Excerpts from Interview #1:

(CGPA 7.24 in Graduation, 84.5% in 12th and 86.2% in 10th)

 What is your strong point in terms of technical knowledge? Like JAVA, C, C++.
 What is inheritance? What are the different types of inheritance?
 What are any two the differences between C++ and Java?
 How modularity is present in C++?
 How abstraction and encapsulation complementary?
 What is a linked list?
 Differentiate between Arrays and Linked List.
 What is the difference between array and pointer?
 Some discussion about my hobbies. Which one is your favorite & why? What does it teach you?
 Why are you not pursuing dance or basketball as your career? (I mentioned dance & basketball as my hobbies).
 Tell me one real time situation where you have emerged as a Leader?

Excerpts from Interview #2:

(CCET CSE student with 10th score 92%, 12th 90% and CGPA 7.94, having good extra-curricular activities record)

 What do you mean by platform independence?

 What do you know about Unix and DOS?
 Do you know about different level of languages?
 What is the word used for virtual machine in JAVA? How is it implemented?
 List different advantages of DBMS
 What is the process of inheriting variable of one class to other class?
 What are tokens in C++? What are its different types?
 Why have you applied at Infosys?
 Tell us about the company and its positioning as compared to its competitors?
 What makes you stand out against all the other candidates?
 Do you have any question for us?
Infosys Preparation Links

 Actual Infosys Interview Questions

 All About Infosys
 Sample Aptitude Questions of Infosys
 Free Mock Infosys Placement Paper
 Join free prep course for Infosys
 Test Pattern & Selection Procedure of Infosys
 Technical Questions asked in Infosys
 Infosys Sample Verbal Questions
 Infosys Reasoning Questions
 Complete preparation course of Infosys

Excerpts from Interview #3:

(CSE 9.23 in Graduation, with 10th score 95%, 12th 92%)

 List out the areas in which data structures are applied extensively?
 Difference between Class and Struct.
 What is the difference between white box, black box, and gray box testing?
 Tell us about the three levels of data abstraction? Which layer is at the user end?
 Give different types of software model. Which model is best amongst them?
 Write a program in C to swap two numbers without using a third variable.
 Describe yourself.
 Where would you like to work: software developing or software testing?
 Why do you want to work at our company?
 Why should we prefer you to other candidates?
 What technical/functional areas interest you most? What would you be passionate about working on? Why?

Excerpts from Interview #4:

(CCET CSE student with Xth score 87%, XIIth 85% and cgpa 7.65)

 What are the various steps involved in Life cycle's Development?

 What do you know about IPv4 and IPv6? Differentiate between them.
 What is difference and similarity between C and C++ ?
 Define polymorphism.
 Differentiate between 'a' and "a".
 What is preprocessor?
 Write a program to decide whether the input number is a prime number or not.
 What is the difference between Char and Varchar in DBMS?
 Difference between Macro and ordinary definition.
 Where do you see yourself in the next five years?
 What is your biggest achievement till now?
 Tell us about your ultimate goal in life.
 Discuss the most stressful situation you’ve faced in college life.
 What personal attributes do you have that will help you succeed in the work place?

Excerpts from Interview #5:

(A B.Engg – ECE student with 7.34 CGPA and having 87.5 % in 12th and 90 % in 10th standard.)

 What is a pointer in C? What is its use?

 Tell us the difference between C & embedded C.
 Explain the most recent project you have worked on (from resume).
 Write a program to decide whether the input number is a perfect number or not.
 Give different modulation techniques.
 What is a Real Time OS.?
 What is implicit cursor?
 Why do you think you are fit for our organization?
 You had to wait for more than 5 hours for the interview. Are you feeling tired?
 Tell me how was your online test?
 What is your father’s occupation? What is his job location?
 Who is your role model? What have you incorporated in your life from him/her?
 Do you live in a hostel or at home?

Excerpts from Interview #6:

(ECE student, CGPA 7.58 in Graduation, 84.6% in 12th and 89.2% in 10th.)
 What is a Zener diode? What is its use?
 Difference between TCP and UDP.
 Draw the circuit of a low pass filter? Where is its significance?
 What is an IC? What is its importance?
 Define VLSI technology.
 Differentiate between LCD & LED screens.
 What is the main function of a data link content monitor?
 What are the communications lines best suited to interactive processing applications?
 Introduce yourself and tell us something apart from the Resume.
 Do you have an offer from any other organization?
 Why do you want to work for us? Where do you see yourself in 8-10 years from now?
 How would you describe your college life?
 What are your strengths and weaknesses? What are you doing to overcome your weaknesses?
 Mention a person who is your role model in life.
 Where do you rate yourself (out of 10) as an engineer?

Syllabus for Interview

 C/OOPS/ C++ or Java (all branches)

 Coding Questions (all branches)
 OS/CN/Software Engineering/DBMS (CS/IT branches)
 Project specific theory from Resume(all Branches)

Interview Questions for Infosys Freshers Facts –

Interview Questions for Percentage Duration Spent for Percentage Duration Spent for Difficulty
Most asked Question
Freshers in Infosys section (CS/IT) section (Others) Level

C 10 20 Medium What is pre-processor in C

OOPS (C++/Java) 30 10 Hard Difference between Procedu

OOPS Language

Coding 30 30 Medium Factorial of number by Recu

Core Branch Specific 20 20 Medium Depends on Branch to branc

Subjects

Projects 10 10 Easy Draw Circuit Diagram of pro

explain each unit in detail

SAMPLE STUDENT INTERVIEW EXPERIENCE

1. Name: Aishwarya Panadian
2. Branch: IT
3. College: Meenakshi Sundararajan Engineering College
4. Type of Interview: Off-Campus
Student Interview
While I was studying in college, my roommate and I often use to discuss about being placed
at Infosys. With the boom in the industry at that time, Infosys opted for off-campus
recruitment. They accepted interview applications
via http://campusconnect.infosys.com/registration/studentregistration.aspx. I filled up all the
details on this portal, and I got an email for Online Exam going to be conducted in Jeppiaar
Engineering College, Chennai.

The Online Test

This test comprises of three sections, namely,

· Quantitative Ability

· Logical Ability

· Verbal Ability

From school days, I was not good at Maths and was a bit nervous to appear for Quantitative
Aptitude and Logical Reasoning. The only thing which saved me was that the prior practice
of questions with PrepInsta. I got a major idea of questions to be asked, and I got a firm belief
that I will clear the exam. My only strong zone was English and vocabulary. I relied on
verbal section a lot. After quickly completing the questions of previous two sections, I was
waiting to appear on the subject of my interest.

After a series of thorough verification I managed to answer 35 questions with 99%

confidence, but for the remaining five questions, I had fewer clues. Overall, I was confident
enough to crack the first level of the interview. It was a great moment, and my heart started
pounding knowing that I have been shortlisted for next round of interview that will be
happening the next day.

The HR Interview

The interviewer welcomed me with a pleasing smile and asked to sit. He started going
through my documents and asked me to tell about myself, and I did. I expected programming
questions and codes related stuff. But I got nothing of that sort. He brought a list of questions
my way that included, What do you think will be the future of IT industry? I answered AI.
Artificial Intelligence is one vertical which makes a long-lasting impact on the planet. There
were some more questions such as

· What is your project all about?

· Why should Infosys hire you? How will you contribute to the growth of the company?

· What do you know about Infosys?

· Are you comfortable with working in shifts?

· Which subject you like and why?

While losing confidence in one or two questions, I responded well to the rest of the questions.
I believe the round was to check my communication skills. I was expecting a positive result
after answering all the questions.

That was an extended week than a usual one when I had to wait for the final results. Finally,
on a Sunday evening, I received the mail from them saying that I was selected as the system
engineer trainee role.

1.Difference between C and C++?

a) C follows the procedural programming paradigm while C++ is a multi-paradigm language (procedural
as well as object oriented)
In case of C, importance is given to the steps or procedure of the program while C++ focuses on the
data rather than the process.
Also, it is easier to implement/edit the code in case of C++ for the same reason.
b) In case of C, the data is not secured while the data is secured (hidden) in C++
This difference is due to specific OOP features like Data Hiding which are not present in C.
c) C is a low-level language while C++ is a middle-level language
C is regarded as a low-level language (difficult interpretation & less user friendly) while C++ has
features of both low-level (concentration on what's going on in the machine hardware) & high-level
languages (concentration on the program itself) & hence is regarded as a middle-level language.
d) C uses the top-down approach while C++ uses the bottom-up approach
In case of C, the program is formulated step by step, each step is processed into detail while in C++,
the base elements are first formulated which then are linked together to give rise to larger systems.
e) C is function-driven while C++ is object-driven
Functions are the building blocks of a C program while objects are building blocks of a C++ program.
f) C++ supports function overloading while C does not
Overloading means two functions having the same name in the same program. This can be done only
in C++ with the help of Polymorphism (an OOP feature)
g) We can use functions inside structures in C++ but not in C.
In case of C++, functions can be used inside a structure while structures cannot contain functions in C.
h) The NAMESPACE feature in C++ is absent in case of C
C++ uses NAMESPACE which avoid name collisions. For instance, two students enrolled in the same
university cannot have the same roll number while two students in different universities might have the
same roll number. The universities are two different namespace & hence contain the same roll number
(identifier) but the same university (one namespace) cannot have two students with the same roll
number (identifier)
i) The standard input & output functions differ in the two languages
C uses scanf & printf while C++ uses cin>> & cout<< as their respective input & output functions
j) C++ allows the use of reference variables while C does not
Reference variables allow two variable names to point to the same memory location. We cannot use
these variables in C programming.
k) C++ supports Exception Handling while C does not.
C does not support it "formally" but it can always be implemented by other methods. Though you don't
have the framework to throw & catch exceptions as in C++.

2.What is null pointer?

When referring to computer memory, a null pointer is a command used to direct a software program or
operating system to an empty location in the computer memory. Commonly, the null pointer is used to
denote the end of a memory search or processing event. In computer programming, a null pointer is a
pointer that does not point to any object or function.
A nil pointer is a false value. For example, 1 > 2 is a nil statement.
In the programming language C, NULL is an available command that can be used, where nil is an
available command used in the Pascal programming language.

3.What are the 4 basics of OOP?

Abstraction, Inheritance, Encapsulation, and Polymorphism.

4.What you mean by Object Relational DBMS?

An object-relational database (ORD), or object-relational database management system (ORDBMS), is
a database management system (DBMS) similar to a relational database, but with an object-oriented
database model: objects, classes and inheritance are directly supported in database schemas and in
the query language. In addition, just as with proper relational systems, it supports extension of the data
model with custom data-types and methods.

5.Structural difference between bitmap and b-tree index ?

Btree
It is made of branch nodes and leaf nodes. Branch nodes holds prefix key value along with the link to
the leaf node. The leaf node in turn contains the indexed value and rowed.
Bitmap
It simply consists of bits for every single distinct value. It uses a string of bits to quickly locate rows in a
table. Used to index low cardinality columns.

6.what is database Schema?

The formal definition of database schema is a set of formulas (sentences) called integrity constraints
imposed on a database.

7.what are the different levels of database schema?

Conceptual schema- a map of concepts and their relationships.
Logical schema- a map of entities and their attributes and relations
Physical schema- a particular implementation of a logical schema
Schema object- Oracle database object

8.what is difference between foreign key and reference key ?

Reference Key is the primary key that is referenced in the other table (linked via the other tables
Foreign Key). Foreign Key is how you link the second table to the primary tables Primary Key (or
Reference Key).

9.Tell me about DSN?

A Data Source Name (DSN) is the logical name that is used by Open Database Connectivity (ODBC) to
refer to the drive and other information that is required to access data. The name is used by Internet
Information Services (IIS) for a connection to an ODBC data source, such as a Microsoft SQL Server
database.
10.ifference between Clustered index and non clustered index ?
Clustered Index
Only one per table
Faster to read than non clustered as data is physically stored in index order
Non Clustered Index
Can be used many times per table
Quicker for insert and update operations than a clustered index

11.What is WPF and WCF?

WPF/WCF application, need in .NET 3.0 Framework. This application will cover the following concepts:
WCF(Windows Communication Foundation)
The new service orientated attributes
The use of interfaces
The use of callbacks
Asynchronous delegates
Creating the proxy
WPF( Windows Presentation Foundation )
Styles
Templates
Animations
Databinding
Multithreading a WPF application

12.What is the difference between an EXE and a DLL?

The term EXE is a shortened version of the word executable as it identifies the file as a program. On
the other hand, DLL stands for Dynamic Link Library, which commonly contains functions and
procedures that can be used by other programs.
10.Scenarios in which web application should be used and desktop application should be used?

13.Tell how to check whether a linked list is circular.

Create two pointers, each set to the start of the list. Update each as follows:
while (pointer1) {
pointer1 = pointer1->next;
pointer2 = pointer2->next; if (pointer2) pointer2=pointer2->next;
if (pointer1 == pointer2) {
print ("circular\n");
}
}

14.How can u increase the heap size in the memory?

If heap size set too low then you will get "out of memory" errors. If you set it too high then
your system will hang or you will suffer poor performance because parts of the jvm will be
swapped in and out of memory. A rule of thumb is that you should not set this parameter
larger than about 80% of your free physical memory. On Windows XP machines you can
determine your free physical memory from the Performance tab of the Task Manager
application.
Boosting the heap size parameter will allow you to read in larger file-based projects. It will
also improve the performance of the database back-end since more memory is available for
caching.In Java Set the maximum heap size, using the -Xmx command-line option, to a
value that allows the application to run with 70% occupancy of the Java heap.The Java
heap occupancy often varies over time as the load applied to the application varies. For
applications where occupancy varies, set the maximum Java heap size so that there is 70%
occupancy at the highest point, and set the minimum heap size, using the -Xms command
line option, so that the Java heap is 40% occupied at its lowest memory usage. If these
values are set, the Java memory management algortihms can modify the heap size over
time according to the application load, while maintaining usage in the optimal area of
between 40% and 70% occupancy.

15.Why is it difficult to store linked list in an array?

