Architectural Design Analysis as a Strategy for People

Environment Studies: Finding Spaces “That Work”.

Doris C.C.K. Kowaltowski, Silvia A. Mikami G. Pina and Raquel R.M.P.
Barros
Department of Architecture and Building, School of Civil Engineering, Architecture and
Urban Design, State University of Campinas, UNICAMP
CP 6021, 13083-852, Campinas, SP, Brazil
doris@fec.unicamp.br

Abstract

This paper describes a study of concepts of environmental psychology and their presence and
representation in architectural designs. Architectural journals were used in the analysis of
design iconography (drawings and photographs). Different architectural typologies were
investigated to exemplify specific elements in relation to concepts of environmental
psychology. The purpose of the study was to gain a better understanding of these concepts
and their appropriate physical settings. Examples that represent the concept of personal space
were emphasized. The understanding of psychological concepts in their architectural context
is seen as essential in a quality design process. A number of design solutions were identified
in the design iconography investigated. Specific examples were studied for application to
Brazilian situations. The results showed that typical examples found in architectural
publications do not easily exemplify psychological concepts and in Brazilian journals
examples were few and less representative. Since journals influence both the professional and
student design processes special efforts should be made to amplify architectural criticism with
demonstrations of spaces “that work”.

Keyword: Architectural Design, Iconography, Architectural Journals, Environmental

Psychology.

Introduction

This paper presents a study on concepts of environmental psychology and its representation in
architectural designs. Environmental psychology has increasingly been a subject of discussion
in architectural studies. However, the concepts of territoriality, privacy, personal space and
security, among the most influential environmental psychological factors in design, are often
only discussed on a theoretical basis and their translation in to architectural configurations are
not always correctly incorporated. The typical design process does not follow rules that
guarantee the introduction of the rich knowledge coming from environmental psychology
research. Therefore, studies relating behavioral and psychological concepts to design
decisions are still very much in need. Such investigations should primarily point out spatial
configurations that provide the proper behavioral settings, or create what may be termed
“spaces that work”.

To avoid excessive subjectivity in design activities research has looked at the creative process
in architecture. Design methods have been devised to add structure to the decision-making
process and their goal has been to produce design solutions with a higher response to user
desires and necessities. Studies show that in architecture the creative process does not follow
rigid rules and problems in design are considered “wicked” (DÜLGEROGLU, 1999; JUTLA,
1996). Due to the inherent complexity of the process, most designers give preference to
individual and informal approaches, based on trial and error (KOWALTOWSKI & LABAKI,
1993). Data is not always readily available for decisions to be made with justifications. Due to
their informal ways of procedure and lack of protocol, design methods cannot be considered
scientific. They cannot be shared or repeated and intuition is considered an important part of
the process (LANG, 1987).

Admitting the presence of uncertainty in the design decision-making process, many architects
have advocated a participative process. When a lack of information is apparent the inclusion
of a variety of opinions can stimulate the creation of new ideas (SANOFF, 1991). Research
data coming from Building Performance Assessments (BPA) or Post-Occupation Evaluations
(POE) should be made available and social, cultural and psychological concepts have entered
the discussions of design projects in a more systematic way. Checklists have been devised as
important tools to avoid erroneous design solutions. In some cases checklists are transformed
into codes and regulations. As well, a detailed architectural program is today seen as an
essential design document to share concepts and include measurable indicators that may be
used in design evaluations.

On the other hand, architectural journals, used as a major source of design inspiration in the
creative process and especially architectural students, are devoid of building performance
assessment data. Although design knowledge has been accumulated over the years, the
diverse, complex and multidisciplinary aspects of design factors are still mostly absent in
typical design criticism found in such journals. Architectural critiques are not always in line
with user opinions, perceptions and reactions. This makes the study of appropriate settings
difficult as a stimulus for the creative process in the professional or educational setting.

Conscious of the problems introduced above, a study was conducted to identify architectural
solutions that incorporate environmental psychology concepts. Architectural journals were
used in the analysis of design iconography (drawings and photographs). Different
architectural typologies were investigated to exemplify specific architectural elements in
relation to the concepts of security, privacy, personal space and territoriality. Brazilian
journals were specifically searched to enable examples to be appropriate for the local design
situations. On the whole, the purpose of the study was to gain a better understanding of these
concepts and their appropriate physical settings.

