressure distributions after dewatering for Cuts
3, 4, and 5.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 6: Pore pressure distribution after dewatering for Cut 3.
FLAC3D 6.0
Results
The results of this example simulation are presented below in a series of plots
indicating the development of axial forces in the tiebacks and the displacements
in the soils and wall as the excavation cuts progress.
Figure 9 through Figure 12 plot the axial forces in the tiebacks. These plots
present a view normal to the x-axis. The maximum axial force is found to
develop in the third row of tiebacks along the wall parallel to the x-axis. The
maximum value is approximately 1.3 MN at Cuts 4 and 5.
break
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 9: Axial forces in tiebacks after Cut 2.
FLAC3D 6.0
FLAC3D 6.0
The displacements induced by the excavation are shown in Figure 13 through

Figure 17. The maximum displacement occurs at mid-height of the wall parallel
to the x-direction and is approximately 8.1 mm into the excavation after Cut 5 is
completed, as shown in Figure 17. This roughly coincides with the third level of
tiebacks that experience the highest tensile load. Figure 18 shows displacement
histories recorded throughout the entire simulation at two locations that coincide
with the maximum displacement locations on each wall. The top two lines on the
plot correspond to vertical displacements, and the bottom two lines correspond
to horizontal displacements. The dewatering stages appear as the horizontal line
segments. Excavations follow the dewatering stages, and the walls move into the
excavation up until the cable pretensioning occurs, which is indicated by the
short upward trends on the two bottom lines in the history plot.
break
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 13: Displacement contours after Cut 1.
FLAC3D 6.0
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 18: Displacement histories near the mid-height of the walls where
maximum displacement occurs.
FLAC3D 6.0
Endnote
[*] This example application is derived from a demonstration model prepared
in collaboration with Matthew Janes, Isherwood Associates, Mississauga,
Ontario, Canada.
Data Files
CaissonWithTiebacks.f3dat
model new
model title 'Impermeable Concrete Caisson Wall with Pretensioned Tiebacks'
model configure fluid
; Model Geometry created interactively in Building Blocks,
; exported using State Pane
; Name areas interactively in Model Pane, exported using State Pane
call 'names' suppress
zone face skin ; Apply names to model boundaries
; Create geometry of cables and beams,
; here using FISH but could import from CAD.
call 'struct-geometry' suppress
model save 'grid'
; initialize the model, including boundary conditions,
; stresses, and pore-pressures
call 'initialize'
; install the wall
call 'install-wall'
; install beams
call 'install-beam'
; excavation stages
call 'stage1'
call 'stage2'
call 'stage3'
call 'stage4'
call 'stage5'
initialize.f3dat
;--------------------------------------
; Find initial equilibrium for the model
;--------------------------------------
model restore 'grid'
model gravity 9.81
; Boundary conditions - roller boundaries
FLAC3D 6.0

; mechanical model and properties
zone property bulk 2.50e7 shear 1.16e7 friction 26 cohesion 2.5e4 ...
dilation 0 tension 1e10 density 1830 range group 'soil1'
zone property bulk 8.19e7 shear 3.78e7 friction 34 cohesion 0 ...
zone property bulk 1.47e8 shear 6.80e7 friction 38 cohesion 0 ...
; fluid model and properties
zone initialize fluid-density 1000
zone gridpoint initialize fluid-modulus 0
zone gridpoint initialize fluid-tension -1e-3
zone fluid property permeability 1e-7
zone fluid property porosity 0.18 range group 'soil1' or 'soil2'
zone fluid property porosity 0.13 range group 'soil3'
; Initial pore-pressure and saturation - water level 39.5
zone water plane normal (0,0,1) origin (0,0,39.5)
zone gridpoint initialize saturation 0 range position-z 39.5 50
zone gridpoint fix pore-pressure 0 range position-z 39.5 tol 0.1
; Initialize stress state due to gravity
; Cycle to make certain you reach equilibrium
model solve elastic ratio-local 1e-3
; Save initial state for reference
install-wall.f3dat
;--------------------------------------
; Install the impermeable concrete wall
;--------------------------------------
model restore 'initial'
; Reset displacement and velocity field for reference
; --- concrete wall installation ---
; First change fluid properties to impermeable
zone fluid property porosity 0 range group 'wall'
zone gridpoint initialize pore-pressure 0 range group 'wall'
zone fluid cmodel assign null range group 'wall'
; Change mechanical properties
FLAC3D 6.0
zone property tension 0.0

zone property density 2500 young 2.5e10 poisson 0.4 friction 45 ...
cohesion 4e6 tension 2e6 range group 'wall'
model save 'wall'
install-beam.f3dat
;---------------------
; Create solider beams
;---------------------
model restore 'wall'
struct beam import from-geometry 'structure' segments 13 range group 'beam'
structure beam property young 2.05e11 poisson 0.3
structure beam property cross-sectional-area 1.44e-2 ...
moi-z 875e-6 moi-y 875e-6 moi-polar 0.0
;
model save 'beam'
stage1.f3dat
model restore 'beam'

; Reset displacements and velocities for reference
; --- histories ---
; North side of excavation
zone history name 'nyd' displacement-y position (0, 18.283, 36)
zone history name 'nzd' displacement-z position (0, 18.283, 36)
; East side of excavation
zone history name 'exd' displacement-x position (42.0715, 0, 34.25)
zone history name 'ezd' displacement-z position (42.0715, 0, 34.25)
; --------------------------
; - EXCAVATION STAGE 1 -
; --------------------------
; --- above water level, no need to drain, but fix that line for stability ---
; --- excavate cut1
zone cmodel assign null range group 'cut1'
model save 'excavation-1'
; --- first level of tie-backs ---
struct cable import from-geometry 'structure' segments 5 snap ...
group 'cable1-1' range group 'cable1-1'
struct node join range group 'cable1-1' ; Connect ungrouted cables to soldier
; beams and grouted cables rigidly
struct cable property young 2.05e11 yield-compression 1.0e5 ...
FLAC3D 6.0
yield-tension 15.34e5 cross-sectional-area 5.54e-3

struct cable property grout-cohesion 0.0 grout-friction 0.0 ...
grout-stiffness 0.0 range group 'cable1-1'
struct cable property grout-cohesion 1.5e5 grout-friction 25.0 ...
grout-stiffness 0.56e9 grout-perimeter 0.264 ...
range group 'cable1-2'
; Pretension the tiebacks
struct cable apply tension value 8e5 range group 'cable1-1'
struct cable apply tension active off
model save 'stage-1'
stage2.f3dat
model restore 'stage-1'

; --------------------------
; --------------------------
; --- above water level (_drain2 > _wt), no need to drain ---
; --- excavate in stages ---
; --- second level of tie-backs ---
struct cable apply tension value 9e5 range group 'cable2-1'
stage3.f3dat

; --------------------------
; --------------------------
; --- drain 1m below base of excavation ---
; (flow first)
FLAC3D 6.0

model mechanical active off
zone gridpoint fix pore-pressure 0 range group 'drain3'
zone fluid cmodel assign null range group 'drain3'
zone gridpoint initialize fluid-modulus 2 range group 'LowFluidMod'
model solve fluid ratio-flow 1e-4
model save 'drain-fluid-3'
; (mech next)
model save 'drain-mech-3'
; --- third level of tie-backs ---
struct cable apply tension value 11.5e5 range group 'cable3-1'
stage4.f3dat

; --------------------------
; --------------------------
; (flow first)
FLAC3D 6.0

; (mech next)
; --- fourth level of tie-backs ---
struct cable apply tension value 11.5e5 range group 'cable4-1'
stage5.f3dat

; --------------------------
; - FINAL EXCAVATION STAGE -
; --------------------------
; (flow first)
FLAC3D 6.0
; (mech next)
FLAC3D 6.0
Dewatered Construction of a Braced Excavation 177
Dewatered Construction of a Braced Excavation
Problem Statement
A braced excavation is constructed in saturated ground. The excavation is
dewatered during construction and is supported by diaphragm walls that are
braced at the top by horizontal struts. The purpose of the FLAC3D analysis is to
evaluate: 1) the deformation of the ground adjacent to the walls and at the
bottom of the excavation; and 2) the performance of the walls and struts
throughout the construction stages. The analysis starts from the stage after the
walls have been constructed, but prior to any excavation. Dewatering, excavation,
and installation of struts are simulated in separate construction stages. In
addition, three different material models, the Mohr-Coulomb model, the CYSoil
model, and the PH model are used to represent the behavior of the soils and
demonstrate the difference in deformational response produced by these models
when subjected to this construction sequence.
In practice, the construction may involve several stages of dewatering,

excavation, and adding of support. For simplicity, in this example, only three
construction stages are analyzed: 1) dewatering to a 20 m depth in the region to
be excavated; 2) excavation to a 2 m depth; and 3) installation of a horizontal
strut and excavation to a 10 m depth. Additional excavation stages can readily be
incorporated in the FLAC3D analysis, as required.
Figure 1 shows the geometry for this example, along with names assigned in two
different groups by the Extruder tool. The top set of names in the “Construction”
slot was assigned interactively, while the second set of names in the “Block” slot
was assigned automatically by the Extruder. The excavation is 20 m wide and the
final depth is 10 m. The diaphragm walls extend to a 30 m depth and are braced
at the top by horizontal struts at a 2 m interval. The ground consists of two soil
layers: a 20 m thick soft clay underlain by a stiff sand layer that extends to a
great depth. The initial water table is at the ground surface.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 1: Geometry for braced excavation example.
The properties selected to simulate the behavior of the diaphragm wall and the
struts in this example are listed in Table 1 and Table 2. The thickness of the
diaphragm wall varies, and an equivalent thickness is estimated to be 1.26 m.
The strut properties are listed in Table 2. The spacing of the struts is 2 m.
The hydraulic conductivity of the soils is assumed to be a constant value of 10 -6

m/sec (which corresponds to approximately 10-10 m2/(Pa-sec) for the mobility
coefficient).
Table 1: Properties of the Diaphragm Wall
Equivalent thickness (m) 1.26

Moment of inertia (m4) 0.167
Table 2: Properties of the Strut
Cross-sectional area (m2) 1.0

Spacing (m) 2.0
Moment of inertia (m4) 0.083
FLAC3D 6.0
Problem Statement
The deformation of the soils during excavation is of particular interest in this
example, specifically the heave at the bottom of the excavation and the surface
settlement adjacent to the excavation wall. Two different material models, the
Mohr-Coulomb model and the CYSoil model, are used to illustrate the effect of
the material model on the calculated deformational response of the soil. It is
noted that for uniform elastic properties, the linear elastic/perfectly plastic
Mohr-Coulomb model may predict unrealistically large deformations in soils
subjected to loading and unloading, such as heave induced at the bottom of
excavations. A more realistic calculation may be obtained with the nonlinear
elastic/plastic CYSoil model.
The drained material properties for the Mohr-Coulomb Model associated with
the sand and clay are summarized in Table 3.
The PH model properties are listed in Table 4.
The formulation of the CYSoil model has components in common with the PH
model. A connection, as shown in Table 5, is proposed between hardening CYSoil
properties and PH properties. Note, however, that among other things,
differences exist in the hardening and dilatancy laws. (See the PH model for a
description.) Thus, the model responses should not be expected to be identical.
Table 3: Mohr-Coulomb Model Properties [1]
Sand layer Clay layer

Dry density (kg/m3) 1700 1600
Young’s modulus (MPa) 40.0 10.0
Poisson’s ratio 0.30 0.35
Cohesion (MPa) 0 0
Friction angle (degrees) 32 25
Dilation angle (degrees) 2 0
Porosity 0.3 0.3
FLAC3D 6.0
Table 4: PH Model Soil Properties [2]
PH Model Property Sand layer Clay layer

Dry density (kg/m3) 1700 1600
(kPa) 100 100
(MPa) 30 8
(MPa) 90 24
(MPa) 30 4
Poisson’s ratio, 0.2 0.2

Cohesion (kPa) 1 5
Friction angle (degrees) 32 25
Dilation angle (degrees) 2 0
Power, 0.5 0.8
0.47 0.50
Failure ratio, 0.9 0.9
Table 5: Relation between CYSoil and PH Model

Properties
PH Model CYSoil Model

–
Friction angle,
Dilation angle,
Poisson’s ratio,
Exponent,
Failure ratio,
FLAC3D 6.0
The following procedure is used to develop properties for the CYSoil model in this
example. The CYSoil model can represent the nonlinear stress/strain response for
loading and unloading that is characteristic of soils.
1. Table 5 is used to derive the hardening CYSoil properties shown

in Table 6. The FISH function setup performs the derivation of
CYSoil properties from the Hardening Soil properties. Note that
the cap-yield surface parameter, , is set to one. [3]
The soils are assumed to be normally consolidated. Accordingly,

initial (mobilized) friction is calculated from the initial stress
using the equation
which is calculated in FISH function ini_cy, listed in

“setup.f3dat”.
Table 6: Hardening CYSoil Properties

Dry density, (kg/m3) 1700 1600
Cap-yield surface parameter, 1.0 1.0
Ultimate friction angle, 32 25
(degrees)
Ultimate dilation angle, 2 0
(degrees)
Multiplier, 2.333 5.667
112.5 15.0
Reference pressure, (kPa) 100 100
Poisson’s ratio, 0.2 0.2
Cohesion (kPa) 1 5
Power, 0.5 0.8
0.47 0.50
Initial mobilized friction angle, 19.47 19.47
(degrees)
FLAC3D 6.0

Failure ratio, 0.9 0.9
2. The CYSoil properties and are stress-dependent, and these

properties are specified after the initial pre-excavation stress
state is established. The commands zone water and zone
initialize-stresses are used to initialize pore pressures and
stresses automatically from the known and for the initial
water level at the ground surface.
3. The CYSoil property is also stress-dependent. It is assumed

that the clay and sand are normally consolidated on the cap (ocr =
1), so that = . The initial effective stress is used to calculate
the initial values for and . The cap and initial pressure is
assigned in FISH function ini_cy, listed in “setup.f3dat”.
4. The PH properties , and are stress-dependent. These

effective principal stresses are initialized in FISH function ini_ph,
listed in “setup.f3dat”.
5. The input parameter flag-cap = 1 indicates that the cap is

activated.
6. The default parameter flag-dilation (0) implies that the built-in

Rowe rule is used; the default parameter flag-shear (0) implies
that the built-in shear hardening law is used. All the formula are
described in the CYSoil model.
Modeling Procedure
A recommended procedure to simulate this type of problem with FLAC3D is
illustrated by performing the analysis in six steps:
• Step 1: Generate the model grid and assign material models,

material properties, and boundary conditions to represent the
physical system.
• Step 2: Determine the initial in-situ stress state of the ground
prior to construction.
FLAC3D 6.0
• Step 3: Determine the initial in-situ stress state of the ground

with the diaphragm wall installed.
• Step 4: Lower the water level within the region to be excavated to
a depth of 20 m below the ground surface.
• Step 5: Excavate to a depth of 2 m.
• Step 6: Install the horizontal struts at the top of the wall, and
then excavate to a depth of 10 m.
Three data files were created for the above steps: for the Mohr-Coulomb model,
the CYSoil model and PH model, respectively. The Mohr-Coulomb data file is
named “BracedExcavation-mc.f3dat”. The CYSoil data file is named
“BracedExcavation-cy.f3dat”. The PH data file is named “BracedExcavation-
ph.f3dat”. Listings of these files are provided in the data files.
Model Generation
It is only necessary to consider half of the problem region shown in Figure 1
because of the symmetric geometry. This grid is created interactively using the
Extruder tool, which is also used to name regions of the model for later reference.
Zoning near the excavation is a uniform 1 m, with the zone size gradually
increasing farther away from the excavation. The grid is initially divided into
four groups names, “clay-left”, “clay-right”, “sand-left”, and “sand-right”,
which correspond to zones on the left and right sides of the diaphragm wall and
the sand and clay layers. The face group “Liner” is assigned between the “left”
and “right” sides at the correct elevation. The embedded liner is then installed at
the face group “Liner”:
struct liner create by-face separate cross-diagonal range group 'Liner'
The embedded liner has independent properties on each side of the liner.
Although the properties can be different, in this example they are the same on
each side. Normal and shear coupling springs are used to interface the embedded
liner to the zones.
It is usually reasonable to select the interface normal and shear stiffness

properties such that the stiffness is approximately ten times the equivalent
stiffness of the stiffest neighboring zone. By doing this, the deformability at the
interface will have minimal influence of both the compliance of the total model
and the calculation speed. The equivalent stiffness of a zone normal to the
interface is
FLAC3D 6.0
where and are the bulk and shear moduli, respectively, and is the
smallest width of an adjoining zone in the normal direction. The [ ] notation
indicates that the maximum value over all zones adjacent to the interface is to be
used (e.g., there may be several materials adjoining the interface).
In this example, the smallest grid width adjacent to the interface is 1 m and the
maximum equivalent stiffness is approximately 55 MPa. Therefore, a
representative value of 550 MPa/m is selected for the normal and shear
stiffnesses.
The density of the wall is not assigned at this stage, because first the equilibrium
stress state will be calculated before the wall is constructed. This is done by
neglecting the weight of the wall.
Figure 2: Grid created for braced excavation.
The groundwater properties porosity and permeability are assigned. Note that
the “permeability” required by FLAC3D is actually the mobility coefficient (i.e., the
coefficient of the pore pressure term in Darcy’s law—see Fluid Permeability
FLAC3D 6.0
Coefficient. Gravity is set to 10.0 m/sec2 to simplify this example. Set the water
density to 1000 kg/m3. Roller boundaries are placed on the left, right, front, and
rear boundaries of the grid. The bottom of the grid is fixed.
Before saving the initial state, the static equilibrium is specified for the initial
pre-excavation stress state with the water table at the ground surface. The pore
pressure and total (and effective) stress distributions must be compatible at the
initial state. The pore pressures are assigned using the zone water command and
a uniform horizontal plane at an elevation of 40. The initial stresses are assigned
using the command zone initialize-stresses using a ratio of 0.47 in the sand
and 0.50 in the clay. After the pore pressure distribution is calculated, fix the
pore pressures along the top and side boundaries, and saturation along the top
boundary to satisfy the flow conditions. The initial pore-pressure distribution is
shown in Figure 3.
Figure 3: Initial pore-pressure distribution.
The above steps are common to the Mohr-Coulomb, CYSoil and PH examples.
The CYSoil and PH model requires additional setup. With the CYSoil and PH
model, it is necessary to specify the stress-dependent properties and hardening
table functions if required. These are applied as FISH functions, as described in
FLAC3D 6.0
“BracedExcavation-cy.f3dat”. The FISH function setup is executed first to derive

CYSoil-related properties based on Hardening Soil properties. The stress-
dependent properties for the CYSoil mdoel are input in the FISH function ini_cy.
Similarly, the stress-dependent properties for the PH model are input in the FISH
function ini_ph.
Initial Conditions
A check is made to verify that the models are in equilibrium with the prescribed
initial and boundary conditions. While the liner interface springs are initialized
using the structure liner initialize coupling command, a slight stress
readjustment is still made near the diaphragm wall.
Install Diaphragm Wall

The next stage of the analysis is the installation of the diaphragm wall. This is
simulated by assigning the wall its proper weight by specifying a density for the
embedded liner. Also, turn off the flow mode and ensure that the water bulk
modulus is zero because the generation of pore pressures is not desired during
this stage. The three models are solved and saved in “mc-part-3”, “cy-part-3”,
and “ph-part-3”.
Figure 4, Figure 5, and Figure 6 show the total vertical stress distribution for the
Mohr-Coulomb, CYSoil and PH models at this stage. There is a slight difference
in stress distribution around the wall in the CYSoil material compared to the wall
in Mohr-Coulomb material. This can be attributed to the difference between the
stress-dependent stiffness properties of the CYSoil material and the constant,
uniform stiffness properties of the interfaces adjacent to the wall. Although the
difference is minor, a stress-dependent variation of interface stiffnesses could be
applied using FISH in order to provide a closer representation.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 4: Total vertical stress contours for initial saturated state with weight of
wall included—Mohr-Coulomb material.
wall included—CYSoil material.
FLAC3D 6.0
wall included—PH material.
Dewater to a Depth of 20 m
For the dewatering stage, assume for simplicity that the water level is dropped
instantaneously within the excavation region [4]. Start from the previous step
and set the saturation, pore pressure, and permeability to zero in the excavation
area (all zones belonging to group “clay-left”). Free the fixed pore-pressure
condition along the left boundary below the excavation and along the top of the
model to the right of the excavation so that pore pressures can change during
dewatering. Initialize the displacements in the model to zero so that the
displacement change that occurs due only to the dewatering can be monitored.
When a change in pore pressure is imposed, the total stress must be adjusted to
account for this change. This is done using the zone gridpoint fix pore-pressure
0 command. When this command is used to modify existing pore-pressures, the
change is stored and applied to the total stress state in the next step. In this way,
the total stresses are adjusted, but the effective stresses remain the same. Note
that if the zone gridpoint initialize pore-pressure command was used, the
total stresses would remain the same but the effective stresses would be
adjusted.
FLAC3D 6.0
Check that this adjustment to total stress has been made by plotting effective
stresses before and after these commands are issued as long as at least one step
is taken: the effective stresses are unchanged in the model when the
instantaneous pore pressure is imposed.
Now solve for the coupled response that results from the dewatering.
Groundwater flow is set on, and the water bulk modulus is set to 10,000 Pa. The
water bulk modulus needs to be specified for this calculation, so this low value is
specified in order to speed convergence to steady-state flow. This can be done
because the transient behavior is not of interest. (Note that there is a lower limit
for the water bulk modulus to satisfy numerical stability — see Fluid Time
Scales.)
For the Mohr-Coulomb material, the steady-state pore-pressure distribution

after dewatering is shown in Figure 7. Figure 8 plots the displacement vectors at
equilibrium. This indicates the amount of settlement induced by the dewatering,
approximately 15 cm. The model state is saved as as “mc-part-4” for the Mohr-
Coulomb material.
This dewatering procedure is repeated for the CYSoil material. The final pore-
pressure distribution is shown in Figure 9 and is nearly identical to that for the
Mohr-Coulomb material, as shown in Figure 7. The displacements induced by
dewatering, is shown in Figure 10. The model with CYSoil material is saved at
this stage as “cy-part-4”.
This dewatering procedure is again repeated for the PH material. The final pore-
pressure distribution is shown in Figure 11 and displacements induced by
dewatering is shown in Figure 12. The model with PH material is saved at this
stage as “ph-part-4”.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 7: Pore pressure distribution following dewatering—Mohr-Coulomb

material.
Figure 8: Displacements induced by dewatering—Mohr-Coulomb material.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 9: Pore pressure distribution following dewatering—CYSoil material.
Figure 10: Displacements induced by dewatering—CYSoil material.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 11: Pore pressure distribution following dewatering—PH material.
Figure 12: Displacements induced by dewatering—PH material.
FLAC3D 6.0
Excavate to 2 m Depth
The excavation to 2 m can now begin. Start from “mc-part-4”, “cy-part-4”,
and “ph-part-4”, set flow off, and set the water bulk modulus to zero for this
mechanical-only calculation. The displacements are initialized to zero in order to
evaluate the deformation induced by the excavation.
Excavate by deleting zones in the range of the material to be removed (using the
command zone delete), using the block name assigned by the Extruder tool. (A
null model could be assigned to these zones, but these zones will no longer be
required for the remainder of the modeling.) Figure 13 or Figure 14 shows a
close-up of a portion of the grid with the 2 m excavation.
At this point, the model is solved. This is the long-term response (with the water
bulk modulus set to zero). The models are saved as “mc-part-5”, “cy-part-5”,
and “ph-part-5”.
The displacements induced by this excavation are illustrated in Figure 13, Figure
14, and Figure 15 for the Mohr-Coulomb, CYSoil and PH models, respectively.
With the Mohr-Coulomb model, a maximum heave of roughly 3.4 cm occurs at
the bottom of the excavation. With the CYSoil model, a maximum heave of
roughly 1.8 cm occurs at the bottom of the excavation. With the PH model, a
maximum heave of roughly 2.7 cm occurs at the bottom of the excavation.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 13: Displacements induced by excavation to 2 m depth—Mohr-Coulomb

material.
Figure 14: Displacements induced by excavation to 2 m depth—CYSoil material.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 15: Displacements induced by excavation to 2 m depth—PH material.
The response of the wall can also be calculated. For example, the moment
distribution in the wall after the first excavation is shown in Figure 16. Note that
the various results for the wall response (e.g., wall displacements, shear forces)
can be plotted using the Liner plot item in FLAC3D.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 16: Bending stress resultant in wall after excavation to 2 m

depth—Mohr-Coulomb and CYSoil material.
Install Strut and Excavate to 10 m Depth

For the final excavation step, install a horizontal strut at the top of the wall and
then excavate to a 10 m depth. The strut is not rigidly connected to the wall in
this exercise. A pin connection is defined (which permits free rotation at the
strut/wall connection). The strut consists of a single beam element at an
elevation equal to the ground elevation before excavation, extending from the
symmetry plane ( plane) to a point on the diaphragm wall (( )=
(10,1,40)).
First the horizontal strut is created, making certain the end connects to a liner
node, and material properties are assigned with the commands
struct beam create by-line (0,1,40) (10,1,40) snap group 'Beam'

struct beam property density 3000.0 young 4.0E9 poisson 0.30 ...
cross-sectional-area 1.0 moi-y 0.083 moi-z 0.083 ...
moi-polar 0.0 range group 'Beam'
FLAC3D 6.0
For the beam node on the plane of symmetry, all degrees of freedom are fixed,
except for the z-displacement degree-of-freedom, with the command
struct node fix velocity-x velocity-y rotation range group 'Beam' position-x 0
This has the effect of restricting the beam so that it only moves in the vertical
direction; rotations x- and y-displacements are inhibited.
Next, the beam is joined to the liner with the command
struct node join range group 'Beam'
This command finds nodes residing at the same physical location and links them
together.
The rotational degrees-of-freedom at this link are freed with the commands
struct link attach rotation-x free rotation-y free rotation-z free ...
range group 'Beam' position-x 10
The second excavation step is performed by deleting zones within the second
excavated region with the command
zone delete range group 'Block 15'
At this point, all zones from the surface (z = 40 m) to the bottom of the clay-1
layer (z = 10 m) are deleted and we are ready to solve. After reaching equilibrium,
the state is saved in file “mc-part-6” (for the Mohr-Coulomb case), file “cy-
part-6” (for the CYSoil case), and file “ph-part-6” (for the PH case).
The total displacements induced by the excavation to the 10 m depth of these

three cases are illustrated in Figure 17, Figure 18, and Figure 19, respectively.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 17: Displacements induced by excavation to 10 m depth—Mohr-Coulomb

material.
Figure 18: Displacements induced by excavation to 10 m depth—CYSoil material.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 19: Displacements induced by excavation to 10 m depth—PH material.
Comparing Figure 17 and Figure 18 or Figure 19, it can be seen that the maximum
displacements for the CYSoil and PH material are much less than for the Mohr-
Coulomb material. Also, the extent of the excavation-induced displacement in
the CYSoil and PH material is more confined than that for the Mohr-Coulomb
material.
The moment distribution in the wall after the second excavation is shown in
Figure 20. The moment distribution is roughly the same for three models.
The surface settlement behind the wall for the CYSoil material is roughly the
same as that for the PH material. This can be seen in the surface settlement
profiles plotted in Figure 21.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 20: Bending stress resultant in wall after excavation to 10 m

depth—Mohr-Coulomb and CYSoil material.
Figure 21: Surface settlement profiles ( is at diaphragm wall).
FLAC3D 6.0
Observations
This example illustrates the effect of the material model on soil deformational
response for unloading problems such as the construction on a braced
excavation. The heave that occurs at the bottom of the excavation is considerably
greater for the construction in Mohr-Coulomb material than it is for CYSoil and
PH material. This is primarily attributed to the stress-dependent elastic moduli
and stiffer unloading response of the CYSoil and PH material. This is evident
from the comparison of the displacement contour plots in Figure 17 for the
Mohr-Coulomb material, and Figure 18 for the CYSoil material, or Figure 19 for
the PH material.
Endnotes
[1] Adapted from Table 4.1 of the Plaxis Tutorial Manual (2002).
[2] Adapted from Table 10.12 of the Plaxis Material Models Manual, 2002)
[3] The value of = 1 was found to provide the best fit when the CYSoil model
was compared to the Hardening Soil model in a benchmark exercise (see
“Installation of a Triple Anchored Excavation Wall in Sand,” Section 17 in
the Example Applications volume of the FLAC 8.0 Manual).
[4] For a more realistic solution, FLAC3D can calculate the gradual lowering of
the phreatic surface and change of the stress state due to pumping.
References
Plaxis BV. PLAXIS Version 8, Material Models Manual. R. B. J. Brinkgreve, ed. Delft:
Plaxis (2002).
Plaxis BV. PLAXIS Version 8, Tutorial Manual. R. B. J. Brinkgreve, ed. Delft: Plaxis
(2002).
Data Files
BracedExcavation-mc.f3dat
; ---------------------------------------------
; Dewatered Construction of a Braced Excavation
; Mohr-Coulomb model
; ---------------------------------------------
model new
FLAC3D 6.0
model title 'Braced excavation - Mohr-Coulomb'