Both Arrays and Linked List can be used to store linear data of similar types.
Linked list provide dynamic size while the size of array is fixed, So we must know the upper limit on the
number of elements in advance.
Linked lists have following drawbacks:
1) Random access is not allowed. We have to access elements sequentially starting from the first node.
So we cannot do binary search with linked lists.
2) Extra memory space for a pointer is required with each element of the list.
3) Arrays have better cache locality that can make a pretty big difference in performance.

16.Different types of keys in SQL?

The different types of Keys in sql server are,

A candidate key acts as a unique key. A unique key can be a Primary key. A candidate key can be a
single column or combination of columns. Multiple candidate keys are allowed in a table.

Primary Key
To uniquely identify a row, Primary key is used.
A table allows only one Primary key
A Primary key can be a single column or combination of columns.

Foreign Key
A foreign key in a table is a key which refer another table’s primary key . A primary key can be referred
by multiple foreign keys from other tables. It is not required for a primary key to be the reference of any
foreign keys. The interesting part is that a foreign key can refer back to the same table but to a different
column. This kind of foreign key is known as “self-referencing foreign key”.

17.Explain about Joins, Views, Normalization, Triggers?

The JOIN keyword is used in an SQL statement to query data from two or more tables, based on a
relationship between certain columns in these tables.
Tables in a database are often related to each other with keys.
A view is a virtual table.A view contains rows and columns, just like a real table. The fields in a view are
fields from one or more real tables in the database.
You can add SQL functions, WHERE, and JOIN statements to a view and present the data as if the
data were coming from one single table.

Normalization is the process of efficiently organizing data in a database. There are two goals of the
normalization process: eliminating redundant data (for example, storing the same data in more than
one table) and ensuring data dependencies make sense (only storing related data in a table). Both of
these are worthy goals as they reduce the amount of space a database consumes and ensure that data
is logically stored.

First Normal Form (1NF)

sets the very basic rules for an organized database:
Eliminate duplicative columns from the same table.
Create separate tables for each group of related data and identify each row with a unique column or set
of columns (the primary key).

Second Normal Form (2NF)

further addresses the concept of removing duplicative data:
Meet all the requirements of the first normal form.
Remove subsets of data that apply to multiple rows of a table and place them in separate tables.
Create relationships between these new tables and their predecessors through the use of foreign keys.

Third Normal Form (3NF)

Meet all the requirements of the second normal form.
Remove columns that are not dependent upon the primary key.

Boyce-Codd Normal Form (BCNF or 3.5NF)

It also referred to as the "third and half (3.5) normal form", adds one more requirement:
Meet all the requirements of the third normal form.
Every determinant must be a candidate key.

Fourth Normal Form (4NF)

Meet all the requirements of the third normal form.
A relation is in 4NF if it has no multi-valued dependencies.
Remember, these normalization guidelines are cumulative. For a database to be in 2NF, it must first
fulfill all the criteria of a 1NF database.
In a DBMS, a trigger is a SQL procedure that initiates an action (i.e., fires an action) when an event
(INSERT, DELETE or UPDATE) occurs. Since triggers are event-driven specialized procedures, they
are stored in and managed by the DBMS. A trigger cannot be called or executed; the DBMS
automatically fires the trigger as a result of a data modification to the associated table. Triggers are
used to maintain the referential integrity of data by changing the data in a systematic fashion. Each
trigger is attached to a single, specified table in the database.

18.what is the difference between socket and session?

The Socket is a Combination of Ip address and Port Number (in pairs)
Session is a Logical Connectivity between the source and destination

19.What is a default gateway?

In organizational systems a gateway is a node that routes the traffic from a workstation to another
network segment. The default gateway commonly connects the internal networks and the outside
network (Internet). In such a situation, the gateway node could also act as a proxy server and a firewall.
The gateway is also associated with both a router, which uses headers and forwarding tables to
determine where packets are sent, and a switch, which provides the actual path for the packet in and
out of the gateway.

20.Given an array of 1s and 0s arrange the 1s together and 0s together in a single scan of the
array. Optimize the boundary conditions.
void main()
{
int A[10]={'0','1','0','1','0','0','0','1','0','1','0','0'};
int x=0,y=A.length-1;
while(x<y){
if(!A[x])
x++;
else if(A[y])
y--;
if(A[x] && !A[y])//here we are checking that stating index is having 1 and last index having 0 than swap
values</y){
A[x]=0,A[y]=1;
}
getch()
}

21.Define Data Abstraction. What is its importance?

Abstraction is the process of recognizing and focusing on important characteristics of a situation or
object and leaving/filtering out the un-wanted characteristics of that situation or object.
Abstraction is the basis for software development. Its through abstraction we define the essential
aspects of a system. The process of identifying the abstractions for a given system is called as
Modeling (or object modeling).
Three levels of data abstraction are:
1. Physical level : how the data is stored physically and where it is stored in database.
2. Logical level : what information or data is stored in the database. eg: Database administrator
3.View level : end users work on view level. if any amendment is made it can be saved by other name.

22.Write a program to swap two numbers without using a temporary variable.

void swap(int &i, int &j)
{
i=i+j;
j=i-j;
i=i-j;
}

23.Memory Allocation in C/C++

calloc() allocates a memory area, the length will be the product of its parameters(it has two
parameters). calloc fills the memory with ZERO's and returns a pointer to first byte. If it fails to locate
enough space it returns a NULL pointer.
malloc() allocates a memory area, length will be value entered as parameter.(it has one parameter). It
does not initializes memory area
free() used to free the allocated memory(allocated through calloc and malloc), in other words, this used
release the allocated memory
new also used to allocate memory on heap and initialize the memory using constructor
delete also used release memory allocated by new operator

24.Write output of the program?

int i=10;
printf("%d%d%d",i,++i,i++);
Answer = 10 12 12

25.what is virtual function and pure virtual function?

Virtual function:-To achieve polymorphism, function in base class is declared as virtual , By declare
virtual we make base class pointer to execute function of any derived class depends on content of
pointer (any derived class address).
Pure Virtual Function :-This is function used in base class, and its defination has to be provide in
derived class, In other pure virtual function has not defination in base it defined as :
virtual void fun()=0;
This means that this function not going to do anything, In case of pure virtual funtion derived function
has to
implement pure virtual function or redeclare it as pure virtual function

1. What is your strongest programming language (Java, ASP, C, C++, VB, HTML, C#, etc.)?
Point to remember: Before interview You should decide your Favorite programming language and be
prepared based on that question.

2.Differences between C and Java?

1.JAVA is Object-Oriented while C is procedural.
2.Java is an Interpreted language while C is a compiled language.
3.C is a low-level language while JAVA is a high-level language.
4.C uses the top-down approach while JAVA uses the bottom-up approach.
5.Pointer go backstage in JAVA while C requires explicit handling of pointers.
6.The Behind-the-scenes Memory Management with JAVA & The User-Based Memory Management in
C.
7.JAVA supports Method Overloading while C does not support overloading at all.
8.Unlike C, JAVA does not support Preprocessors, & does not really them.
9.The standard Input & Output Functions--C uses the printf & scanf functions as its standard
input & output while JAVA uses the System.out.print & System.in.read functions.
10.Exception Handling in JAVA And the errors & crashes in C.

3.In header files whether functions are declared or defined?

Functions are declared within header file. That is function prototypes exist in a header
file,not function bodies. They are defined in library (lib).

4.What are the different storage classes in C ?

There are four types of storage classes in C. They are extern, register, auto and static

5.What does static variable mean?

Static is an access qualifier. If a variable is declared as static inside a function, the scope is limited to
the function,but it will exists for the life time of the program. Values will be persisted between
successive
calls to a function

6.How do you print an address ?

Use %p in printf to print the address.

7.What are macros? what are its advantages and disadvantages?

Macros are processor directive which will be replaced at compile time.
The disadvantage with macros is that they just replace the code they are not function calls. similarly the
advantage is they can reduce time for replacing the same values.

8.Difference between pass by reference and pass by value?

Pass by value just passes the value from caller to calling function so the called function
cannot modify the values in caller function. But Pass by reference will pass the address to
the caller function instead of value if called function requires to modify any value it can
directly modify.
9.What is an object?
Object is a software bundle of variables and related methods. Objects have state and behavior

10.What is a class?
Class is a user-defined data type in C++. It can be created to solve a particular kind of problem. After
creation the user need not know the specifics of the working of a class.

11.What is the difference between class and structure?

Structure: Initially (in C) a structure was used to bundle different type of data types together to perform
a particular functionality. But C++ extended the structure to contain functions also.
The major difference is that all declarations inside a structure are by default public.
Class: Class is a successor of Structure. By default all the members inside the class are private.

12. What is ponter?

Pointer is a variable in a program is something with a name, the value of which can vary. The way the
compiler and linker handles this is that it assigns
a specific block of memory within the computer to hold the value of that variable.

13.What is the difference between null and void pointer?

A Null pointer has the value 0. void pointer is a generic pointer introduced by ANSI. Generic pointer can
hold the address of any data type.

14.what is function overloading

Function overloading is a feature of C++ that allows us to create multiple functions with the same
name, so long as they have different parameters.Consider the following function:
int Add(int nX, int nY)
{
return nX + nY;
}

15.What is function overloading and operator overloading?

Function overloading: C++ enables several functions of the same name to be defined, as long as these
functions have different sets of parameters (at least as far as their types are concerned). This capability
is called function overloading. When an overloaded function is called, the C++ compiler selects the
proper function by examining the number, types and order of the arguments in the call. Function
overloading is commonly used to create several functions of the same name that perform similar tasks
but on different data types.
Operator overloading allows existing C++ operators to be redefined so that they work on objects of
user-defined classes. Overloaded operators are syntactic sugar for equivalent function calls. They form
a pleasant facade that doesn't add anything fundamental to the language (but they can improve
understandability and reduce maintenance costs).

16.what is friend function?

A friend function for a class is used in object-oriented programming to allow access to public, private,
or protected data in the class from the outside.
Normally, a function that is not a member of a class cannot access such information; neither can an
external class. Occasionally, such access will be advantageous for the programmer. Under these
circumstances, the function or external class can be declared as a friend of the class using the friend
keyword.

17.What do you mean by inline function?

The idea behind inline functions is to insert the code of a called function at the point where
the function is called. If done carefully, this can improve the application's performance in
exchange for increased compile time and possibly (but not always) an increase in the size
of the generated binary executables.
18. Tell me something about abstract classes?
An abstract class is a class which does not fully represent an object. Instead, it represents a
broad range of different classes of objects. However, this representation extends only to the
features that those classes of objects have in common. Thus, an abstract class provides
only a partial description of its objects.
19.What is the difference between realloc() and free()?
The free subroutine frees a block of memory previously allocated by the malloc subroutine.
Undefined results occur if the Pointer parameter is not a valid pointer. If the Pointer
parameter is a null value, no action will occur. The realloc subroutine changes the size of
the block of memory pointed to by the Pointer parameter to the number of bytes specified by
the Size parameter and returns a new pointer to the block. The pointer specified by the
Pointer parameter must have been created with the malloc, calloc, or realloc subroutines
and not been deallocated with the free or realloc subroutines. Undefined results occur if the
Pointer parameter is not a valid pointer.

20.What is the difference between an array and a list?

Array is collection of homogeneous elements. List is collection of heterogeneous elements.
For Array memory allocated is static and continuous. For List memory allocated is dynamic and
Random.
Array: User need not have to keep in track of next memory allocation.
List: User has to keep in Track of next location where memory is allocated.
Array uses direct access of stored members, list uses sequential access for members.

21.What are the differences between structures and arrays?

Arrays is a group of similar data types but Structures can be group of different data types

22.What is data structure?

A data structure is a way of organizing data that considers not only the items stored, but
also their relationship to each other. Advance knowledge about the relationship between
data items allows designing of efficient algorithms for the manipulation of data.
23. Can you list out the areas in which data structures are applied extensively?
Compiler Design,
Operating System,
Database Management System,
Statistical analysis package,
Numerical Analysis,
Graphics,
Artificial Intelligence,
Simulation

24.What are the advantages of inheritance?

It permits code reusability. Reusability saves time in program development. It encourages the reuse of
proven and debugged high-quality software, thus reducing problem after a system becomes functional.

25. what are the two integrity rules used in DBMS?

The two types of integrity rules are referential integrity rules and entity integrity rules. Referential
integrity rules dictate that a database does not contain orphan foreign key values. This means that
A primary key value cannot be modified if the value is used as a foreign key in a child table. Entity
integrity dictates that the primary key value cannot be Null.

26. Tell something about deadlock and how can we prevent dead lock?
In an operating system, a deadlock is a situation which occurs when a process enters a waiting state
because a resource requested by it is being held by another waiting process, which in turn is waiting for
another resource. If a process is unable to change its state indefinitely because the resources
requested by it are being used by other waiting process, then the system is said to be in a deadlock.
Mutual Exclusion: At least one resource must be non-shareable.[1] Only one process can use the
resource at any given instant of time.
Hold and Wait or Resource Holding: A process is currently holding at least one resource and requesting
additional resources which are being held by other processes.
No Preemption: The operating system must not de-allocate resources once they have been allocated;
they must be released by the holding process voluntarily.
Circular Wait: A process must be waiting for a resource which is being held by another process, which
in turn is waiting for the first process to release the resource. In general, there is a set of waiting
processes, P = {P1, P2, ..., PN}, such that P1 is waiting for a resource held by P2, P2 is waiting for a
resource held by P3 and so on till PN is waiting for a resource held by P1.[1][7]

Thus prevention of deadlock is possible by ensuring that at least one of the four conditions cannot hold.
27. What is Insertion sort, selection sort, bubble sort( basic differences among the functionality
of the three sorts and not the exact algorithms)

28. What is Doubly link list?

A doubly linked list is a linked data structure that consists of a set of sequentially linked
records called nodes. Each node contains two fields, called links, that are references to the
previous and to the next node in the sequence of nodes. The beginning and ending nodes'
previous and next links, respectively, point to some kind of terminator, typically a sentinel
node or null, to facilitate traversal of the list. If there is only one sentinel node, then the list is
circularly linked via the sentinel node. It can be conceptualized as two singly linked lists
formed from the same data items, but in opposite sequential orders.
29.What is data abstraction? what are the three levels of data abstraction with Example?
Abstraction is the process of recognizing and focusing on important characteristics of a
situation or object and leaving/filtering out the un-wanted characteristics of that situation or
object.
Lets take a person as example and see how that person is abstracted in various situations

A doctor sees (abstracts) the person as patient. The doctor is interested in name, height, weight, age,
blood group, previous or existing diseases etc of a person
An employer sees (abstracts) a person as Employee. The employer is interested in name, age, health,
degree of study, work experience etc of a person.