The concepts of territoriality, privacy, personal space and security

The concepts of environmental psychology are primarily related to aspects of territoriality,

privacy, personal space and security. In architectural design these aspects and their
representation is however often overlapped. Thus privacy and personal space as well as the
feelings of security can be solved through the introduction of similar architectural elements,
such as space definers, walls, fences etc... Also, specific design solutions can contribute
towards different aspects of environmental psychology.

Seen as separate concepts, territoriality can be identified as a pattern of behavior related to

control of physical space (GIFFORD, 1997). The control of space can be achieved through
habitual occupation, some form of defense, personalization and mere marking. Psychological
well-being, feelings of security and safety act on people’s attitudes and the indicators of
environmental psychology depend on the user’s perception of space as territory (NEWMAN,
1972; GIFFORD, 1997). In countries with high urban crime rates, the feelings of security are
often expressed through territoriality attitudes. The control of space is considered vital for
physical safety and prevention of crime. Fences, walls, and security bars are all signs of
defense attitudes. In Brazil, private property is highly valued, since social rights exist formally
but are not as yet psychologically trusted, and attention is given primarily towards built space
rather then open space. Private property in the form of construction is a symbol of social
status and control. The theoretical concepts of territoriality encompass the infringement of
physical space through invasion and attitudes of defense. Signs are used especially as
preventive measures. User reactions are mainly behavioral and temporal, thus the physically
striking out and letting a dog loose are typical attitudes (CROWE, 1991; GIFFORD, 1997).

Privacy is another aspect related to control and autonomy behavior. It is a process in which
interaction between people is regulated. The built environment plays a key role in facilitating
privacy. Users often will employ similar design expressions as found in territorial and security
behavior, but for privacy visual and acoustic barriers are important. Privacy in public spaces
is mainly expressed through avoiding unwanted interaction, thus keeping distance and turning
ones back to other people (GIFFORD, 1997). Walls in general help to create intimacy spaces
and allow for solitude. In Brazil the colonial or traditional house was based on an architectural
program that included internal sleeping-nooks. These unventilated and dark spaces existed for
reasons of privacy and security in colonial times. Today, bedrooms replace such dark and
often stuffy spaces, which guarantee proper ventilation and lighting, but may reduce user’s
privacy (LABAKI & KOWALTOWSKI, 1998).

Personal space as defined in environmental psychology is the distance and orientation

component of interpersonal relations. Cultural differences exist. Also when physical settings
are less spacious, interpersonal distances increase. Crowding therefore affects this concept.
With increasing urban densities more attention must be given to the provision of personal
spaces. High densities are part of Brazilian urban models, however economic pressures act on
the provision of appropriate personal spaces. Crowding occurs and these conditions can be
linked to social problems. Behavioral consequences, such as aggression and crime rates may
be linked to unfavorable spatial conditions.

Research methodology

To investigate the examples of spaces that incorporate the concepts of environmental design a
study was undertaken on two fronts. First, architectural elements that exemplify the concepts
of security, privacy, personal space and territoriality were identified. Secondly,
representational examples of these elements were searched in architectural literature. The
concept of personal space was emphasized, since it is the psychological aspect that is most
difficult to identify and design for. The research method applied to this study follows
Alexander’s conceptual model introduced in his “A Pattern Language” (1977). An “if-then”
method was applied. Figure 1 exemplifies this methodology for two specific problems. The
pattern "sequence of sitting spaces” (see fig. 1 A) addresses the different needs for comfort
and enclosure of seating areas according to their position in the intimacy gradient, and the
pattern “ceiling height variety” (see fig. 1 B) demonstrates the need for relating volume to
user densities. Each pattern describes a recurrent problem in the built environment (“if”), and
“then” the core of the solution to that problem is presented.

A: Pattern “sequence of sitting spaces” B: Pattern “ceiling height variety”

Figure 1: Examples of Alexander’s patterns (1977).
A study of architectural elements that incorporate concepts of
environmental psychology
Seven main elements were identified: spaciousness, nooks or alcoves, furniture and
equipment, visual and acoustic barriers, interpersonal distances, lighting, floor and ceiling
level changes. These elements are specifically related to the environmental psychology aspect
of personal space. Also, exterior views and differentiation in finishing materials are
considered characteristics that contribute to the efficacy of those main elements. Figure 2
illustrates those elements.