; Model geometry and labels created interactively
; in Extruder and exported from State Pane
; -----------------------------------------------
; Model setup and initialization
; ------------------------------
zone fluid cmodel isotropic
zone fluid property porosity 0.3 permeability 1.0E-10
; mechnical properties
call 'setup' suppress
zone property density @rho_sand young 40e6 poisson 0.30 friction @fri_sand ...
dilation @dil_sand cohesion @coh_sand ...
range group 'sand-left' or 'sand-right'
zone property density @rho_clay young 10e6 poisson 0.35 friction @fri_clay ...
dilation @dil_clay cohesion @coh_clay ...
range group 'clay-left' or 'clay-right'
; Create liner and properties
struct liner property isotropic (5.712e9, 0.2) thickness 1.26 ...
density 0 ; <--- note zero density
struct liner property coupling-stiffness-normal 5.5E9 ...
coupling-stiffness-shear 5.5E9 ...
coupling-cohesion-shear 2500000.0 ...
coupling-friction-shear 12.5 ...
coupling-yield-normal 0 ...
coupling-cohesion-shear-residual 2500.0
struct liner property coupling-stiffness-normal-2 5.5E9 ...
coupling-stiffness-shear-2 5.5E9 ...
coupling-cohesion-shear-2 2500000.0 ...
coupling-friction-shear-2 12.5 ...
coupling-yield-normal-2 0 ...
coupling-cohesion-shear-residual-2 2500.0
; initialize stresses and pore pressure
model gravity 10
zone water plane origin (0,0,40) normal (0,0,1)
zone initial-stresses ratio @k0_sand range group 'sand-left' or 'sand-right'
zone initial-stresses ratio @k0_clay range group 'clay-left' or 'clay-right'
struct liner initialize coupling ; initialize liner coupling springs
; to come to equilibrium faster.
; Boundary conditions - roller on sides, fixed on bottom, fixed pp on top,
; fixed to current values on left and right.
zone face apply velocity-y 0 range group 'Front' or 'Back'
zone face apply velocity-x 0 range group 'Left' or 'Right'
zone gridpoint fix pore-pressure range group 'Right'
FLAC3D 6.0
zone gridpoint fix pore-pressure range group 'Left'

model save 'mc-part-1'
; Come to initial equilibrium -- Without liner we would be in equilibrium,
; with liner we need to adjust
; ------------------------------------------------------------------------
model mech active on
; Activate the liner
; ------------------
zone gridpoint initialize displacement (0,0,0) ; Reset displacements in the
; model, so we can track
; incremental changes.
struct liner property density 2000 ; real liner density
zone gridpoint initialize fluid-modulus 0.0
; Dewater to a depth of 20m
; -------------------------
zone gridpoint fix pore-pressure 0.0 range group 'clay-left'
zone gridpoint initial saturation 0.0 range group 'clay-left'
zone fluid property permeability 0 range group 'clay-left'
zone gridpoint free pore-pressure ...
range group 'Left' group 'sand-left' ; Free pore-pressures
; in left boundary
; lower fluid modulus to speed up flow calculation
zone gridpoint initialize fluid-tension 0
zone gridpoint initialize fluid-modulus 0 range group 'clay-left'
; reach new steady-state fluid flow
model mechanical slave on
model mechanical substep 50 ; mechanical cycles are slaved to fluid cycles
; Excavate to 2m
; --------------
model mechanical slave off
; Excavate to 10m, and install horizontal strut
; ---------------------------------------------
FLAC3D 6.0
; beam node on plane of symmetry free to move in z
struct node join range group 'Beam' ; Join beam to liner
; Beam connected to liner free to rotate
return
BracedExcavation-cy.f3dat
model new
model title 'Braced excavation - CY-Soil'
; -----------------------------------------------
; ------------------------------
; mechnical properties
zone cmodel assign cap-yield
zone property pressure-reference @pa poisson @nu flag-cap 1 failure-ratio @rf
zone property density @rho_sand friction @fri_sand dilation @dil_sand ...
cohesion @coh_sand range group 'sand-left' or 'sand-right'
zone property density @rho_clay friction @fri_clay dilation @dil_clay ...
cohesion @coh_clay range group 'clay-left' or 'clay-right'
zone property shear-reference @Gi_sand multiplier @mul_sand ...
exponent @m_sand range group 'sand-left' or 'sand-right'
zone property shear-reference @Gi_clay multiplier @mul_clay ...
exponent @m_clay range group 'clay-left' or 'clay-right'
FLAC3D 6.0

model gravity 10
; assign pc from initial effective stresses ---
@ini_cy
model save 'cy-part-1'
; ------------------------------------------------------------------------
; ------------------
; -------------------------
; in left boundary
FLAC3D 6.0

; Excavate to 2m
; --------------
; ---------------------------------------------
return
BracedExcavation-ph.f3dat
model new
model title 'Braced excavation - CY-Soil'
; -----------------------------------------------
; ------------------------------
FLAC3D 6.0

; mechanical properties
zone cmodel assign plastic-hardening
zone property pressure-ref @pa over-consolidation-ratio 1.0
zone property density @rho_sand friction @fri_sand dilation @dil_sand ...
cohesion @coh_sand range group 'sand-left' or 'sand-right'
zone property density @rho_clay friction @fri_clay dilation @dil_clay ...
cohesion @coh_clay range group 'clay-left' or 'clay-right'
zone property stiffness-50-reference @e50_sand ...
stiffness-ur-reference @eur_sand ...
stiffness-oedometer-reference @eoed_sand ...
exponent @m_sand ...
coefficient-normally-consolidation @k0_sand ...
range group 'sand-left' or 'sand-right'
zone property stiffness-50-reference @e50_clay ...
stiffness-ur-reference @eur_clay ...
stiffness-oedometer-reference @eoed_clay ...
exponent @m_clay ...
coefficient-normally-consolidation @k0_clay ...
range group 'clay-left' or 'clay-right'
model gravity 10
; assign pc from initial effective stresses ---
@ini_ph
FLAC3D 6.0

model save 'ph-part-1'
; ------------------------------------------------------------------------
; ------------------
; -------------------------
; in left boundary
; Excavate to 2m
; --------------
FLAC3D 6.0
; ---------------------------------------------
return
FLAC3D 6.0
FLAC3D 6.0
Installation of a Triple-Anchored Excavation Wall 211
Installation of a Triple-Anchored Excavation

Wall
Problem Statement
The benchmark exercise described by Schweiger (2002) consisting of a deep
excavation problem in Berlin sand is the base for this example application. The
geometry, basic assumptions, and computational steps adopted for this example
are taken from the benchmark exercise. The results for wall deflection and
surface settlements are compared to measurements. The example shows the
applicability of the CYSoil model and the Plastic-Hardening (PH) model for deep
excavation problems.
A sketch of the problem conditions in the benchmark exercise is presented in

Figure 1. The soil profile consists of two horizontal sand layers. The thickness of
the top layer (Layer 1) is 20 m, and the bottom layer (Layer 2) extends to a 100 m
depth below surface. The excavation is 60 m wide, and the final depth is 16.8 m.
Plane strain conditions and half symmetry are used for the problem.
Several specifications taken from Schweiger (2002) are adopted for this example:
• The influence of the diaphragm wall construction is neglected.

• The diaphragm wall is modeled using zones (Young’s modulus = 30 GPa,
Poisson’s ratio = 0.15, thickness = 0.8 m).
• The horizontal hydraulic cutoff at a 30 m depth is not considered as
structural support; the mechanical properties are assumed to be the same
as for the surrounding soil.
• The ratio of effective horizontal stress to effective vertical stress,
adopting the default coefficient for normally consolidated material of
, is 0.43 for layer 1 and 0.38 for layer 2.
• Hydrostatic water pressures, corresponding to water levels, hold inside
and outside the excavation. Full groundwater lowering inside the
excavation is performed before the excavation starts.
• Anchors are modeled as cables, which are prestressed. The grouted part
allows load transfer to the soil.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 1: Geometry and excavation stages (after Schweiger, 2002).
The analysis described by Schweiger (2002) includes nine steps:
Stage 1 – Initialize stress state, including groundwater table, 3 m below

soil surface.
Stage 2 – Activate diaphragm wall and lower water level to −17.90 m in

pit.
Stage 3 – Excavation step 1 (to level −4.80 m).
Stage 4 – Activate anchor row 1 at level −4.30 m and prestress anchors.
FLAC3D 6.0
The zone profile and the structural elements are shown in Figure 1. The soil is
modeled with the Plastic-Hardening model. The wall is model by the linear
elastic zone elements. The anchors are modeled by cable structure elements.
Soil properties for the Berlin sand listed in Table 1 are adapted from Schweiger
(2002).
Parameter Unit Sand layer Clay layer

dry density ( ) Mg/m3 1.9 1.9
wet density ( ) Mg/m3 2.0 2.0
kPa 4.5×104 7.5×104
kPa 4.5×104 7.5×104
kPa 1.8×105 3.0×105

friction ( ) degrees 35 38
dilation ( ) degrees 5 6
pressure-reference ( ) kPa 100 100
Poisson’s ratio ( ) 0.2 0.2
cohesion ( ) kPa 0 0
exponent ( ) 0.55 0.55
stress ratio consolidation ( ) 0.43 0.38
failure ratio ( ) 0.90 0.90
over-consolidation ratio ( ) 1.0 1.0
The linear elastic properties for the diaphragm wall are given in Table 2, and the
anchor specifications are listed in Table 3.
Table 2: Diaphragm Wall Properties
density (Mg/m3) 2.4

FLAC3D 6.0
Table 3: Anchor Specifications
Row 1 Row 2 Row 2

location depth ar wall (m) 4.80 9.30 14.35
dip (degree) 27 27 27
total length (m) 19.8 23.3 23.8
Anchored length (m) 8.0 8.0 8.0
spacing (m) 2.3 1.35 1.35
prestress anchor force (kN) 768 945 980
Young’s modulus (GPa) 210 210 210
cross-sectional area (m2) 0.0015 0.0015 0.0015
Modeling Procedure
The FLAC3D simulation follows similar analysis stages suggested by Schweiger
(2002).
Model Conditions
The Building Block tool is used to generate the grid. Zones and faces are selected,
named, and densified using the Model pane. The commands resulting from both
tools are exported from the State pane.
The zones close to the diaphragm wall are densified in order to refine the wall
deflection (Figure 2). The wall is separated from the rest of the mesh by using
the zone separate by-face command. Remember to use the command zone
attach by-face to attach faces after the last zone densification. The model is
within a domain of x ∈ [0, 100], z ∈ [-100, 0], and y ∈ [0, 2.7], where x = 0 denotes
the symmetric plane at the centrer of the excavation.
The roller boundary is at x = 0 to embrace the symmetry condition; the fixed

boundaries are at z = -100 and x = 150 to stand for far-end conditions. No
deformation is allowed in the y-axis to simulate the plane-strain condition.
FLAC3D 6.0
The model is completed without configuring for fluid analysis. The static pore
pressure is initialized automatically by FLAC3D, provided the gravity, water
density, and table information are set using the zone water command. The soil
above the water table is assigned the dry density, while the soil below the water
table is assigned the wet density.
With the pore pressures, soil densities, and the normally-consolidation

coefficients available, the stress can be conveniently initialized by the command
zone initialize-stresses, the calculation of from friction is performed inline.
zone initialize-stress ratio [1-math.sin(35*math.degrad)] range group 'Layer1'

At this stage, to set the initial stress, the exact behavior of the soil constitutive
model is not critical, so the Mohr-Coulomb model is temporarily assigned to the
soil and the command model solve elastic only is used to avoid possible uneven
settlements. The data file for this stage is “AnchoredExcavation-1.f3dat” and the
results are stored in the file “part-1.f3sav”.
Figure 2: Model grid.
FLAC3D 6.0
Wall Installation
The diaphragm wall activation (“AnchoredExcavation-2.f3dat”) is modeled by
setting the real density (2.4 Mg/m3) to the wall zones. The diaphragm wall here
is modeled by linear elastic solid zones with the properties list in Table 2.
Interface elements are assigned on the side and base surfaces of the wall to
account for the slip and separation between the wall and the soil. Note that the
zone attach delete command is used to free the boundary between the wall and
the soil that was separated earlier, and that the interface stresses are initialized
using zone interface node initialize-stresses to speed convergence. The
interface friction angle is assumed to be 20°. Because the wall is heavier than the
surrounding soil, it is expected to move downward. The principal stress
magnitudes and orientations are also expected to be adjusted in the soil around
the wall. The model state is stored in the file “part-2.f3sav”.
Plastic-Hardening Model Setup

At this stage (AnchoredExcavation-3.f3dat), the soil models are changed to the
Plastic-Hardening model with the properties listed in Table 1. Note that herein
the Plastic-Hardening model is stress-dependent, which requires to input the
initial effective principal stress after the model is assigned the first time. This
step can be fulfilled either by zone property commands, or in this example by the
following FISH function, ini_ph.
fish def ini_ph

loop foreach local z zone.list
if z.model(z) = 'plastic-hardening'
local pp = zone.pp(z)
zone.prop(z,'stress-1-effective') = zone.stress.min(_z) + pp
zone.prop(z,'stress-2-effective') = zone.stress.int(_z) + pp
zone.prop(z,'stress-3-effective') = zone.stress.max(_z) + pp
endif
endloop
end
This FISH function must be executed before the first cycling after the Plastic-
Hardening model is assigned. Note that two parameters, constant-alpha ( ) and
stiffness-cap-hardening ( ), are calculated internally in this example. Users are
required to check the validation of these two parameters (see Volumetric Cap
Criterion and Flow Rule in the Plastic-Hardening Model definition) before
proceeding to the next stages. After equilibrium, the model state is stored in
“part-3.f3sav”.
FLAC3D 6.0
Table 4: Internally Calculated Parameters
constant-alpha stiffness-cap-hardening
Layer 1 1.87 1.07×105

Layer 2 3.23 6.69×104
Dewatering
For the dewatering stage (“AnchoredExcavation-4.f3dat”), we assume for
simplicity that the water level is dropped instantaneously within the excavation
region. We start from the previous step and set the saturation, pore pressure, and
permeability to zero in the current excavation area. We free the fixed pore
pressure condition along the left boundary below the excavation and along the
top of the model to the right of the excavation so that pore pressures can change
during dewatering. We initialize the displacements in the model to zero so that
we can monitor the displacement change that only occurs due to the dewatering.
When we impose a change in pore pressure, the total stress must be adjusted to
account for this change. This is done using the effective keyword in the zone
water command used to modify pore pressure.
We can check that this adjustment to total stress has been made by plotting
effective stresses before and after these commands are issued: the effective
stresses are unchanged in the model when the instantaneous pore pressure is
imposed.
We repeat this dewatering procedure five times to account for somewhat gradual
dewatering. The final pore pressure distribution is shown in Figure 3. The
dewatering-induced displacement is shown in Figure 4. This indicates the
amount of settlement induced by the dewatering is approximately 0.01 m. We
save the model state as “part-4.f3sav” after all dewatering steps.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 3: Pore pressure distribution following dewatering.
Figure 4: Displacement induced by dewatering.
FLAC3D 6.0
Excavation and Install Anchors

Displacement is reset to zero at the start of the excavation stage. The changes in
pore pressure taking place as a result of excavation are neglected in the analysis.
Zones are deleted from the grid to simulate the excavation process for excavation
step 1 (4.8 m depth) and the model is cycled to mechanical equilibrium
(“AnchoredExcavation-5.f3dat”). The displacement induced by excavation to a
depth of 4.8 m is plotted in Figure 5.
Figure 5: Displacement induced by excavation to a depth of 4.8 m.
A cable structural element 19.8 m long is installed at the excavation step 1 level at
a dip of 27° (“AnchoredExcavation-6.f3dat”). The top end of the cable is attached
to the wall, and the last 8 m are anchored to the soil (the shear bond strength is
100 MPa). The anchor is prestressed with a force of 901.6 kN, which has been
adjusted from the original prestress anchor force (768 kN) by a factor of 2.7/2.3,
where 2.7 m is the model out-of-plane width, and 2.3 m is the distance of
anchors at row 1 (see specification in Figure 1). The pretensioning is performed
using the structure cable apply tension command, whereby (1) the tension is
applied to the ungrouted section of the cable; (2) the model is solved to
FLAC3D 6.0
equilibrium; and (3) the tension on the cable is freed to adjust naturally from
then on. Figure 6 plots the axial anchor forces after pretesioning of the first row
anchor.
Figure 6: Axial forces in anchor to a depth of 4.8 m after pretensioning.
Zones are then removed from the grid to a depth of 9.3 m, and the model is
cycled to mechanical equilibrium (“AnchoredExcavation-7.f3dat”). The
displacement induced by excavation to 9.3 m depth is plotted in Figure 7.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 7: Displacement induced by excavation to a depth of 9.6 m.
The second row of anchors 23.3 m in length are now installed and prestressed
with a 945 kN force in the same manner (“AnchoredExcavation-8.f3dat”). Figure
8 plots the axial anchor forces after pretesioning of anchor row 2.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 8: Axial forces in anchor at a depth of 9.6 m after pretensioning.
Zones are then removed for the excavation to 14.35 m depth, and the model is
cycled to equilibrium again (“AnchoredExcavation-9.f3dat”). The displacement
induced by excavation to a depth of 14.35 m is plotted in Figure 9.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 9: Displacement induced by excavation to a depth of 14.35 m. .
The procedure is repeated once more for the third row of anchors 23.8 m in
length with a 980 kN prestress force (“AnchoredExcavation-10.f3dat”), and
excavation to the final depth of 16.8 m (“AnchoredExcavation-11.f3dat”). After
the third row anchors, the axial anchor forces are plotted in Figure 10, and the
displacement induced by excavation to a depth of 14.35 m is plotted in Figure 11.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 10: Axial forces in anchor to a depth of 13.45 m after pretensioning.
Figure 11: Displacement induced by excavation to 14.35 m depth.
FLAC3D 6.0
The calculated wall deflection after the final excavation step are compared to the
measured values in Figure 12.
Figure 12: Measured wall deflection and FLAC3D calculation.
The calculated ground settlement behind the wall is presented in Figure 13. It is
notable that the calculated ground settlement curve behind the wall is mainly
downward, which is consistent with the geotechnical observations.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 13: Calculated ground settlement behind the wall.
References
Schweiger, HF. “Results from numerical benchmark exercises in geotechnics,” in
5th European Conference Numerical Methods in Geotechnical Engineering, Vol. 1, pp.
305–314. Presses de l’ENPC/LCPC, Paris (2002).
Data Files
AnchoredExcavation-1.f3dat
model new
model title "Anchored Excavation"
; Model creation
call 'geometry' suppress ; Created interactive with Building Blocks,
; exported from State Pane
call 'names' suppress ; Zones named and densified with Model Pane,
; exported from State Pane
zone separate by-face clear-attach ...
range group 'WallLeft' or 'WallRight' or 'WallBottom' ; Separate wall
; zones ahead of
; time
FLAC3D 6.0
zone attach by-face ; Attach densified and separated zones

; Install gravity and fluid properties
model grav 10 ; m/s^2
zone water density 1 ; Mg/m^3
zone water plane origin (0,0,-3) norm (0,0,-1)
; Assign initial constitutive model and properties
zone property young 1.8e5 poisson 0.2 friction 35 dilation 5 ...
cohesion 1 range group 'Layer1' ; kPa
zone property young 3.0e5 poisson 0.2 friction 38 dilation 6 ...
cohesion 1 range group 'Layer2' ; kPa
; Set wet and dry densities
zone property density 1.9 range group 'Dry'
zone property density 2.0 range group 'Wet'
; Roller boundaries on sides, fixed on bottom and right
;zone face apply velocity-normal 0 range group 'South' or 'North'
zone face apply velocity-normal 0 ...
range group 'South1' or 'North1' or 'South2' or 'North2'
zone face apply velocity-normal 0 range group 'West2'
zone face apply velocity (0,0,0) range group 'East2' or 'Bottom3'
; Initialize stress, with different ratios in the layers
;
zone history name 'disp' displacement-x position (30,0,0)
; Solve
model solve convergence 1
;
model save 'part-1'
model restore 'part-1'

; Reset displacements so we can track changes from last state
; Separate wall by removing attach conditions
zone attach delete range group 'WallLeft' or 'WallRight' or 'WallBottom'
; Create side and bottom interfaces separately
zone interface name 'side' create by-face ...
range group 'WallLeft' or 'WallRight'
zone interface name 'bot' create by-face range group 'WallBottom'
zone interface name 'side' node property stiffness-shear 8e6 ...
stiffness-normal 8e6 friction 20.0
zone interface name 'bot' node property stiffness-shear 8e6 ...
stiffness-normal 8e6 friction 20.0
; Initialize stresses on the interface to accelerate convergence
zone interface name 'side' node initialize-stress
zone interface name 'bot' node initialize-stress
;
; Change the density and stiffness of the wall
zone cmodel assign elastic range group 'Wall'
FLAC3D 6.0
zone prop density 2.4 young 3.0e7 poisson 0.15 range group 'Wall'
; Relax the convergence criteria in the very stiff wall,
; and in the zones around it at the top.
zone gridpoint initialize ratio-target 1e-2 ...
range position-x 28 33 position-z -4.8 0
zone gridpoint initialize ratio-target 1e-2 range group 'Wall'
;
;
model save 'part-2'

; Reset displacements to track incremental changes from each part.
; Assign plastic hardening model and properties to layers.
zone cmodel assign plastic-hardening range group 'Wall' not
zone property pressure-ref 100 poisson 0.2 failure-ratio 0.9 cohesion 1
zone property stiffness-50-reference 7.5e4 stiffnes-ur-reference 3.0e5 ...
stiffness-oedometer-reference 7.5e4 ...
range group 'Layer2' group 'Wall' not
zone property stiffness-50-reference 4.5e4 stiffness-ur-reference 1.8e5 ...
stiffness-oedometer-reference 4.5e4 ...
zone property exponent 0.55 friction 35 dilation 5 ...
over-consolidation-ratio 1 ...
zone property exponent 0.55 friction 38 dilation 6 ...
over-consolidation-ratio 1 ...
zone property coefficient-normally-consolidation [1-math.sin(35*math.degrad)] ...
zone property coefficient-normally-consolidation [1-math.sin(38*math.degrad)] ...
; Initialize effective stress properties using FISH.
fish def ini_ph
loop foreach local z zone.list
if z.model(z) = 'plastic-hardening'
zone.prop(z,'stress-1-effective') = zone.stress.min(z) + pp
zone.prop(z,'stress-2-effective') = zone.stress.int(z) + pp
zone.prop(z,'stress-3-effective') = zone.stress.max(z) + pp
endif
endloop
end
@ini_ph
; Get to approximate equilibrium
;
model save 'part-3'
FLAC3D 6.0

; Clear pore-pressures in the wall
zone gridpoint initialize pore-pressure 0 range group 'Wall'
; Dewater in 5 steps, gradually lowering the water table
; (keeping effective stress constant)
; First step
zone water plane origin (0,0,-6) normal (0,0,1) effective ...
range group 'Left' position-z -30 0
zone property density 1.9 range group 'Left' position-z -6 0
; Second step
; Third step
; Fourth step
; Fifth step
zone water plane origin (0,0,-17.9) normal (0,0,1) effective ...
zone property density 1.9 range group 'Left' position-z -17.9 0
;
;
model save 'part-4'
; excavate to -4.80 m
; Delete zones in excavation, solve, and save.
zone delete range group 'Excavation1'
zone history name 'disp2' displacement-x position (30,0,0)
model save 'part-5'
FLAC3D 6.0

; This creates geometry representing the cable layout,
; could also just be imported from CAD.
call 'cablegeom' suppress
; Create and set properties for grouted and ungrouted first cable set
struct cable import from-geometry 'cable' offset (0,1.35,0) ...
group 'free1' id 1 range group 'free1'
group 'grout1' segments 8 id 1 range group 'grout1'
struct cable prop young 2.1e8 cross-section-area 0.00176 ...
grout-stiffness 0 grout-cohesion 0 ...
grout-perimeter 0.15 range group 'free1'
grout-stiffness 4e6 grout-cohesion 1e5 ...
grout-perimeter 0.15 range group 'grout1'
; Connect first node of cable with the zone rigidly
struct link delete range group 'free1' position-x 30.4
struct link create target zone range group 'free1' position-x 30.4
; Pretension the cable, adjust to equilibrium, then free
; the cable tension to adjust naturally.
struct cable apply tension value 901.6 range group 'free1'
;
model save 'part-6'
model rest 'part-6'
;
;
model save 'part-7'

; Create and set properties for grouted and ungrouted second cable set
FLAC3D 6.0

; Pretension the cable, adjust to equilibrium,
; then free the cable tension to adjust naturally.
struct cable apply tension value 945 range group 'free2'
;
model save 'part-8'
model rest 'part-8'
;
;
model save 'part-9'

; Create and set properties for grouted and ungrouted second cable set
; Pretension the cable, adjust to equilibrium,
; then free the cable tension to adjust naturally.
struct cable apply tension value 980 range group 'free3'
FLAC3D 6.0