Abstraction is the basis for software development. Its through abstraction we define the essential
aspects of a system. The process of identifying the abstractions for a given system is called as
Modeling (or object modeling).
Three levels of data abstraction are:
1. Physical level : how the data is stored physically and where it is stored in database.
2. Logical level : what information or data is stored in the database. eg: Database administrator
3.View level : end users work on view level. if any amendment is made it can be saved by other name.

30.What is command line argument?

Getting the arguments from command prompt in c is known as command line arguments. In
c main function has three arguments.They are:
Argument counter
Argument vector
Environment vector

31.Advantages of a macro over a function?

Macro gets to see the Compilation environment, so it can expand #defines. It is expanded by the
preprocessor.

32.What are the different storage classes in C?

Auto,register,static,extern

33.Which header file should you include if you are to develop a function which can accept
variable number of arguments?
stdarg.h

34.What is cache memory ?

Cache Memory is used by the central processing unit of a computer to reduce the average
time to access memory. The cache is a smaller, faster memory
which stores copies of the data from the most frequently used main memory locations. As long as most
memory accesses are cached memory locations, the average
latency of memory accesses will be closer to the cache latency than to the latency of main memory.

35.What is debugger?
A debugger or debugging tool is a computer program that is used to test and debug other programs
36. Const char *p , char const *p What is the difference between the above two?
1) const char *p - Pointer to a Constant char ('p' isn't modifiable but the pointer is)
2) char const *p - Also pointer to a constant Char
However if you had something like:
char * const p - This declares 'p' to be a constant pointer to an char. (Char p is modifiable but the
pointer isn't)

37. What is Memory Alignment?

Data structure alignment is the way data is arranged and accessed in computer memory. It
consists of two separate but related issues: data alignment and data structure padding.

38.Explain the difference between 'operator new' and the 'new' operator?
The difference between the two is that operator new just allocates raw memory, nothing
else. The new operator starts by using operator new to allocate memory, but then it invokes
the constructor for the right type of object, so the result is a real live object created in that
memory. If that object contains any other objects (either embedded or as base classes)
those constructors as invoked as well.

39. Difference between delete and delete[]?

The keyword delete is used to destroy the single variable memory created dynamically
which is pointed by single pointer variable.
Eg: int *r=new(int)
the memory pointed by r can be deleted by delete r.
delete [] is used to destroy array of memory pointed by single pointer variable.
Eg:int *r=new(int a[10])
The memory pointed by r can be deleted by delete []r.

40. What is conversion constructor?

A conversion constructor is a single-parameter constructor that is declared without the
function specifier 'explicit'. The compiler uses conversion constructors to convert objects
from the type of the first parameter to the type of the conversion constructor's class.To
define implicit conversions, C++ uses conversion constructors, constructors that accept a
single parameter and initialize an object to be a copy of that parameter.

41.What is a spanning Tree?

A spanning tree is a tree associated with a network. All the nodes of the graph appear on the tree once.
A minimum spanning tree is a spanning tree organized so that the total edge weight between nodes is
minimized.
42. Why should we use data ware housing and how can you extract data for analysis with
example?
If you want to get information on all the techniques of designing, maintaining, building and retrieving
data, Data warehousing is the ideal method. A data warehouse is premeditated and generated for
supporting the decision making process within an organization.
Here are some of the benefits of a data warehouse:

o With data warehousing, you can provide a common data model for different interest areas regardless
of data's source. In this way, it becomes easier to report and analyze information.

o Many inconsistencies are identified and resolved before loading of information in data warehousing.
This makes the reporting and analyzing process simpler.

o The best part of data warehousing is that the information is under the control of users, so that in case
the system gets purged over time, information can be easily and safely stored for longer time period.

o Because of being different from operational systems, a data warehouse helps in retrieving data
without slowing down the operational system.

o Data warehousing enhances the value of operational business applications and customer relationship
management systems.

o Data warehousing also leads to proper functioning of support system applications like trend reports,
exception reports and the actual performance analyzing reports.
Data mining is a powerful new technology to extract data for analysis.

43.Explain recursive function & what is the data structures used to perform recursion?
a) A recursive function is a function which calls itself.
b) The speed of a recursive program is slower because of stack overheads. (This attribute is evident if
you run above C program.)
c) A recursive function must have recursive conditions, terminating conditions, and recursive
expressions.

Stack data structure . Because of its LIFO (Last In First Out) property it remembers its caller so knows
whom to return when the function has to return. Recursion makes use of system stack for storing the
return addresses of the function calls. Every recursive function has its equivalent iterative (non-
recursive) function. Even when such equivalent iterative procedures are written, explicit stack is to be
used.

44.Differentiate between Complier and Interpreter?

An interpreter reads one instruction at a time and carries out the actions implied by that
instruction. It does not perform any translation. But a compiler translates the entire
instructions
45.What is scope of a variable?
Scope refers to the visibility of variables. It is very useful to be able to limit a variable's scope to a single
function. In other words, the variable wil have a limited scope

46.What is an interrupt?
Interrupt is an asynchronous signal informing a program that an event has occurred. When a program
receives an interrupt signal, it takes a specified action.

47.What is user defined exception in Java?

The keywords used in java application are try, catch and finally are used in implementing used-defined
exceptions. This Exception class inherits all the method from Throwable class.

48.What is java Applet?

Applet is java program that can be embedded into HTML pages. Java applets runs on the java enables
web browsers such as mozila and internet explorer. Applet is designed to run remotely on the client
browser, so there are some restrictions on it. Applet can't access system resources on the local
computer. Applets are used to make the web site more dynamic and entertaining.

49.What do you know about the garbage collector?

Garbage collection is the systematic recovery of pooled computer storage that is being used by a
program when that program no longer needs the storage. This frees the storage for use by other
programs
(or processes within a program). It also ensures that a program using increasing amounts of pooled
storage does not reach its quota (in which case it may no longer be able to function).

Garbage collection is an automatic memory management feature in many modern programming

languages, such as Java and languages in the .NET framework. Languages that use garbage collection
are often interpreted or run within a virtual machine like the JVM. In each case, the environment that
runs the code is also responsible for garbage collection.

50.Write a Binary Search program

int binarySearch(int arr[],int size, int item)
{
int left, right, middle;
left = 0;
right = size-1;

while(left <= right)

{
middle = ((left + right)/2);

if(item == arr[middle])
{
return(middle);
}
if(item > arr[middle])
{
left = middle+1;
}
else
{
right = middle-1;
}
}

return(-1);
}

51.What are enumerations?

An enumeration is a data type, used to declare variable that store list of names. It is act like a database,
which will store list of items in the variable. example: enum shapes{triangle, rectangle,...

52.What is static identifier?

The static identifier is used for initializing only once, and the value retains during the life time
of the program / application. A separate memory is allocated for ‘static’ variables. This value
can be used between function calls. The default value of an uninitialized static variable is
zero. A function can also be defined as a static function, which has the same scope of the
static variable.

53.What is Cryptography?
Cryptography is the science of enabling secure communications between a sender and one
or more recipients. This is achieved by the sender scrambling a message (with a computer
program and a secret key) and leaving the recipient to unscramble the message (with the
same computer program and a key, which may or may not be the same as the sender's
key).
There are two types of cryptography: Secret/Symmetric Key Cryptography and Public Key
Cryptography

54.What is encryption?

Encryption is the transformation of information from readable form into some unreadable form.
55.What is decryption?
Decryption is the reverse of encryption; it's the transformation of encrypted data back into some
intelligible form.
56.What exactly is a digital signature?
Just as a handwritten signature is affixed to a printed letter for verification that the letter originated from
its purported sender, digital signature performs the same task for an electronic message. A digital
signature is an encrypted version of a message digest, attached together with a message.

what you know about c++?

Released in 1985, C++ is an object-oriented programming language created by Bjarne Stroustrup. C++
maintains almost all aspects of the C language, while simplifying memory management and adding
several features - including a new datatype known as a class (you will learn more about these later) - to
allow object-oriented programming. C++ maintains the features of C which allowed for low-level
memory access but also gives the programmer new tools to simplify memory management.
C++ used for:
C++ is a powerful general-purpose programming language. It can be used to create small programs or
large applications. It can be used to make CGI scripts or console-only DOS programs. C++ allows you
to create programs to do almost anything you need to do. The creator of C++, Bjarne Stroustrup, has
put together a partial list of applications written in C++.
What is an object?

Object is a software bundle of variables and related methods. Objects have state and behavior.
What do you mean by inheritance?

Inheritance is the process of creating new classes, called derived classes, from existing classes or
base classes. The derived class inherits all the capabilities of the base class, but can add
embellishments and refinements of its own.
What is polymorphism?
Polymorphism is the idea that a base class can be inherited by several classes. A base class pointer
can point to its child class and a base class array can store different child class objects.
44. What is a scope resolution operator?
A scope resolution operator (::), can be used to define the member functions of a class outside the
class.
Anything wrong with this code?
T *p = new T[10];
delete p;
Everything is correct, Only the first element of the array will be deleted”, The entire array will be deleted,
but only the first element destructor will be called.
What is Boyce Codd Normal form?

A relation schema R is in BCNF with respect to a set F of functional dependencies if for all functional
dependencies in F+ of the form a-> , where a and b is a subset of R, at least one of the following holds:
* a- > b is a trivial functional dependency (b is a subset of a)
* a is a superkey for schema R

What is virtual class and friend class?

Friend classes are used when two or more classes are designed to work together and need access to
each other's implementation in ways that the rest of the world shouldn't be allowed to have. In other
words, they help keep private things private. For instance, it may be desirable for class DatabaseCursor
to have more privilege to the internals of class Database than main() has.

How do you find out if a linked-list has an end? (i.e. the list is not a cycle)

You can find out by using 2 pointers. One of them goes 2 nodes each time. The second one goes at 1
nodes each time. If there is a cycle, the one that goes 2 nodes each time will eventually meet the one
that goes slower.
If that is the case, then you will know the linked-list is a cycle.

What is the difference between realloc() and free()?

The free subroutine frees a block of memory previously allocated by the malloc subroutine. Undefined
results occur if the Pointer parameter is not a valid pointer. If the Pointer parameter is a null value, no
action will occur. The realloc subroutine changes the size of the block of memory pointed to by the
Pointer parameter to the number of bytes specified by the Size parameter and returns a new pointer to
the block. The pointer specified by the Pointer parameter must have been created with the malloc,
calloc, or realloc subroutines and not been deallocated with the free or realloc subroutines. Undefined
results occur if the Pointer parameter is not a valid pointer.

What is function overloading and operator overloading?

Function overloading: C++ enables several functions of the same name to be defined, as long as these
functions have different sets of parameters (at least as far as their types are concerned). This capability
is called function overloading. When an overloaded function is called, the C++ compiler selects the
proper function by examining the number, types and order of the arguments in the call. Function
overloading is commonly used to create several functions of the same name that perform similar tasks
but on different data types.

Operator overloading allows existing C++ operators to be redefined so that they work on objects of
user-defined classes. Overloaded operators are syntactic sugar for equivalent function calls. They form
a pleasant facade that doesn't add anything fundamental to the language (but they can improve
understandability and reduce maintenance costs).

What is the difference between declaration and definition?

The declaration tells the compiler that at some later point we plan to present the definition of this
declaration.
E.g.: void stars () //function declaration
The definition contains the actual implementation.
E.g.: void stars () // declarator
{
for(int j=10; j > =0; j--) //function body
cout << *;
cout <<>

What are the advantages of inheritance?

It permits code reusability. Reusability saves time in program development. It encourages the reuse of
proven and debugged high-quality software, thus reducing problem after a system becomes functional.

How do you write a function that can reverse a linked-list?

void reverselist(void)
{
if(head==0)
return;
if(head->next==0)
return;
if(head->next==tail)
{
head->next = 0;
tail->next = head;
}
else
{
node* pre = head;
node* cur = head->next;
node* curnext = cur->next;
head->next = 0;
cur-> next = head;

for(; curnext!=0; )
{
cur->next = pre;
pre = cur;
cur = curnext;
curnext = curnext->next;
}
curnext->next = cur;
}
}

What do you mean by inline function?

The idea behind inline functions is to insert the code of a called function at the point where the function
is called. If done carefully, this can improve the application's performance in exchange for increased
compile time and possibly (but not always) an increase in the size of the generated binary executables.

Write a program that ask for user input from 5 to 9 then calculate the average

#include "iostream.h"
int main() {
int MAX = 4;
int total = 0;
int average;
int numb;
for (int i=0; icout << "Please enter your input between 5 and 9: ";
cin >> numb;
while ( numb<5>9) {
cout << "Invalid input, please re-enter: ";
cin >> numb;
}
total = total + numb;
}
average = total/MAX;
cout << "The average number is: " <<>return 0;
}

What is public, protected, private?

Public, protected and private are three access specifiers in C++.

Public data members and member functions are accessible outside the class.
Protected data members and member functions are only available to derived classes.
Private data members and member functions can’t be accessed outside the class. However there is an
exception can be using friend classes.
What is scope & storage allocation of global and extern variables? Explain with an example
Extern variables: belong to the External storage class and are stored in the main memory. extern is
used when we have to refer a function or variable that is implemented in other file in the same project.
The scope of the extern variables is Global.

Global variables: are variables which are declared above the main( ) function. These variables are
accessible throughout the program. They can be accessed by all the functions in the program. Their
default value is zero.

What is scope & storage allocation of static, local and register variables? Explain with an
example.