Spaciousness

Spaciousness of the physical environment allows for adjustments in interpersonal distances.

The affiliative-conflict theory (GIFFORD, 1997) maintains that we have conflicting social
motives – a desire to draw closer to others and, at the same time, a desire to move away from
others. A spacious environment that accommodates both formal and informal behaviors is
therefore comfortable, because it allows for adjustments according to the circumstances and
its appropriation by the users. Abundant and diffuse lighting, light colors of finish materials,
high ceilings or even no ceilings or lateral enclosures contribute towards a sensation of
spaciousness. At the same time, the environment should allow for intimacy, through the
formation of nooks that do not however interfere with the overall spaciousness. Hall (1966)
asserts that what can be done in a space determines the way we experience it: the sensation of
spaciousness depends for instance on the user being able to walk freely from one side to the
other, move around etc.. In comparing two environments of similar dimensions, the sensation
of spaciousness will come from the one where a minimum number of steps are necessary to
access the corners of the space. Thus users comprehend spatial dimensions without
interferences. Volume may also help with the concept of spaciousness. Alexander et al.
(1977) specifies different ceiling heights according to uses, capacity and intimacy gradient of
spaces. High ceilings are considered adequate for large gatherings (fig. 1 B).

Nooks

Nooks or alcoves can be configured through furniture, walls and different finishing materials.
They create personal space. Alexander et al. (1977) recognizes the power of nooks in several
patterns. Alcoves provide greater protection, intimacy and also confine social interactions
when based on collective conformations and sociopetal layouts. They can also be temporary
or fixed, being the latter subtracted or added to the building’s volume. Children recognize this
psychological necessity, often creating their personal spaces under tables and making tents.

Furniture and equipment

Flexible and adaptable furniture through the use of wheels and wireless technology equipment
allow for diverse layouts according to the users needs and corresponding activities.
Environmental adaptability is valued. Though often present in recent office spaces, the
designer should keep in mind the necessity of guaranteeing personal space in the midst of so
many layout options. Flexibility should not mean non-defined space. Spaces devoid of
activity definition may become “no man’s land”. On the other hand, the flexible furniture, on
wheels, allows users to create their personal nooks.

Visual and acoustic barriers

According to Gifford (1997), fear or security is an important psychological factor on personal

space. It can be materialized through visual or acoustic barriers. In public environments, a
security sensation is necessary in order to characterize personal space. An individual will need
the maximum possible field of vision in order to feel comfortable in urban situations, which
can be attained by a strategic and protected location. Barriers can isolate an individual or a
group from others. Sociopetal to sociofugal spaces may be formed through the distinctive
application of materials, changed in ceiling heights and shapes and dimensions of rooms.
When movable, barriers can integrate and contribute to the adaptability of a setting. Barriers
can also represent status when allowing an individual or a group to stand out from others.

Interpersonal distances

The complexity of human behavior demands appropriate interpersonal distances to gain

feelings of well-being. Inadequate distances, when too close, may lead to a feeling of invasion
and subsequent flight, and when too far, may lead to a feeling of indifference, loneliness.
Gifford (1997) describes several theories that try to explain an individual’s acquisition of the
rules concerning interpersonal distance. Research points out that we prefer more space
between us when the overall supply of physical space is low. Thus crowding changes our
behavior in favor of protecting our personal space. Also, the status of an individual or group
has impact on the interpersonal distance: the greater the status, the greater the distance from
others (SOMMER, 1969). Hall (1966) asserts that the development of the human body
extensions throughout history reached a degree that people tend to forget about their animal
nature. Today’s wireless equipment can be considered the new human body extensions,
usually requiring a greater interpersonal distance in order to keep acoustic and visual privacy.
However, these new technological developments also isolate humans in their wireless world.
This may cause behavioral consequences in interpersonal situations. New social and
behavioral patterns are seen as necessary to avoid conflict. Architecture in this case has not
yet found solutions to this isolation of an individual in a crowd.

Lighting

Human perception of space relies largely on vision (Hall (1966). Sommer (1969) maintains
that personal space is a phenomenon that only happens under light. Within our visual cone,
light and shadow differentiate space. Natural or artificial light can delimitate a specific area
when point sources are used. Thus, personal space is defined through light level
differentiation. Color can be an additional element to characterize the spatial definition.