;
model save 'part-10'
model rest 'part-10'
;
;
model save 'part-11'
FLAC3D 6.0
Reinforced Tunnel Excavation 233
Reinforced Tunnel Excavation
Problem Statement
Full-face excavation with ground reinforcement has become a common
technique to build a large tunnel in different soil/rock conditions. Full-face
excavation brings many advantages in terms of logistics and production, but it
remains a difficult task to assess the performance/effectiveness of the
reinforcement and support at the design phase. The face itself behaves as a
temporary support for the cavity and the level of confinement provided by
reinforcement elements becomes an important variable for the stability and
settlement evaluation. The observational method is a crucial aspect of the design
because it allows for data collection in real time and optimizing/modifying the
excavation/support system. In this particular example, a monitoring section has
been installed during the construction of the tunnel, which has provided good
quality data for a back analysis. All the original data concerning the geology and
geometry has been obtained from the papers by Janin et al. (2012, 2015) using a
finite element platform. Cheng and Lucarelli (2016) performed this example
again using the Plastic-Hardening model developed in FLAC3D [*].
Borehole investigations show a fairly horizontal stratigraphy with a high degree

of alteration of the bedrock. Figure 1 shows the local stratigraphy along with the
instrumentation installed in the monitoring section. The averaged soil properties
are summarized in Table 1. Any soil parameters not list in the table are the
default values.
break
FLAC3D 6.0
Parameter Unit Fill Colluvium Bedrock

depth m 0.0-3.5 3.5-5.9 > 5.9
unit weight ( ) kN/m3 19.0 20.8 24.2
( ) MPa 1.6 40 240
( ) MPa 1.6 40 240
( ) MPa 4.8 120 720

pressure reference ( ) kPa 100 100 100
exponent ( ) 0.5 0.5 0.5
friction ( ) degree 20 30 25
dilation ( ) degree 0 0 0
cohesion ( ) kPa 2 10 40
stress ratio coefficient ( ) 0.5 0.5 1.0
The instrumentation is composed of two inclinometers on both sides of the

tunnel, one vertical extensometer on the tunnel axis, and three target prisms. In
addition, four radial extensometers, six vibrating wire strain gauges on the steel
rib, five pressure cells, and convergence targets were installed from inside the
tunnel. This tunnel was excavated using the so-called “ADECO-RS” method
(Lunardi 2008). This method emphasizes the significance of controlling the
deformation response of the ground in the core ahead of the tunnel face to the
tunnel stability and surface settlement.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 1: Geological section and instruments (after Janin et al. 2015).
The excavation was progressed by 1.5 m per step and an HEB 180 shotcrete was
installed after each excavation step. The tunnel invert was setup using the HEB
220 shotcrete after the excavation face was about 9 excavation steps. Shell
elements with a linear elastic behavior are used to model the shotcrete at the
tunnel wall, tunnel face and invert. The tunnel wall, face and invert properties
are summarized in Table 2.
FLAC3D 6.0
Table 2: Tunnel Support Properties
Type Description Young’s Modulus (GPa) Thickness (m)

Tunnel wall HEB 180 13.5 0.25
Tunnel invert HEB 220 14.0 0.30
Tunnel face 15 cm shotcrete 10.0 0.15
Pipe umbrellas (forepole) and horizontal face (fiberglass) bolts were installed.
Every 9 m, auto-drilling umbrella pre-support pipes were renewed with a
constant inclination of 6 degrees. For face bolts, a constant length of 18 m was
installed. The bolt properties are listed in Table 3.
Table 3: Tunnel Support Properties
Forepole Steel
Fiberglass Bolts
Bolts
Young’s modulus (GPa) 210 40
Cross-section (m2) 4.88×10-4 8.0×10-4
Moment of inertia (m4) 3.27×10-8 ~0
Soil/bolt interface resistance (kN/m) 135 135
Model Procedure
A three-dimensional model has been set up to analyze the tunnel excavation
process using FLAC3D. The model takes advantage of the symmetry of the
problem, with the dimension 75 m (half width) × 70 m (depth). The cross-
section of the excavation has an area of about 100 m2 and has been generated
using the FLAC3D built-in extruder tool that can generate a 2D mesh and then
extrude it to a 3D mesh. The extension of the model in the transversal direction
is of 100 m in order to mitigate boundary effects. The depth of the crown of the
tunnel is about 25 m. The grid has been densified (using the command zone
densify) around the region of interest. Figure 2 shows the geometry of the model.
FLAC3D 6.0
The in-situ vertical stress is obtained by temporarily setting the soil to be Mohr-
Coulomb model and the command model solve elastic only. The in-situ
horizontal stress is then reset using a FISH function and the coefficients. With
the realistic in-situ stresses, the soil models are changed into the plastic-
hardening models with the properties list in Table 1.
The excavation is carried out in 1.5 m steps. Each step is nulled and so are the
structural elements at the face. The face reinforcement (fiberglass elements) and
the forepoling are modeled with embedded pile elements and force them to be 18
m. Every 9 m the face reinforcement and roof forepoling are renewed.
The pattern of the face reinforcments and forepoling could have been created
once with a CAD program on in the geometry logic, then created with an offset as
the tunnel is excavated. In this case, however, we chose to use the FISH functions
GenFrontBolt and GenForepole.
After equilibrium is reached, the liner, which is modeled by shell elements, is

activated to support the free span. Figure 3 shows the bolts and supports.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 3: Umbrella forepoling and face fiberglass bolts and the supports around
the tunnel surface.
The whole process is managed via FISH functions and can easily be parameterized
in order to quickly test different hypothesis.
Main Results
The main results in terms of displacements are presented in Figure 4 to Figure 6.
Figure 4 presents the simulated longitudinal settlements of a surface line placed
directly above the tunnel axis versus the distance to the tunnel excavation face.
The settlement is distinct starting from a distance about 30 m ahead of the
tunnel face, and then the settlement is accelerated and eventually reaches a value
of about 0.20~0.25 m, which is between the upper- and lower-bound measured
data. Figure 5 presents the simulated transversal settlements of a surface line
placed at y = 8 m and perpendicular to the tunnel axis versus the horizontal
distance to the tunnel axis, which also fits well with the measured data. The
simulated horizontal displacement at the inclinometer (Figure 6) location (13.3 m
to the tunnel’s symmetric plane) successfully captures the measured local ‘belly’
at the tunnel level (depth 25 to 35) and the apparent inclination to the tunnel at
FLAC3D 6.0
the shallow level (depth 0 to 10). In sum, the results are in acceptable agreement
with the measurements, and the model is capable of capturing the main features
observed in the field.
Figure 4: Vertical displacement at ground level along the tunnel axis (dots are
upper- and lower-bound measured data, solid line is the simulated result).
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 5: Vertical displacement at ground level in the transversal direction (dots

are measured data, solid line is the simulated result).
Figure 6: Horizontal displacement at the inclinometer’s position (dots are

measured data, solid line is the simulated result).
FLAC3D 6.0
Endnote
[*] This example was adopted from Cheng and Lucarelli (2016), which used a
more refined grid.
References
Cheng, Z., and A. Lucarelli. “Plastic Hardening Model II: Calibration and
Validation,” in Applied Numerical Modeling in Geomechanics — 2016
(Proceedings, 4th Itasca Symposium on Applied Numerical Modeling, Lima,
March 2016), pp. 393–402, P. Gómez, C. Detournay, R. Hart, and M. Nelson, Eds.
Minneapolis: Itasca Consulting Group, Inc. (2016).
Janin, J.P., D. Dias, F. Emeriault, R. Kastner, H. Le Bissonnais, and A. Guilloux.

“Numerical back-analysis of the southern Toulon tunnel measurements: A
comparison of 3D and 2D approaches”, in Engineering Geology, Issue 195,
42-53. Spring (2015).
Janin, J.P., D. Dias, R. Kastner, F. Emeriault, A. Guilloux, and H. Lebissonnais.

“South Toulon tunnel: Analysis of an instrumented section”, In Viggiani, Ed.,
Geotechnical Aspects of Underground Construction in Soft Ground, London:
Taylor & Francis Group. (2012).
Lunardi, P. “Design and construction of tunnel - Analysis of controlled

deformation in rocks and soils (ADECO-RS)”, 577, Springer-Verlag, Berlin,
Heidelberg. (2008).
Data Files
ReinforcedTunnelExcavation.f3dat
model new
; grid generation
call 'geometry' suppress ; created using extruder, exported from state pane.
zone group 'Bedrock' slot 'Material' ...
range group 'TunnelCore' or 'TunnelOut' or 'Bedrock'
zone densify global seg 1,2,1 range position-y 0 75 group 'TunnelCore'
zone densify global seg 1,2,1 range position-y 0 75 group 'TunnelOut'
zone attach by-face ; Attach boundaries of densified areas
FLAC3D 6.0
zone prop density 1.90 young 4.8e3 poisson 0.2 friction 20 cohesion 2 ...
range group 'Fill'
range group 'Colluvium'
range group 'Bedrock'
; Roller boundary conditions
zone face apply velocity-x 0 range group 'East' or 'West'
zone face apply velocity-y 0 range group 'North' or 'South'
; Initial stress equilibrium
model gravity 10
zone initialize-stresses ratio 0.5 range group 'Fill
zone initialize-stresses ratio 0.5 range group 'Colluvium'
zone initialize-stresses ratio 1.0 range group 'Bedrock'
model solve elastic convergence 10
model save 'ini-stress'
zone gridpoint initialize disp (0 0 0)
;;; change to PH model
zone cmodel assign plastic-hardening
zone prop pressure-reference 100 exponent 0.5
zone prop stiffness-50-reference 1.6e3 stiffness-ur-reference 4.8e3 ...
friction 20 cohesion 2 range group 'Fill'
friction 30 cohesion 10 range group 'Colluvium'
friction 25 cohesion 40 range group 'Bedrock'
; Initialize effective stress properties
call 'fishtank' suppress
@iniprin
model save 'ph-soil'
; group slices
zone gridpoint initialize disp (0 0 0)
struct damping combined-local
; activate face bolts
@GenFrontBolt(0.75, -26.4, 0, 7, 18.0, 1.5, 12)
@GenFrontBolt(2.25, -27.2, 0, 6, 18.0, 1.5, 12)
@GenFrontBolt(3.75, -27.9, 0, 5, 18.0, 1.5, 12)
@GenFrontBolt(5.25, -30.2, 0, 3, 18.0, 1.5, 12)
; advance the exacavations
fish define excavation
loop local is (1, 7)
local yst = (is-1) * 9.0
; activate umbrella pre-support
GenForpole(6.4, 3.0, 0.5, 13, 18.0, yst, 6.0)
; advance excavations
Advance(1+(is-1)*6,is*6,1.5)
endloop
end
FLAC3D 6.0
@excavation
fishtank.f3dat
; Initialize stress-effective properties of the plastic-hardening model

fish define iniprin
loop foreach local z z.list
if zone.model(z) = 'plastic-hardening' then
zone.prop(z,'stress-1-effective') = zone.stress.min(z) + pp
zone.prop(z,'stress-2-effective') = zone.stress.int(z) + pp
zone.prop(z,'stress-3-effective') = zone.stress.max(z) + pp
endif
endloop
end
;
; Generate bolts (using pile elements)
fish define GenFrontBolt(x1,z1,ystart,nb,len,dz,seg)
loop local ii (1,nb)
local startp = gp.pos(gp.near(x1,ystart,z1-(ii-1)*dz))
command
struct pile create by-ray @startp (0,1,0) @len segment @seg ...
id 1 group 'FiberGlass'
struct pile property density 0.1 young 4.0e7 poisson 0.2 ...
cross-section-area 0.8e-3 moi-y 0.01e-6 moi-z 0.01e-6 ...
moi-polar 0.02e-6 coupling-stiffness-normal 1e8 ...
coupling-cohesion-normal 1e7 ...
coupling-friction-normal 0 ...
coupling-stiffness-shear 1e8 ...
coupling-cohesion-shear 135 ...
coupling-friction-shear 0 ...
perimeter 0.20 range id 1
endcommand
endloop
end
; Generate forepoling
fish define GenForpole(rads,alst,inter,nb,len,ystart,incl)
loop local ii (1,nb)
local svil = rads*(alst*math.degrad) + (ii-1)*inter
local alfa = svil / rads
local inclv = math.cos(alfa) * (incl*math.degrad)
local inclh = math.sin(alfa) * (incl*math.degrad)
local startp = vector(rads*math.sin(alfa),ystart,-31.4+ ...
rads*math.cos(alfa))
local endp = startp + vector(len*inclh,len,len*inclv)
command
struct pile create by-line @startp @endp segment 15 ...
id 2 group 'ForePole'
struct pile property density 2.4 young 2.1e8 poisson 0.2 ...
cross-section-area 0.488e-3 moi-y 0.0327e-6 ...
moi-z 0.0327e-6 moi-polar 0.0654e-6 ...
coupling-stiffness-normal 1e8 ...
FLAC3D 6.0
coupling-cohesion-normal 1e7 ...

coupling-friction-normal 0 ...
coupling-stiffness-shear 1e8 ...
coupling-cohesion-shear 135 ...
coupling-friction-shear 0 ...
perimeter 0.10 range id 2
endcommand
endloop
end
; Advance a tunnel slice
fish define Advance(slini,slend,Dy)
loop local ii (slini,slend)
local tt = ii - 9
local ysl1 = (ii-1) * Dy
local ysl2 = ii * Dy
local ysl3 = ysl1 + 18.0
command
; excavate
zone cmodel assign null ...
range group 'TunnelCore' position-y @ysl1 @ysl2
; delete the bolt in the excavation
struct pile delete ...
range group 'FiberGlass' position-y @ysl1 @ysl2
; delete the shotcrete on the tunnel face
struct shell delete range group 'TunnelFace'
; activate new tunnel wall
struct shell create by-face element-type dkt-cst id 1 ...
group 'TunnelWall' range group 'TunnelBoundary' ...
position-y @ysl1 @ysl2 position-z -35 0
struct shell property isotropic (13.5e6,0.2) thick 0.25 ...
density 2.4 range group 'TunnelWall'
; activate new tunnel face
group 'TunnelFace' ...
range group 'TunnelCore' position-y @ysl2
struct shell property isotropic (10e6,0.2) thick 0.15 ...
density 2.4 range group 'TunnelFace'
endcommand
; extend the fore bolts
GenFrontBolt(0.75, -26.4, ysl3, 7, 1.5, 1.5, 1)
; activate the tunnel invert
if tt >= 1 then
command
group 'TunnelInvert' ...
range group 'TunnelBoundary' ...
position-y [(tt-1)*Dy] [tt*Dy] position-z -70 -35
struct shell property isotropic (14.0e6,0.2) thick 0.30 ...
density 2.4 range group 'TunnelInvert'
endcommand
FLAC3D 6.0
endif
;
command
; structure boundary conditions
struct node fix velocity-x rotation-y rotation-z ...
range position-x 0.0 position-z -25.2
range position-x 0.0 position-z -36.5
struct node fix velocity-x ...
range position-x 0.0
; solve
endcommand
endloop
command
model save ['Excav_slice_' + string(slend)]
endcommand
end
FLAC3D 6.0
FLAC3D 6.0
Subsidence above Horizontal Cut 247
Subsidence above Horizontal Cut
Problem Statement
The ground settlement (subsidence) profiles above the horizontal cut are
compared for the models using the Mohr-Coulomb and Mohr-Coulomb Tension
Crack (MohrT) models with the same material parameters (Table 1). The material
cohesion is assumed to be very large to prevent any shear failure.
This is a plane-strain problem with the model dimensions of 100 m (length) × 60

m (depth). The 30 m wide and 1 m high horizontal cut is at the 15-15.5 m depth
(floor depth). The fixed boundary is assumed at the base and sides of the model.
The vertical stress is initialized to be compatible with the gravity field. The
horizontal stress is initialized assuming the lateral stress coefficient of 0.75. An
interface is set between the floor and the roof of the cut so that the cut can close
without the roof and the floor overlapping. The material density is 1600 kg/m 3,
and the gravity is assumed to be 10 m/s2. The model mesh is shown in Figure 1.
Table 1: Model Properties
Material Parameter Value

(Pa) 4e7
(Pa) 3e7
0
0
(Pa) 1e20
(Pa) 2000
The tension failure zones are plotted in Figure 2 and Figure 3 for Mohr-Coulomb
and MohrT models, respectively. The vertical displacement contour profiles are
plotted in Figure 4 and Figure 5 for Mohr-Coulomb and MohrT models,
FLAC3D 6.0
respectively. The settlement predicted by the MohrT model (Figure 6) is much

greater than that predicted by the Mohr-Coulomb model (Figure 7) in this
example.
The zones above the cut undergo initial extension in the vertical direction, which
in this case results in tensile failure (corresponding to formation and opening of
the horizontal fractures). Subsequently, as the cut closes and the roof contacts
the floor, continuous deformation of the overburden will reverse the vertical
strain in the immediate roof zones. This reversal of the strain should result in
the closure of the open horizontal fractures. However, the irreversible tensile
plastic strain in the Mohr-Coulomb model will prevent this crack closure. (See
Single Zone Loading-Unloading Test with MohrT Model.)
The apparent material dilation (“ratcheting”) will result in generation of the

vertical compressive stresses immediately after the vertical strain changes the
sense. That back-pressure (caused by compressive stresses) to the overburden
will reduce vertical deformation and subsidence. The MohrT model allows
complete closure of the horizontal fractures and prevents artifice of the Mohr-
Coulomb model that results in underestimation of subsidence in this example. In
addition to the settlement profile, another major difference in the results of
these two models is the shape of the failure zone above the roof.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 2: Tension failure zones using Mohr-Coulomb model.
Figure 3: Tension failure zones using MohrT model.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 4: Vertical displacement contour using Mohr-Coulomb model.
Figure 5: Vertical displacement contour using MohrT model.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 6: Vertical displacement contour using Mohr-Coulomb model.
Figure 7: Vertical displacement contour using MohrT model.
FLAC3D 6.0
Data File
HorizontalCut-MohrT.f3dat
model new
model gravity 10
zone create brick size 200 1 120 point 0 (0,0,0) point 1 (100,0,0) ...
point 2 (0,0.5,0) point 3 (0,0,60) group 'rock'
zone group 'excavation' range position-x 35. 65. position-z 10. 10.5
zone cmodel assign mohr-coulomb-tension
zone property density 1600. bulk 4e7 shear 3e7 cohesion 1e20 tension 2000
zone gridpoint fix velocity range union position-x 0 position-x 100
zone gridpoint fix velocity-y
zone gridpoint fix velocity-z range position-z 0
model solve
zone separate by-face range group 'excavation' group 'rock'
zone interface '1' create by-face ...
range position-x 35. 65. position-z 10.9 10.1
zone interface '1' node property stiffness-normal 4e8 ...
stiffness-shear 4e8 friction 30.
zone delete range group 'excavation'
model solve
model save 'mohrt'
return
FLAC3D 6.0
Punch Indentation of a Bonded Material 253
Punch Indentation of a Bonded Material
Problem Statement
This example demonstrates the indentation response of a bonded-particle model
(BPM) when compressed by a rounded punch. A model of this nature could be
investigated using PFC with: 1) a relatively large assembly of PFC balls to ensure
a realistic response of the material away from the site of the indentation and 2)
PFC walls representing the body of the punch. Such an approach would be rather
computationally expensive due to the number of balls required outside of the
punch indentation region. In addition, punch stresses/deformation could not be
assessed in PFC as walls act only as rigid boundaries.
Figure 1 shows the model geometry. A region of zones are nulled and a BPM is
created inside this region. Though the BPM region is small and the balls are
rather large, this example effectively demonstrates the mechanics of coupling
PFC and FLAC3D models. As mentioned in the PFC Plugin section, PFC walls are
slaved to surface zones. Figure 2 shows the PFC walls and the model domain in
which all PFC model components exist. Contacts exist between PFC balls and wall
facets; the contact forces and moments at each ball-facet contact are used to
determine an equivalent force system to apply to the corresponding zone
gridpoints. The exact approach used is described in detail here.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 1: Geometry of PFC balls and FLAC3D zones once the BPM has been
created in the zone cavity.
Figure 2: PFC walls created with the wall-zone create command.
FLAC3D 6.0
Coupled PFC-FLAC3D Model

Prior to creating a coupled PFC-FLAC3D model, one must load the PFC modules.
These are the DLLs that contain the code responsible for instantiating all PFC
related model components. In addition, a set of modules exist to couple PFC walls
with FLAC3D zones and shell-based structural elements. By default these
modules are not loaded when the FLAC3D application is opened. One may either
load these modules via the Tools ► Load PFC menu item or with the following
commands:
program load module 'contact'

program load module 'pfc'
program load guimodule 'pfc'
program load module 'pfcthermal'
program load guimodule 'pfcthermal'
program load module 'ccfd'
program load guimodule 'ccfd'
program load module 'wallsel'
program load module 'wallzone'
Once a project has been saved with any additional modules loaded, these modules
will be loaded whenever the project is opened once again. Note that the
additional modules remain loaded until the FLAC3D application is closed.
PFC balls are created within the region of nulled FLAC3D zones. In order to create
the same initial cloud of balls each time the data files are run, the model random
command is used to initialize the random seed to a specified value. Changing the
random seed will result in a different realization of balls, though statistically, the
realizations will be the same. Unlike zones and structural elements, all PFC
model components (i.e., balls, clumps, walls and contacts) can only exist within
a user-specified model domain (see the model domain command). This restriction
allows for contact detection and spatial searching to be simplified and optimized.
As PFC always operates in large-strain mode, one must explicitly activate large-
strain mode for zones and structural elements (see the model largestrain
command). PFC, by default, solves the dynamic equations of motion using the
real inertia properties of balls and clumps. In this model, we desire to operate
with timestep scaling in PFC (see the model mechanical command), an approach
which is similar to the default FLAC3D behavior.
With these preliminary steps complete, we dive into creating the initial model.
break
FLAC3D 6.0
;create a bed of zones for the balls to sit inside

zone create brick size 35 35 35 point 0 -4 -4 -4.5 point 1 4 -4 -4.5 ...
point 2 -4 4 -4.5 point 3 -4 -4 -1 group 'bed'
zone property young [materialMod] poisson 0.25
zone cmodel null ...
range position-x -1.5 1.5 position-y -1.5 1.5 position-z -2 -1
;as the balls are packing into this region -
;fix the gridpoint motions as the balls are settling
zone gridpoint fix velocity
;wrap the bed with walls

wall-zone create name 'bed' starting-zone 30013
;create a wall over the top
wall generate name 'top' plane position 0 0 -1
;create a cloud of balls that are arbitrarily overlapping

ball distribute porosity 0.4 box -1.5 1.5 -1.5 1.5 -2 -1 radius 0.04 0.06
;set the ball density and local damping coefficient

ball attribute density 2600 damp 0.7
;set the default contact behavior -
;the deformability method sets properties of the linear portion
;of the contact model
model cmat default model linearpbond method deformability ...
emod [materialMod] kratio 1.0
;allow the balls to rearrange, nulling the linear
;and angular velocities every 100 cycles
model cycle 1000 calm 100
;delete any balls that flew out of the bed
ball delete range position -1.5 -1.5 -2 1.5 1.5 -1 not
The zone create command is used to create a simple bed of zones and the region
that the BPM will occupy is nulled. Since the balls will be created with arbitrary
overlap, all gridpoint velocities are fixed while the balls rearrange. The wall-zone
create command is used to wrap wall facets around surface zone faces. As seen in
Figure 2, the walls do not extend beyond the model domain. An additional wall is
created with the wall generate command to enclose the cavity.
PFC balls and clumps can either be created without initial overlap or with
arbitrary initial overlap. In this case, the ball distribute command is used to
create a cloud of balls with arbitrary overlaps to a specified volume fraction
within a parallelepiped volume. Ball attributes are then assigned and the model
cmat command is used to specify the contact model behavior. With these steps
taken the balls can be allowed to rearrange. The calm keyword in the model cycle
command is used to periodically remove all kinetic energy from the system.
Finally, all balls that have escaped the generation region are deleted.
FLAC3D 6.0
At this point the granular material is converted to a BPM.
;bond the balls together with the specified gap

contact method bond gap 2.0e-3
;set the parallel bond properties from the pb_deform method
contact method pb_deform emod [materialMod] kratio 1.0
;remove the linear portion of the contact properties
;and set the contact strength
;this will be a relatively weak material
contact property lin_mode 1 pb_ten 2e4 pb_coh 2e5 ...
range contact type 'ball-ball'
;set the ball-facet contact strength to be very high
range contact type 'ball-facet'
;remove the box
wall delete wall range name 'top'
;set the default behavior for new ball-ball and ball-facet contacts
model cmat default model linear type ball-ball method deformability ...
emod [materialMod] kratio 1.0 property fric 0.3
model cmat default model linear type ball-facet method deformability ...
;remove all velocities, fix the balls,
;cycle 2 to remove any contact forces that previously existed from
;the simple packing procedure
model calm
ball fix velocity spin
ball attribute force-contact multiply 0.0
contact property lin_force 0 0 0
model cycle 2
ball free velocity spin
Parallel bonds are installed with the contact method command. In addition, the
parallel bond properties are set with this same command. A contact method is a
set of operations that operate to perform a task on contacts, possibly modifying
multiple contact properties. In this case, the pb_deform method sets the pb_kn and
pb_ks properties of the linear parallel bond contact model. The parallel-bond
strength of the ball-ball and ball-facet contacts are assigned as well. It is
important to note that the ball-facet parallel-bond strengths are set to be very
large to ensure that the balls at the boundary remain bonded to their neighboring
zones. Specifying lin_mode = 1 means that, for this BPM, all forces are
incrementally accumulated; prior to this command, forces developed as a result
of the absolute overlap at ball-ball and ball-facet contacts. This allows one to
produce a BPM quickly without internal stresses. To achieve this, the ball
velocities and spins are nulled and fixed so that no new contact forces will
develop for a few cycles. One must also set the contact force stored in the contact
model to 0. As a result, the BPM is in equilibrium with no internal stresses.
FLAC3D 6.0
At this point in the modeling process, a stress-free BPM has been created within
a cavity in a larger FLAC3D model. Some balls are bonded to the wall facets
corresponding to the free zone faces. The forces/moment produced at these
contacts are automatically conveyed to the associated zone gridpoints, allowing
for the BPM and continuum models to naturally interact.