Register variables: belong to the register storage class and are stored in the CPU registers. The scope
of the register variables is local to the block in which the variables are defined. The variables which are
used for more
number of times in a program are declared as register variables for faster access.
Example: loop counter variables.
register int y=6;
Static variables: Memory is allocated at the beginning of the program execution and it is reallocated
only after the program terminates. The scope of the static variables is local to the block in which the
variables are defined.
Example:

#include
void decrement(){
static int a=5;
a--;
printf("Value of a:%d\n", a);
}
int main(){
decrement();
return 0;
}
Local variables: are variables which are declared within any function or a block. They can be accessed
only by function or block in which they are declared. Their default value is a garbage value.
What are the advantages of using unions?
Union is a collection of data items of different data types.
It can hold data of only one member at a time though it has members of different data types.

If a union has two members of different data types, they are allocated the same memory. The memory
allocated is equal to maximum size of the members. The data is interpreted in bytes depending on
which member is being accessed.

Example:

union pen {
char name;
float point;
};

Here name and point are union members. Out of these two variables, ‘point’ is larger variable which is
of float data type and it would need 4 bytes of memory. Therefore 4 bytes space is allocated for both
the variables. Both the variables have the same memory location. They are accessed according to their
type.
Union is efficient when members of it are not required to be accessed at the same time.

Tell how to check whether a linked list is circular.

Create two pointers, each set to the start of the list. Update each as follows:
while (pointer1) {
pointer1 = pointer1->next;
pointer2 = pointer2->next; if (pointer2) pointer2=pointer2->next;
if (pointer1 == pointer2) {
print (\"circular\n\");
}
}

If a list is circular, at some point pointer2 will wrap around and be either at the item just before pointer1,
or the item before that. Either way, it’s either 1 or 2 jumps until they meet.
What is virtual constructors/destructors?
Virtual destructors: If an object (with a non-virtual destructor) is destroyed explicitly by applying the
delete operator to a base-class pointer to the object, the base-class destructor function (matching the
pointer type) is called on the object.
There is a simple solution to this problem – declare a virtual base-class destructor. This makes all
derived-class destructors virtual even though they don’t have the same name as the base-class
destructor. Now, if the object in the hierarchy is destroyed explicitly by applying the delete operator to a
base-class pointer to a derived-class object, the destructor for the appropriate class is called.
Virtual constructor: Constructors cannot be virtual. Declaring a constructor as a virtual function is a
syntax error.
What are the advantages of inheritance?
• It permits code reusability.
• Reusability saves time in program development.
• It encourages the reuse of proven and debugged high-quality software, thus reducing problem after a
system becomes functional.
Does c++ support multilevel and multiple inheritance?
Yes.
What is the difference between an ARRAY and a LIST?
Array is collection of homogeneous elements.
List is collection of heterogeneous elements.

For Array memory allocated is static and continuous.

For List memory allocated is dynamic and Random.

Array: User need not have to keep in track of next memory allocation.
List: User has to keep in Track of next location where memory is allocated.

Array uses direct access of stored members, list uses sequencial access for members.
What is a template?
Templates allow to create generic functions that admit any data type as parameters and return value
without having to overload the function with all the possible data types. Until certain point they fulfill the
functionality of a macro. Its prototype is any of the two following ones:
What is the difference between class and structure?
Structure: Initially (in C) a structure was used to bundle different type of data types together to perform
a particular functionality. But C++ extended the structure to contain functions also. The major difference
is that all declarations inside a structure are by default public.
Class: Class is a successor of Structure. By default all the members inside the class are private.
What is encapsulation?
Packaging an object’s variables within its methods is called encapsulation.
What is a COPY CONSTRUCTOR and when is it called?

A copy constructor is a method that accepts an object of the same class and copies it’s data members
to the object on the left part of assignment:
class Point2D{
int x; int y;
public int color;
protected bool pinned;
public Point2D() : x(0) , y(0) {} //default (no argument) constructor
public Point2D( const Point2D & ) ;
};
Point2D::Point2D( const Point2D & p )
{
this->x = p.x;
this->y = p.y;
this->color = p.color;
this->pinned = p.pinned;
}
main(){yu
Point2D MyPoint;
MyPoint.color = 345;
Point2D AnotherPoint = Point2D( MyPoint ); // now AnotherPoint has color = 345
Program: To calculate the factorial value using recursion.
Program: To calculate the factorial value using recursion.
#include
int fact(int n);

int main() {
int x, i;
printf("Enter a value for x: \n");
scanf("%d", &x);
i = fact(x);
printf("\nFactorial of %d is %d", x, i);
return 0;
}

int fact(int n) {
/* n=0 indicates a terminating condition */
if (n <= 0) {
return (1);
} else {
/* function calling itself */
return (n * fact(n - 1));
/*n*fact(n-1) is a recursive expression */
}
}

Output:
Enter a value for x:4

Factorial of 4 is 24
swap 2 numbers without using third variable?
#include
void main()
{
int a,b;
printf("enter number1: ie a");
scanf("%d",a);
printf("enter number2:ie b ");
scanf("%d",b);
printf(value of a and b before swapping is a=%d,b=%d"a,b);
a=a+b;
b=a-b;
a=a-b;
printf(value of a and b after swapping is a=%d,b=%d"a,b);
}
Write a C++ Program to check whether a number is prime number or not?
#include
#include

void main()
{
clrscr();
int n,i,flag=1;
cout<<"Enter any number:";
cin>>n;

for(i=2;i<=n/2;++i)
{
if(n%i==0)
{
flag=0;
break;
}
}
if(flag)
cout<<"\n"<<n<<" is="" a="" prime="" number";
else
cout<<"\n"<<n<<" is="" not="" a="" prime="" number";
getch();
}</n<<"></n<<">
Write a program in c to replace any vowel in a string with z?
// Replace all vowels in str with 'z'
void replaceWithZ(char* str) {
int i = 0;
while(str[i] != 'z') {
if(isVowel(str[i])) {
str[i] = 'z';
}
++i;
}
}
// Returns 1 if ch is a vowel, 0 otherwise
int isVowel(const char ch) {

switch(ch) {
case 'a':case 'A':
case 'e':case 'E':
case 'i':case 'I':
case 'o':case 'O':
case 'u':case 'U':
return 1;
}
return 0;
}
// Sample call
int main() {
char str[] = "HELLO";
printf("%s\n", str);
replaceWithZ(str);
printf("%s\n", str);
return 0;
}

Question from Java

What is the final keyword denotes?
final keyword denotes that it is the final implementation for that method or variable or class. You can’t
override that method/variable/class any more.
What is the significance of ListIterator?
You can iterate back and forth.
What is the major difference between LinkedList and ArrayList?
Linked List are meant for sequential accessing. ArrayList are meant for random accessing.
What is nested class?
If all the methods of a inner class is static then it is a nested class.
What is inner class?
If the methods of the inner class can only be accessed via the instance of the inner class, then it is
called inner class.
What is composition?
Holding the reference of the other class within some other class is known as composition.
What is aggregation?
It is a special type of composition. If you expose all the methods of a composite class and route the
method call to the composite method through its reference, then it is called aggregation.
What are the methods in Object?
clone, equals, wait, finalize, getClass, hashCode, notify, notifyAll, toString
Can you instantiate the Math class?
You can’t instantiate the math class. All the methods in this class are static. And the constructor is not
public.
What is singleton? - It is one of the design pattern. This falls in the creational pattern of the design
pattern. There will be only one instance for that entire JVM. You can achieve this by having the private
constructor in the class. For eg., public class Singleton { private static final Singleton s = new
Singleton(); private Singleton() { } public static Singleton getInstance() { return s; } // all non static
methods … }
Memory management in C
The C programming language manages memory statically, automatically, or dynamically.
Static-duration variables are allocated in main memory, usually along with the executable code of the
program, and persist for the lifetime of the program
Automatic-duration variables are allocated on the stack and come and go as functions are called and
return.
For static-duration and automatic-duration variables, the size of the allocation is required to be compile-
time constant.
Dynamic memory allocation in which memory is more explicitly (but more flexibly) managed, typically,
by allocating it from the heap, an area of memory structured for this purpose.
In C, the library function malloc is used to allocate a block of memory on the heap. The program
accesses this block of memory via a pointer that malloc returns. When the memory is no longer
needed, the pointer is passed to free which deallocates the memory so that it can be used for other
purposes.

Functionality of Operating System?

An operating system (OS) is a set of software that manages computer hardware resources and
provides common services for computer programs.

To act as interface between hardware and users, an operating system must be able perform the
following functions:

1. Enabling startup application programs. Thus, the operating system must have:

- A text editor

- A translator

- An editor of links

2. The allocation of resources needed to execute programs is done by identifying: the

programs that are running, the need for memory, peripheral devices and data protection
requirements.

3. Facilities for data compression, sorting, mixing, cataloging and maintenance of libraries, through
utility programs available.

4. Plan implementation works according to certain criteria, for efficient use of central processing unit.

5. Assisting implementation of programs through computer-user communication system, at both

hardware and software level.

Examples of operating systems:BS2000,BS3000,DOS,PC-DOS,MS-DOS,LINUX,SOLARIS,MAC

OS,UNIX,WINDOWS
What the use of IP address
An Internet Protocol address (IP address) is a numerical label assigned to each device
(e.g., computer, printer) participating in a computer network that uses the Internet Protocol
for communication.An IP address serves two principal functions: host or network interface
identification and location addressing
What is difference between UNIQUE and PRIMARY KEY constraints?

A UNIQUE constraint is similar to PRIMARY key, but you can have more than one UNIQUE constraint
per table. Contrary to PRIMARY key UNIQUE constraints can accept NULL but just once. If the
constraint is defined in a combination of fields, then every field can accept NULL and can have some
values on them, as long as the combination values is unique.

What are the steps involved in designing?

Project plan, Requirements, Design, Coding, Testing, Re-coding and design, Development,
Maintenance.

what is the difference between interface and multiple interface?

Both an abstract class and an interface are specific types of computer objects that allow a programmer
to loosely define one type of object as if it were another type, while retaining all of the object's original
properties. While multiple different computer languages use one or both of these concepts, Java is the
most well-known. Abstract classes and interfaces have a variety of similarities, but also incorporate
significant differences in structure, syntax, and usage.

How can we delete Duplicate row in table?

SQL> delete from table_name where rowid not in (select max(rowid) from table group by
duplicate_values_field_name);
When do you use SQL Profiler?
SQL Profiler utility allows us to basically track connections to the SQL Server and also determine
activities such as which SQL Scripts are running, failed jobs etc..

What do you meant by active and passive objects?

Active objects are one which instigate an interaction which owns a thread and they are responsible for
handling control to other objects. In simple words it can be referred as client.
Passive objects are one, which passively waits for the message to be processed. It waits for another
object that requires its services. In simple words it can be referred as server.
What do you meant by static and dynamic modeling?
Static modeling is used to specify structure of the objects that exist in the problem domain. These are
expressed using class, object and USECASE diagrams.
But Dynamic modeling refers representing the object interactions during runtime. It is represented by
sequence, activity, collaboration and statechart diagrams.
What is Program counter?
Program counter holds the address of either the first byte of the next instruction to be fetched for
execution or the address of the next byte of a multi byte instruction, which has not been completely
fetched. In both the cases it gets incremented automatically one by one as the instruction bytes get
fetched. Also Program register keeps the address of the next instruction.
Can you give an example of Stored Procedure?
CREATE procedure - is a stored procedure, which is a saved collection of Transact-SQL statements
that can take and return user-supplied parameters.
Benefits of Stored Procedures?
Reduced client/server traffic
Efficient reuse of code and programming abstraction
Enhanced security controls

Is XML case-sensitive?
XML is case sensitive when uppercase and lowercase characters are treated differently.
Element type names, Attribute names, Attribute values, All general and parameter entity names, and
data content (text), are case-sensitive.
What is a Null object?
It is an object of some class whose purpose is to indicate that a real object of that class does not exist.
One common use for a null object is a return value from a member function that is supposed to return
an object with some specified properties but cannot find such an object.
What is the property of class?
A property is a member that provides access to an attribute of an object or a class. Examples of
properties include the length of a string, the size of a font, the caption of a window, the name of a
customer, and so on.
Does a class inherit the constructors of its super class?
A class does not inherit constructors from any of its super classes.
If a class is declared without any access modifiers, where may the class be accessed?
A class that is declared without any access modifiers is said to have package access. This means that
the class can only be accessed by other classes andinterfaces that are defined within the same
package

What do you mean by Stack unwinding?

It is a process during exception handling when the destructor is called for all local objects between the
place where the exception was thrown and where it is caught.

Define precondition and post-condition to a member function.

Precondition: A condition that should return true when a member function is invoked. In
order to use a function correctly a precondition should return true. If a precondition fails to
hold, an operation will not take responsibility to perform any action of sensibility. For
example, the interface invariants of stack class respond nothing about pushing even though
the stack is already full. In this scenario, sinful () is a precondition for push operation.

Post-Condition: A condition that should return true before returning from an invoked function. In order to
use a function correctly a post condition should return true. Taking a stack as an example, is empty ()
must necessarily be true after pushing the element into the stack when an element is pushed. The
function is empty () is a post condition.
How can you sort the elements of the array in descending order?
Syntax
B = sort(A)
B = sort(A,dim)
B = sort(...,mode)
[B,IX] = sort(A,...)
Description

B = sort(A) sorts the elements along different dimensions of an array, and arranges those elements in
ascending order.

If A is a ... sort(A) ...

Vector Sorts the elements of A.

Matrix Sorts each column of A.

Multidimensional array Sorts A along the first non-singleton dimension, and returns an
array of sorted vectors.

Cell array of strings Sorts the strings in ascending ASCII dictionary order, and returns a
vector cell array of strings. The sort is case-sensitive; uppercase letters appear in the output
before lowercase. You cannot use the dim or mode options with a cell
array.
Sort - Sort array elements in ascending or descending order
Integer, floating-point, logical, and character arrays are permitted. Floating-point arrays can
be complex. For elements of A with identical values, the order of these elements is
preserved in the sorted list. When A is complex, the elements are sorted by magnitude, i.e.,
abs(A), and where magnitudes are equal, further sorted by phase angle, i.e., angle(A), on
the interval [??, ?]. If A includes any NaN elements, sort places these at the high end.