Floor and ceiling level changes

Floor and ceiling level changes play a significant role on the differentiation of spaces.
Alexander (1977) asserts that the relative intimacy of different spaces should be felt between
rooms, especially between those that connect. More public rooms need higher ceilings. Level
changes might also emphasize the status of an individual or a group. People placed in a higher
spot may acquire a feeling of higher status (SOMMER, 1969; HALL, 1966; GIFFORD,
1997). The superior position affords supervision and increases privacy. The “half-way height”
pattern of Alexander exemplifies this necessity well. Thus ground floor apartments should be
raised above street level to let people oversee street life, but without invasion of privacy from
the street itself. In office design top floors are reserved for the directors and in societies with
large social differences apartment buildings are favored by the upper classes to assert their
“superiority”. This can be seen in urban situations in Brazil.
 A: Spaciousness B: Nooks C: Furniture and equipment

D: Visual and acoustic E: Interpersonal distances F: Lighting

barriers

G: Floor and ceiling level changes

Figure 2: Identified architectural elements

Literature search for representation of architectural elements

A search was undertaken in architectural journals and design publications of the last ten years
to find spaces or design solutions that have incorporated the elements discussed above.
Brazilian journals were included. Nine design projects were identified as good examples for
the creation of personal spaces. Figure 3 shows these examples.

The New York City restaurant is a renovation of an old warehouse building. A high ceiling,
abundant daylight and white walls characterize the design. Frosted-glass panels partition the
various areas, providing a variety of configurations that allow for a degree of intimacy as part
of a larger space. Different personal space situations are created. Thus small and large groups
are accommodated and individuals can isolate themselves or start interpersonal relation
through choice of seating. The long communal table (marked 3 on the plan in fig. 3 A) is
particularly interesting in providing proper personal space configuration for people dining
alone. They have a protective barrier in the back and observe the space and the entrance, thus
affording users visibility and control. Red banners further mark this space. Access to the
restaurant is confined behind a curved-frosted-glass wall to create a transition space between
the public sphere of the street and the (semi) privacy of the dining area.

In contrast the restaurant in figure 3 B is located underground and no daylight is provided. It

has several interesting spaces. First, the sociofugal shape of the bar (marked 4 on the plan)
inhibits eye contact of users, thus interpersonal relations are reduced and the time spent there
is controlled by this architectural element. Nooks are well defined for group dining, and are
always set against walls for additional protection. A private dining room (marked 6 on the
plan) is set at a higher level with windows overlooking the general dining area and conferring
acoustic privacy. This space affords privacy and status of special groups.

The third restaurant space is defined through rubber “bubbles” or shells that are clad in
aluminum. Their internal surfaces have distinctive and separate color, increasing
identification of personal spaces. The “bubbles” are of varying size, thus in some cases
several groups may dine together in one colored space. Larger shells have flexible walls to
allow specific group configurations. Not all tables are housed in the shells but a large open
space is provided for small tables preferred by individuals dining alone. See fig. 3 C.

Figure 3 D presents a school design addition. Here the roof of two new classrooms provides a
special space for student groups to observe and be observed. Railings divide this area to allow
for several groups to congregate. In the school environment the level change may imply in
special group domination of this area. The new rooms have different ceiling heights and thus,
the space is divided into different group spaces. The lowest ceiling provides a special nook or
children’s retreat.

The office space in figure 3 E consists of a renovation of the upper two floors of an old
industrial building with high ceilings and daylight coming from the upper level’s clerestory
windows. Two kinds of social areas were created. Some of these areas are large with
comfortable chairs and coffee tables that allow for casual interaction. The many smaller ones
permit co-workers to collaborate on projects. Teamwork is encouraged through movable
desks along “zippers” or spines of workstations that roll on in-line-skate wheels, with storage
space called “suitcases” sliding along the upper portion. Checkerboard “gullwings” act as
movable acoustic barriers for privacy. Window openings between the “wood zipper”
workstations allow for contact when desired. Different finishing materials create a sense of
variety. A few private offices are also included in the office plan shown in the figure as -
marked by the number “7” .

The house in Athens represented in figure 3 F provides personal space in the kitchen and in
the office space through pools of light. In the house in Oakville the study nook is determined
by focal daylight and floor and ceiling level changes (fig. 3 G).