Once cycling commences, the balls begin to displace in response to the pressure
applied by the punch. The punch is indented a specified distance and then the
model is solved to a specified average ratio. Figure 3 and Figure 4 show the
surface and cross-sectional displacements of the balls and zones, respectively.
Notice the continuity of displacements between the BPM and continuum regions.
In addition, the displacement field is symmetric as the BPM is acting similar to a
continuum due to the fact that few bonds have broken. Figure 5 shows the
locations of the few bonds that have broken to this point in the simulation.
Figure 3: Surface displacements of balls and zones prior to massive failure of the
BPM.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 4: Cross section of displacements of balls and zones prior to massive

failure of the BPM.
Figure 5: Broken bonds prior to massive failure of the BPM.
FLAC3D 6.0
Subsequently the punch is depressed an additional distance into the BPM. Figure
6 and Figure 7 show the surface and cross-sectional displacements after
additional motion of the punch. As compared with the displacements shown
above, continued punch penetration results in significantly less displacement
away from the punch. Figure 8 shows the locations of the bonds that have broken
with the additional punch indentation. At this point the bulk BPM has failed with
localized bond breakages. As a result, the balls rearrange and the displacements
diminish significantly away from the indentation site.
Figure 6: Surface displacements of balls and zones after massive failure of the
BPM.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 7: Cross section of displacements of balls and zones after massive failure
of the BPM.
Figure 8: Broken bonds after massive failure of the BPM.
FLAC3D 6.0
Not only do the displacements change signficantly after failure, the stresses in
the punch are significantly reduced. Figure 9 and Figure 10 show the measure
stress before and after bulk failure, respectively. The BPM is significantly less
able to resist indentation at this point.
break
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 9: Total measure stress before massive failure of the BPM.
Figure 10: Total measure stress after massive failure of the BPM.
FLAC3D 6.0
Data File
PunchIndentation.f3dat
;-------------------------------------------------------------------
; Punch Indentation of a Bonded
; Material
;-------------------------------------------------------------------
model new
model title 'Punch Indentation of a Bonded Material'
;make repeatable by setting the random number seed
model random 10001
;set the model domain for PFC balls and walls
model domain extent -2 2 -2 2 -2.5 0 condition destroy
;largestrain mode must always be on for coupled simulations
;apply timestep scaling so the PFC timestep will be 1
model mechanical timestep scale
;define the effective modulus of the DEM material -

; use this as the Young's modulus of the bed of zones as well
[materialMod = 1.0e6]
;define the Young's modulus of the zones comprising the punch
[punchYoung = 1.0e7]
;create a bed of zones for the balls to sit inside

zone create brick size 35 35 35 point 0 -4 -4 -4.5 point 1 4 -4 -4.5 ...
point 2 -4 4 -4.5 point 3 -4 -4 -1 group 'bed'
zone property young [materialMod] poisson 0.25
zone cmodel null ...
range position-x -1.5 1.5 position-y -1.5 1.5 position-z -2 -1
;as the balls are packing into this region -
;fix the gridpoint motions as the balls are settling
zone gridpoint fix velocity
;wrap the bed with walls

wall-zone create name 'bed' starting-zone 30013
;create a wall over the top
wall generate name 'top' plane position 0 0 -1
;create a cloud of balls that are arbitrarily overlapping

ball distribute porosity 0.4 box -1.5 1.5 -1.5 1.5 -2 -1 radius 0.04 0.06
;set the ball density and local damping coefficient

;the deformability method sets properties of the linear portion
;of the contact model
emod [materialMod] kratio 1.0
;allow the balls to rearrange, nulling the linear
;and angular velocities every 100 cycles
FLAC3D 6.0

;delete any balls that flew out of the bed
ball delete range position -1.5 -1.5 -2 1.5 1.5 -1 not
;bond the balls together with the specified gap

contact method bond gap 2.0e-3
;set the parallel bond properties from the pb_deform method
contact method pb_deform emod [materialMod] kratio 1.0
;remove the linear portion of the contact properties
;and set the contact strength
;this will be a relatively weak material
;set the ball-facet contact strength to be very high
range contact type 'ball-facet'
;remove the box
wall delete wall range name 'top'
;set the default behavior for new ball-ball and ball-facet contacts
model cmat default model linear type ball-ball method deformability ...
model cmat default model linear type ball-facet method deformability ...
;remove all velocities, fix the balls,
;cycle 2 to remove any contact forces that previously existed from
;the simple packing procedure
model calm
ball attribute force-contact multiply 0.0
contact property lin_force 0 0 0
model cycle 2
;fix the z- velocity of zones at the bottom of the model
zone gridpoint free velocity
zone gridpoint fix velocity-z range position-z -5 -4.4
;reset the ball displacement
ball attribute displacement multiply 0.0
model save 'withoutPunch'
;create the rounded punch and assign properties to it

zone create cylinder point 0 0 -0.5 0 ...
point 1 [-math.sqrt(2.0)/2.0] -0.5 [-math.sqrt(2.0)/2.0] ...
point 2 0 0.5 0 ...
point 3 [math.sqrt(2.0)/2.0] -0.5 [-math.sqrt(2.0)/2.0] ...
size 5 5 5 group 'punch'
zone cmodel assign elastic range group 'punch'
zone property young [punchYoung] poisson 0.25 range group 'punch'
;wrap the punch with walls
wall-zone create range group 'punch'
;assign a group the gridpoints on the top of the punch and fix the z- velocity
zone gridpoint group "fixed" range position-z -0.4 1
zone gridpoint fix velocity-z -.0001 range group "fixed"
model save 'withPunch'
FLAC3D 6.0
;push the punch into the balls with just minimal failure of the material
model cycle 1000
zone gridpoint fix velocity-z 0.0 range group "fixed"
;solve to an equilibrium state to show the current displacements
model solve ratio-average 1.0e-4
model save 'beforeFailure'
;push the punch in and watch the zone displacement

;diminish after the onset of failure
zone gridpoint fix velocity-z -.0001 range group "fixed"
model cycle 1000
zone gridpoint fix velocity-z 0.0 range group "fixed"
;failure will continue and the granular specimen will rearrange,
;reducing the displacements
model solve ratio-average 1.0e-3
model save 'afterFailure'
FLAC3D 6.0
Sleeved Triaxial Test of a Bonded Material 267
Sleeved Triaxial Test of a Bonded Material
Problem Statement
This example demonstrates the use of shell-based structural elements to
perform a set of sleeved triaxial tests on a bonded-particle model (BPM). A
model of this nature could be investigated using PFC alone. However, in that
case, a fair amount of FISH would be required for the sleeved wall to mimic the
behavior of an elastic membrane. Here, a sleeve is created from a shell and a
BPM is synthesized inside the sleeve as seen in Figure 1. As mentioned in the PFC
Plugin section, PFC walls are slaved to shell-based structural element. Contacts
exist between PFC balls and wall facets; the contact forces and moments at each
ball-facet contact are used to determine an equivalent force system to apply to
the corresponding shell nodes. The exact approach used is described in detail
here. In this model, the specimen is created with no initial stress for simplicity
and the platens are displaced with a constant velocity. Using this example as a
basis, one could easily define the failure envelope of a BPM.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 1: Geometry of the sleeved triaxial test. The BPM is created inside the
sleeve.
Coupled PFC-FLAC3D Model

Prior to creating a coupled PFC-FLAC3D model, one must load the PFC modules.
These are the DLLs that contain the code responsible for instantiating all PFC
related model components. In addition, a set of modules exist to couple PFC walls
with FLAC3D zones and shell-based structural elements. By default these
modules are not loaded when the FLAC3D application is opened. One may either
load these modules via the Tools ► Load PFC menu item or with the following
commands:
program load module 'contact'

program load module 'pfc'
program load guimodule 'pfc'
program load module 'pfcthermal'
program load guimodule 'pfcthermal'
program load module 'ccfd'
program load guimodule 'ccfd'
program load module 'wallsel'
FLAC3D 6.0
program load module 'wallzone'
Once a project has been saved with any additional modules loaded, these modules
will be loaded whenever the project is opened once again. Note that the
additional modules remain loaded until the FLAC3D application is closed.
PFC balls are created within the cylindrical sleeve composed of FLAC3D shells. In
order to create the same initial cloud of balls each time the data files are run, the
model random command is used to initialize the random seed to a specified value.
Changing the random seed will result in a different realization of balls, though
statistically, the realizations will be the same. Unlike zones and structural
elements, all PFC model components (i.e., balls, clumps, walls and contacts) can
only exist within a user-specified model domain (see the model domain
command). This restriction allows for contact detection and spatial searching to
be simplified and optimized. As PFC always operates in large-strain mode, one
must explicitly activate large-strain mode for zones and structural elements (see
the model largestrain command). PFC, by default, solves the dynamic equations
of motion using the real inertia properties of balls and clumps. In this model, we
desire to operate with timestep scaling in PFC (see the model mechanical
command), an approach which is similar to the default FLAC3D behavior.
With these preliminary steps complete, we dive into creating the initial model.
;define relevant parameters for the cylinder

[rad = 1.0]
[height = 3.0]
[segments = 6]
[halfLen = height/2.0]
[freeRegion = height/2.0*0.8]
;create the cylinder with the geometry logic

;first create arcs making a circle of edges
geometry edge create by-arc origin (0,0,[-halfLen]) ...
start ([rad*(-1)],0,[-halfLen]) end (0,[rad*(-1)],[-halfLen]) ...
segments [segments]
start (0,[rad*(-1)],[-halfLen]) end ([rad],0,[-halfLen]) ...
segments [segments]
start ([rad],0,[-halfLen]) end (0,[rad],[-halfLen]) ...
segments [segments]
start (0,[rad],[-halfLen]) end ([rad*(-1)],0,[-halfLen]) ...
segments [segments]
;extrude the edges to make a cylinder
geometry generate from-edges extrude (0,0,[height]) segments [segments*2]
FLAC3D 6.0
The cylindrical sleeve is created in the geometry logic to be imported as a shell.

Arcs are created as geometry edges and extruded vertically to create the
cylindrical sleeve. Instead of using the ‘@’ operator, one can use the bracket
notation (i.e., ‘[]’) to define FISH variables and to use these values in commands.
With the geometry created, we turn our attention to dealing with the structural
elements.
;import the structural elements as a shell from the geometry logic

;and assign groups and properties
structure shell import from-geometry 'Default' element-type dkt-cst
structure node group 'middle' range position-z [-freeRegion] [freeRegion]
structure node group 'top' range position-z [freeRegion] [freeRegion+1]
structure node group 'bot' range position-z [-freeRegion-1] [-freeRegion]
structure shell group 'middle' range position-z [-freeRegion] [freeRegion]
structure shell property isotropic (1e6, 0.0) thick 0.25 density 930.0
;initialize the structural element related data structures
model cycle 0
;In order to use the STRUCTURE APPLY command
;set the local system of each structural
;element to be pointing to the center of the triaxial cell
fish define setLocalSystem
loop foreach local s struct.node.list()
local p = struct.node.pos(s)
local nid = struct.node.id.component(s)
local mvec = vector(0,0,comp.z(p))
zdir = math.unit(p-mvec)
ydir = vector(0,0,1)
command
structure node system-local z [zdir] y [ydir] ...
range component-id [nid]
endcommand
endloop
end
@setLocalSystem
;make sure that local damping is active for the structural elements
structure damp local
;fix the structural element nodes for specimen creation
structure node fix velocity rotation
The structure shell import command is used to create the shell from the created
geometry. Both element and node groups are assigned to simplify boundary
condition assignment. The code snippet also shows a FISH function that is used
to set the local axis system of each node as pointing toward the center of the
cylinder so that the structure apply command can be used to apply a pressure on
shell elements in the middle of the model. The z- direction points directly to the
center of the cylinder and the y- directions points up. The velocity and rotation
of the nodes are fixed so that balls can be equilibrated inside the sleeve.
FLAC3D 6.0
Now it is time to create the walls for both the sleeve and the platens.
;create a wall representation of the structural element

wall-structure create
;parameter to set the platen width relative to the cylinder radius
[rad2 = rad*1.3]
;create the platens
wall generate name 'platenTop' polygon ([-rad2],[-rad2],[halfLen]) ...
([rad2],[-rad2],[halfLen]) ...
([rad2],[rad2],[halfLen]) ...
([-rad2],[rad2],[halfLen])
wall generate name 'platenBottom' polygon ([-rad2],[-rad2],[-halfLen]) ...
([rad2],[-rad2],[-halfLen]) ...
([rad2],[rad2],[-halfLen]) ...
([-rad2],[rad2],[-halfLen])
;set the wall resolution strategy to full and set the cutoff angle for
;proximity contacts
wall resolution full
wall attribute cutoff-angle 20
The sleeve is created with the wall-structure create command. In this case wall
facets are created for each shell face and the wall facet vertex velocities and
positions are slaved to the corresponding shell nodes. The top and bottom
platens are created with the wall generate command and the wall resolution
mode is set to full with the wall resolution command. In general, contacts exist
between PFC balls and wall facets. If the resolution mode is set the none, all
contacts between facets and balls will be delineated and contribute to the force-
displacement response of the balls. When the wall facet sizes are near to the ball
sizes, though, this may produce many more contacts than if the wall was
idealized as a perfect surface without facets. The full scheme is used to mitigate
this situation, and the cutoff-angle is used to control the “smoothness” of the
wall. The wall resolution is discussed in detail in the faceted-walls-in-pfc
section.
After the walls are created, the BPM is created within the sleeve.
;set the ball modulus and generate a cloud of balls with arbitrary overlap
[ballemod = 1.0e8]
ball distribute box [-rad] [rad] [-rad] [rad] [-halfLen] [halfLen] ...
porosity 0.3 radius 0.05 0.1 ...
range cylinder end-1 (0,0,[-halfLen]) end-2 (0,0,[height]) ...
radius [rad*0.95]
;set the ball attributes

FLAC3D 6.0
;the deformability method sets properties of the

;linear portion of the contact model
emod [ballemod] kratio 1.0
;allow the balls to rearrange,
;nulling the linear and angular velocities every 100 cycles
;provide some friction to kill additional energy

;and apply this to all of the contacts
emod [ballemod] kratio 1.0 property fric 0.3
model cmat apply
;solve to a small average ratio
model solve ratio-average 1e-8
;bond the ball-ball contacts

contact method bond gap 1.0e-2 range contact type 'ball-ball'
;change the existing contact properties
;so that the linear force is incremental and
;supply strength
contact property lin_mode 1 lin_force 0 0 0 pb_ten 2e5 pb_coh 2e6
;set the stiffness of the parallel-bond portion of the contact model
contact method pb_deformability emod [ballemod] kratio 1.0 ...
;this set of operations removes all ball velocities

;and all contact forces in the model
;so that the specimen is completely stress free and bonded
model calm
model cycle 2
;free the nodes in the middle section of the sleeve

;while keeping the top and bottom edges fixed
structure node free velocity rotation range group 'middle'
PFC balls and clumps can either be created without initial overlap or with
arbitrary initial overlap. In this case, the ball distribute command is used to
create a cloud of balls with arbitrary overlaps to a specified volume fraction
within a parallelepiped volume. Ball attributes are then assigned and the model
cmat command is used to specify the contact model behavior. With these steps
taken the balls can be allowed to rearrange. The calm keyword in the model cycle
command is used to periodically remove all kinetic energy from the system.
Subsequently the model cmat command is given to modify the Contact Model
Assignment Table and this change is applied to all contacts. Some friction is
supplied to remove additional energy from the system of balls is cycled to a small
FLAC3D 6.0
average ratio. The contact method bond command is given to create the BPM by
installing parallel bonds at all ball-ball contacts with gap less than or equal to
the specified value. A contact method is a set of operations that operate to
perform a task on contacts, possibly modifying multiple contact properties. After
the bonds have been installed, the parallel bond strength is specified and the
normal force calculation of the linear part of the linear parallel bond contact
model is set to incremental model by specifying lin_mode = 1. This allows one to
produce a BPM quickly without internal stresses. In addition, the stiffnesses of
the parallel bond component are set. By removing all velocities and fixing the
ball velocity and spin, all contact forces are nulled after a few cycles. As a result,
the BPM is in equilibrium with no internal stresses. Finally, the shell nodes in
the middle of the sleeve are freed in preparation for the triaxial tests. The initial
contacts of the BPM with no stess are shown in the figure below.
Figure 2: Initial contact forces of the BPM without stress.
With the stress-free BPM created, some additional work is required to build the
environment to perform the triaxial tests. The first is a FISH function to calculate
the stress and strain based on the platens.
;define the stress FISH function to measure the stress and strain
FLAC3D 6.0
fish define stress

local topForce = math.abs(comp.z(wall.force.contact(platenTop)))
local botForce = math.abs(comp.z(wall.force.contact(platenBottom)))
currentStress = 0.5*(topForce+botForce)/area
stress = currentStress
strain = (height - (comp.z(wall.pos(platenTop)) - ...
comp.z(wall.pos(platenBottom))))/height * 100
if failureStress <= currentStress
failureStress = currentStress
failureStrain = strain
endif
end
Here the forces on the platens in the z- direction are used to calculate the
average stress on the platens. The strain is also calculated based on the specimen
height. The FISH parameters failureStress and failureStrain are used to record
the peak stress and strain. This information is used in the FISH function below as
a means to terminate cycling.
;define the halt FISH function to stop cycling

;as the platens displace and the material fails
fish define halt
halt = 0
if currentStress < failureStress * 0.85
halt = 1
endif
end
Once the current stress level is less than 82% of the maximum stress, cycling
will cease. A FISH function can be used to terminate cycling with the model solve
fish-halt command. Once the returned value of the function halt is 1 cycling will
terminate.
The following FISH function is used to increase the confining stress on the
specimen incrementally:
;define a FISH function to increase the isotropic confining pressure

;in increments so that the bonded material does not break during loading
fish define rampUp(beginIn,ending,increment)
command
ball attribute displacement (0,0,0)
structure node initialize displacement (0,0,0)
endcommand
begin = beginIn
loop while (math.abs(begin) < math.abs(ending))
begin = begin + increment
command
FLAC3D 6.0
;apply the confining stress

structure shell apply [begin] range group 'middle'
;apply the same confining stress on the platens
wall servo force (0,0,[begin*area]) activate true ...
range name 'platenTop'
wall servo force (0,0,[-begin*area]) activate true ...
range name 'platenBottom'
model cycle 200
model calm
endcommand
endloop
command
;once the stress state has been installed cycle and turn off the servo
;mechanism on the walls
model cycle 1000
wall servo activate false
wall attribute velocity (0,0,0) range name 'platenTop'
wall attribute velocity (0,0,0) range name 'platenBottom'
endcommand
end
The core of this function is to incrementally increase the confining stress on both
the platens and sleeve. Since we have specified the local system for the shells, it
is simple to use the structure shell apply command to provide confining stress.
Also, the built-in wall servo mechanism is employed, with the wall servo
command, to provide stress on the platens. Now it is time to squeeze some
synthetic materials.

First the unconfined compression (UCS) test is performed by removing the sleeve
and fixing the velocities of the platens. The results of this tests are shown in the
figure below. The broken bonds are also shown to demonstrate the pervasive
damage of the BPM at failure. Note that the response is quite linear to failure and
that the test automatically stopped at 82% of the peak stress. This peak UCS tests
of this BPM was 2.20e+06 Pa at 1.13% strain.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 3: Stress-strain response of the BPM to a UCS test along with the broken
contact bonds.
To undertake the first triaxial test, the original BPM is loaded and the stress is
ramped up from to 1e4 Pa in 1e3 Pa increments. The contacts are show in Figure
4. Notice that the stress is isotropic as the contacts retain nearly their original
configuration. One is able to tell this as the contacts are plotted in the force
vector direction as opposed to the direction connecting the balls in question.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 4: Contact forces oriented in the direction of the force after the stress
installation.
The test results with 1e4 Pa confinement are shown in Figure 5. The specimen
failed at 1.15% strain with a peak stress of 2.16e+06 Pa. Figure 6 and Figure 7
show the stress-strain responses and broken contact bonds for 5e4 Pa and 1e5
Pa, respectively. The table below presents the peak stress at which the BPM failed
for each level of confinement. Notice that, as with real materials, the peak
strength increases with confinement. In addition, the stress-strain curves
remain linear and similar in slope as with increasing confinement. The slight
drop in stress with low confinement can be attributed to using the walls to
measure the stress and the relatively small number of balls.
break
FLAC3D 6.0
Table 1: Peak strength of BPM as a function of confinement

stress
Confinement (Pa) Peak Strength (Pa) Strain (%)

0 2.20e+06 1.13
1e4 2.16e+06 1.15
5e4 2.60e+06 1.37
1e5 2.96e+06 1.54
Figure 5: Stress-strain response of the BPM to the triaxial test with 1e4
confinement along with the broken contact bonds.
FLAC3D 6.0
FLAC3D 6.0
Taking this example as a starting point, one can effectively delineated the failure
envelope of a BPM under realistic triaxial conditions.
Data File
SleevedTriaxialTest.f3dat
;-------------------------------------------------------------------
; Sleeved Triaxial Test of a Bonded
; Material
;-------------------------------------------------------------------
model new
model title 'Sleeved Triaxial Test of a Bonded Material'
;make repeatable by setting the random number seed
model random 10001
;set the model domain for PFC balls and walls
model domain extent -2 2 condition destroy
;largestrain mode must always be on for coupled simulations
;apply timestep scaling so the PFC timestep will be 1
model mechanical timestep scale
;define relevant parameters for the cylinder

[rad = 1.0]
[height = 3.0]
[segments = 6]
[halfLen = height/2.0]
[freeRegion = height/2.0*0.8]
;create the cylinder with the geometry logic

;first create arcs making a circle of edges
start ([rad*(-1)],0,[-halfLen]) end (0,[rad*(-1)],[-halfLen]) ...
segments [segments]
start (0,[rad*(-1)],[-halfLen]) end ([rad],0,[-halfLen]) ...
segments [segments]
start ([rad],0,[-halfLen]) end (0,[rad],[-halfLen]) ...
segments [segments]
start (0,[rad],[-halfLen]) end ([rad*(-1)],0,[-halfLen]) ...
segments [segments]
;extrude the edges to make a cylinder
geometry generate from-edges extrude (0,0,[height]) segments [segments*2]
;import the structural elements as a shell from the geometry logic

;and assign groups and properties
structure shell import from-geometry 'Default' element-type dkt-cst
structure node group 'middle' range position-z [-freeRegion] [freeRegion]
structure node group 'top' range position-z [freeRegion] [freeRegion+1]
FLAC3D 6.0
structure node group 'bot' range position-z [-freeRegion-1] [-freeRegion]

structure shell group 'middle' range position-z [-freeRegion] [freeRegion]
structure shell property isotropic (1e6, 0.0) thick 0.25 density 930.0
;initialize the structural element related data structures
model cycle 0
;In order to use the STRUCTURE APPLY command
;set the local system of each structural
;element to be pointing to the center of the triaxial cell
fish define setLocalSystem
loop foreach local s struct.node.list()
local p = struct.node.pos(s)
local nid = struct.node.id.component(s)
local mvec = vector(0,0,comp.z(p))
zdir = math.unit(p-mvec)
ydir = vector(0,0,1)
command
structure node system-local z [zdir] y [ydir] ...
range component-id [nid]
endcommand
endloop
end
@setLocalSystem
;make sure that local damping is active for the structural elements
structure damp local
;fix the structural element nodes for specimen creation
structure node fix velocity rotation
;create a wall representation of the structural element

wall-structure create
;parameter to set the platen width relative to the cylinder radius
[rad2 = rad*1.3]
;create the platens
wall generate name 'platenTop' polygon ([-rad2],[-rad2],[halfLen]) ...
([rad2],[-rad2],[halfLen]) ...
([rad2],[rad2],[halfLen]) ...
([-rad2],[rad2],[halfLen])
wall generate name 'platenBottom' polygon ([-rad2],[-rad2],[-halfLen]) ...
([rad2],[-rad2],[-halfLen]) ...
([rad2],[rad2],[-halfLen]) ...
([-rad2],[rad2],[-halfLen])
;set the wall resolution strategy to full and set the cutoff angle for
;proximity contacts
wall resolution full
wall attribute cutoff-angle 20
;set the ball modulus and generate a cloud of balls with arbitrary overlap
[ballemod = 1.0e8]
ball distribute box [-rad] [rad] [-rad] [rad] [-halfLen] [halfLen] ...
porosity 0.3 radius 0.05 0.1 ...
range cylinder end-1 (0,0,[-halfLen]) end-2 (0,0,[height]) ...
radius [rad*0.95]
;set the ball attributes
FLAC3D 6.0

;the deformability method sets properties of the
;linear portion of the contact model
emod [ballemod] kratio 1.0
;allow the balls to rearrange,
;nulling the linear and angular velocities every 100 cycles
;provide some friction to kill additional energy

;and apply this to all of the contacts
emod [ballemod] kratio 1.0 property fric 0.3
model cmat apply
;solve to a small average ratio
model solve ratio-average 1e-8
;bond the ball-ball contacts

contact method bond gap 1.0e-2 range contact type 'ball-ball'
;change the existing contact properties
;so that the linear force is incremental and
;supply strength
contact property lin_mode 1 lin_force 0 0 0 pb_ten 2e5 pb_coh 2e6
;set the stiffness of the parallel-bond portion of the contact model
contact method pb_deformability emod [ballemod] kratio 1.0 ...
;this set of operations removes all ball velocities

;and all contact forces in the model
;so that the specimen is completely stress free and bonded
model calm
model cycle 2
;free the nodes in the middle section of the sleeve

;while keeping the top and bottom edges fixed
structure node free velocity rotation range group 'middle'
;function for calculating stress and strain as the platens are displaced
;these values will be recorded as a history
;first find the top and bottom platens
[platenTop = wall.find('platenTop')]
[platenBottom = wall.find('platenBottom')]
;define some variables for the calculation
[failureStress = 0]
[currentStress = 0]
[failureStrain = 0]
[area = math.pi()*rad^2.0]
;define the stress FISH function to measure the stress and strain
fish define stress
local topForce = math.abs(comp.z(wall.force.contact(platenTop)))
FLAC3D 6.0
local botForce = math.abs(comp.z(wall.force.contact(platenBottom)))

currentStress = 0.5*(topForce+botForce)/area
stress = currentStress
strain = (height - (comp.z(wall.pos(platenTop)) - ...
comp.z(wall.pos(platenBottom))))/height * 100
if failureStress <= currentStress
failureStress = currentStress
failureStrain = strain
endif
end
;define the halt FISH function to stop cycling

;as the platens displace and the material fails
fish define halt
halt = 0
if currentStress < failureStress * 0.85
halt = 1
endif
end
;define a FISH function to increase the isotropic confining pressure

;in increments so that the bonded material does not break during loading
fish define rampUp(beginIn,ending,increment)
command
endcommand
begin = beginIn
loop while (math.abs(begin) < math.abs(ending))
begin = begin + increment
command
;apply the confining stress
structure shell apply [begin] range group 'middle'
;apply the same confining stress on the platens
wall servo force (0,0,[begin*area]) activate true ...
range name 'platenTop'
wall servo force (0,0,[-begin*area]) activate true ...
range name 'platenBottom'
model cycle 200
model calm
endcommand
endloop
command
;once the stress state has been installed cycle and turn off the servo
;mechanism on the walls
model cycle 1000
wall servo activate false
wall attribute velocity (0,0,0) range name 'platenTop'
wall attribute velocity (0,0,0) range name 'platenBottom'
endcommand
end
;set the platen velocity
[platenVel = 0.000003]
FLAC3D 6.0
;save the model for future use, including these FISH utility function, before
;any confinement has been applied
model save 'beforeApplication'
;-------------------------------------------------------------------
;test 1: perform a UCS test on the specimen
structure shell delete
wall attribute velocity-z [-platenVel] range name 'platenTop'
wall attribute velocity-z [platenVel] range name 'platenBottom'
fish history @stress
fish history @strain
model solve fish-halt halt
model save 'ucs'
[io.out(string(failureStress) + 'Pa ')]
[io.out('at' + string(failureStrain) + '% strain')]
;-------------------------------------------------------------------
;test 2: perform a triaxial test with isotropic confining stress 1e4
model restore 'beforeApplication'
@rampUp(0,-1e4,-1e3)
model save 'to1e4'
model save 'triaxial1e4'
;-------------------------------------------------------------------
model restore 'to1e4'
@rampUp(-1e4,-5e4,-1e3)
model save 'to5e4'
;-------------------------------------------------------------------
model restore 'to5e4'
FLAC3D 6.0
@rampUp(-5e4,-1e5,-1e3)
model save 'to1e5'
FLAC3D 6.0
FLAC3D 6.0
Verification Problems 287
Verification Problems
Section Outline
• Cylindrical Hole in an Infinite Mohr-Coulomb Material
• Cylindrical Hole in an Infinite Hoek-Brown Medium
• Rough Strip Footing on a Cohesive Frictionless Material
• Smooth Circular Footing on an Associated Mohr-Coulomb Material
• Smooth Square Footing on a Cohesive Frictionless Material
• Uniaxial Compressive Strength of a Jointed Material Sample
• Drained and Undrained Triaxial Compression Test on a Cam-Clay Sample
• Lined Circular Tunnel in an Elastic Medium with Anisotropic Stresses
• Development of Plastic Hinges in a Statically Loaded Beam
• Simply Supported Isotropic Rectangular Plate under Combined Lateral and
Direct Loads
• Simply Supported Orthotropic Plate
• Cylindrical Concrete Vault
• Free Vibration of a Cantilever Beam
• Simple Slope in Hoek-Brown Material
FLAC3D 6.0
288 Examples • Verfication Problems
FLAC3D 6.0
Cylindrical Hole in an Infinite Mohr-Coulomb Material 289
Cylindrical Hole in an Infinite Mohr-Coulomb

Material
Problem Statement
Stresses and displacements are determined numerically for the case of a
cylindrical hole in an infinite elasto-plastic material subjected to in-situ
stresses. The material is assumed to be linearly elastic, perfectly plastic, with a
failure surface defined by the Mohr-Coulomb criterion, and both associated
(dilatancy = friction angle) and nonassociated (dilatancy = 0) flow rules are used.
The results of the simulation are compared with an analytic solution.
This problem tests the Mohr-Coulomb plasticity model with plane-strain

conditions imposed in FLAC3D.
The Mohr-Coulomb material is assigned several properties:
shear modulus ( ) 2.8 GPa

bulk modulus ( ) 3.9 GPa
cohesion ( ) 3.45 MPa
friction angle ( ) 30°
dilation angle ( ) 0° and 30°
The isotropic in-situ stress has a magnitude of -30 MPa, and the pressure inside
the hole may be neglected. (As a convention, compressive stresses are negative.)
The radius, a, of the hole is small compared to the length of the cylinder, so that
plane-strain conditions are applicable.
Closed-Form Solution
The analytic solution for this problem may be found in Salençon (1969). The
yield zone radius, , may be expressed, in general terms, as
FLAC3D 6.0
290 Examples • Verification Problems
in which is the hole radius, is the absolute value of the in-situ isotropic
stress, is the pressure inside the hole (0 Pa, in this case), and
The radial stress at the elastic/plastic interface may be written as
The stresses in the plastic zone have the form
in which is the distance from the hole axis.
The stresses in the elastic zone are
The displacements in the elastic region are given as
and, in the plastic region, as
in which
FLAC3D 6.0
and
In these equations, is Poisson’s ratio, is the dilation angle and is the shear
modulus.
FLAC3D Model
For modeling purposes, the problem is defined by the domain sketched in Figure
1, where advantage has been taken of the quarter-symmetry geometry. A system
of reference axes is selected, with orientation as indicated on the figure and
origin located at the intersection of the hole axis with the front face of the
domain. The far x- and z-boundaries are situated at a distance of five hole-
diameters from the axis of the hole. The thickness of the domain is selected as
one-tenth of the hole diameter.
The boundary conditions applied to this domain are sketched in Figure 2. The
domain is discretized into one layer of 900 zones. The zones are organized in a
radial pattern, as shown in Figure 3.
In the numerical simulation, the initial stress state (corresponding to = 30

MPa) is applied throughout the domain first, and then the hole is removed.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 1: Domain for FLAC3D simulation—quarter symmetry.
Figure 2: Boundary conditions for FLAC3D analysis—quarter symmetry.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 3: FLAC3D grid—quarter symmetry.