B = sort(A,dim) sorts the elements along the dimension of A specified by a scalar dim.
B = sort(...,mode) sorts the elements in the specified direction, depending on the value of mode.
'ascend'
Ascending order (default)
'descend'
Descending order
[B,IX] = sort(A,...) also returns an array of indices IX, where size(IX) == size(A). If A is a vector, B =
A(IX). If A is an m-by-n matrix, then each column of IX is a permutation vector of the corresponding
column of A, such that
for j = 1:n
B(:,j) = A(IX(:,j),j);
end
If A has repeated elements of equal value, the returned indices preserve the original ordering.
Example:Sort horizontal vector A:

A = [78 23 10 100 45 5 6];

sort(A)
ans =5 6 10 23 45 78 100
What is DOM?
The Document Object Model (DOM) is a cross-platform and language-independent
convention for representing and interacting with objects in HTML, XHTML and XML
documents.[1] Objects in the DOM tree may be addressed and manipulated by using
methods on the objects. The public interface of a DOM is specified in its application
programming interface (API).

How macro execution is faster than function ?

Difference between overloading and overriding in programming language is:

a) In overloading, there is a relationship between methods available in the same class whereas in
overriding, there is relationship between a superclass method and subclass method.

b) Overloading does not block inheritance from the superclass whereas overriding blocks inheritance
from the superclass.

c) In overloading, separate methods share the same name whereas in overriding, subclass method
replaces the superclass.

d) Overloading must have different method signatures whereas overriding must have same signature.

19.what do you mean by realization in oops, what is persistent, transient object.

Name the operators that cannot be overloaded.?

There are 5 operators which cannot be overloaded. They are:

.* - class member access operator

:: - scope resolution operator

. - dot operator

?:: - conditional operator

Sizeof() - operator

Note:- This is possible only in C++.

What is polymorphism?
In programming languages, polymorphism means that some code or operations or objects
behave differently in different contexts.

For example, the + (plus) operator in C++:

4 + 5 <-- integer addition

3.14 + 2.0 <-- floating point addition
s1 + "bar" <-- string concatenation!

In C++, that type of polymorphism is called overloading.

Typically, when the term polymorphism is used with C++, however, it refers to using virtual methods,
which we'll discuss shortly.

What are the differences between a C++ struct and C++ class?
The default member and base class access specifiers are different.
The C++ struct has all the features of the class. The only differences are that a struct defaults to public
member access and public base class inheritance, and a class defaults to the private access specifier
and private base class inheritance.

Before interview Please Refer this following programming Questions

Write a Program for :
1.palindrome for string and number
2.String Reverse
3.Sum,Average of all the number
4.Prime no
5.Armstrong no
6.fibonacci
7.factorial
8.prime number,

Palindrome for string

#include
#include

main()
{
char a[100], b[100];

printf("Enter the string to check if it is a palindrome\n");

gets(a);
strcpy(b,a);
strrev(b);

if( strcmp(a,b) == 0 )
printf("Entered string is a palindrome.\n");
else
printf("Entered string is not a palindrome.\n");

return 0;
}

Palindrome number in c

#include

main()
{
int n, reverse = 0, temp;

printf("Enter a number to check if it is a palindrome or not\n");

scanf("%d",&n);

temp = n;

while( temp != 0 )
{
reverse = reverse * 10;
reverse = reverse + temp%10;
temp = temp/10;
}

if ( n == reverse )
printf("%d is a palindrome number.\n", n);
else
printf("%d is not a palindrome number.\n", n);

return 0;
}

Reverse a string using C programming

#include
#include

main()
{
char arr[100];

printf("Enter a string to reverse\n");

gets(arr);
strrev(arr);

printf("Reverse of entered string is \n%s\n",arr);

return 0;
}

/* Fibonacci Series c language */

#include

main()
{
int n, first = 0, second = 1, next, c;

printf("Enter the number of terms\n");

scanf("%d",&n);

printf("First %d terms of Fibonacci series are :-\n",n);

for ( c = 0 ; c < n ; c++ )

{
if ( c <= 1 )
next = c;
else
{
next = first + second;
first = second;
second = next;
}
printf("%d\n",next);
}

return 0;
}

Fibonacci series program in c using recursion

#include

int Fibonacci(int);

main()
{
int n, i = 0, c;

scanf("%d",&n);
printf("Fibonacci series\n");

for ( c = 1 ; c <= n ; c++ )

{
printf("%d\n", Fibonacci(i));
i++;
}

return 0;
}

int Fibonacci(int n)
{
if ( n == 0 )
return 0;
else if ( n == 1 )
return 1;
else
return ( Fibonacci(n-1) + Fibonacci(n-2) );
}

Adding numbers in c using function

#include

long addition(long, long);

main()
{
long first, second, sum;

scanf("%ld%ld", &first, &second);

sum = addition(first, second);

printf("%ld\n", sum);

return 0;
}

long addition(long a, long b)

{
long result;

result = a + b;

return result;
}
Your favorite subject?

your favorite programming language?

Why did you Select particular subject?

What is C language?

The C programming language is a standardized programming language developed in the early 1970s
by Ken Thompson and Dennis Ritchie for use on the UNIX operating system. It has since spread to
many other operating systems, and is one of the most widely used programming languages. C is prized
for its efficiency, and is the most popular programming language for writing system software, though it
is also used for writing applications. ...

Can you Mention some Application of C/C++?

Google-Some of the Google applications are also written in C++, including Google file system and
Google Chromium.

Symbian OS- is also developed using C++. This is one of the most widespread OS’s for cellular
phones.

Apple – OS X -Few parts of apple OS X are written in C++ programming language. Also few application
for iPod are written in C++.

Microsoft-Most of the big applications like Windows 95, 98, Me, 200 and XP are also written in C++.
Also Microsoft Office, Internet Explorer and Visual Studio are written in Visual C++.

What are the different storage classes in C ?

There are four types of storage classes in C. They are extern, register, auto and static

What is an object?
Object is a software bundle of variables and related methods. Objects have state and behavior

What is a class?
Class is a user-defined data type in C++. It can be created to solve a particular kind of problem. After
creation the user need not know the specifics of the working of a class.

1. What is a modifier?

A modifier, also called a modifying function is a member function that changes the value of at least one
data member. In other words, an operation that modifies the state of an object. Modifiers are also
known as ‘mutators’.

5. Define namespace.

It is a feature in C++ to minimize name collisions in the global name space. This namespace keyword
assigns a distinct name to a library that allows other libraries to use the same identifier names without
creating any name collisions. Furthermore, the compiler uses the namespace signature for
differentiating the definitions.
What is data structure?

A data structure is a way of organizing data that considers not only the items stored, but also their
relationship to each other. Advance knowledge about the relationship between data items allows
designing of efficient algorithms for the manipulation of data

Can you list out the areas in which data structures are applied extensively?

Compiler Design,

Operating System,

Database Management System,

Statistical analysis package,

Numerical Analysis,

Graphics,

Artificial Intelligence,

Simulation

What is the difference between C and C++?

C follows the procedural programming paradigm

C++ is a multi-paradigm language (procedural as well as object oriented)

In C language focus on procedure and steps.

C++ focuses on the data rather than the process

In C data hiding and data security is not possible.

In C++Data hiding and data security is present.

C uses Top-Down approach

C++ uses Bottom-Up approach

C is a function driven programming language

C++ is a object driven programming language

C does not support overloading concept

C++ supports overloading concepts like operator overloading and function overloading
C does not support namespaces concept

C++ supports Namespaces concept.

C not support exception handling

C++ supports Exception Handling

C is structured programming language

C++ is object oriented programming language.

C does not support inheritance, reusability, polymorphism, data abstraction

C++ supports inheritance, reusability, polymorphism, data abstraction.

C language only support Early binding

C++ supports both Early and Late binding

C uses standard input, output functions like scanf and printf.

C++ uses input function cin and output function is cout.

What is the advantage of OOP?

**Simplicity

**modularity:

**modifiability

**extensibility

**maintainability

**re-usability

simplicity: software objects model real world objects, so the complexity is reduced and the program
structure is very clear;

modularity: each object forms a separate entity whose internal workings are decoupled from
other parts of the system;

modifiability: it is easy to make minor changes in the data representation or the procedures in an OO
program. Changes inside a class do not affect any other part of a program, since the only public
interface that the external world has to a class is through the use of methods;

extensibility: adding new features or responding to changing operating environments can be solved by
introducing a few new objects and modifying some existing ones;

maintainability: objects can be maintained separately, making locating and fixing problems
easier;

re-usability: objects can be reused in different programs.

How do you do dynamic memory allocation in C applications?

In C, malloc, calloc and realloc are used to allocate memory dynamically. In C++, new(), is usually used
to allocate objects.

List advantages and disadvantages of dynamic memory allocation vs. static memory
allocation.?
Advantages:

Memory is allocated on an as-needed basis. This helps remove the inefficiencies inherent to static
memory allocation (when the amount of memory needed is not known at compile time and one has to
make a guess).

Disadvantages:
Dynamic memory allocation is slower than static memory allocation. This is because dynamic memory
allocation happens in the heap area.
Dynamic memory needs to be carefully deleted after use. They are created in non-contiguous area of
memory segment.
Dynamic memory allocation causes contention between threads, so it degrades performance when it
happens in a thread.
Memory fragmentation.

What is Java?
Java is an object-oriented programming language developed initially by James Gosling and colleagues
at Sun Microsystems. The language, initially called Oak (named after the oak trees outside Gosling's
office), was intended to replace C++, although the feature set better resembles that of Objective C.
Java should not be confused with JavaScript, which shares only the name and a similar C-like syntax.
Sun Microsystems currently maintains and updates Java regularly.

Can you have virtual functions in Java?

Yes, all functions in Java are virtual by default. This is actually a pseudo trick question because the
word "virtual" is not part of the naming convention in Java (as it is in C++, C-sharp and VB.NET), so
this
would be a foreign concept for someone who has only coded in Java. Virtual functions or virtual
methods are functions or methods that will be redefined in derived classes.
What is a transient variable in Java?

A transient variable is a variable that may not be serialized. If you don't want some field to be serialized,
you can mark that field transient or static.

What is thread?
A thread is an independent path of execution in a system.
What is multi-threading?
Multi-threading means various threads that run in a system.

What is a dangling pointer?

pointers that do not point to a valid object of the appropriate type. Dangling pointers arise when an
object is deleted or deallocated, without modifying the value of the pointer, so that the pointer still points
to the memory location of the deallocated memory. As the system may reallocate the previously freed
memory to another process, if the original program then dereferences the (now) dangling pointer,
unpredictable behavior may result, as the memory may now contain completely different data. This is
especially the case if the program writes data to memory pointed by a dangling pointer, as silent
corruption of unrelated data may result, leading to subtle bugs that can be extremely difficult to find, or
cause segmentation faults (*NIX) or general protection faults (Windows).

What are the advantages and disadvantages of B-star trees over Binary trees.?

The major difference between B-tree and binary tres is that B-tree is a external data structure and
binary tree is a main memory data structure. The computational complexity of binary tree is counted by
the number of comparison operations at each node, while the computational complexity of B-tree is
determined by the disk I/O, that is, the number of node that will be loaded from disk to main memory.
The comparision of the different values in one node is not counted.

What will be printed as the result of the operation below:

main()
{
int x=20,y=35;
x=y++ + x++;
y= ++y + ++x;
printf(“%d%dn”,x,y);
}
Answer : 5794

What will be printed as the result of the operation below:

main()
{
int x=5;
printf(“%d,%d,%dn”,x,x< <2,x>>2);}

Answer: 5,20,1

What will be printed as the result of the operation below:

#define swap(a,b) a=a+b;b=a-b;a=a-b;void main()
{
int x=5, y=10;
swap (x,y);
printf(“%d %dn”,x,y);
swap2(x,y);
printf(“%d %dn”,x,y);
}
int swap2(int a, int b)
{
int temp;
temp=a;
b=a;
a=temp;
return 0;
}
Answer: 10, 5
10, 5

1. What is C language?
The C programming language is a standardized programming language developed in the early 1970s by Ken
Thompson and Dennis Ritchie for use on the UNIX operating system. It has since spread to many other operating
systems, and is one of the most widely used programming languages. C is prized for its efficiency, and is the most
popular programming language for writing system software, though it is also used for writing applications.

2. What does static variable mean?

There are 3 main uses for the static.
1. If you declare within a function: It retains the value between function calls
2. If it is declared for a function name: By default function is extern..so it will be visible from other files if the function
declaration is as static..it is invisible for the outer files
3. Static for global variables: By default we can use the global variables from outside files If it is static global..that
variable is limited to with in the file.
#include
int t = 10;
main(){
int x = 0;
void funct1();
funct1();
printf("After first call \n");
funct1();
printf("After second call \n");
funct1();
printf("After third call \n");
}
void funct1()
{
static int y = 0;
int z = 10;
printf("value of y %d z %d",y,z);
y=y+10;
}
value of y 0 z 10 After first call
value of y 10 z 10 After second call
value of y 20 z 10 After third call

3. What are the different storage classes in C?

C has three types of storage: automatic, static and allocated. Variable having block scope and without static specifier
have automatic storage duration.

Variables with block scope, and with static specifier have static scope. Global variables (i.e, file scope) with or without
the the static specifier also have static scope. Memory obtained from calls to malloc(), alloc() or realloc() belongs to
allocated storage class.

4. What is hashing?
To hash means to grind up, and that’s essentially what hashing is all about. The heart of a hashing algorithm is a hash
function that takes your nice, neat data and grinds it into some random-looking integer.
The idea behind hashing is that some data either has no inherent ordering (such as images) or is expensive to
compare (such as images). If the data has no inherent ordering, you can’t perform comparison searches.

5. Can static variables be declared in a header file?

You can’t declare a static variable without defining it as well (this is because the storage class modifiers static and
extern are mutually exclusive). A static variable can be defined in a header file, but this would cause each source file
that included the header file to have its own private copy of the variable, which is probably not what was intended.

6. Can a variable be both constant and volatile?

Yes. The const modifier means that this code cannot change the value of the variable, but that does not mean that the
value cannot be changed by means outside this code.
The function itself did not change the value of the timer, so it was declared const. However, the value was changed by
hardware on the computer, so it was declared volatile. If a variable is both const and volatile, the two modifiers can
appear in either order.