The house in Berkeley provides a bed nook that is characterized by enclosing walls and
furniture (fig. 3 H), and at the Tugendhat house, the dinning space is created by a sociopetal
wall (fig. 3 I).

A: 66 New York City Restaurant. N.Y. R. Meier & partners, 2003. ARCHITECTURAL RECORD,
2003.
B: Lever House Restaurant. N.Y. Groupe M. Newson, 2003. ARCHITECTURAL RECORD, 2003.

1: coat check/ rest

rooms
2: bar
3: kitchen
4: VIP dining
5: reflecting pool
tables

C: Georges Restaurant. Paris. D. Jakob & B. MacFarlane, 1997. ARCHITECTURAL RECORD,

2000.

D: School addition at Brunswick, Sheffield, U.K. E. Vettori Archs., 2002. THE ARCHITECTS’
JOURNAL, 2004.
E: Oxygen Media Offices. N.Y. Fernau & Hartman, 1999. ARCHITECTURAL RECORD, 2000.

F: House in Athens. A. Tombazis, 1992. FONTOYNONT, 1999.

G: House in Oakville, CA. Turnbull Assoc. H: House in Berkeley, CA. Carney Archs.
JACOBSON et al, 2002. JACOBSON et al, 2002.

I: Tugendhat House. Brno, Czechoslovakia. Mies Van der Rohe, 1928-30. CARTER, 1999.
Figure 3: Design projects that support personal space.
Conclusions

The results of this study revealed that the identified elements -- spaciousness, nooks, furniture
and equipment, visual and acoustic barriers, interpersonal distances, lighting, and floor and
ceiling level changes occur in an associated way. When consciously considered in the
conception of a design, those architectural elements may emphasize interpersonal relations in
the built environment, leading to users’ positive reactions and therefore contributing to their
comfort.

The environments that provide closeness emphasize the protection of its users and are
configured by nooks, visual and acoustic barriers, furniture as well as floor and ceiling level
changes. Lighting and finishing materials are shown to play an important role also. When
present in the built environment in a collective form, they allow for adequate interpersonal
distances of social interactions. The “Lever House” and “Georges” restaurants, as well as the
residential designs clearly represent proper enclosure settings. On the other hand, spacious
environments emphasize communication among people. They are characterized by abundant
and diffuse lighting, high ceilings, exterior views, few elements of enclosure, flexible
furniture, adaptable equipment and flexible physical barriers. Diverse layouts for a variety of
individual or group users are offered. These take into account different interpersonal distances
and intimacy gradients. The “66 N.Y. City” restaurant, the Brunswick school addition and the
Oxygen Media offices take advantage of those elements.

Architectural perception to the issues that influence people-environment relations is important

in a productive and sensitive creative process. Investigation of the kind presented here should
be encouraged, especially in architectural education. The design iconography from
architectural journals and publications offers access to a diverse repertoire in varied contexts.
But this material must be used with discretion since design analysis is often hampered by a
lack of human figures in the images, and often these may be distorted to emphasize formal
aesthetic issues. To the untrained eye these factors of architectural representation may not be
apparent and must be discussed in the design teaching studios. Alexander (2002) maintains
that from the second half of the 20th century on, buildings have been judged more by the way
they look in magazines than by the satisfaction people feel when using them.

As a continuation of this study a more focused and specific research is recommended in order
to accumulate quantitative and qualitative data for design application. Measurable distances
appropriate to spaces “that really work” are important to insure design quality. Distances vary
depending on the different uses and on the public or private character of the spaces. Designers
must be made aware of these differences. Other aspects, such as climatic and cultural
differences, which include differing sensorial responses to the environment, must be
considered as well. Although the concept of personal space was emphasized in this study, it is
clear from the discussion above that other aspects of environmental psychology overlap when
architectural elements are defined. Thus barriers, nooks, level changes and lighting definitions
can contribute as well towards the concepts of territoriality, privacy and security.

The study presented here and has initiated a catalogue of architectural design elements that
influence the environment-behavior relation. The understanding of these issues by architects
and their conscious consideration in the early phases of design should allow for a built-
environment that responds to a wider range of user needs. It is hoped that more investigations
of this kind will lead towards a greater incorporation of spaces “that work” in architectural
and urban design.

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