Figure 4 through Figure 7 show comparisons between FLAC3D results and the
analytic solution along a radial line. Normalized stresses, and , are
plotted versus normalized radius, , in Figure 4 and Figure 5, while normalized
displacements, , are represented versus in Figure 6 and Figure 7. Note
that numerical stress values for the two flow rules cannot be differentiated on
the graphs.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 4: Stress solution comparison—associated (analytical values = lines;

numerical values = crosses).
Figure 5: Stress solution comparison—nonassociated (analytical values = lines;

FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 6: Radial displacement solution comparison—associated (analytical

values = lines; numerical values = crosses).
Figure 7: Radial displacement solution comparison—nonassociated (analytical

values = lines; numerical values = crosses).
FLAC3D 6.0
The average relative error on the stresses and displacements is less than 2.1%
(except 4.6% for displacements for the nonassociated model) throughout the
grid. (Note that the error could be reduced by more appropriate handling of the
far field conditions using, for example, the Lamé solution for a thick ring.)
Displacement contours and displacement vectors for the associated case are
presented in Figure 8, as an illustration.
Figure 8: FLAC3D displacement contours and displacement vectors—associated.
The file “associated.f3dat” used to generate the associated case is shown below,
“non-associated.f3dat” is different only in the displacement value assigned and
can be found in the project. (The dilatation angle is 30° in the associated case.)
The file “associated-nmd.f3dat” (shown below) and “non-associated-
nmd.f3dat” generate the same two cases, but using FLAC3D’s nodal mixed
discretization (NMD) feature. For the NMD models, an all-tet grid is used
(“nmd.f3grid”, which is imported into FLAC3D and is generated using the
“create-tet-mesh.f3dat” file).
The file “sale.f3dat” compares the numerical solutions to the analytical solution
using FISH functions:
FLAC3D 6.0
1. nastr calculates (i) numerical and corresponding analytical values

of and at the centroid of zones closest to the
-axis; and (ii) average relative error of and
throughout the grid.
2. nadis calculates (i) numerical and analytical values of at

gridpoints located on the -axis; and (ii) the average relative
error of the displacement throughout the grid.
The resulting errors are within 2.1% of the analytical solution for stresses and
displacements for both associated and nonassociated flow rules. Figure 9 through
Figure 12 show the NMD results and correspond directly with Figure 4 through
Figure 8 (results with an all-hex grid). As can be seen, the results are very
similar.
Figure 9: NMD stress solution comparison—associated (analytical values = lines;

FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 10: NMD stress solution comparison—nonassociated (analytical values =

lines; numerical values = crosses).
Figure 11: NMD radial displacement solution comparison—associated

(analytical values = lines; numerical values = crosses).
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 12: NMD radial displacement solution comparison—nonassociated

(analytical values = lines; numerical values = crosses).
Figure 13: NMD FLAC3D displacement contours and displacement

vectors—associated.
FLAC3D 6.0
Reference
Salençon, J. “Contraction Quasi-Statique D’une Cavite a Symetrie Spherique Ou
Cylindrique Dans Un Milieu Elastoplastique,” Annales Des Ponts Et Chaussees, 4,
231-236 (1969).
Data File
associated.f3dat
;---------------------------------------------------------------------
; numerical solution for a long tunnel in pre-stressed
; Mohr Coulomb material (salencon problem)
; associated and non-associated plastic flow
;---------------------------------------------------------------------
model new
; Create zones
zone create radial-cylinder size 1 1 30 30 rat 1 1 1 1.1 ...
point 1 10 0 0 point 2 0 0.2 0 ...
point 3 0 0 10 dim 1 1 1 1
zone property bul 3.9e9 shea 2.8e9 cohesion 3.45e6
zone property friction 30. dilation 30. tension 1.e10 ; associated flow
; Initialize stress
; Apply boundary conditions
zone face apply velocity-normal 0.0 range union position-x 0 position-z 0
zone face apply velocity-normal 0.0 range union position-y 0 position-y 0.2
zone face apply stress-normal -30e6 range union position-x 10 position-z 10
; Take some histories
zone history displacement-x position 1 0 0
zone history velocity-x position 1 0 0
zone history unbalanced-force-y position 1 0 0
zone history unbalanced-force-z position 1 0 0
history interval 20
; Solve
; Save the model
model save 'associated'
return
FLAC3D 6.0
Cylindrical Hole in an Infinite Hoek-Brown Medium 301
Cylindrical Hole in an Infinite Hoek-Brown

Medium
Problem Statement
Stresses and displacements are calculated for the case of a cylindrical hole in an
infinite Hoek-Brown medium subjected to an in-situ stress field and supported
by an internal pressure. Consider a cylindrical hole with a radius = 2 m, created
within an infinite body under a uniform compressive stress of magnitude = 30
MPa. Support is provided by an internal pressure of = 5 MPa.
The body has three material properties:

density ( ) 2000 kg/m3
Values of the Hoek-Brown strength properties for the rock are
1.7
0.0039
0.5
30 MPa
The analytical solution for this problem is provided by Carranza-Torres and
Fairhurst (1999) for both associated plastic flow and nonassociated plastic flow
(with zero dilation). In this verification exercise, only the case for nonassociated
flow is presented.
The scaled far-field stresses, , and scaled internal pressure, , are determined
by the following two equations:
FLAC3D 6.0
The scaled critical internal pressure, , at which the elastic limit of the stress
state is reached, is calculated as
The critical internal pressure, , is then
A plastic region develops uniformly around the hole because . The extent
of the failure zone is
(1)
The solution for the radial stress, , and tangential stress, , in the plastic
region, , is as follows:
The solution for the stress state in the elastic region, , is
For the case of nonassociated flow with zero dilation, the radial displacement in
the plastic region is
FLAC3D 6.0
where: = ;
= ;
= ;
= ;
= ; and
= .
is the dilation angle; is shear modulus; is Poisson’s ratio.
FLAC3D Model
The FLAC3D model created for this problem is a plane-strain model with the
plane of analysis oriented normal to the axis of the hole. Only a quarter of the
problem needs to be analyzed, because of symmetry. The grid is shown in Figure
1. As the figure indicates, it is a radially symmetric mesh with increasing zone
size away from the hole. The grid contains 3600 zones, and the boundary is
located at 20 radii from the center of the hole. The constitutive model used for
the simulation is the Hoek-Brown-PAC model.
Figure 1: FLAC3D zone geometry for the plane-strain model.
FLAC3D 6.0

The analytical solution for radial and tangential stresses and radial displacement
provided in the equations shown above is programmed in the FISH functions in
“check.f3dat”. The analytical results and FLAC3D results are then copied into
tables for comparison. Table 4 shows the input that is required for the FISH
functions to produce the analytical solutions and compare to FLAC3D results. The
stresses and displacement are compared along a radial path measured from the
center of the hole. The FISH variable radius_tunnel is the radius of the tunnel,
rb_max defines the length of the normalized path ( ), and defines
the number of measurement points along the path.
Table 4: Hoek Solution

Parameters
Parameter name Value

sig0 30e6
pi 5e6
sigci 30e6
mb 1.7
s 3.9e-3
G 2.2e9
nu 0.25
npts 100
rb_max 4.0
radius_tunnel 2.0
Figure 2 shows the radial and tangential stresses calculated by FLAC3D compared
to the analytical solution for , and . Figure 3 compares radial displacement,
. The agreement is very good in both comparisons.
A plot of the Hoek-Brown failure envelope is shown in Figure 4. Zone stresses

are shown on this plot and indicate the extent of the failed zone. Figure 5
displays the zone plasticity indicators, which also indicate the extent of the
failure region. This corresponds to the analytical solution of 3.2 m (1).
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 2: Comparison of and for the cylindrical hole in infinite Hoek-

Brown medium (along normalized path 1 < r/_radius_tunnel < 4).
Figure 3: Comparison of for the cylindrical hole in an infinite Hoek-Brown

medium (along the normalized path 1 < r/_radius_tunnel < 4).
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 4: Hoek-Brown failure envelope.
Figure 5: Plasticity indicators for Hoek-Brown model.
FLAC3D 6.0
References
Carranza-Torres, C., and C. Fairhurst. “The Elasto-plastic Response of
Underground Excavations in Rock Masses that Satisfy the Hoek-Brown Failure
Criterion,” Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci., 36, 777-809 (1999).
Hoek, E., and E. T. Brown. “Empirical Strength Criterion for Rock Masses,” J.
Geotech. Engng. Div. ASCE, 106, 1013-1035 (1980).
Hoek, E., and E. T. Brown. Underground Excavations in Rock. London: IMM (1982).
Hoek E., and E. T. Brown. “The Hoek-Brown Failure Criterion — A 1988 Update,”
in Rock Engineering for Underground Excavations (Proceedings of the 15th Canadian
Rock Mechanics Symposium, October 1988), pp. 31-38. Toronto: University of
Toronto, Department of Civil Engineering (1988).
Data File
CylinderInHoekBrownPAC.f3dat
model new
; Create zones
zone create cylindrical-shell point 0 (0,0,0) point 1 (40,0,0) ...
point 2 (0,0.2,0) point 3 (0,0,40) ...
dim 2 ratio 1.05 size 60 1 60
zone cmodel assign hoek-brown-pac
zone property bulk 3.66700006e9 shear 2.2e9 constant-s 0.0039 ...
constant-mb 1.7 constant-sci 3.0e7 ...
constant-a 0.5 stress-confining-prescribed 0.0 density 2000
; Initialize stress field
; Name the model boundaries
zone face skin
; Apply boundary conditions
zone face apply stress-normal -3e7 range group 'East'
zone face apply stress-normal -5e6 range group 'West1'
zone face apply velocity-normal 0.0 range group 'Bottom' or 'West2'
zone face apply velocity-normal 0.0 range group 'South' or 'North'
; Solve the model
; Save the model
model save 'hoek'
FLAC3D 6.0
FLAC3D 6.0
Rough Strip Footing on a Cohesive Frictionless Material 309
Rough Strip Footing on a Cohesive Frictionless

Material
Problem Statement
The prediction of collapse loads under steady plastic-flow conditions can be
difficult for a numerical model to simulate accurately (Sloan and Randolph,
1982). As a two-dimensional example of a steady-flow problem, we consider the
determination of the bearing capacity of a strip footing on a cohesive frictionless
material (Tresca model). The value of the bearing capacity is obtained when
steady plastic flow has developed underneath the footing, providing a measure of
the ability of the code to model this condition.
The strip footing is located on an elasto-plastic material with the following

properties:

dilation angle ( ) 0°
The bearing capacity obtained as part of the solution to the “Prandtl’s wedge”
problem is given by Terzaghi and Peck (1967) as
in which q is the average footing pressure at failure, and c is the cohesion of the
material. The corresponding failure mechanism is illustrated in the figure below:
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 1: Prandtl mechanism for a strip footing.
FLAC3D Model
For this problem, half-symmetry and plane-strain conditions are assumed in the
numerical simulation. The domain used for the analysis is sketched in the next
figure, together with its dimensions.
Figure 2: Domain for FLAC3D simulation—half symmetry.
A system of coordinate axes is selected as indicated in the figure. The area

representing the strip footing has a half-width a, the far x-boundary is at a
distance of 20 m from the y-axis of symmetry, and the far z-boundary is located
10 m below the footing. The thickness of the domain is selected as 1 m.
The boundary conditions applied to this domain are sketched in the next figure.
The displacement of the rough footing is restricted in the y-direction, and a
velocity is applied to the model in the negative z-direction to simulate the
footing load. In the data file “PrandtlsWedge.f3dat”, the rightmost gridpoint of
the footing is free in the x-direction. This condition can be justified because the
FLAC3D 6.0
physical constraint exactly at the edge is ambiguous and can be chosen

arbitrarily. Releasing the constraint leads to a more uniform stress distribution
under the footing, but does not affect the limit load.
Figure 3: Boundary conditions for FLAC3D analysis—half symmetry.
The domain is discretized into one layer of 520 zones organized in a graded
pattern, as represented in Figure 4, with the grading arranged to increase
definition (zone limits) in the areas of high strain gradient. The area
representing the footing overlaps six zones, and a velocity of magnitude 0.5 ×
10-5 m/step is applied at the contact nodes for a total of 25,000 calculation steps.
When a velocity is applied to gridpoints to simulate a footing load, the average

footing pressure is found by assuming that the footing width is represented by a
velocity that varies from the value at the last gridpoint to zero at the next
gridpoint. The half-width, a, is then
where is the -location of the last applied gridpoint velocity, is the

-location of the gridpoint adjacent to , and accounts for the variation. If a
linear variation is assumed, then = 0.5, and = 3.5 m for this problem. The
effect of this assumption is discussed in Results And Discussion.
The FISH function load computes the numerical value of the normalized average
footing pressure, .
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 4: FLAC3D grid—vertical plane view.

The load-displacement curve corresponding to the numerical simulation is
presented in Figure 5, in which load is the normalized average footing pressure,
, and disp is the magnitude of the normalized vertical displacement, , at
the center of the footing. The numerical value of the bearing capacity, , is 523.0
kPa, and the relative error is 1.72% when compared to the analytical value of
514.2 kPa.
The apparent width of the footing is taken to be 3 m, plus half the zone width
adjacent to the footing edge (because forces are exerted on the footing by this
zone, it is assumed that the forces are divided equally between left and right
gridpoints).
Note that the error in the bearing capacity is related to the indeterminacy in the
apparent width of the footing. The mechanism illustrated in Figure 1 implies a
velocity singularity at the ends of the footing. In a numerical simulation, this
singularity is spread over the width of one zone. The apparent position of the
velocity jump within that zone depends on the exact geometry of the velocity
field that develops. In deriving , it is assumed that the jump occurs half a zone
width from the end of the controlled boundary segment ( = 0.5 in Figure 2);
FLAC3D 6.0
note that if a variation factor of = 0.63 is assumed, the error reduces to less
than 0.1%. For finer grids, the indeterminacy in footing width decreases, and the
match to the exact solution improves.
Figure 5: Load-displacement curve.
Velocity contours and velocity vectors at the end of the run are presented in
Figure 6, showing good agreement with the mechanism in Figure 1.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 6: Velocity field at collapse load.
The same problem was run again using FLAC3D’s nodal mixed discretization
(NMD) feature (file “nmd.f3dat”). For this model, an all-tet grid (file
“nmd.f3grid”, which is generated using the file “create-tet-mesh.f3dat”) was
used. The tet grid has gridpoints identical to the hex grid. With NMD, the
numerical value of the bearing capacity, , is 524.1 kPa, and the relative error is
1.9% when compared to the analytical value of 514.2 kPa. As stated previously,
the error in the bearing capacity is related to the indeterminacy in the apparent
width of the footing. Figure 7 and Figure 8 show the NMD results, and
correspond directly with Figure 5 and Figure 6 (results with an all-hex grid). As
can be seen, the results are very similar.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 7: Load-displacement curve (NMD results).
Figure 8: Velocity field at collapse load (NMD results).
FLAC3D 6.0
References
Sloan, S. W., and M. F. Randolph. “Numerical Prediction of Collapse Loads Using
Finite Element Methods,” Int. J. Num. & Analy. Methods in Geomech., 6, 47-76
(1982).
Terzaghi, K., and R. B. Peck. Soil Mechanics in Engineering Practice, 2nd Ed. New
York: John Wiley and Sons (1967).
break
FLAC3D 6.0
Data File
PrandtlsWedge.f3dat
;---------------------------------------------------------------------
; 2D rough strip footing on Tresca material (Prandtl's wedge problem)
; -associated plastic flow-
;---------------------------------------------------------------------
model new
; Create zones
zone create brick size 6 1 20 point 1 (3.0,0.0,0.0) ...
point 3 (0.0,0.0,10.0) ...
ratio 0.9 1.0 0.97
zone create brick size 20 1 20 point 0 (3.0,0.0,0.0) ...
point 1 (20.0,0.0,0.0) ...
point 3 (3.0,0.0,10.0) ...
ratio 1.08 1.0 0.97
zone property bulk 2.e8 shear 1.e8 cohesion 1.e5
zone property friction 0. dilation 0. tension 1.e10
; Assign group name to footing surface
zone face group 'Footing' range position-x 0 3 position-z 10
; Boundary Conditions
zone face apply velocity-normal 0.0 range position-x 0
zone face apply velocity-normal 0.0 range union position-y 0 position-y 1
zone face apply velocity (0,0,0) range union position-x 20 position-z 0
zone gridpoint fix velocity (0,0,-0.5e-5) range position-x 0 3 position-z 10
zone gridpoint free velocity-x range position-x 3 position-z 10
; Call FISH function that monitors footing load
call 'footing-load'
@setup('Footing')
fish history @load
fish history @solution
fish history @disp
; Cycle
model cycle 25000
; Save the model
model save 'pran'
return
FLAC3D 6.0
FLAC3D 6.0
Smooth Circular Footing on an Associated Mohr-Coulomb Material 319
Smooth Circular Footing on an Associated Mohr-

Coulomb Material
Problem Statement
The bearing capacity of a smooth circular footing on a Mohr-Coulomb medium is
determined numerically in this section. The footing, represented by a circle of
radius , is located on an associated material with the following properties:

Semi-Analytical Solution
Cox et al. (1961) have numerically solved the slip-line equations for this
axisymmetric-footing problem. The semi-analytical value of the average
pressure over the footing at failure for a friction angle of 20° is found to be
in which q is the bearing capacity and c is the cohesion of the material. The
corresponding slip-line net, as referenced in Chen (1975), is sketched in Figure 1.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 1: Cox slip-line net for a smooth circular footing = 20°.
FLAC3D Model
Quarter symmetry is taken into consideration for this problem as a means to
illustrate the three-dimensional modeling capabilities of FLAC3D. The domain
used for the numerical simulation is the quarter cylinder sketched in Figure 2. A
system of coordinate axes is selected with the x- and y-axes in the plane of the
cylinder upper-base, and the z-axis pointing upward along the cylinder axis. The
slab is represented by a disk segment with radius a. The radius of the domain is
15 m, and its height is 10 m.
FLAC3D 6.0
The boundary conditions applied to this domain are sketched in Figure 3. The
displacement of the symmetry boundaries at x = 0 and y = 0 is restricted in the
x- and y-directions, respectively. The displacement of the circular boundary, and
that of the cylinder base, is restricted in all directions. A downward velocity is
applied to the gridpoints representing the extent of the footing in the negative
z-direction.
FLAC3D 6.0
The domain is discretized into a regular radial pattern of 2000 zones, as

represented in Figure 4. The radius, a, representing the footing, extends four
rings of zones in the radial direction, over which the velocity is applied, plus half
the distance to the gridpoints adjacent to the last gridpoints with applied
velocity. The footing radius that corresponds to the gridpoints with applied
velocity is then a = 3.165 m. A velocity of magnitude 2.0 × 10-5 m/step is applied
at the footing nodes for a total of 9600 timesteps.
The FISH function load contained in file “footing-load.f3dat” computes the

numerical value of the normalized average footing pressure, p/c.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 4: FLAC3D grid.

p/c, anaval is the analytical value of the normalized bearing capacity, q/c, and
disp is the normalized vertical displacement, u_z/a. The numerical value of the
bearing capacity, q, is 2028 kPa, and the relative error is 0.4% when compared to
the analytical value of 2010 kPa.
FLAC3D 6.0
Velocity contours and velocity vectors at the end of the run on a radial plane are
presented in Figure 6, showing good agreement with the mechanism in Figure 1.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 6: Velocity field at collapse load.
References
Chen, W.-F. “Bearing Capacity of Square, Rectangular and Circular Footings,” in
Limit Analysis and Soil Plasticity, Developments in Geotechnical Engineering 7, Ch. 7,
pp. 295-340, New York: Elsevier Scientific Publishing Co. (1975).
Cox, A. D., G. Eason and H. G. Hopkins. “Axially Symmetric Plastic Deformation

in Soils,” Phys. Trans. Royal Soc. London, Series A, 254(1036), 1-45 (1961).
Data File
CircularFooting.f3dat
;---------------------------------------------------------------------
; circular smooth slab on Mohr-Coulomb material (Cox problem)
;---------------------------------------------------------------------
model new
; Create zones
zone create cylindrical-shell point 0 (0,0,0) point 1 (0,15,0) ...
point 2 (0,0,15) point 3 (15,0,0) ...
point 4 (0,15,15) point 5 (15,0,15) ...
point 8 (0,3,0) point 9 (3,0,0) ...
FLAC3D 6.0
point 10 (0,3,15) point 11 (3,0,15) ...

size 16 12 10 5 ratio 1.1 0.8 1 0.75 ...
fill group 'inner'
zone property bul 2.e8 shea 1.e8 cohesion 1.e5
; Name surfaces
zone face skin
zone face group 'slab' range group 'inner' group 'Top'
; Boundary Conditions
zone face apply velocity-normal -2e-5 range group 'slab'
zone face apply velocity-normal 0.0 range group 'South'
zone face apply velocity-normal 0.0 range group 'West'
zone face apply velocity (0,0,0) range group 'East' or 'North' or 'Bottom'
; Call FISH function that calculates footing load
call 'footing-load'
history interval 50
fish history @load
fish history @anaval
fish history @disp
; Cycle till stable velocity field
model cycle 9600
; Save the model
model save 'cox'
list @load
list @anaval
list @err
FLAC3D 6.0
Smooth Square Footing on a Cohesive Frictionless Material 327
Smooth Square Footing on a Cohesive

Frictionless Material
Problem Statement
This problem is concerned with the numerical determination of the bearing
capacity of a smooth rectangular footing on a cohesive frictionless material
(Tresca model).
The footing of width 2a and length 2b is located on an elasto-plastic Tresca

material with the following properties:

Upper- and Lower-Bound Solutions

The problem is truly three-dimensional and, although no exact solution is
available, upper and lower bounds for the bearing capacity, , defined as the
average footing pressure at failure, have been derived using limit analysis (see,
for example, Chen 1975). The upper bound, , obtained using the failure
mechanism of Shield and Drucker (1953), has the form
(1)
in which c is the cohesion of the material. The lower bound, , which

corresponds to the bearing capacity of a strip footing, has the value
FLAC3D 6.0
FLAC3D Model
In the numerical example, the footing is square and represented by an area with
half-width a (and b = a). Advantage is taken of quarter symmetry, and a
parallelepiped domain of 15 m × 15 m × 10 m (as sketched in the figure below) is
used in the numerical simulation. The system of coordinate axes is selected with
the x- and y-axes in the horizontal plane of the footing, and the -axis pointing
upward in the vertical direction.
The boundary conditions applied to this domain are sketched below:
FLAC3D 6.0
The displacements of the far x-, y-, and z-boundaries are restricted in all
directions, and the displacements of the symmetry boundaries corresponding to
the planes at x = 0 and y = 0 are restricted in the x- and y-directions,
respectively. The slab is smooth: displacements are free in the x- and
y-directions and a velocity is applied in the negative z-direction to gridpoints
within a 3 m × 3 m area to simulate loading of the footing.
The domain is discretized into 1000 zones. The area representing the footing
covers a total of 3 × 3 zones. For an applied velocity loading, the bearing area is
assumed to extend to half the distance between the last applied gridpoint and the
next gridpoint. In this model, then, a = 3.5 m and b = 3.5 m.
The zone dimensions are graded outside the footing area according to a
geometrical progression with factor 1.2 in the x-, y-, and z-directions using the
Building Blocks pane (see Figure 3). The resulting commands were exported using
the State pane into the data file “geometry.f3dat”. A velocity of magnitude 2.5 ×
10-5 m/step is applied at the nodes within the footing area for a total of 7500
steps.
The FISH function load found in the file “footing-load.f3dat” computes the
normalized average footing pressure, , and the corresponding relative
difference with the theoretical normalized upper-bound value, (equation (1)
above).
Figure 3: FLAC3D Building Blocks results—quarter symmetry.
FLAC3D 6.0

p/c; upper and lower are the normalized upper and lower bound value for the
bearing capacity, and disp is the normalized vertical displacement, , at the
center of the footing. The numerical value of the bearing capacity is 526 kPa.
This value is sandwiched between the theoretical upper-bound value of 571 kPa
and lower-bound value of 514 kPa. The velocity field at the end of the numerical
simulation is illustrated in Figure 5.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 5: FLAC3D contour plot of the velocity field and velocity vectors.
The same problem was run again using FLAC3D’s nodal mixed discretization
(NMD) feature (file “nmd.f3dat”). For this model, an all-tet grid was generating
using the file “create-tet-mesh.f3dat”. Figure 6 and Figure 7 show the NMD
results and correspond directly with Figure 4 and Figure 5 (results with an all-
hex grid). As can be seen, the results are very similar.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 6: Load-displacement curve (NMD results).
Figure 7: FLAC3D contour plot of the velocity field and velocity vectors (NMD
results).
FLAC3D 6.0
References
Chen, W.-F. “Bearing Capacity of Square, Rectangular and Circular Footings,” in
Limit Analysis and Soil Plasticity, Developments in Geotechnical Engineering 7, Ch. 7,
pp. 295-340, New York: Elsevier Scientific Publishing Co. (1975).
Shield, R. T., and D. C. Drucker. “The Application of Limit Analysis to Punch-

Indentation Problems,” J. Appl. Mech., 20, 453-460 (1953).
break
FLAC3D 6.0
Data File
SquareFooting.f3dat
;---------------------------------------------------------------------
; Smooth square footing on Tresca material
;---------------------------------------------------------------------
model new
; Initialize parameters
[global a = 3] ; Size of footing in x and y
[global b = 3]
; load building block template geometry.f3dat created interactively
call 'geometry'
; Make footing the size in the parameters, and create zones
building-blocks point move-to x @a range group 'x'
building-blocks point move-to y @b range group 'y'
; Assign constitutive models and properties
zone property bulk 2.e8 shear 1.e8 cohesion 1.e5
zone face apply velocity-normal -2.5e-5 range group 'Footing'
zone face apply velocity-normal 0.0 range position-x 0
zone face apply velocity-normal 0.0 range position-y 0
zone face apply velocity (0,0,0) ...
range union position-x 15 position-y 15 position-z 0
; Call FISH that calculates footing load
call 'footing-load'
; take some histories
history interval 50
fish history @load
fish history @upper
fish history @lower
fish history @disp
; Cycle till velocities stabilize
model cycle 7500
list @lower @load @upper
list @errlo
; Save the model
model save 'sslab'
return
FLAC3D 6.0
Uniaxial Compressive Strength of a Jointed Material Sample 335
Uniaxial Compressive Strength of a Jointed

Material Sample
Problem Statement
The uniaxial compressive strength of a cylindrical sample of material is
evaluated numerically using the ubiquitous-joint model. This model takes into
consideration a direction of weakness (ubiquitous-joint) in a Mohr-Coulomb
material on which shear failure can be initiated. The compressive strength of the
sample is a function of the material and joint properties, as well as the angle, ,
formed by the direction of the compressive stress and its projection onto the
plane of weakness (see Figure 1).
In this example, the sample is selected as a cylinder with radius, a, and height, b,
such that = 4. The Mohr-Coulomb material has the following properties:
shear modulus ( ) 70 MPa

bulk modulus ( ) 100 MPa
cohesion ( ) 2 kPa
tension limit ( ) 2.4 kPa
The ubiquitous-joint properties include the following:
cohesion ( ) 2 kPa
tension limit ( ) 2.4 kPa
Analytical Prediction
As a definition, let
FLAC3D 6.0
in which is the weak-plane angle, as indicated in Figure 1. Before failure

occurs, the state of stress is homogeneous in the sample. Failure will be initiated
on the weak plane when, for 0,
provided the value of the compressive strength (tension positive) does not
violate the Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion,
in which
If this criterion is violated, or if 0, failure will occur in the matrix instead, on

planes inclined at an angle of with respect to the axis of symmetry of
the sample. See Jaeger and Cook (1979) for details.
Figure 1: Problem geometry.
FLAC3D 6.0
FLAC3D Model
For the numerical simulation, a cylinder with a radius of 1 m and height of 4 m is
selected. A system of reference axes with the x- and z-axes located in the base of
the cylinder and the y-axis pointing along the cylinder axis is selected. This
domain is discretized into 48 zones organized in a radial pattern (see Figure 2). A
uniform velocity is applied in the y-direction at both ends of the cylinder to
induce compression of the sample.
The effect of the variation of has been studied every five degrees from 0° to
90°. The input file uses a FISH function (solveAll) to calculate the compressive
strength at each value. A zone delete command is issued prior to each
calculation at a different . This deletes all zones to effectively reset the model.
The final vertical stress calculated with FISH function sigmav is added to a table at
the end of each run. This approach allows us to save the whole parametric
analysis in one file.
After initiation of the failure mechanism, the state of stress in the sample
becomes nonuniform. To better control the deformation of the system, the
magnitude of the velocities at the top and bottom of the sample are monitored
and adapted as a function of the unbalanced force value (servo-control). The
servo keyword used in the zone face apply command controls the magnitude of
the applied velocity. Cycling continues until an accumulated displacement of
4.5e-4 is reached (using the FISH function halt), indicating enough total strain to
cause failure at all angles.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 2: FLAC3D grid—uniaxial compressive strength test.