7. Can include files be nested?

Yes. Include files can be nested any number of times. As long as you use precautionary measures, you can avoid
including the same file twice. In the past, nesting header files was seen as bad programming practice, because it
complicates the dependency tracking function of the MAKE program and thus slows down compilation. Many of today’s
popular compilers make up for this difficulty by implementing a concept called precompiled headers, in which all
headers and associated dependencies are stored in a precompiled state.

8. What is a null pointer?

There are times when it’s necessary to have a pointer that doesn’t point to anything. The macro NULL, defined in , has
a value that’s guaranteed to be different from any valid pointer. NULL is a literal zero, possibly cast to void* or char*.
Some people, notably C++ programmers, prefer to use 0 rather than NULL.
The null pointer is used in three ways:
1) To stop indirection in a recursive data structure.
2) As an error value.
3) As a sentinel value.

9. What is the output of printf("%d") ?

When we write printf("%d",x); this means compiler will print the value of x. But as here, there is nothing after %d so
compiler will show in output window garbage value.

10. What is the difference between calloc() and malloc() ?

calloc(...) allocates a block of memory for an array of elements of a certain size. By default the block is initialized to 0.
The total number of memory allocated will be (number_of_elements * size).
malloc(...) takes in only a single argument which is the memory required in bytes. malloc(...) allocated bytes of
memory and not blocks of memory like calloc(...).
malloc(...) allocates memory blocks and returns a void pointer to the allocated space, or NULL if there is insufficient
memory available.
calloc(...) allocates an array in memory with elements initialized to 0 and returns a pointer to the allocated space.
calloc(...) calls malloc(...) in order to use the C++ _set_new_mode function to set the new handler mode.

11. What is the difference between printf() and sprintf() ?

sprintf() writes data to the character array whereas printf(...) writes data to the standard output device.

12. How to reduce a final size of executable?

Size of the final executable can be reduced using dynamic linking for libraries.

13. Can you tell me how to check whether a linked list is circular?
Create two pointers, and set both to the start of the list. Update each as follows:
while (pointer1) {
pointer1 = pointer1->next;
pointer2 = pointer2->next;
if (pointer2) pointer2=pointer2->next;
if (pointer1 == pointer2) {
print ("circular");
}
}
If a list is circular, at some point pointer2 will wrap around and be either at the item just before pointer1, or the item
before that. Either way, its either 1 or 2 jumps until they meet.

14. Advantages of a macro over a function?

Macro gets to see the Compilation environment, so it can expand __ __TIME__ __FILE__ #defines. It is expanded by
the preprocessor.
For example, you can’t do this without macros
#define PRINT(EXPR) printf( #EXPR “=%d\n”, EXPR)
PRINT( 5+6*7 ) // expands into printf(”5+6*7=%d”, 5+6*7 );
You can define your mini language with macros:
#define strequal(A,B) (!strcmp(A,B))

15. What is the difference between strings and character arrays?

A major difference is: string will have static storage duration, whereas as a character array will not, unless it is
explicity specified by using the static keyword.
Actually, a string is a character array with following properties:
* the multibyte character sequence, to which we generally call string, is used to initialize an array of static storage
duration. The size of this array is just sufficient to contain these characters plus the terminating NUL character.
* it not specified what happens if this array, i.e., string, is modified.
* Two strings of same value[1] may share same memory area.

16. Write down the equivalent pointer expression for referring the same element a[i][j][k][l] ?
a[i] == *(a+i)
a[i][j] == *(*(a+i)+j)
a[i][j][k] == *(*(*(a+i)+j)+k)
a[i][j][k][l] == *(*(*(*(a+i)+j)+k)+l)

17. Which bit wise operator is suitable for checking whether a particular bit is on or off?
The bitwise AND operator. Here is an example:
enum {
KBit0 = 1,
KBit1,
…
KBit31,
};
if ( some_int & KBit24 )
printf ( “Bit number 24 is ON\n” );
else
printf ( “Bit number 24 is OFF\n” );

18. Which bit wise operator is suitable for turning off a particular bit in a number?
The bitwise AND operator, again. In the following code snippet, the bit number 24 is reset to zero.
some_int = some_int & ~KBit24;

19. Which bit wise operator is suitable for putting on a particular bit in a number?
The bitwise OR operator. In the following code snippet, the bit number 24 is turned ON:
some_int = some_int | KBit24;

20. Does there exist any other function which can be used to convert an integer or a float to a string?
Some implementations provide a nonstandard function called itoa(), which converts an integer to string.
#include
char *itoa(int value, char *string, int radix);
DESCRIPTION
The itoa() function constructs a string representation of an integer.
PARAMETERS
value: Is the integer to be converted to string representation.
string: Points to the buffer that is to hold resulting string.
The resulting string may be as long as seventeen bytes.
radix: Is the base of the number; must be in the range 2 - 36.
A portable solution exists. One can use sprintf():
char s[SOME_CONST];
int i = 10;
float f = 10.20;
sprintf ( s, “%d %f\n”, i, f );

21. Why does malloc(0) return valid memory address ? What's the use?
malloc(0) does not return a non-NULL under every implementation. An implementation is free to behave in a manner
it finds suitable, if the allocation size requested is zero. The implmentation may choose any of the following actions:
* A null pointer is returned.
* The behavior is same as if a space of non-zero size was requested. In this case, the usage of return value yields to
undefined-behavior.
Notice, however, that if the implementation returns a non-NULL value for a request of a zero-length space, a pointer
to object of ZERO length is returned! Think, how an object of zero size should be represented
For implementations that return non-NULL values, a typical usage is as follows:
void
func ( void )
{
int *p; /* p is a one-dimensional array, whose size will vary during the the lifetime of the program */
size_t c;
p = malloc(0); /* initial allocation */
if (!p)
{
perror (”FAILURE” );
return;
}
/* … */
while (1)
{
c = (size_t) … ; /* Calculate allocation size */
p = realloc ( p, c * sizeof *p );
/* use p, or break from the loop */
/* … */
}
return;
}
Notice that this program is not portable, since an implementation is free to return NULL for a malloc(0) request, as the
C Standard does not support zero-sized objects.

22. Difference between const char* p and char const* p

In const char* p, the character pointed by ‘p’ is constant, so u cant change the value of character pointed by p but u
can make ‘p’ refer to some other location.
In char const* p, the ptr ‘p’ is constant not the character referenced by it, so u cant make ‘p’ to reference to any other
location but u can change the value of the char pointed by ‘p’.

23. What is the result of using Option Explicit?

When writing your C program, you can include files in two ways. The first way is to surround the file you want to
include with the angled brackets < and >. This method of inclusion tells the preprocessor to look for the file in the
predefined default location. This predefined default location is often an INCLUDE environment variable that denotes
the path to your include files.
For instance, given the INCLUDE variable
INCLUDE=C:\COMPILER\INCLUDE;S:\SOURCE\HEADERS; using the #include version of file inclusion, the compiler
first checks the C:\COMPILER\INCLUDE directory for the specified file. If the file is not found there, the compiler then
checks the S:\SOURCE\HEADERS directory. If the file is still not found, the preprocessor checks the current directory.
The second way to include files is to surround the file you want to include with double quotation marks. This method of
inclusion tells the preprocessor to look for the file in the current directory first, then look for it in the predefined
locations you have set up. Using the #include file version of file inclusion and applying it to the preceding example, the
preprocessor first checks the current directory for the specified file. If the file is not found in the current directory, the
C:COMPILERINCLUDE directory is searched. If the file is still not found, the preprocessor checks the
S:SOURCEHEADERS directory.
The #include method of file inclusion is often used to include standard headers such as stdio.h or stdlib.h.
The #include file include nonstandard header files that you have created for use in your program. This is because
these headers are often modified in the current directory, and you will want the preprocessor to use your newly
modified version of the header rather than the older, unmodified version.

24. What is the benefit of using an enum rather than a #define constant?
The use of an enumeration constant (enum) has many advantages over using the traditional symbolic constant style of
#define. These advantages include a lower maintenance requirement, improved program readability, and better
debugging capability.
1) The first advantage is that enumerated constants are generated automatically by the compiler. Conversely,
symbolic constants must be manually assigned values by the programmer.
2) Another advantage of using the enumeration constant method is that your programs are more readable and thus
can be understood better by others who might have to update your program later.
3) A third advantage to using enumeration constant
1. What is database?

A database is a collection of information that is organized. So that it can easily be accessed, managed, and updated.

2. What is DBMS?

DBMS stands for Database Management System. It is a collection of programs that enables user to create and maintain a
database.

3. What is a Database system?

The database and DBMS software together is called as Database system.

4. What are the advantages of DBMS?

I. Redundancy is controlled.

II. Providing multiple user interfaces.

III. Providing backup and recovery

IV. Unauthorized access is restricted.

V. Enforcing integrity constraints.

5. What is normalization?

It is a process of analysing the given relation schemas based on their Functional Dependencies (FDs) and primary key to
achieve the properties
(1).Minimizing redundancy, (2). Minimizing insertion, deletion and update anomalies.

6. What is Data Model?

A collection of conceptual tools for describing data, data relationships data semantics and constraints.

7. What is E-R model?

This data model is based on real world that consists of basic objects called entities and of relationship among these objects.
Entities are described in a database by a set of attributes.

8. What is Object Oriented model?

This model is based on collection of objects. An object contains values stored in instance variables with in the object. An object
also contains bodies of code that operate on the object. These bodies of code are called methods. Objects that contain same
types of values and the same methods are grouped together into classes.

9. What is an Entity?
An entity is a thing or object of importance about which data must be captured.

10. What is DDL (Data Definition Language)?

A data base schema is specifies by a set of definitions expressed by a special language called DDL.
11. What is DML (Data Manipulation Language)?

This language that enable user to access or manipulate data as organised by appropriate data model. Procedural DML or Low
level: DML requires a user to specify what data are needed and how to get those data. Non-Procedural DML or High level: DML
requires a user to specify what data are needed without specifying how to get those data

12. What is DML Compiler?

It translates DML statements in a query language into low-level instruction that the query evaluation engine can understand.

13. What is Query evaluation engine?

It executes low-level instruction generated by compiler.

14. What is Functional Dependency?

Functional Dependency is the starting point of normalization. Functional Dependency exists when a relation between two
attributes allows you to uniquely determine the corresponding attribute’s value.

15. What is 1 NF (Normal Form)?

The first normal form or 1NF is the first and the simplest type of normalization that can be implemented in a database. The
main aims of 1NF are to:

1. Eliminate duplicative columns from the same table.

2. Create separate tables for each group of related data and identify each row with a unique column (the primary key).

16. What is Fully Functional dependency?

A functional dependency X Y is full functional dependency if removal of any attribute A from X means that the dependency
does not hold any more.

17. What is 2NF?

A relation schema R is in 2NF if it is in 1NF and every non-prime attribute A in R is fully functionally dependent on primary key.

18. What is 3NF?

A relation is in third normal form if it is in Second Normal Form and there are no functional (transitive) dependencies between
two (or more) non-primary key attributes.

19. What is BCNF (Boyce-Codd Normal Form)?

A table is in Boyce-Codd normal form (BCNF) if and only if it is in 3NF and every determinant is a candidate key.

20. What is 4NF?

Fourth normal form requires that a table be BCNF and contain no multi-valued dependencies.

21. What is 5NF?

A table is in fifth normal form (5NF) or Project-Join Normal Form (PJNF) if it is in 4NF and it cannot have a lossless
decomposition into any number of smaller tables.

22. What is a query?

A query with respect to DBMS relates to user commands that are used to interact with a data base.

23. What is meant by query optimization?

The phase that identifies an efficient execution plan for evaluating a query that has the least estimated cost is referred to as
query optimization.

24. What is an attribute?

It is a particular property, which describes the entity.
25. What is RDBMS?

Relational Data Base Management Systems (RDBMS) are database management systems that maintain data records and
indices in tables.

26. What’s difference between DBMS and RDBMS?

DBMS provides a systematic and organized way of storing, managing and retrieving from collection of logically related
information. RDBMS also provides what DBMS provides but above that it provides relationship integrity.

27. What is SQL?

SQL stands for Structured Query Language. SQL is an ANSI (American National Standards Institute) standard computer
language for accessing and manipulating database systems. SQL statements are used to retrieve and update data in a
database.

28. What is Stored Procedure?

A stored procedure is a named group of SQL statements that have been previously created and stored in the server database.

29. What is a view?

A view may be a subset of the database or it may contain virtual data that is derived from the database files but is not
explicitly stored.

30. What is Trigger?

A trigger is a SQL procedure that initiates an action when an event (INSERT, DELETE or UPDATE) occurs.

31. What is Index?

An index is a physical structure containing pointers to the data.

32. What is extension and intension?

Extension -It is the number of tuples present in a table at any instance. This is time dependent.

Intension -It is a constant value that gives the name, structure of table and the constraints laid on it.

33. What do you mean by atomicity and aggregation?

Atomicity-Atomicity states that database modifications must follow an “all or nothing” rule. Each transaction is said to be
“atomic.” If one part of the transaction fails, the entire transaction fails.

Aggregation - A feature of the entity relationship model that allows a relationship set to participate in another relationship set.
This is indicated on an ER diagram by drawing a dashed box around the aggregation.

34. What is RDBMS KERNEL?

Two important pieces of RDBMS architecture are the kernel, which is the software, and the data dictionary, which consists of
the system- level data structures used by the kernel to manage the database.

35. Name the sub-systems of a RDBMS?

I/O, Security, Language Processing, Process Control, Storage Management, Logging and Recovery, Distribution
Control, Transaction Control, Memory Management, Lock Management.

36. How do you communicate with an RDBMS?

You communicate with an RDBMS using Structured Query Language (SQL)

37. Disadvantage in File Processing System?

· Data redundancy & inconsistency.

· Difficult in accessing data.

· Data isolation.
 · Data integrity.

· Concurrent access is not possible.

· Security Problems.

38. What is VDL (View Definition Language)?

It specifies user views and their mappings to the conceptual schema.

39. What is SDL (Storage Definition Language)?

This language is to specify the internal schema. This language may Specify the mapping between two schemas.

40. Describe concurrency control?

Concurrency control is the process managing simultaneous operations against a database so that database integrity is no
compromised. There are two approaches to concurrency control.

The pessimistic approach involves locking and the optimistic approach involves versioning.

41. Describe the difference between homogeneous and heterogeneous distributed database?

A homogenous database is one that uses the same DBMS at each node. A heterogeneous database is one that may have a
different DBMS at each node.

42. What is a distributed database?

A distributed database is a single logical database that is spread across more than one node or locations that are all connected
via some communication link.

43. Explain the difference between two and three-tier architectures?

Three-tier architecture includes a client and two server layers.

The application code is stored on the application server and the database is stored on the database server. A two-tier
architecture includes a client and one server layer. The database is stored on the database server.

44. Briefly describe the three types of SQL commands?

Data definition language commands are used to create, alter, and drop tables. Data manipulation commands are used to
insert, modify, update, and query data in the database. Data control language commands help the DBA to control the
database.

45. List some of the properties of a relation?

Relations in a database have a unique name and no multivalued attributes exist. Each row is unique and each attribute within a
relation has a unique name. The sequence of both columns and rows is irrelevant.

46. Explain the differences between an intranet and an extranet?

An Internet database is accessible by everyone who has access to a Web site. An intranet database limits access to only people
within a given organization.

47. What is SQL Deadlock?

Deadlock is a unique situation in a multi user system that causes two or more users to wait indefinitely for a locked resource.

48. What is a Catalog?

A catalog is a table that contains the information such as structure of each file, the type and storage format of each data item
and various constraints on the data .The information stored in the catalog is called Metadata.

49. What is data ware housing & OLAP?

Data warehousing and OLAP (online analytical processing) systems are the techniques used in many companies to extract and
analyze useful information from very large databases for decision making .

50. Describe the three levels of data abstraction?

Physical level: The lowest level of abstraction describes how data are stored.

Logical level: The next higher level of abstraction, describes what data are stored in database and what relationship among
those data.

View level: The highest level of abstraction describes only part of entire database.

51. What is Data Independence?

Data independence means that the application is independent of the storage structure and access strategy of data.

52. How many types of relationship exist in database designing?

There are three major relationship models:-

One-to-one

One-to-many

Many-to-many

53. What is order by clause?

ORDER BY clause helps to sort the data in either ascending order to descending

54. What is the use of DBCC commands?

DBCC stands for database consistency checker. We use these commands to check the consistency of the databases, i.e.,
maintenance, validation task and status checks.

55. What is Collation?

Collation refers to a set of rules that determine how data is sorted and compared.

56. What is difference between DELETE & TRUNCATE commands?

Delete command removes the rows from a table based on the condition that we provide with a WHERE clause. Truncate will
actually remove all the rows from a table and there will be no data in the table after we run the truncate command.

57. What is Hashing technique?

This is a primary file organization technique that provides very fast access to records on certain search conditions.

58. What is a transaction?

A transaction is a logical unit of database processing that includes one or more database access operations.

59. What are the different phases of Transaction?

Analysis phase

Redo phase

Undo phase

60. What is “transparent dbms”?

It is one, which keeps its physical structure hidden from user.

61. What are the primitive operations common to all record management System?

Addition, deletion and modification.

62. Explain the differences between structured data and unstructured data.

Structured data are facts concerning objects and events. The most important structured data are numeric, character, and
dates.

Structured data are stored in tabular form. Unstructured data are multimedia data such as documents, photographs, maps,
images, sound, and video clips. Unstructured data are most commonly found on Web servers and Web-enabled databases.
63. What are the major functions of the database administrator?

Managing database structure, controlling concurrent processing, managing processing rights and responsibilities, developing
database security, providing for database recovery, managing the DBMS and maintaining the data repository.

64. What is a dependency graph?

A dependency graph is a diagram that is used to portray the connections between database elements.

65. Explain the difference between an exclusive lock and a shared lock?

An exclusive lock prohibits other users from reading the locked resource; a shared lock allows other users to read the locked
resource, but they cannot update it.

66. Explain the "paradigm mismatch" between SQL and application programming languages.

SQL statements return a set of rows, while an application program works on one row at a time. To resolve this mismatch the
results of SQL statements are processed as pseudofiles, using a cursor or pointer to specify which row is being processed.

67. Name four applications for triggers.

(1)Providing default values, (2) enforcing data constraints,

(3) Updating views and (4) enforcing referential integrity

68. What are the advantages of using stored procedures?

The advantages of stored procedures are (1) greater security, (2) decreased network traffic, (3) the fact that SQL can be
optimized and (4) code sharing which leads to less work, standardized processing, and specialization among developers.

69. Explain the difference between attributes and identifiers.

Entities have attributes. Attributes are properties that describe the entity's characteristics. Entity instances have identifiers.
Identifiers are attributes that name, or identify, entity instances.

70. What is Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP), and what kind of a database is used in an ERP application?

Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) is an information system used in manufacturing companies and includes sales, inventory,
production planning, purchasing and other business functions. An ERP system typically uses a multiuser database.

71. Describe the difference between embedded and dynamic SQL?

Embedded SQL is the process of including hard coded SQL statements. These statements do not change unless the source code
is modified. Dynamic SQL is the process of generating SQL on the fly.The statements generated do not have to be the same
each time.

72. Explain a join between tables

A join allows tables to be linked to other tables when a relationship between the tables exists. The relationships are established
by using a common column in the tables and often uses the primary/foreign key relationship.

73. Describe a subquery.

A subquery is a query that is composed of two queries. The first query (inner query) is within the WHERE clause of the other
query (outer query).

74. Compare a hierarchical and network database model?

The hierarchical model is a top-down structure where each parent may have many children but each child can have only one
parent. This model supports one-to-one and one-to-many relationships.

The network model can be much more flexible than the hierarchical model since each parent can have multiple children but
each child can also have multiple parents. This model supports one-to-one, one-to-many, and many-to-many relationships.

75. Explain the difference between a dynamic and materialized view.

A dynamic view may be created every time that a specific view is requested by a user. A materialized view is created and or
updated infrequently and it must be synchronized with its associated base table(s).
76. Explain what needs to happen to convert a relation to third normal form.

First you must verify that a relation is in both first normal form and second normal form. If the relation is not, you must
convert into second normal form. After a relation is in second normal form, you must remove all transitive dependencies.

77. Describe the four types of indexes?

A unique primary index is unique and is used to find and store a row. A nonunique primary index is not unique and is used to
find a row but also where to store a row (based on its unique primary index). A unique secondary index is unique for each row
and used to find table rows. A nonunique secondary index is not unique and used to find table rows.

78. Explain minimum and maximum cardinality?

Minimum cardinality is the minimum number of instances of an entity that can be associated with each instance of another
entity. Maximum cardinality is the maximum number of instances of an entity that can be associated with each instance of
another entity.

79. What is deadlock? How can it be avoided? How can it be resolved once it occurs?

Deadlock occurs when two transactions are each waiting on a resource that the other transaction holds. Deadlock can be
prevented by requiring transactions to acquire all locks at the same time; once it occurs, the only way to cure it is to abort one
of the transactions and back out of partially completed work.

80. Explain what we mean by an ACID transaction.

An ACID transaction is one that is atomic, consistent, isolated, and durable. Durable means that database changes are
permanent. Consistency can mean either statement level or transaction level consistency. With transaction level consistency, a
transaction may not see its own changes.Atomic means it is performed as a unit.

81. Under what conditions should indexes be used?

Indexes can be created to enforce uniqueness, to facilitate sorting, and to enable fast retrieval by column values. A good
candidate for an index is a column that is frequently used with equal conditions in WHERE clauses.

82. What is difference between SQL and SQL SERVER?

SQL is a language that provides an interface to RDBMS, developed by IBM. SQL SERVER is a RDBMS just like Oracle, DB2.

83. What is Specialization?

It is the process of defining a set of subclasses of an entity type where each subclass contain all the attributes and
relationships of the parent entity and may have additional attributes and relationships which are specific to itself.

84. What is generalization?

It is the process of finding common attributes and relations of a number of entities and defining a common super class for
them.

85. What is meant by Proactive, Retroactive and Simultaneous Update?

Proactive Update: The updates that are applied to database before it becomes effective in real world.

Retroactive Update: The updates that are applied to database after it becomes effective in real world.

Simultaneous Update: The updates that are applied to database at the same time when it becomes effective in real world.

86. What is RAID Technology?

Redundant array of inexpensive (or independent) disks. The main goal of raid technology is to even out the widely different
rates of performance improvement of disks against those in memory and microprocessor. Raid technology employs the
technique of data striping to achieve higher transfer rates.

87. What are serial, non serial schedule?

A schedule S is serial if, for every transaction T participating in the schedule, all the operations of T is executed consecutively
in the schedule, otherwise, the schedule is called non-serial schedule.

88. What are conflict serializable schedules?

A schedule S of n transactions is serializable if it is equivalent to some serial schedule of the same n transactions.

89. What is view serializable?

A schedule is said to be view serializable if it is view equivalent with some serial schedule.

90. What is a foreign key?

A key of a relation schema is called as a foreign key if it is the primary key of

some other relation to which it is related to.

91. What are the disadvantages of using a dbms?

1) High initial investments in h/w, s/w, and training.

2) Generality that a DBMS provides for defining and processing data.
3) Overhead for providing security, concurrency control, recovery, and integrity functions.

92. What is Lossless join property?

It guarantees that the spurious tuple generation does not occur with respect to relation schemas after decomposition.

93. What is a Phantom Deadlock?

In distributed deadlock detection, the delay in propagating local information might cause the deadlock detection algorithms to
identify deadlocks that do not really exist. Such situations are called phantom deadlocks and they lead to unnecessary aborts.

94. What is a checkpoint and When does it occur?

A Checkpoint is like a snapshot of the DBMS state. By taking checkpoints, the DBMS can reduce the amount of work to be done
during restart in the event of subsequent crashes.

95. What is schema?

The description of a data base is called the database schema , which is specified during database design and is not expected to
change frequently . A displayed schema is called schema diagram .We call each object in the schema as schema construct.

CN’’

1. Define Network?
A network is a set of devices connected by physical media links. A network is recursively is a connection of two or
more nodes by a physical link or two or more networks connected by one or more nodes.

2. What is Protocol?
A protocol is a set of rules that govern all aspects of information communication.

3. What is a Link?
At the lowest level, a network can consist of two or more computers directly connected by some physical medium such
as coaxial cable or optical fiber. Such a physical medium is called as Link.

4. What is a node?
A network can consist of two or more computers directly connected by some physical medium such as coaxial cable or
optical fiber. Such a physical medium is called as Links and the computer it connects is called as Nodes.

5. What is a gateway or Router?

A node that is connected to two or more networks is commonly called as router or Gateway. It generally forwards
message from one network to another.

6. Name the factors that affect the performance of the network?

a.Number of Users
b. Type of transmission medium
c. Hardware
d. Software

7. What is Round Trip Time?

The duration of time it takes to send a message from one end of a network to the other and back, is called RTT.

8. List the layers of OSI

a. Physical Layer
b. Data Link Layer
c. Network Layer
d. Transport Layer
e. Session Layer
f. Presentation Layer
g. Application Layer

9. Which layers are network support layers?

a. Physical Layer
b. Data link Layer and
c. Network Layers

10. Which layers are user support layers?

a. Session Layer
b. Presentation Layer and
c. Application Layer

11. What is Pipelining ?

In networking and in other areas, a task is often begun before the previous task has ended. This is known as
pipelining.

12. What is Piggy Backing?

A technique called piggybacking is used to improve the efficiency of the bidirectional protocols. When a frame is
carrying data from A to B, it can also carry control information about arrived (or lost) frames from B; when a frame is
carrying data from B to A, it can also carry control information about the arrived (or lost) frames from A.

13. What are the two types of transmission technology available?

(i) Broadcast and (ii) point-to-point

14. What is Bandwidth?

Every line has an upper limit and a lower limit on the frequency of signals it can carry. This limited range is called the
bandwidth.

15. Explain RIP (Routing Information Protocol)

It is a simple protocol used to exchange information between the routers.
16. What is subnet?
A generic term for section of a large networks usually separated by a bridge or router.

17. What is MAC address?

The address for a device as it is identified at the Media Access Control (MAC) layer in the network architecture. MAC
address is usually stored in ROM on the network adapter card and is unique.

18. What is multiplexing?

Multiplexing is the process of dividing a link, the phycal medium, into logical channels for better efficiency. Here
medium is not changed but it has several channels instead of one.

19. What is simplex?

It is the mode of communication between two devices in which flow of data is unidirectional. i.e. one can transmit and
other can receive.
E.g. keyboard and monitor.

20. What is half-duplex?

It is the mode of communication between two devices in which flow of data is bi-directional but not at the same time.
ie each station can transmit and receive but not at the same time.
E.g walkie-talkies are half-duplex system.

21.What is full duplex?

It is the mode of communication between two devices in which flow of data is bi-directional and it occurs
simultaneously. Here signals going in either direction share the capacity of the link.
E.g. telephone

22. What is sampling?

It is the process of obtaining amplitude of a signal at regular intervals.

23. What is Asynchronous mode of data transmission?

It is a serial mode of transmission.
In this mode of transmission, each byte is framed with a start bit and a stop bit. There may be a variable length gap
between each byte.

24. What is Synchronous mode of data transmission?

It is a serial mode of transmission.In this mode of transmission, bits are sent in a continuous stream without start and
stop bit and without gaps between bytes. Regrouping the bits into meaningful bytes is the responsibility of the
receiver.

25. What are the different types of multiplexing?

Multiplexing is of three types. Frequency division multiplexing and wave division multiplexing is for analog signals and
time division multiplexing is for digital signals.

26. What are the different transmission media?

The transmission media is broadly categorized into two types
i)Guided media(wired)
i)Unguided media(wireless)

27. What are the duties of data link layer?

Data link layer is responsible for carrying packets from one hop (computer or router) to the next. The duties of data
link layer include packetizing, adderssing, error control, flow control, medium access control.