Figure 3 compares results of the FLAC3D runs with the analytical compressive
strength predictions. The match is satisfactory, with a relative error smaller than
2% for all values of .
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 3: Compressive strength comparison.
Reference
Jaeger, J. C., and N. G. W. Cook. Fundamentals of Rock Mechanics, 3rd Ed. New
York: Chapman and Hall (1979).
Data Files
UniaxialStrengthJointed.f3dat
;---------------------------------------------------------------------
; compression test of cylindrical sample using
; ubiquitous joint model
;---------------------------------------------------------------------
model new
; Create the Extruder data, generated interactively
; and exported from the State Record
call 'geometry' ; Includes 'top' and 'bottom' group assignments
; Load FISH functions used to support -
; the strength calculation and the halt function
call 'fish-support.f3fis'
; The main function that
fish define solveAll
loop local beta (0,90,5) ; Check angles from 0-90 in 5 degree increments
FLAC3D 6.0
command
zone delete ; Remove all existing zones
zone generate from-extruder ; Generate new zones from extruder
zone cmodel assign ubiquitous-joint ; Assign model and properties
zone property bulk 1.e8 shea 7.e7 cohesion 2.e3
zone property friction 40. dilation 0. tension 2400.
zone property dip @beta dip-direction 0. joint-cohesion 1.e3
zone property joint-friction 30. joint-dilation 0. ...
joint-tension 2000.
; Assign boundary conditions
zone face apply velocity-normal -5e-7 servo ...
ratio local minimum 1e-4 range group 'Top' or 'Bottom'
; Cycle till the target strain is reached
model solve fish-halt @halt
; Add results to table
table 'result' add (@beta,@sigmav)
end_command
end_loop
end
; Run all 18 cases
@solveAll
; Save the last state, and the accumulated table
model save 'final'
return
fish-support.f3fis
; Function that calculates final strength

fish define sigmav
local sum = 0.
loop foreach local gp gp.list
if gp.isgroup(gp,'bottom') then
sum = sum - gp.force.unbal.y(gp)
endif
endloop
sigmav = sum / 3
end
; Function that determines if solving should stop
fish define halt
global gpHalt = gp.near(0,0,0)
halt = gp.disp.y(gpHalt ) > 4.5e-4
end
FLAC3D 6.0
Drained and Undrained Triaxial Compression Test on a Cam-Clay Sample 341
Drained and Undrained Triaxial Compression

Test on a Cam-Clay Sample
Problem Statement
Conventional drained and undrained triaxial compression tests on Cam-clay soil
samples are modeled using FLAC3D. The stresses and specific volume at the
critical state are compared with analytical predictions. The responses of both a
lightly (LOC) and a heavily (HOC) over-consolidated specimen are considered.
This set of problems tests the prediction accuracy of the modified Cam-clay
model in FLAC3D.
The model of the sample is a cube with unit dimensions. The sample is made of a
Cam-clay material with several properties:
shear modulus ( ) 250

soil constant ( ) 1.02
slope of normal consolidation line ( ) 0.2
slope of elastic swelling line ( ) 0.05
reference pressure ( ) 1 kPa
pre-consolidation pressure ( ) 8 and 40
specific volume at reference pressure on normal consolidation 3.32
line ( )
Initially, the sample is in a state of isotropic compression corresponding to

and zero excess pore pressure ( ). The pre-consolidation pressure
has magnitude 8 × in the lightly over-consolidated case, and 40 × in the
heavily over-consolidated case. These cases correspond to an over-consolidation
ratio of 1.6 and 8, respectively. The shear modulus is assumed to
remain constant during the test carried out with constant confining pressure
and simulated strain-controlled platens. Drained and undrained tests are
considered. Refer to Wood (1990) for a detailed discussion on the Cam-clay
plasticity theory.
FLAC3D 6.0
Closed-Form Solutions
The mean pressure and deviator stress in a conventional triaxial test can be
expressed as
where is the axial stress and is the cell pressure.
Since the cell pressure is kept constant during the test, the total stress path in
the plane is constrained by the relation
With initial conditions of the form , = 0, obtained upon integration is
(1)
In a drained test, no excess pore pressure is generated, the effective and the total
stress paths coincide, and we may write
This stress path is represented in the figure below. The dashed line in the figure
is the critical state line.
In an undrained test, when the fluid bulk modulus is much larger than that of
the soil (incompressible fluid), the specific volume remains constant, equal to
the initial value , and it may be shown that the effective stress path is also
well-defined.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 1: Effective stress paths.
Consider the case of an over-consolidated sample. Referring to (b) in the above

figure, as long as the stress state lies inside the first yield surface, the path
corresponds to the straight line,
When plastic deformation takes place, the shape of the effective stress path is
given by (Wood, 1990, p. 127)
(2)
where , , and and define the effective stress state at

impending yield, indicated as point in (b) in the figure above.
Note that, under undrained conditions, the yield path is defined by an equation of
the form shown in equation (2) for any boundary condition (i.e., not only under
triaxial compression conditions).
FLAC3D 6.0
Intersection of the yield curve through with the straight path gives
(using that )
After substitution of those expressions in equation (2), we obtain
(3)
Figure 2: Critical state.
As the test proceeds, the path converges toward the critical state represented by
the point at the intersection with the critical state line in the
plane (see both figures above). The normal to the yield surface at the
critical point is parallel to the -axis. Because the plastic flow rule is associated,
no more plastic volumetric strain can take place. Hence, no softening or
hardening of the yield surface can occur; the ultimate yield surface corresponds
to a value of , which is larger than for a LOC sample, and smaller than
for a HOC sample. Unlimited plastic shear strains can develop at constant
stresses, and also constant critical specific volume .
In the drained case, the critical state is defined as
FLAC3D 6.0
where the value corresponds to the specific volume at on the elastic

swelling line through . In this case, the critical state of a specific
material depends only on the initial mean pressure and is not affected by the
pre-consolidation pressure.
In the undrained case, the intersection of the stress path represented by equation
(3) with the critical state line yields (assuming that remains constant)
where is the initial specific volume.
The excess pore pressure is given by
Using equation (1) for the total pressure, we obtain
And, at the critical state,
FLAC3D Models
The numerical tests are carried out using one single zone with unit dimensions.
The grid is fixed in the -direction, and a velocity boundary condition applied at
the top of the model. An initial isotropic compressive stress of 5 × is
prescribed, and a constant lateral confining pressure is imposed in the
x- and y-directions. To run the undrained examples, the fluid configuration is
selected and flow calculations are turned off.
The initial specific volume is calculated internally (default value) to correspond

with the value on the swelling line at the pre-consolidation pressure and
mean pressure :
FLAC3D 6.0
The bulk modulus, , is initialized by the code to the value
The maximum value of the tangent bulk modulus is set to 800 × .
A total of 10,000 cycles with a velocity magnitude of 0.5 × 10 -4 m/sec was used in
the drained examples. For the undrained tests, a compressive velocity of
magnitude 0.5 × 10-6 m/sec is applied for the first 20 out of every 40 steps at the
top of the model, and to zero for the remaining 20 steps. A total of 40,000 cycles
are used. Biot modulus is set to 2 × 104 × (a large value compared to the
initial value of the bulk modulus, which is of the order 10 2 × ). (The porosity n
is derived from the specific volume using ).) The mean pressure,
deviator stress, specific volume, and, in the undrained case, pore pressure are
monitored as they converge to the critical state.
FLAC3D Results and Discussion

Numerical values for , , , and at the end of the simulation are compared
with the analytical predictions. The results, presented in Table 2 and Table 3,
indicate relative errors of less than 2%.
Table 2: Drained Case
R = 1.6 R=8 Analytical

7.573 7.583 7.576
7.718 7.747 7.727
2.811 2.811 2.811
Table 3: Undrained Case
R = 1.6 R=8
Numerical Analytical Numerical Analytical
4.234 4.229 14.05 14.14
4.312 4.314 14.42 14.43
2.927 2.928 2.687 2.686
2.203 2.209 -4.241 -4.334
FLAC3D 6.0
The diagrams and for the different tests are presented in Figure 3
to Figure 10. The responses of the lightly and heavily over-consolidated samples
on their way to the critical state are in agreement with those predicted by the
theory.
As the drained test progresses, the lightly over-consolidated sample shows a

steady increase in deviator stress , and a steady decrease in specific volume. The
heavily over-consolidated sample shows a rise in deviator stress to a peak
followed by a drop, and an initial decrease in volume followed by volumetric
expansion (see Figure 11 through Figure 14). The principal feature of the
undrained tests is the contrast between the steady increase of pore pressure in
the lightly over-consolidated sample, and the initial increase followed by a
steady decrease of pore pressure in the heavily over-consolidated soil (see Figure
15 and Figure 16).
The data files “drained.f3dat” and “undrained.f3dat” were used to carry out the
drained and undrained numerical tests. The file “TriaxialCompressionTest.f3dat”
was used to set the property mpc to the values 8 and 40 to treat the lightly and
heavily over-consolidated cases, respectively. FISH functions are used to apply
the velocity boundary conditions and evaluate the relative error made at the end
of the simulation.
Figure 3: Stress path for R = 1.6—drained test.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 4: Diagram ( ) for R = 1.6—drained test.
Figure 5: Stress path for R = 8—drained test.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 6: Diagram for ( ) for R = 8—drained test.
Figure 7: Stress path for R = 1.6—undrained test.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 8: Diagram for ( ) for R = 1.6—undrained test.
Figure 9: Stress path for R = 8—undrained test.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 10: Diagram for ( ) for R = 8—undrained test.
Figure 11: Evolution of deviator stress with axial strain for R = 1.6—drained test.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 12: Evolution of specific volume with axial strain for R = 1.6—drained
test.
Figure 13: Evolution of deviator stress with axial strain for R = 8—drained test.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 14: Evolution of specific volume with axial strain for R = 8—drained test.
Figure 15: Evolution of pore pressure with axial strain for R = 1.6—undrained
test.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 16: Evolution of pore pressure with axial strain for R = 8—undrained test.
References
Wood, D. M. Soil Behaviour and Critical State Soil Mechanics. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press (1990).
Data Files
TriaxialCompressionTest.f3dat
; Primary driver for the cam-clay verification problem

;
model new
[global pre_pres = 8]
model title "Drained triaxial compression test R = 1.6"
call 'drained'
model save 'draineda'
;
model new
model title "Drained triaxial compression test R = 8.0"
call 'drained'
model save 'drainedb'
FLAC3D 6.0
;
model new
model title "Undrained triaxial compression test R = 1.6"
call 'undrained'
model save 'undraineda'
;
model new
model title "Undrained triaxial compression test R = 8.0"
call 'undrained'
model save 'undrainedb'
return
drained.f3dat
;------------------------------------------------------------
; Drained triaxial compression test on Cam-clay sample
;------------------------------------------------------------
zone create brick size 1 1 1
; --- model properties ---
zone property shear 250. bulk-maximum 800.
zone property pressure-preconsolidation @pre_pres pressure-reference 1. ...
zone gridpoint fix velocity-z
zone face apply stress-xx -5. range union position-x 0 position-x 1
zone face apply stress-yy -5. range union position-y 0 position-y 1
zone initialize stress xx -5. yy -5. zz -5.
; FISH to initialize effective pressure property
; This is overkill for a one zone problem, but an example for a larger one.
fish define initialize
loop foreach local zone zone.list
zone.prop(zone,'pressure-effective') = ...
-tensor.trace(zone.stress(zone))/3.0 - zone.pp(zone)
endloop
end
@initialize
; ... velocity boundary conditions ...
zone gridpoint initialize velocity-z -0.5e-4 range position-z 1.0
; Set up global FISH functions,
; to take histories of values derived from properties
fish define lnp ; Natural log of pressure-effective
local sp = zone.prop(zone.find(1),'pressure-effective')
if sp == 0 then
sp = 1
endif
FLAC3D 6.0
lnp = math.ln(sp)
end
fish define sqcr ; pressure-effective * ratio-critical-state
local zone = zone.find(1)
sqcr = zone.prop(zone,'pressure-effective') * ...
zone.prop(zone,'ratio-critical-state')
end
; --- histories ---
history interval 40
zone history name 'sp' property name 'pressure-effective' zone 1
fish history name 'lnp' @lnp
zone history name 'sq' property name 'stress-deviatoric' zone 1
fish history name 'sqcr' @sqcr
zone history name 'sv' property name 'specific-volume' zone 1
; Store starting values of some properties -
; used later for analytical comparison
[global pr0 = zone.prop(zone.find(1),'pressure-reference')]
[global ratio0 = zone.prop(zone.find(1),'ratio-critical-state')]
[global sv0 = zone.prop(zone.find(1),'specific-volume-reference')]
[global lambda0 = zone.prop(zone.find(1),'lambda')]
[global kappa0 = zone.prop(zone.find(1),'kappa')]
; --- test ---
model cycle 10000
return
undrained.f3dat
;------------------------------------------------------------
; Undrained triaxial compression test on Cam-clay sample
;------------------------------------------------------------
model config fluid
zone create brick size 1 1 1
; --- mechanical properties ---
zone property shear 250. bulk-maximum 800.
zone property pressure-preconsolidation @pre_pres pressure-reference 1. ...
zone gridpoint fix velocity-z
zone face apply stress-xx -5. range union position-x 0 position-x 1
zone face apply stress-yy -5. range union position-y 0 position-y 1
zone initialize stress xx -5. yy -5. zz -5.
; FISH to initialize effective pressure property
; This is overkill for a one zone problem, but an example for a larger one.
fish define initialize
loop foreach local zone zone.list
zone.prop(zone,'pressure-effective') = ...
-tensor.trace(zone.stress(zone))/3.0 - zone.pp(zone)
endloop
FLAC3D 6.0
end
@initialize
; --- fluid properties ---
zone fluid biot on
; --- fish functions ---
; ... velocity boundary conditions ...
fish define cycle ; 20 steps on, 20 steps off
cycle = 1.0 - float(((global.step-1) / 20) % 2)
end
zone face apply velocity-z -0.5e-6 fish @cycle range position-z 1.0
; Set up global FISH functions,
; to take histories of values derived from properties
fish define lnp ; Natural log of pressure-effective
local sp = zone.prop(zone.find(1),'pressure-effective')
if sp == 0 then
sp = 1
endif
lnp = math.ln(sp)
end
fish define sqcr ; pressure-effective * ratio-critical-state
local zone = zone.find(1)
sqcr = zone.prop(zone,'pressure-effective') * ...
zone.prop(zone,'ratio-critical-state')
end
; --- histories ---
zone history name 'sp' property name 'pressure-effective' zone 1
fish history name 'lnp' @lnp
zone history name 'sq' property name 'stress-deviatoric' zone 1
fish history name 'sqcr' @sqcr
zone history name 'sv' property name 'specific-volume' zone 1
zone history name 'p_fl' pore-pressure zone 1
; --- test ---
model cycle 1
fish define bi ; Initialize BIOT modulus
global v0 = zone.prop(zone.find(1),'specific-volume')
local n0 = (v0 - 1.) / v0
bi = 2.e4 / n0
end
zone gridpoint initialize biot @bi
; Store starting values of some properties -
; used later for analytical comparison
[global pp0 = zone.prop(zone.find(1),'pressure-preconsolidation')]
[global kappa0 = zone.prop(zone.find(1),'kappa')]
[global lambda0 = zone.prop(zone.find(1),'lambda')]
[global ratio0 = zone.prop(zone.find(1),'ratio-critical-state')]
; Solve
model cycle 400000
FLAC3D 6.0
FLAC3D 6.0
Lined Circular Tunnel in an Elastic Medium with Anisotropic Stresses 359
Lined Circular Tunnel in an Elastic Medium with

Anisotropic Stresses
Problem Statement
A circular tunnel with a radius of 5 m is located at 30 m depth in a soft elastic
soil ( = 48 MPa, = 0.34, = 2000 kg/m3). The in-situ stresses are 600 kPa
vertical and 300 kPa horizontal. The tunnel is supported by a 125 mm thick
shotcrete liner ( , ). We assume that the support is installed
simultaneously with the excavation in a preexisting anisotropic biaxial stress
field. The support displacements and internal stresses (in terms of axial thrust
and moment), and the interface contact stresses are computed under plane-
strain conditions for the two limiting conditions of no-slip (no relative shear
displacement) and full-slip (no shear stress transmission) at the ground-support
interface. These computed values are compared with the analytical solution of
Einstein and Schwartz (1979).
Analytical Solution
The analytical solution (Einstein and Schwartz 1979) is expressed using the
notation in Figure 1. The support displacements consist of a radial, , and a
tangential, , component. The internal stresses consist of an axial thrust, , and
a bending moment, . The interface contact stresses consist of a normal, ,
and a shear, , component.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 1: Notation for analytical solution: (a) ground medium; (b) tunnel liner;
and (c) positive sense of internal stresses in liner.
No-Slip Solution — For the no-slip solution, the interface boundary condition
consists of no relative shear displacement between the ground and the support.
The no-slip solution is given in the following equations:
FLAC3D 6.0
where: = angular location (counterclockwise with respect to

horizontal);
= tunnel radius;
= vertical stress;
= ratio of horizontal-to-vertical stress;
= Young’s modulus of the ground mass;
= Poisson’s ratio of the ground mass; and
= dimensionless coefficients (see the next equations
below).
where: , = compressibility and flexibility ratios, respectively

(see the next two equations).
(1)
where: = Young’s modulus of the support;

= Poisson’s ratio of the support;
= average cross-sectional area of support per unit length of
tunnel
(for support of constant thickness , ); and
= moment of inertia of support per unit length of tunnel
(for support of constant thickness , ).
FLAC3D 6.0
Full-Slip Solution — For the full-slip solution, the interface boundary condition
consists of no shear stress transmission between the ground and the support.
The full-slip solution is given in the following equations:
where: = angular location (counterclockwise with respect to

horizontal);
= tunnel radius;
= vertical stress;
= ratio of horizontal-to-vertical stress;
= Young’s modulus of the ground mass;
= Poisson’s ratio of the ground mass; and
, = dimensionless coefficients (see the next equations).
where: , = compressibility and flexibility ratios, respectively

(see equation (1) above).
FLAC3D 6.0
FLAC3D Model
The problem is described in terms of the following parameters from the
analytical solution:
Geometry
tunnel radius ( ) 5m
In-Situ Stresses
vertical stress ( ) 600 kPa
ratio of horizontal-to-vertical stress ( ) 0.5
( kPa; kPa)
Ground Mass Properties
Young’s modulus ( ) 48 MPa
Poisson’s ratio ( ) 0.34
(shear modulus = 17.91 MPa; bulk modulus = 50 MPa)
Linear Properties
Young’s modulus ( ) 25 GPa
Poisson’s ratio ( ) 0.15
thickness ( ) 125 mm
The FLAC3D model simulates a thin slice of a circular tunnel in an infinite elastic
ground mass with a preexisting anisotropic biaxial stress field subjected to
plane-strain conditions. The geometry of the FLAC3D model is shown in Figure 2.
The far-field boundaries are placed at a distance of 20 times the tunnel radius to
approximate infinite boundaries. The in-situ stresses are installed in all zones
and also applied as loads acting on the far-field boundaries. Plane-strain
conditions are enforced by including a thin slice of material in the -direction
and imposing symmetry boundary conditions on these two surfaces. Symmetry
boundary conditions are also imposed on the planes at and . For
gridpoints, this requires maintaining zero displacement normal to the plane. For
nodes, this requires maintaining zero displacement normal to the plane and zero
rotation about two axes that lie in the plane. (The appropriate nodal conditions
are imposed by realigning and then fixing the appropriate node-local systems,
and also specifying the proper velocity-fixity conditions — see Advancing Lined
Tunnel for a description of the procedure.)
FLAC3D 6.0
The FLAC3D grid contains a single layer of zones in the -direction and is graded
as one moves away from the tunnel (see Figure 3). The model resolution is 24
zones along the tunnel boundary. Liner structural elements with a crosshatch
mesh pattern (see Liner-Reinforced Beam for reasons why this mesh pattern is
chosen) are attached to the zone faces lying along the tunnel boundary (see
Figure 4). The liner-zone interface stiffnesses ( and ) are chosen using this
equation in Liner Properties and increasing the value by a factor of 100 as
suggested in the text following this equation. (We will confirm below that the
criterion of small interface deformation is met for our system.)
Figure 2: Geometry and loading of the FLAC3D model.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 3: Zones in the FLAC3D model.
Figure 4: Liner elements, nodes, and zones in the FLAC3D model.
FLAC3D 6.0
Results and Discussion — Qualitative Assessment

We confirm that the interface deformation is small relative to the zone
deformation (and thus confirm that the elastic interface stiffnesses, and ,
are large enough) by plotting the displacements of the gridpoints and nodes at
the tunnel crown and springline (see Figure 5). The relative displacement
between the gridpoints and nodes is small compared with the gridpoint
displacement.
Figure 5: Displacements of gridpoints and nodes at tunnel crown (Gp 1873, Nd

50) and springline (Gp 1, Nd 1) for no-slip case.
If the model is run with no support (by deleting the liner elements), the tunnel
crown and springline both move inward (see Figure 6). When the support is
included, the tunnel crown still moves inward, but the tunnel springline moves
outward (see Figure 7), because the support resists the inward ground
movement. If the liner is allowed to slip at the support-ground interface (by
setting the liner property of coupling-cohesion-shear equal to zero), a relative
shearing motion occurs between the liner and the ground (see Figure 8).
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 6: Displacement field of ground with no liner present.
Figure 7: Displacement field of liner and ground (no slip).
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 8: Displacement field of liner and ground (full slip).
The axial thrust, , and bending moment, , in the liner for both the no-slip
and full-slip cases are shown in Figure 9 to Figure 12. When the liner is allowed
to slip, the axial thrust becomes more uniform and the bending moment
increases slightly. We define a liner surface coordinate system whose -axis lies
along the tunnel axis (in the global -direction), and whose -axis is normal to
the shell mid-surface (pointing inward). This corresponds to the surface = (0, 1,
0) direction during the stress recovery procedure. (The surface coordinate system
needs to be specified. See Stress Recovery Procedure for details.) In terms of this
system, the axial thrust corresponds with the membrane stress resultant, , and
the bending moment corresponds with the bending stress resultant, . In these
plots, the liner is oriented such that left-to-right corresponds with the angular
location in the closed-form solution varying from zero to ninety degrees. Note
that these values of and are of opposite sign to the values of and from
the analytical solution. (Positive extends the shell, and positive produces
positive stress at the outer fiber on the side of the shell defined by the positive
-direction of the surface system.)
The interface contact stresses, and , for both the no-slip and full-slip cases
are shown in Figure 13 to Figure 16. These values are obtained from the normal
and shear coupling springs that join the liner nodes to the zones. Positive normal
FLAC3D 6.0
stresses indicate separation, and this convention is opposite to that of the

analytical solution. The plotted shear stresses depict magnitude only; the
direction can be printed or accessed by the FISH functions
break
struct.liner.normal.dir and struct.liner.shear.dir.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 9: Axial thrust in liner (no slip).
Figure 10: Bending moment in liner (no slip).
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 11: Axial thrust in liner (full slip).
Figure 12: Bending moment in liner (full slip).
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 13: Interface normal contact stress (no slip).
Figure 14: Interface shear contact stress (no slip).
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 15: Interface normal contact stress (full slip).
Figure 16: Interface shear contact stress (full slip).
FLAC3D 6.0
A quantitative comparison of the support displacements, the internal stresses,

and the interface contact stresses with the analytical solutions for both the no-
slip and full-slip cases is provided in Figure 17 to Figure 25. The FISH functions
extract the necessary values from the FLAC3D model and compare them with the
analytical values. Either the no-slip or full-slip analytical solution is used by
setting the no_slip FISH variable to 1 or 0, respectively. The support
displacements ( and ) are sampled at the nodes using the
struct.node.disp.global function. The internal stresses ( and ) are sampled
at the element centroids using the struct.shell.resultant function. Also, the
interface contact stresses ( and ) are sampled at the linerSEL centroids by
computing the average value from the three coupling springs at the linerSEL
nodes using the struct.liner.normal.stress and struct.liner.shear.stress
functions.
For both the no-slip and full-slip cases, the responses compare well with the
analytical solution. The support displacements match the analytical solution,
with a maximum discrepancy of approximately 2% at the tunnel crown. The axial
thrusts match the analytical solution, with a maximum discrepancy of
approximately 1.2%. The interface contact stresses match the analytical solution
away from the modeled ends (at equals 0 and 90 degrees). There is an error of
approximately 10% at the end locations (note the outliers in Figure 20 and Figure
25) that arises from the lack of symmetry of the mesh. The area assigned to the
two nodes at each end is not the same because it is the summation of one-third
of the area of each element using the node. At each end, one node has twice the
area of the other, and this affects the stress computation such that the result is
nonsymmetric. Notice that the two outliers bound the analytical solution, and
that their average value equals the analytical solution.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 17: Radial and tangential support displacements versus angle (computed
and analytical values, no slip).
Figure 18: Axial thrust versus angle (computed and analytical values, no slip).
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 19: Bending moment versus angle (computed and analytical values, no
slip).
Figure 20: Interface normal contact stress versus angle (computed and
analytical values, no slip).
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 21: Interface shear contact stress versus angle (computed and analytical
values, no slip).
Figure 22: Radial and tangential support displacements versus angle (computed
and analytical values, full slip).
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 23: Axial thrust versus angle (computed and analytical values, full slip).
Figure 24: Bending moment versus angle (computed and analytical values, full
slip).
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 25: Interface normal contact stress versus angle (computed and
analytical values, full slip).
Reference
Einstein, H. H., and C. W. Schwartz. “Simplified Analysis for Tunnel Supports,” J.
Geotech. Engr. Div., 105(GT4): 499-518 (1979).
break
FLAC3D 6.0
Data File
LinedCircularTunnel.f3dat
model new
[global t = 'Lined Circular Tunnel in an Elastic Medium']
[t += ' with Anisotropic Stresses']
model title [t]
; Create the ground mass (zones).
zone create radial-cylinder size 1 1 24 38 rat 1 1 1 1.087 ...
point 1 (100,0,0) point 2 (0,0.4,0) ...
point 3 (0,0,100) dimension 5 5 5 5
; Material model and properties
zone property bulk 5e7 shear 1.791e7
; Name the model boundaries
zone face skin
; Create the support (linerSELs).
struct liner create by-face range group 'West1'
coupling-stiffness-normal 2.0763e10 ...
coupling-stiffness-shear 2.0763e10 ...
coupling-cohesion-shear 1e20
; Install in-situ stresses in entire grid.
; Specify boundary conditions.
; For the grid points (symmetry conditions):
zone face apply velocity-normal 0.0 range group 'West2' or 'Bottom'
zone face apply velocity-normal 0.0 range group 'North' or 'South'
; Apply stresses at far-field boundaries
zone face apply stress-normal -3e5 range group 'East'
zone face apply stress-normal -6e5 range group 'Top'
; For the nodes (symmetry conditions):
struct node system-local x (1,0,0) y (0,-1,0) ...
range position-x 0 ; x=0 plane
struct node fix system-local ...
range position-x 0
range position-x 0
struct node system-local x (0,0,-1) y (0,-1,0) ...
range position-z 0 ; z=0 plane
struct node fix system-local ...
range position-z 0
range position-z 0
struct node fix velocity-y rotation-x rotation-z ...
range position-y 0 ; y=0 plane
range position-y 0.4 ; y=Ymax plane
; Histories
zone history displacement-x position (5,0,0) ; tunnel spring-line
FLAC3D 6.0
zone history velocity-x position (5,0,0)

struct node history displacement-x position (5,0,0)
struct node history velocity-x position (5,0,0)
zone history displacement-z position (0,0,5) ; tunnel crown
zone history velocity-z position (0,0,5)
struct node history displacement-z position (0,0,5)
struct node history velocity-z position (0,0,5)
history interval 20
;
model save 'starting'
; No support case
struct liner delete
model title [t]
model save 'No Support'
; Slip case
model restore 'starting'
struct liner property coupling-cohesion-shear 0
model title [t + " - Full Slip"]
model save 'Full Slip'
; No slip case
model restore 'starting'
model title [t + " - No Slip"]
model save 'No Slip'
return
FLAC3D 6.0
FLAC3D 6.0
Development of Plastic Hinges in a Statically Loaded Beam 383
Development of Plastic Hinges in a Statically

Loaded Beam
Problem Statement
A statically indeterminate beam of length is loaded with a distributed load .
This load corresponds to the self-weight of the beam. Assuming the beam can
support a maximum bending moment, (after which a plastic hinge forms,
and the section deforms indefinitely at constant load), the problem involves
finding the maximum load, , that produces a kinematic mechanism and,
consequently, the collapse of the system. The problem is illustrated in Figure 1.
This problem can be solved using the plastic theory of structures (see, for
example, Riley and Zachary, 1989, pp. 581-586). According to this theory, the
development of plastic hinges is dictated by the occurrence of maximum bending
moments.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 1: Bending moment distribution in a statically indeterminate continuous

beam.
The lower part of Figure 1 displays the bending moment distribution for the
continuous beam assuming elastic behavior. The maximum moment occurs at
the position , indicated as in the figure. A second maximum
moment occurs at point and is indicated as . (Note that, for the
given, symmetric, problem geometry, there is another point —not indicated in
the figure—between points and .)
Consider a gradually increasing surcharge, , acting on the beam. If the

maximum plastic moment that the beam supports is , the first plastic hinge
will develop at the point where is reached first (i.e., at point ). After the
first hinge has formed, the problem is still stable. The system behaves as two
separate beams with a constant bending moment at point . Collapse of the
system will occur when a second hinge develops (i.e., at point where the
second maximum bending moment occurs). This is because a second hinge at
position creates a kinematic mechanism that allows the roller at point to
freely move toward the right.
The formation of hinges can be modeled with FLAC3D. The problem illustrated in
Figure 1 provides a test of the plastic-hinge logic implemented in the code.
FLAC3D 6.0
The problem conditions for this test are
length = 10 m
height =1m
plastic moment = MN-m
Young’s modulus = 210 GPa
Note that the properties associated with the deformability of the beam (the
height, , and Young’s modulus, ) are not relevant in this problem but are
needed as input for the FLAC3D model.
The location of the point in Figure 1, where the second plastic hinge develops,
can be found from simple beam theory analysis.
Consider the simply supported beam shown in Figure 2. This represents the
situation after the first plastic hinge has developed at the midpoint in Figure 1.
The bending moment at point A is constant and equal to .
Figure 2: Bending moment and shear force distribution after plastic hinge has
developed at point A.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 2 also illustrates the distribution of bending moments and shear

force along the right half of the beam. The objective, then, is to find the
coordinate, , of the maximum bending moment where the second plastic hinge
that produces collapse will develop.
The reaction force at point is obtained from the condition of equilibrium of

moments at point , i.e.,
The distribution of shear force, , is given by
The distribution of bending moment, , is given by
The coordinate can be found from the preceding expressions and the
condition
The maximum surcharge is found from the condition at
By application of these equations, the position of the second plastic hinge, ,

and the maximum load, , can be determined. The results are
FLAC3D Model
This problem is solved using the two different approaches to determine plastic
hinges in FLAC3D (see Beam Properties). The first approach involves assigning a
limiting plastic moment at structural nodes, and the second requires creating
double nodes at each node location and assigning a deformable link to connect
each double node.
FLAC3D 6.0
Plastic hinge formation by limiting plastic moment — For this approach, we assign a
limiting plastic moment for all structural nodes using the structure beam
property plastic-moment command. The right half of the beam is discretized into
20 elements of length 0.5 m each (see Figure 3). The beam contains 21 nodes, and
each node has a limiting plastic moment of 50 MN-m.
Figure 3: FLAC3D model of the beam in Figure 1.
Plastic hinge formation by double-node approach — For the second approach, we

define double nodes at all structural nodes that have the potential for a plastic
hinge to develop. The right half of the beam is discretized into 20 elements of
length 0.5 m each. Each element is defined by two nodes (by using the separated
keyword during the structure beam create command); thus, the beam has 40
nodes. The nodes of adjacent elements are linked together using the structure
node join command to allow the potential for the formation of a plastic hinge.
There are 19 links (i.e., all nodes except the extreme nodes in Figure 3 are linked;
each pair of nodes defines a link). The limiting plastic moment is assigned to the
links by first changing the link conditions with the structure link attach
FLAC3D 6.0
command, and then prescribing deformable link properties for the -rotation via
the structure link property command. The plastic moment is assigned to this
command with the yield-compression and yield-tension keywords.
Applying a uniform surcharge in both approaches — The effect of the uniform

surcharge (see Figure 2) is represented by forces that are applied to the nodes.
This is done by applying a distributed load with the structure beam apply
command. The surcharge load, , is assigned via the FISH variable load, which is
increased from 5.5 to 6.6 in 0.05 increments. The maximum surcharge is
determined by finding the level of loading that does not reach equilibrium.
The equilibrium of the system is found by issuing a model solve command.

Cycling is continued until the local unbalanced force ratio falls below the default
limiting value of 1 × 10-5 or 100,000 steps are taken. If this step limit is achieved
without reaching the limiting ratio, the system is assumed to be unstable.
The function find_critical_load saves each stage of the loading process and
displays the status of the model being solved on the screen (i.e., whether
equilibrium is reached for the current level of surcharge). This file is printed to
determine the load, , that produces collapse of the beam.

The output indicates that the system does not reach equilibrium for a load =
5.85 MN/m. The last stable case in the preceding listing is for a load of 5.80 MN/
m. These results bound the value computed with the analytical solution.
The distribution of bending moments and shear forces before collapse can be
obtained from the file “plasticmoment_580.f3sav”—see Figure 4 and Figure 5.
The location of the failed hinge can be seen by plotting the link yield state
indicators in the y-rotation degree-of-freedom, as seen in Figure 6. Note that
only one of each pair of nodes has a link, so the side of the element connected to
that node will display the “No Link” state. The plot indicates that the plastic
hinge developes at link 12. Each element has a length 0.5 m; thus, the failed link
is located at a distance of 6 m. This is within reasonable agreement with the
analytical solution in the closed form solution that predicts a value of = 5.86
m. The plastic hinge can also be observed by the plot of magnified geometry and
displacement, as shown in Figure 7 for the limiting plastic moment approach.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 4: Distribution of bending moments before failure for double-node

approach (w = 5.8 MN/m).
Figure 5: Distribution of shear forces before failure for double-node approach

(w = 5.8 MN/m).
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 6: Link yield state in the y-rotation degree-of-freedom.
Figure 7: Magnified beam geometry and displacement vectors for limiting

plastic moment approach.
FLAC3D 6.0
Reference
Riley, W. F. and L. Zachary. Introduction to Mechanics of Materials. New York: John
Wiley & Sons Inc. (1989).
Data Files
plastic-moment.f3dat
model new
;
struct beam create by-line (0,0,0) (10,0,0) segments 20
; Tag nodes with names
struct node group 'Begin' range position-x 0
struct node group 'End' range position-x 10
; beam properties
struct beam property young 210e3 poisson 0.3
struct beam property cross-sectional-area 1.0 moi-y 0.083 moi-z 0.083 ...
moi-polar 1.25e-4 plastic-moment 50
; fix b.c. for external nodes
struct node fix velocity rotation-x rotation-z range group 'Begin'
struct node fix velocity-y velocity-z rotation-x rotation-z range group 'End'
; apply bending moment
struct node apply moment (0,-50,0) range group 'Begin'
; take a history
;
fish define find_critical_load
loop global load (5.5,6.5,0.05) ; Load is global just so you can see
; progress in the FISH browser
local starting_cycles = mech.step
global filename = 'plasticmoment_' + string(load*100)
command
history purge
struct beam apply (0,[-load])
model solve ratio-local 1e-5 or cycles 100000
model save @filename
end_command
local solve_cycles = mech.step - starting_cycles
local line = 'STABLE'
if solve_cycles >= 100000
line = 'UNSTABLE (maximum steps reached)...'
else if load > 6.5
line = 'STABLE and LAST'
end_if
io.out(line)
if line # 'STABLE'
exit loop
end_if
end_loop
FLAC3D 6.0
end
@find_critical_load
model save 'plasticmoment_final'
return
double-node.f3dat
model new
; Created the beam using the separated keyword so elements do not share nodes
struct beam create by-line (0,0,0) (10,0,0) segments 20 distinct
; Tag nodes with names
struct node group 'Begin' range position-x 0
struct node group 'End' range position-x 10
; beam properties
struct beam property young 210e3 poisson 0.3
struct beam property cross-sectional-area 1.0 moi-y 0.083 moi-z 0.083 ...
moi-polar 1.25e-4
; Boundary Conditions for end nodes
struct node fix velocity rotation-x rotation-z range group 'Begin'
struct node fix velocity-y velocity-z rotation-x rotation-z range group 'End'
; Create links and set their conditions and properties
struct node join
struct link attach rotation-y normal-yield
struct link property rotation-y stiffness 3.0e6 yield-tension 50 ...
yield-compression 50
; apply bending moment
struct node apply moment (0,-50,0) range group 'Begin'
; FISH function to keep increasing applied load till plastic failure.
fish define find_critical_load
loop global load (5.5,6.5,0.05) ; Global so it appears in the FISH browser
local starting_cycles = mech.step
local filename = 'doublenode_' + string(load*100)
command
history purge
struct beam apply (0,[-load])
model solve ratio-local 1e-5 or cycles 100000
model save @filename
end_command
local solve_cycles = mech.step - starting_cycles
local line = 'STABLE'
if solve_cycles >= 100000
line = 'UNSTABLE (maximum steps reached)...'
else if load > 6.5
line = 'STABLE and LAST'
end_if
io.out(line)
if line # 'STABLE'
exit loop
end_if
FLAC3D 6.0
end_loop
end
@find_critical_load
model save 'doublenode_final'
return
FLAC3D 6.0
FLAC3D 6.0
Simply Supported Isotropic Rectangular Plate under Combined Lateral and Direct Loads 395
Simply Supported Isotropic Rectangular Plate

under Combined Lateral and Direct Loads
Problem Statement
The deflection surface is determined for the case of a simply supported
rectangular isotropic plate of sides and , subjected to a uniform lateral load, ,
and uniform tension, . The plate is subjected to combined lateral and in-plane
force systems. The lateral loading is resisted by bending action, and the in-plane
loading is resisted by membrane action. The problem conditions are illustrated in
Figure 1.
The analytic solution is given by Ugural (1981, pp. 155-156. The solution extends
the small deformation theory of plates (whereby the deflection of the midsurface
is assumed to be small relative to the plate thickness) to include the
simultaneous action of the combined loading such that the midplane is strained
subsequent to combined loading.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 1: Rectangular plate, lateral and in-plane loading and coordinate system
used to express the closed-form solution.
The deflection is given by
where is the flexural rigidity, is the plate thickness, is Young’s

modulus, and is Poisson’s ratio. The presence of a tensile (compressive) force
decreases (increases) the plate deflection.
A 4 by 8 rectangular sheet of 3/4-inch plywood is characterized by
Denote the deflection at the plate center and the -displacement along the edge
at by and , respectively. For this problem, is uniform along
the edge. For a loading of :
FLAC3D 6.0
The given tensile force decreases the center deflection by an order of magnitude.
FLAC3D Model
The FLAC3D model with a 4 by 8 mesh contains 128 shell elements, as shown in
Figure 2. The entire plate is modeled for clarity, although quarter-symmetry
could be applied to reduce the model size. All four edges have their -velocities
fixed at zero to simulate simple supports, and the edge at = 0 has its -velocity
fixed at zero to simulate a roller boundary condition. The lateral loading is
applied with the structure shell apply command, and membrane loading is
applied along the edge at using the structure node apply force-edge
command. A cross-diagonal mesh pattern is utilized to ensure symmetric
response, and the DKT-CSTH Hybrid shell finite element is utilized to resist the
combined membrane and bending actions. In order to inhibit activation of
spurious -rotations along the edges, their -rotational nodal velocities are fixed
to zero. This constraint is not necessary if the DKT-CST element is used. In order
to model the coupling, whereby the presence of a tensile membrane decreases
the plate deflection, FLAC3D is run in large-strain mode.
The theoretical and numerical solutions are compared along the three lines
, , and . The theoretical values are obtained by taking the
first 10 terms ( and ) of the infinite series. The numerical values
for deflection are obtained from the nodes that lie along each line.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 2: FLAC3D model for combined loading plate problem.
Results
The case is run to produce
which can be compared with the theoretical results above. The center deflection
is within 0.8% of the theoretical value as shown in Figure 3 and compared with
the theoretical solution along three lines in Figure 4 and Figure 5. The FLAC3D
results compare well with the theoretical solution. These results demonstrate
that the geometrically nonlinear stress-stiffening effect is modeled correctly by
running FLAC3D in large-strain mode.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 3: Deflection contours of plate (combined loading).
Figure 4: Deflection of plate along the lines and (combined

loading).
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 5: Deflection of plate along the line (combined loading).
Reference
Ugural, A. C. Stresses in Plates and Shells. New York: McGraw-Hill Publishing
Company Inc. (1981).
Data File
SimplySupportedIsotropicPlate.f3dat
; FLAC3D verification problem

; Isotropic rectangular plate under combined lateral and direct loads
model new
[t = 'Isotropic rectangular plate under combined lateral and direct loads']
model title [t]
; Create the elements and apply properties
struct shell create by-quadrilateral (0,0,0) (1.22,0,0) ...
(1.22,2.44,0) (0,2.44,0) ...
size (4,8) ...
element-type=dkt-csth cross-diagonal
struct shell property isotropic (10e9,0) thick 19e-3
; simply supported condition on boundaries
struct node fix velocity-z rotation-z ...
range union position-x 0.0 position-x 1.22 position-y 0.0 position-y 2.44
FLAC3D 6.0
; rollers along x=0, foce along x=1.2

struct node fix velocity-x range position-x 0.0
struct node apply force-edge (6e5,0,0) range position-x 1.22
; Apply pressure
struct shell apply 1e3
; Set large strain on, creating coupling between bending and membrane
; Solve the model
model solve ratio-local=1e-5
; Save the model
model save 'isotropic4x8'
FLAC3D 6.0
FLAC3D 6.0
Simply Supported Orthotropic Plate 403
Simply Supported Orthotropic Plate
Problem Statement
The deflection and stress are determined numerically for the case of a simply
supported rectangular orthotropic plate subjected to a uniformly distributed load.
The analytic solution for this problem is given by Ugural (1981, pp. 144-145).
Consider a rectangular plate of sides a and b, simply supported on all edges,
subjected to a uniformly distributed load, , and with principal directions of
orthotropy aligned with the x- and y-axes as shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1: Rectangular plate and coordinate system used to express the closed-
form solution.
FLAC3D 6.0
The deflection ( ) bending stress resultants ( , , and ) and transverse-

shear stress resultants ( and ) are given by
where , , , and are the rigidities. For the case of an isotropic plate,
, and .
Consider a 4 by 8 rectangular sheet of 3/4-inch plywood reinforced by

equidistant stiffeners (1 by 2 boards above and below the sheet) and nailed to a
supporting frame along its edges, as shown in Figure 2. The structural response
of this system when subjected to a uniformly distributed load can be
approximated by the closed-form solution, because all of the load is resisted by
bending action. (The more general case in which some of the load is resisted by
membrane action is considered in below.) A rectangular box is placed above the
sheet, and the box is filled with dry sand to a height of . If the box sides are
frictionless, then the plate is loaded by a uniform pressure, , where is
FLAC3D 6.0
the unit weight of dry sand. This problem is described by the following
parameters (the values shown are rounded to three significant figures and the
actual values used are computed from the given relations):
where the rigidities are from Ugural (1981, Table 6.1, case B).
The orthotropic bending stiffnesses required for input to FLAC3D (assuming that
the principal directions of orthotropy are aligned with the x- and y-axes shown
in Figure 1 and Figure 2) are
For this system, all of the load is resisted by bending action, and thus the
orthotropic membrane stiffnesses are not relevant. If the stiffeners were
removed, the plate would be isotropic with and = 10.0 GPa,
= 5.0 GPa and = 0. (If the Poisson’s ratio of the wood were not zero, then
FLAC3D 6.0
would also be nonzero.) The maximum deflection occurs at the plate center.
The theoretical values are 49.9 and 77.0 mm for the orthotropic and isotropic
plates, respectively.
Figure 2: Plywood sheet reinforced by equidistant stiffeners.
FLAC3D Model
The FLAC3D model with a 4 by 8 mesh contains 128 shell elements, as shown in
Figure 3. The entire plate is modeled for clarity, although quarter symmetry
could be applied to reduce the model size. All four edges have their z-velocities
fixed to simulate simple supports. (Although the proper classical plate theory
boundary condition for a simple support also includes constraining rotation
about an axis in the plane of the plate directed normal to the edge, such classical
boundary conditions tend to overconstrain the mesh and produce results that are
too stiff (Cook 1989, p. 332).) The pressure loading is applied with the structure
shell apply command. A cross-diagonal mesh pattern is utilized to ensure
symmetric response.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 3: FLAC3D model for rectangular plate problem (4 by 8 mesh).
The isotropic case is modeled using only the applied pressure, and so has no
membrane loading. Since this is a small-strain problem, there is no coupling
between bending and membrane responses. The isotropic case therefore uses the
DKT element type (which resolves bending only) and does not bother to provide
boundary conditions in the x- and y-directions.
The orthotropic case calculates the shell properties using a FISH function defined
in “ortho_prop.f3dat”.
The orthotropic case also adds a membrane pressure of 30 MPa applied to the
outer edges of the plate, and so uses the default DKT-CST element type. The
inner edges are given roller conditions. Note that because the bending and
membrane responses are not coupled, this does not affect the comparison to the
analytical solution, but the model is also checked for proper membrane response.
If the model were in large-strain mode, then coupling would occur as the
bending response caused displacement in the z-direction.
FLAC3D 6.0
The theoretical and numerical solutions are compared along the lines x = a/2 and
x = a/4. The theoretical values are obtained by taking the first 10 terms ( ≤ 21
and ≤ 21) of the infinite series. The numerical values for deflection are obtained
from the nodes that lie along each line. The stress resultants are expressed in
terms of a surface coordinate system that is aligned with the global system.
Results
The results for the isotropic case are presented first and followed by the results
for the orthotropic case.
Isotropic Case
The displacement field is shown in Figure 4 and Figure 5. The maximum
deflection occurs at the plate center and equals 75.43 mm, which is within 2.07%
of the theoretical value of 77.021 mm. A more refined 8 by 16 mesh gives a value
of 76.62 mm, which is within 0.5% of the theoretical value. The deflection is
compared with the theoretical solution along the lines x = a/2 and x = a/4 in
Figure 6. The bending stress resultant and fields are shown in Figure 7
and Figure 8 and compared with the theoretical solutions along the lines x = a/2
and x = a/4 in Figure 9 and Figure 10. The results are improved for a finer mesh
(compare Figure 6 and Figure 11).
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 4: Deformed (magnification of 5) shape of isotropic plate.
Figure 5: Deflection contours of isotropic plate.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 6: Deflection of isotropic plate along the lines x = a/2 and x = a/4.
Figure 7: Stress resultant contours of isotropic plate.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 8: Stress resultant contours of isotropic plate.
Figure 9: Stress resultant of isotropic plate along the lines x = a/2 and x =
a/4.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 10: Stress resultant of isotropic plate along the lines x = a/2 and x =
a/4.
Figure 11: Deflection of isotropic plate along the lines x = a/2 and x = a/4 (8 by
16 mesh).
FLAC3D 6.0
Orthotropic Case
The displacement field is shown in Figure 12 and Figure 13. The maximum
deflection occurs at the plate center and equals 47.31 mm, which is within 5.1%
of the theoretical value of 49.868 mm. A more refined 8 by 16 mesh gives a value
of 49.50 mm, which is within 0.7% of the theoretical value. The deflection is
compared with the theoretical solution along the lines x = a/2 and x = a/4 in
Figure 14. The bending stress resultant and fields are shown in Figure 15
and Figure 16, and compared with the theoretical solutions along the lines x = a/
2 and x = a/4 in Figure 17 and Figure 18. The results are improved for a finer
mesh (compare Figure 14 and Figure 19).
Figure 12: Deformed (magnification of 5) shape of orthotropic plate.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 13: Deflection contours of orthotropic plate.
Figure 14: Deflection of orthotropic plate along the lines x = a/2 and x = a/4.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 15: Stress resultant contours of orthotropic plate.
Figure 16: Stress resultant contours of orthotropic plate.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 17: Stress resultant of orthotropic plate along the lines x = a/2 and x
= a/4.
Figure 18: Stress resultant of orthotropic plate along the lines x = a/2 and x
= a/4.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 19: Deflection of orthotropic plate along the lines x = a/2 and x = a/4 (8
by 16 mesh).
Extending the System to Include Membrane Effects

The system described above only experiences bending loading. The orthotropic
system was also subjected to a membrane loading by applying traction along the
sheet boundary. Either the DKT-CST or the DKT-CST Hybrid element could be
used, but in this case, the default DKT-CST element was used. In addition to the
bending material stiffnesses (given in the equation above), we must also specify
the membrane material stiffnesses, which can be approximated as follows.
The membrane material stiffnesses is chosen so that the membrane stiffness in

both the x- and y-directions of a representative portion of the real sheet (shown
in Figure 2) is the same as that of the orthotropic shell. The representative
portion is a square with side length s in both the x- and y-directions (see Figure
20).
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 20: Representative portions of the sheet.
The membrane stiffnesses ( ) in the x- and y-directions for the real sheet
and the orthotropic shell are
where s, t, , and are defined in the equation above, and and are the
effective moduli (Ugural 1981, p.141). The effective moduli are found by equating
the corresponding stiffnesses:
The orthotropic membrane stiffnesses required for input to FLAC3D are
FLAC3D 6.0
where and are effective Poisson’s ratios, and is shear modulus. This
expression makes use of this equation from discussion of shell-element
properties in the Structural Elements section. If we assume that = 0 and
, then:
The system described above has a uniform membrane stress of 30 MPa that acts
around the entire plate boundary. The edges at x = 0 and y = 0 are given roller
boundary conditions, and the edges at x = a and y = b are loaded by using the
structure node apply force-edge command with a value that takes into account
the shell thickness. Each node receives the total force acting along its tributary
area. [*] For these conditions, the stresses will be uniform throughout the plate
and equal to
The displacements along the edges at x = a and y = b will be uniform and equal
to
The results for a 4 by 8 mesh are as follows.
break
FLAC3D 6.0
Endnote
[*] For a system experiencing combined membrane and bending loads, a shell
element (such as the DKT-CST) must be used. In order to model the
coupling whereby the presence of a tensile membrane force decreases the
plate deflection, FLAC3D must be run in large-strain mode.
Reference
Cook, R. D., D. S. Malkus and M. E. Plesha. Concepts and Applications of Finite
Element Analysis, Third Edition. New York: John Wiley & Sons Inc. (1989).
Ugural, A. C. Stresses in Plates and Shells. New York: McGraw-Hill Publishing

Company Inc. (1981).
Data Files
isotropic4x8.f3dat
; FLAC3D isotropic plate with combined lateral & direct loads

; verification problem
model new
model title "Isotropic rectangular plate with applied pressure (4 by 8 mesh)"
; Create the elements, and assign properties
(1.22,2.44,0) (0,2.44,0) ...
size (4,8) ...
element-type=dkt cross-diagonal
struct shell property isotropic (10e9,0.0) thickness 19e-3
; simply supported condition - fix z velocity on all boundaries
struct node fix velocity-z range union position-x 0.0 position-x 1.22 ...
position-y 0.0 position-y 2.44
; Apply pressure loading
struct shell apply 19620
; Solve
; Save the result
model save 'isotropic4x8'
break
FLAC3D 6.0
orthotropic4x8.f3dat
; FLAC3D orthotropic plate (bending) verification problem

model new
[t = 'Orthotropic rectangular plate with pressure loading ']
[t += 'and lateral load (4 by 8 mesh)']
model title [t]
; ------------------------------------------------------------------------
(1.22,2.44,0) (0,2.44,0) ...
size (4,8) cross-diagonal
; Function to calculate orthotropic properties
; given shell and stiffener properties
call 'ortho_prop'
@ortho_prop(10e9,19e-3,0.0,25e-3,50e-3,10e9,0.41)
struct shell property orthotropic-bending @bend_stiff ...
orthotropic-membrane @memb_stiff ...
material-x (1,0,0) thickness 19e-3
; simply supported condition
struct node fix velocity-z range union position-x 0 position-x 1.22 ...
; Apply membrane loading - edge loading
struct node apply force-edge (5.7e5,0,0) range position-x 1.22
struct node apply force-edge (0,5.7e5,0) add range position-y 2.44
; Apply rollers to the other edges
struct node fix velocity-x range position-x 0
struct node fix velocity-y range position-y 0
; Apply pressure loading
struct shell apply 19620
; Solve
; Save
model save 'orthotropic4x8'
ortho_prop.f3dat
; Calculate orthotropic shell properties given

; e = shell young's modulus,
; t = shell thickness,
; nu = shell Poisson's ratio,
; swidth = stiffener width,
; sheight = stiffener height,
; se = stiffener stiffness, and
; sspace = stiffener spacing
; Returns 4x1 arrays with membrane and bending stiffness
; in globals memb_stiff and bend_stiff.
; Also flexural rigidities in global map rigidity
fish define ortho_prop(e,t,nu,swidth,sheight,se,sspace)
global rigidity = map
rigidity('Dxy') = 0.0
rigidity('Dx') = e * t^3 / (12.0*(1.0 - nu^2))
FLAC3D 6.0
rigidity('H') = rigidity('Dx')
rigidity('Gxy') = (rigidity('H') - rigidity('Dxy')) / 2.0
local Iv = swidth*sheight*sheight*sheight / 12.0
Iv = Iv + (swidth*sheight*(t + sheight)^2) / 4.0
Iv = 2.0 * Iv
rigidity('Dy') = rigidity('Dx') + (se * Iv) / sspace
global bend_stiff = matrix(4,1)

bend_stiff(1,1) = (12.0 / t^3) * rigidity('Dx')
bend_stiff(2,1) = (12.0 / t^3) * rigidity('Dxy')
bend_stiff(3,1) = (12.0 / t^3) * rigidity('Dy')
bend_stiff(4,1) = (12.0 / t^3) * rigidity('Gxy')
; Membrane stiffness, only used for membrane.f3dat

global memb_stiff = matrix(4,1)
memb_stiff(1,1) = e
memb_stiff(2,1) = 0.0
memb_stiff(3,1) = e + (2.0 * swidth * sheight / (sspace * t)) * se
memb_stiff(4,1) = e / 2.0
end
FLAC3D 6.0
Cylindrical Concrete Vault 423
Cylindrical Concrete Vault
Problem Statement
A cylindrical concrete vault supported by two rigid diaphragms and loaded by its
own weight is analyzed using the two different shell elements available in
FLAC3D. The effects of both element type and mesh pattern on the structural
response (deformation and shell stress resultants) are investigated by
performing a convergence study, whereby the mesh density is increased. The
results quantify the accuracy of the shell elements and illustrate the effects of
mesh pattern and mesh density on accuracy. In this problem, there is no
coupling between the shell elements and a surrounding continuum, as would be
the case in a tunnel analysis. Nevertheless, it is proposed that this problem is
similar to such a system, and that the results described here can help guide the
selection of the proper discretization and element type in such coupled problems.
This problem has become a de facto standard test problem of a singly curved
shell (MacNeil and Harder 1985), and is used as such by Zienkiewicz and Taylor
(1991, pp. 123-128) and Carpenter et al. (1986), who refer to it as the Scordelis-Lo
roof (Scordelis and Lo 1964). The structure is a cylindrical concrete vault
supported by two rigid diaphragms and loaded by its own weight (see Figure 1).
Bending action is severe due to supports restraining deflection at the ends, and
both bending and membrane deformations contribute significantly to the vertical
displacement at the midpoint of the free edge.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 1: Cylindrical concrete vault supported by two rigid diaphragms.
The vault has a radius of 25 ft, with an included angle of 80°, and a span of 50 ft
between the two diaphragm walls. The loading consists of the weight of the
concrete shell, which acts in the negative -direction. The vault is supported by
two rigid diaphragm walls, such that along these two edges (labeled and
in Figure 1), displacements in the plane of each wall are fixed, but the
vault is free to move in the -direction and to rotate about each edge. (The walls
are relatively flexible with respect to loading perpendicular to their surfaces and
do not resist bending along their top edges.) The following geometrical and
material properties are assigned:
shell thickness = 3 in
gravity acceleration = 32 ft/s2
material density = 11.25 lbm/ft3
weight of shell = 90 lbf/ft2
Young’s modulus = 4.32 × 108 psf
Poisson’s ratio = 0.0
FLAC3D 6.0
Analytical results are presented graphically by Zienkiewicz and Taylor (1991, pp.
123-128) for displacements and moments along various sections of the vault. The
results are computed according to an analysis by Scordelis and Lo (1964) and
Scordelis (1971). In the present comparison, the graphical plots from Zienkiewicz
and Taylor (1991) were utilized. The analytical results include:
• the vertical displacement, , along central section ;

• the longitudinal displacement, , along support section ;
• the transverse, , and longitudinal, , moments along central
section ; and
• the twisting moment, , along the support section .
The vertical displacement at the midpoint of the free edge (at point in Figure
1) used for the present convergence study is taken as 0.3024 ft. MacNeil and
Harder (1985) state that 0.3086 ft is the value given by Scordelis and Lo (1964)
and that many shell finite-element formulations converge to a slightly smaller
value. Both MacNeil and Harder (1985) and Carpenter et al. (1986) use 0.3024 ft
for normalization of their results.
FLAC3D Model
The problem has two lines of symmetry, and thus only a quarter of the structure
(the shaded area in Figure 1) is analyzed with FLAC3D. A convergence study is
performed by increasing the mesh resolution, , of a set of meshes using
both crosshatch and cross-diagonal mesh patterns (see Figure 2). For the cross-
diagonal meshes, the midpoint nodes lie on the plane formed by the four
immediately surrounding nodes, not on the true cylinder surface. This produces
the same quadrilateral-faceted mesh for both mesh patterns. If the midpoint
nodes are placed on the true cylinder surface, then the pyramid-like facets in the
mesh reduce the accuracy of the DKT-CST elements more so than that of the
DKT-CST Hybrid elements (Carpenter et al. 1986). (If generating cross-diagonal
shell meshes with the cross-diagonal keyword of the structure shell create
command, then midpoint nodes will be placed at the centroid of the four corner
points of the zone face to which the element is being attached. This produces the
desired quadrilateral-faceted mesh.)
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 2: Example of 2 × 2 meshes with crosshatch (left) and cross-diagonal

(right) mesh patterns.
The displacement boundary conditions along the four edges of the FLAC3D model
are specified in terms of the global coordinate system in Figure 1, as follows.
Only fully fixed displacement components are specified; all other displacement
components are free.
edge :
edge : all displacement components are free
edge : symmetry plane, ,
edge : symmetry plane, ,
Each mesh is generated using geometry commands to first generate the

cylindrical shell shape. Then the shell elements are created using the structure
shell import from-geometry command. Model construction is completed by
specifying material properties (for each shell element), boundary conditions (for
each node), and loading. The loading consists of gravity-induced body forces
FLAC3D 6.0
acting in the negative -direction, and is assigned by specifying the appropriate

element density and a gravity vector. The body forces are computed based on the
element volume, and distributed equally to the three nodes of each element.
The data file “CylindricalConcreteVault.f3dat” loads the data files

“store_results.f3dat” and “run_all_cases.f3dat”. It then calls the FISH function
run_all_cases to solve all 24 cases being examined. Six different discretizations
each using DKT-CST and DKT-CSTH elements, with a hatch and a cross-
diagonal element pattern. The problems are run to static equilibrium using the
model solve command with a ratio-local of 1 × 10-6.
The moments are recovered in terms of a surface coordinate system oriented

such that the -axis is equal to the projection of the global -axis onto each
element surface, and the -axis is equal to the direction of each element normal
vector. For this convention: (a) the transverse, , and longitudinal, ,
moments along central section correspond with and , respectively;
and (b) the twisting moment, , along the support section corresponds
with .

For the convergence study, we vary the element type (DKT-CST and DKT-CST
Hybrid) and the mesh pattern (crosshatch and cross-diagonal), while increasing
the mesh resolution. We present normalized results for:
• the vertical displacement at the midpoint of the free edge

(analytical value: -0.3024 ft — see Figure 3);
• the transverse moment at the midpoint of the central section
(analytical value: 2073 ft lbf/ft — see Figure 4); and
• the twisting moment at the end (point ) of the support section
(analytical value: 1290 ft lbf/ft — see Figure 5).
In addition to the convergence results for responses at specific points in the

structure, the analytical results along various sections of the vault are compared
with the computed results for an 8 × 8 mesh in Figure 6 to Figure 10. These plots
provide a general indication of the kind of accuracy one can expect to obtain for a
problem in which bending action is severe from the two elements and two mesh
patterns available in FLAC3D.
The results can be summarized and generalized in terms of two statements.
FLAC3D 6.0
1. Both the DKT-CST and the DKT-CST Hybrid elements are

converging to the analytical displacements and moments. In
general, the DKT-CST element is too stiff (displacements and
stress resultants are underestimated) and converges more slowly
than the DKT-CST Hybrid element. (For a 6 × 6 crosshatch mesh,
the DKT-CST Hybrid has converged to a value that is within 0.2%
of the analytical displacement, whereas the DKT-CST element is
still underestimating this displacement by 18.5%. See Figure 3).
2. Use of a cross-diagonal mesh softens the DKT-CST element, and

therefore improves its performance. The DKT-CST Hybrid
element is essentially unaffected by mesh pattern. (This suggests
that when using the DKT-CST element, a cross-diagonal mesh
should be employed, but when using the DKT-CST Hybrid
element, a less costly (fewer nodes and elements) crosshatch
mesh can be employed. However, another factor to consider when
choosing a mesh pattern is that there is no directional bias in a
cross-diagonal mesh, i.e., the response of a shell structure
discretized with a crosshatch mesh will differ slightly depending
upon the crosshatch direction.)
When using these results as a guide to select the proper discretization of a

particular problem, keep in mind that, in this verification problem, the bending
action is severe (in particular, there are large membrane-stress gradients). For
such problems, the DKT-CST element will be overly stiff, and the DKT-CST
Hybrid element will perform better. For problems without large membrane-
stress gradients, the performance of the DKT-CST element will be much
improved, making it more competitive with the DKT-CST Hybrid element.
Our general recommendation regarding choice of shell element is as follows. For

problems in which a shell element is being connected to FLAC3D zones, use the
DKT-CST element. For all other problems, use the DKT-CST Hybrid element. The
reasoning that underlies this recommendation is discussed in Shell Finite
Elements in the Structural Elements section.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 3: Log of normalized vertical displacement at midpoint of free edge .
Figure 4: Log of normalized transverse moment at .
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 5: Log of normalized twisting moment at .
Figure 6: Vertical displacement along central section for 8 × 8 mesh.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 7: Longitudinal displacement along support section for 8 × 8

mesh.
Figure 8: Transverse moment along central section for 8 × 8 mesh.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 9: Longitudinal moment along central section for 8 × 8 mesh.
Figure 10: Twisting moment along the support section for 8 × 8 mesh.
FLAC3D 6.0
References
Carpenter, N., H. Stolarski and T. Belytschko. “Improvements in 3-Noded
Triangular Shell Elements,” International Journal for Numerical Methods in
Engineering, 23, 1643-1667 (1986).
MacNeil, R. H., and R. L. Harder. “A Proposed Standard Set of Problems to Test

Finite Element Accuracy,” Finite Elements in Analysis and Design, 1, 3-20 (1985).
Scordelis, A. C. “Analysis of Cylindrical Shells and Folded Plates,” in Concrete Thin

Shells, American Concrete Institute report SP 28-N (1971).
Scordelis, A. C., and K. S. Lo. “Computer Analysis of Cylindrical Shells,” J. Amer.

Concr. Inst., 61, 539-561 (1964).
Zienkiewicz, O. C., and R. L. Taylor. The Finite Element Method. Volume 2: Solid and
Fluid Mechanics, Dynamics and Non-linearity, Fourth Edition. London: McGraw-Hill
Book Company (1991).
Data Files
CylindricalConcreteVault.f3dat
model new
; FISH function that creates the mesh
call 'store_results' suppress ; FISH Stores results in the arrays
call 'run_all_cases' suppress ; FISH runs all 24 cases 6 sizes,
;hybrid and not, cross-diagonal and not
struct shell create by-triangle (0,0,0) (1,0,0) (0,0,1) ; Prevent a warning
; the first delete
geometry edge create by-pos (0,0,0) (1,0,0) ; Prevent an error
; the first delete
@run_all_cases
model save 'final'
return
run_all_cases.f3dat
; Run all 24 cases being examined

; 6 different discretization levels, hybrid vs normal, hatch vs cross-diagonal
fish define run_all_cases
local etype = map(1,'dkt-cst',2,'dkt-csth')
local crossd = map(1,false,2,true)
local clab = map(1,'h',2,'d')
loop local i (2,12,2)
loop local h (1,2)
FLAC3D 6.0
loop local cd (1,2)

command
; Delete previous data
struct shell delete
geometry delete set 'Default'
; Create geometry data in arc at right discretization
geometry edge create by-arc origin (0,0,0) ...
start (0,0,25) ...
end (16.06969,0,19.15111) ...
segments @i
geometry generate from-edges extrude (0,25,0) segments @i
; Create shell elements from geometry
struct shell import from-geometry 'Default' ...
element-type [etype(h)] cross-diagonal [crossd(cd)]
; Assign properties and gravity
struct shell property isotropic=(4.32e8, 0.0) ...
thick=0.25 density=11.25
model gravity 32
; Specify boundary conditions.
struct node fix velocity-x velocity-z ...
range position-y 0
range position-y 25
range position-x 0
; Solve the model
; Store the results
@store_results(@i,@h,@cd)
; Save current state for later reference
model save [etype(h)+string(i)+clab(cd)]
endcommand
endloop
endloop
endloop
end
FLAC3D 6.0
Free Vibration of a Cantilever Beam 435
Free Vibration of a Cantilever Beam
Problem Statement
A cantilever beam is placed vertically (See Figure 1). At the beam top, the density
is much bigger than elsewhere on the beam (Figure 1a). A horizontal force
is applied at the top mass centroid to ensure a static horizontal
displacement of 0.001 at the beam top. The force is then released to let the beam
vibrate. The model schematically shown in Figure 1a can be simplified into Figure
1b with a lumped mass at the beam top. It can be further idealized as a single
degree-of-freedom vibration system shown in Figure 1c, with a mass and a
stiffness . The damping coefficient will be assumed with various
values. The FLAC3D model is based on Figure 1a using a beam element, and the
FLAC3D solution will be compared with the analytical solution based on Figure 1c.
Figure 1: Free vibration of the cantilever beam.

break
FLAC3D 6.0
The geometry and material parameters are summarized as follows.
Input Parameters:
2×1010
1
10
7.60×103
1
6×104
Derived Parameters:
1.52×104
6×107
0.001
0.1
20
The governing differential equation of free vibration for a single degree system
with damping is
(1)
where is the displacement, is the mass, is the stiffness, and is the

damping coefficient. The natural circular frequency is , and the
natural period is .
The critical damping coefficient is defined as , and the

damping ratio is defined as .
In this example, Rayleigh damping ( ) is assumed. For simplicity,

only mass-proportional Rayleigh damping ( ) is considered here, so
(2)
break
FLAC3D 6.0
In this example, the initial condition at the dynamic stage is and

. With these initial conditions, the analytical solution (Argris 1991) can be
summarized as
1. No Damping ( or ):
(3)
2. Under Damping ( or ):
(4)
where .
3. Critical Damping ( or ):
(5)
4. Over Damping ( or ):
(6)
where and .
In the FLAC3D model, the beam is divided into 10 beam elements. A static
horizontal force is applied at the centroid of the lumped mass. After
equilibrium is reached, the static displacement should be . The
force is then released to let the cantilever beam freely vibrate at four different
damping ratios, = 0%, 5%, 100%, and 500%, or = 0, , , and (since
= 0.1), to represent four cases, namely, no-, under-, critical-, and over-
damping.
The FLAC3D solutions for all four cases are plotted in Figure 2. Comparisons with
the analytical solutions are plotted in Figure 3 through Figure 6. In all cases a
good fit is observed between the FLAC3D solution and the analytical solution.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 2: FLAC3D solutions.
Figure 3: FLAC3D solution and analytical solution—no-damping ( = 0 or =

0%).
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 4: FLAC3D solution and analytical solution—under-damping ( =2 or

= 5%).
Figure 5: FLAC3D solution and analytical solution—critical-damping ( = 40

or = 100%).
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 6: FLAC3D solution and analytical solution—over-damping ( = 200

or = 500%).
Reference
Argyris, J. & Mlejnek, H.-P. Dynamics of Structures. North-Holland, Amsterdam
(1991).
Data File
FreeVibration.f3dat
model new
model configure dynamic
model dynamic active off
;
call 'parameters'
@parameters
;
structure beam create by-line (0,0,0) (0,0,11) segments 11 id 1
structure beam property density [0.001*r] young @E poisson 0.3
structure beam property density @r range position-z 9.0 11.0
structure beam property cross-sectional-area @A moi-z @I moi-y @I moi-polar 0
structure node fix velocity range component-id 1
structure node fix rotation range component-id 1
FLAC3D 6.0
structure node apply system global

structure node apply force [0.001*k] 0 0 range component-id 11
structure node apply remove force
model dynamic active on
model dynamic time-total 0
model dynamic timestep fix 1e-6
model history dynamic time-total
struct node history displacement-x component-id 11
struct node history velocity-x component-id 11
history interval 50
model save 'dynamic0'
;; No Damping
history export 2 vs 1 table '1'
table '1' export 'NoDamping' truncate
model save 'NoDamping'
;;; Under Damping

model restore 'dynamic0'
[alpha = 0.05*c]
structure damping rayleigh 0 @alpha
table '1' export 'UnderDamping' truncate
model save 'UnderDamping'
;; Critical Damping
[alpha = c]
table '1' export 'CriticalDamping' truncate
model save 'CriticalDamping'
;; Over Damping
[alpha = 5.0*c]
table '1' export 'OverDamping' truncate
model save 'OverDamping'
FLAC3D 6.0
FLAC3D 6.0
Simple Slope in Hoek-Brown Material 443
Simple Slope in Hoek-Brown Material
Problem Statement
Verification exercises are performed to validate the factor of safety calculation
using Hoek-Brown material in FLAC3D. The exercises test the strength reduction
calculation based upon shear strength, .
The factor of safety with respect to Hoek-Brown shear strength is calculated for
a simple slope geometry and compared to results based upon other methods to
calculate a safety factor for Hoek-Brown material (generalized Hoek-Brown,
equivalent Mohr-Coulomb, and Bishop and Spencer limit equilibrium methods)
reported by Hammah et al. (2005). The rock slope for this comparison calculation
has an inclination of 45° and a height of 10 m. The rock is represented as a Hoek-
Brown material with the following properties:
= 5000 MPa
= 0.3
= 2500 kg/m3
= 0.067
= 0.000025
= 0.619
= 30 MPa
The FLAC3D model mesh used for this test is shown in Figure 1. By default, when
model factor-of-safety is executed for a FLAC3D model with zone cmodel assign
hoek-brown, the factor of safety calculation is performed for Hoek-Brown
material with respect to shear strength. The calculated factor of safety for this
test is 1.15. The failure surface is shown by the shear strain contour plot in Figure
2. The result compares well with the results reported by Hammah et al. (2005).
Table 2 summarizes the safety factors reported for this test.
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 1: Slope model mesh.
Figure 2: Factor of safety and failure surface calculated for simple slope in
Hoek-Brown material.
FLAC3D 6.0
Table 2: Factor of Safety Results for Hoek-Brown Slope
Method Factor of Safety

FLAC3D using Hoek-Brown 1.15
Generalized Hoek-Brown strength reduction* 1.15

Equivalent Mohr-Coulomb strength reduction* 1.15
Bishop’s simplified limit equilibrium* 1.153
Spencer’s limit equilibrium* 1.152
* from Hammah et al. (2005)
Hammah et al. (2005) also report the results for the case in which a horizontal
layer of Mohr-Coulomb material is located at the toe of the slope. The layer is 1
m thick and has zero cohesion and 25° friction. The slope with the Mohr-
Coulomb layer is shown in Figure 3.
When model factor-of-safety is issued, the strength reduction method is

performed concurrently for Hoek-Brown material, as described in Hoek-Brown
Material, and for Mohr-Coulomb material, as described in Mohr-Coulomb
Material. The factor of safety calculated for this model is 0.97. The results are
shown in Figure 4.
Table 3 compares the FLAC3D result with results from other methods reported by
Hammah et al. (2005).
FLAC3D 6.0
Figure 3: Simple slope in Hoek-Brown material with a Mohr-Coulomb layer.
Figure 4: Factor of safety and failure surface calculated for simple slope in
Hoek-Brown material with Mohr-Coulomb layer.
FLAC3D 6.0
Table 3: Hoek-Brown Slope with Mohr-Coulomb Layer
Method Factor of Safety

FLAC3D using Hoek-Brown and Mohr-Coulomb 0.97
Generalized Hoek-Brown strength reduction* 0.95

Bishop’s simplified limit equilibrium* 0.934
Spencer’s limit equilibrium* 0.963
* from Hammah et al. (2005)
Reference
Hammah, R. E., et al. “The shear strength reduction method for the generalized
Hoek-Brown criterion,” ARMA/USRMS 05-810, 2005.
Data Files
HoekBrownSlope.f3dat
;************************************************************************
; FoS wrt Shear Strength for HB Material
;*************************************************************************
model new
; --- geometry ---
zone create brick point 0 ( 0,0,0) point 1 (40,0, 0) ...
point 2 ( 0,1, 0) point 3 ( 0,0, 8) size 80 1 16
zone create brick point 0 (15,0,8) point 1 (40,0, 8) ...
point 2 (15,1, 8) point 3 (25,0,18) ...
point 4 (40,1,8) point 5 (25,1,18) ...
point 6 (40,0,18) point 7 (40,1,18) size 50 1 20
; --- Assign model and properties
zone cmodel assign hoek-brown
zone property density 2.5e-3 young 5000 poisson 0.3 tension 1e10
zone property constant-mb 0.067 constant-s 2.5e-5 ...
constant-a 0.619 constant-sci 30
zone property flag-evolution 1 flag-fos 0
zone face apply velocity-normal 0 range group 'East' or 'West1'
; --- settings ---
model gravity 10
FLAC3D 6.0
; --- solution ---

model factor-of-safety bracket 1.1 1.2 ratio-local 1e-4 filename 'HBSlope'
HoekBrownSlope2.f3dat
;************************************************************************
; FoS wrt Shear Strength for HB Material
; with a Mohr-Coulomb Layer
;*************************************************************************
model new
; --- geometry ---
zone create brick point 0 ( 0,0,0) point 1 (40,0, 0) ...
point 2 ( 0,1, 0) point 3 ( 0,0, 8) size 80 1 16
zone create brick point 0 (15,0,8) point 1 (40,0, 8) ...
point 2 (15,1, 8) point 3 (25,0,18) ...
point 4 (40,1,8) point 5 (25,1,18) ...
point 6 (40,0,18) point 7 (40,1,18) size 50 1 20
zone group 'layer' range position-z 8 9
; --- Assign model and properties
zone cmodel assign hoek-brown
zone property density 2.5e-3 young 5000 poisson 0.3 tension 1e10
zone property constant-mb 0.067 constant-s 2.5e-5 ...
constant-a 0.619 constant-sci 30
zone property flag-evolution 1 flag-fos 0
; --- mohr-coulomb layer ---
zone cmodel assign mohr-coulomb range group 'layer'
zone property young 5000. poisson 0.3 range group 'layer'
zone property cohesion 0 friction 25 tension 0 range group 'layer'
zone face apply velocity-normal 0 range group 'East' or 'West1'
; --- settings ---
model gravity 10
model save 'initial2'
; --- solution ---
model factor-of-safety bracket 0.9 1.0 ratio-local 1e-4 filename 'HBSlope2'
FLAC3D 6.0

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FLAC3D 6.

© 2017 Itasca Consulting Group, Inc.

Examples: Table of Contents

This section provides documentation on a series of example application problems

For a complete list of all illustrative examples in this documentation, refer to

Influence of Slope Curvature on Stability

The model shown in Figure 1 represents a quarter-section of an open pit. The

Figure 1: “Bathtub” model to evaluate slope curvature.

Figure 2: Vertical plane through model at y = -30.

Figure 3: Vertical plane through model at x = 0.

Figure 4: Free water surface.

Figure 5: Pore-pressure contours.

Figure 6: Chart number as a function of groundwater flow conditions (adapted

Figure 7: Circular failure chart number 4 (Hoek and Bray 1981).

The model is assigned a Mohr-Coulomb material model and several properties:

bulk modulus 200 MPa

friction angle 45°

Figure 8: Displacement contours in the FLAC3D model at the failure state.

Figure 9: The FLAC model grid.

model title 'Influence of slope curvature on stability of an open pit'

; Import water table from DXF file.

; assign Mohr Coulomb model and properties

; Initialize unsaturated density

Pillar Loads at Intersecting Tunnels

Figure 1: Mine layout.

The initial stress state considered is

σxx = 25 MPa (east-west)

σyy = 30 MPa (north-south)

σzz = 17 MPa (vertical)

The rock mass material properties are found in Table 1.

Table 1: Rock Mass Material

bulk modulus 14.1 GPa

Figure 2: Final model grid.

Figure 3: Displacement contours after excavation of tunnels.

Figure 4: Plasticity state at pillar mid-height after excavation of tunnels.

Figure 5: Vertical stress contours at pillar mid-height after excavation of

Figure 6: Minimum principal stress contours in pillar after excavation of

Figure 7: History of the average vertical stress on the base.

in which k is a strength parameter, V is the pillar volume, R is the width/height

Table 2: Predicted Square-Pillar Strength

zones is recommended for detailed studies of rock mass performance. If a lower

More detailed discussions on grid dependency of a softening model for a

Holland, C. J., and F. L. Gaddy. “Some Aspects of Permanent Support of

Salamon, M. D. G., and A. H. Munro. “A Study of the Strength of Coal Pillars,” J. S.

Excavation in a Saturated Soil

The problem is three-dimensional but, by symmetry, a quarter of the domain

bulk modulus K 390 MPa

water density ρw 1000 kg/m3

wall density ρwall 1500 kg/m3

permeability k 10-12 m2/Pa-s

Figure 1: Excavation – quarter-section.

Figure 2: Model and history locations.

As an illustration of the modeling procedure for a staged excavation, the analysis

Figure 3: Pore-pressure contours after undrained excavation.

Figure 4: Pore-pressure contours after rapid drainage of the excavation.

Figure 5: Pore-pressure contours after groundwater flow reaches steady state.

Figure 6: Vertical displacement histories at three points in the excavation base.

Figure 7: Steady-state fluid flow into the excavation.

; --- geometrical model ---

; --- fluid flow model ---