28. .What are the types of errors?

Errors can be categorized as a single-bit error or burst error. A single bit error has one bit error per data unit. A burst
error has two or more bits errors per data unit.

29. What do you mean by redundancy?

Redundancy is the concept of sending extra bits for use in error detection. Three common redundancy methods are
parity check, cyclic redundancy check (CRC), and checksum.

30. Define parity check.

In parity check, a parity bit is added to every data unit so that the total number of 1s is even (or odd for odd
parity).Simple parity check can detect all single bit errors. It can detect burst errors only if the total number of errors
in each data unit is odd.In two dimensional parity checks, a block of bits is divided into rows and a redundant row of
bits is added to the whole block.

31. Define cyclic redundancy check (CRC).

C RC appends a sequence of redundant bits derived from binary division to the data unit. The divisor in the CRC
generator is often represented as an algebraic polynomial.

32. What is hamming code?

The hamming code is an error correction method using redundant bits. The number of bits is a function of the length
of the data bits. In hamming code for a data unit of m bits, we use the formula 2r >= m+r+1 to determine the
number of redundant bits needed. By rearranging the order of bit transmission of the data units, the hamming code
can correct burst errors.

33.Define stop and wait ARQ.

In stop and wait ARQ, the sender sends a frame and waits for an acknowledgement from the receiver before sending
the next frame.

34. What do you mean by network control protocol?

Network control protocol is a set of protocols to allow the encapsulation of data coming from network layer protocol
that requires the services of PPP

35. What do you mean by CSMA?

To reduce the possibility of collision CSMA method was developed. In CSMA each station first listen to the medium (Or
check the state of the medium) before sending. It can’t eliminate collision.

36. What do you mean by Bluetooth?

It is a wireless LAN technology designed to connect devices of different functions such as telephones, notebooks,
computers, cameras, printers and so on.

37. What is IP address?

The internet address (IP address) is 32bits that uniquely and universally defines a host or router on the internet.The
portion of the IP address that identifies the network is called netid. The portion of the IP address that identifies the
host or router on the network is called hostid.

38. What do you mean by ALOHA ?

It is the method used to solve the channel allocation problem .It is used for:
i)ground based radio broadcasting
ii)In a network in which uncoordinated users are competing for the use of single channel.
It is of two types:
1.Pure aloha
2.Slotted aloha

39. What is Firewalls?

It is an electronic downbridge which is used to enhance the security of a network. It’s configuration has two
components.
i)Two routers
ii)Application gateway
the packets traveling through the LAN are inspected here and packets meeting certain criteria are forwarded and
others are dropped.

40. What is Repeaters ?

A receiver receives a signal before it becomes too weak or corrupted,regenerates the original bit pattern,and puts the
refreshed copy back onto the link.It operates on phycal layer of OSI model.

41. What is Bridges?

They divide large network into smaller components.They can relay frames between two originally separated LANs.They
provide security through partitioning traffic.They operate on physical and data link layer of OSI model.

42. What is ICMP?

ICMP is Internet Control Message Protocol, a network layer protocol of the TCP/IP suite used by hosts and gateways to
send notification of datagram problems back to the sender. It uses the echo test / reply to test whether a destination
is reachable and responding. It also handles both control and error messages.
.

43. What is FDM?

FDM is an analog technique that can be applied when the bandwidth of a link is greater than the combined bandwidths
of the signals to be transmitted.

44. What is WDM?

WDM is conceptually the same as FDM, except that the multiplexing and demultiplexing involve light signals
transmitted through fiber optics channel.

45. What is TDM?

TDM is a digital process that can be applied when the data rate capacity of the transmission medium is greater than
the data rate required by the sending and receiving devices.

46. List the steps involved in creating the checksum.

a. Divide the data into sections
b. Add the sections together using 1's complement arithmetic
c. Take the complement of the final sum, this is the checksum.

47. Compare Error Detection and Error Correction:

The correction of errors is more difficult than the detection. In error detection, checks only any error has occurred. In
error correction, the exact number of bits that are corrupted and location in the message are known. The number of
the errors and the size of the message are important factors.

48. What are the protocols in application layer ?

The protocols defined in application layer are
• TELNET
• FTP
• SMTP
• DNS

49. What are the protocols in transport layer ?

The protocols defined in transport layer are
• TCP
• UDP

50. What do you mean by client server model ?

In client server model ,the client runs a program to request a service and the server runs a program to provide the
service.These two programs communicate with each other. One server program can provide services to many client
programs.

51. What is TELNET ?

TELNET is a client –server application that allows a user to log on to a remote machine,giving the user access to the
remote system. TELNET is an abbreviation of terminal
Network.

52. What is Hypertext Transfer Protocol(HTTP) ?

It is the main protocol used to access data on the World Wide Web .the protol transfers data in the form of plain
text,hypertext,audio,video,and so on. It is so called because its efficiency allows its use in a hypertext environment
where there are rapid jumps from one document to another.

53. What is World Wide Web ?

Ans: World Wide Web is a repository of information spread all over the world and linked together.It is a unique
combination of flexibility,portability,and user-friendly features .The World Wide Web today is a distributed client-server
service,in which a client using a browser can access a service using a server.The service provided is distributed over
many locations called web sites.

54. What is Beaconing?

The process that allows a network to self-repair networks problems. The stations on the network notify the other
stations on the ring when they are not receiving the transmissions. Beaconing is used in Token ring and FDDI
networks.

55. What is RAID?

A method for providing fault tolerance by using multiple hard disk drives.

56. What is NETBIOS and NETBEUI?

NETBIOS is a programming interface that allows I/O requests to be sent to and received from a remote computer and
it hides the networking hardware from applications.
NETBEUI is NetBIOS extended user interface. A transport protocol designed by microsoft and IBM for the use on small
subnets.

57. What is difference between ARP and RARP?

The address resolution protocol (ARP) is used to associate the 32 bit IP address with the 48 bit physical address, used
by a host or a router to find the physical address of another host on its network by sending a ARP query packet that
includes the IP address of the receiver.
The reverse address resolution protocol (RARP) allows a host to discover its Internet address when it knows only its
physical address.

58. What is the minimum and maximum length of the header in the TCP segment and IP datagram?
The header should have a minimum length of 20 bytes and can have a maximum length of 60 bytes.
59. What are major types of networks and explain?
Server-based network: provide centralized control of network resources and rely on server computers to provide
security and network administration
Peer-to-peer network: computers can act as both servers sharing resources and as clients using the resources.

60. What are the important topologies for networks?

BUS topology: In this each computer is directly connected to primary network cable in a single line.
Advantages: Inexpensive, easy to install, simple to understand, easy to extend.

STAR topology: In this all computers are connected using a central hub.
Advantages: Can be inexpensive, easy to install and reconfigure and easy to trouble shoot physical problems.

RING topology: In this all computers are connected in loop.

Advantages: All computers have equal access to network media, installation can be simple, and signal does not
degrade as much as in other topologies because each computer regenerates it.

61. What is mesh network?

A network in which there are multiple network links between computers to provide multiple paths for data to travel.

62. What is difference between baseband and broadband transmission?

In a baseband transmission, the entire bandwidth of the cable is consumed by a single signal. In broadband
transmission, signals are sent on multiple frequencies, allowing multiple signals to be sent simultaneously.

63. What is packet filter?

Packet filter is a standard router equipped with some extra functionality. The extra functionality allows every incoming
or outgoing packet to be inspected. Packets meeting some criterion are forwarded normally. Those that fail the test
are dropped.

64. What is traffic shaping?

One of the main causes of congestion is that traffic is often busy. If hosts could be made to transmit at a uniform rate,
congestion would be less common. Another open loop method to help manage congestion is forcing the packet to be
transmitted at a more predictable rate. This is called traffic shaping.

65. What is multicast routing?

Sending a message to a group is called multicasting, and its routing algorithm is called multicast routing.

66. What is Kerberos?

It is an authentication service developed at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Kerberos uses encryption to
prevent intruders from discovering passwords and gaining unauthorized access to files.

67. What is passive topology?

When the computers on the network simply listen and receive the signal, they are referred to as passive because they
don’t amplify the signal in any way. Example for passive topology - linear bus.

68. What are the advantages of Distributed Processing?

a. Security/Encapsulation
b. Distributed database
c. Faster Problem solving
d. Security through redundancy
e. Collaborative Processing
69. Name the factors that affect the reliability of the network?
a. Frequency of failure
b. Recovery time of a network after a failure

70. When a switch is said to be congested?

It is possible that a switch receives packets faster than the shared link can accommodate and stores in its memory, for
an extended period of time, then the switch will eventually run out of buffer space, and some packets will have to be
dropped and in this state is said to congested state.
1. How many numbers of addresses are usable for addressing in a Class C network?

a. 256

b. 255

c. 254

d. 258

Answer: c. 254

The number of addresses usable for addressing specific hosts in each network is always 2 power N - 2 (where N is the number
of rest field bits, and the subtraction of 2 adjusts for the use of the all-bits-zero host portion for network address and the all-
bits-one host portion as a broadcast address. Thus, for a Class C address with 8 bits available in the host field, the number of
hosts is 254

Class A 0.0.0.0 - 127.255.255.255

Class B 128.0.0.0 - 191.255.255.255

Class C 192.0.0.0 - 223.255.255.255

Class D 224.0.0.0 - 239.255.255.255

Class E 240.0.0.0 - 247.255.255.255

2. How are the data units at Application layer is called?

a. Message

b. Datagram

c. User Datagram

d. Signals

Answer:a.Message

The data unit created at the application layer is called a message, at the transport layer the data unit created is called either a
segment or an user datagram, at the network layer the data unit created is called the datagram, at the data link layer the
datagram is encapsulated in to a frame and finally transmitted as signals along the transmission media

3. What protocol is used by DNS name servers? Justify.

a. TCP

b. SNMP

c. UDP d. It can use any routing protocol

Answer:c. UDP

DNS uses UDP for communication between servers. It is a better choice than TCP because of the improved speed a
connectionless protocol offers. Of course, transmission reliability suffers with UDP
4. Which of the following is used to direct a packet inside an internal networks?
a. Routers

b. Modem

c. Gateway

d None of the above

Answer: a.Routers

Routers are machines that direct a packet through the maze of networks that stand between its source and destination.
Normally a router is used for internal networks while a gateway acts a door for the packet to reach the ‘outside’ of the internal
network

1) What is polymorphism?

Polymorphism is a concept by which we can perform a single action in different ways. Polymorphism is derived from
two Greek words: poly and morphs. The word "poly" means many and "morphs" means forms. So polymorphism
means many forms.

2) Explain the functionality of linked list.

A linked list consists of two parts. Information part and the link part. In the single linked list, first node of the list is
marked by a unique pointer named as start and this pointer points to the first element of the list, and the link part of
each node consists of a pointer pointing to the next node, but the last node of the list has null pointer identifying the
last node. The linked list can be traversed easily with the help of Start pointer.

3) What is normalization of databases, joins, and keys?

Normalization is also known as the process of organizing data in a DBMS efficiently without any loss of data.

Advantages of the normalization process are as follows:

First is eliminating redundant data and ensuring data dependencies make sense. It reduces the amount of space that
the database consumes and ensure that data is logically stored.

Join:

This clause is used in DBMS to combine rows from two or more tables, based on a related column between them.

Keys:

Keys are a crucial part of the relational database model. They are used to identify and establish relationships between
tables. They are also used to uniquely determine each record or row of data in a table.

Key:

A Key can be a single attribute or a group of attributes acting as a key.

4) What is inheritance?

In, object-oriented programming, inheritance is a mechanism based on classes.

 Inheritance refers to inheriting the data members and properties of a parent class to a child class. A class which is
derived from another class is often called as a sub-class, and the class from which the child class is derived is known
as super-class or parent class.

5) What are the different types of inheritance?

Types of Inheritance:

o Single inheritance
o Multiple Inheritance
o Multi-level Inheritance
o Multi-path Inheritance
o Hierarchical Inheritance
o Hybrid Inheritance

6) Demonstrate the process of inheriting variable of one class to other class?

1. //Base Class
2. class A
3. {
4. public int a;
5.
6. }
7. //Derived Class
8. class B : A
9. {
10. a=15;
11.
12. }

7) What are the loops statements?

To execute a block of statement several times in a program depending upon the conditional statement loops are used.
The basic structure of a loop is given above in the diagram. For each successful execution of the loop, the conditional
statement should be checked. If the conditional statement is true, then the loop will be executed. If the conditional
statement is false, then the loop will be terminated.

8) Difference between classes and interface?

The difference between classes and interface are listed below:

o The instance of the class can be created by creating its object, whereas interfaces cannot be instantiated as
all the methods in the interface are abstract and do not perform any action, There is no need for instantiating
an interface.
o A class is declared using class keyword whereas an interface is declared using interface keyword.
o The members of the class can have access specifier such as public, protected, and private but members of
the interface cannot have the access specifier, all the members of the interface is declared as public because
the interface is used to derive another class. There will be no use of access specifies inside the members of
an interface.
o The methods inside the class are defined to perform some actions on the fields declared in the class whereas
interface lacks in declaring in fields, the methods in an interface are purely abstract.
o A class can implement any number of the interface but can only extend one superclass, whereas interface
can extend any number of interfaces but cannot implement any interface.
o A class can have a constructor defined inside the class to declare the fields inside the class, whereas
interface doesn't have any constructor defined because there are no fields to be initialized.

9) What is software development life-cycle? Also, explain the waterfall model.

SDLC is a process followed for developing and enhancing software project. It consists of a detailed plan for developing,
maintaining a specific software. The life cycle defines a methodology process for improving the quality of software and
the overall development process.
In "The Waterfall" model, the whole process of software development is divided into separate phases. In this Waterfall
model, typically, the outcome of one phase acts as the input for the next phase sequentially.

10) What are the four basic principles of OOPS?

The four basic principles of Object-Oriented Programming System are listed below:

1. Abstraction
2. Inheritance
3. Encapsulation
4. Polymorphism.

11) What are the conditional statements?

The conditional statements can alternatively be called a conditional expression also. Conditional statements are the set
of rules which were executed if a particular condition is true. It is often referred to an if-then statement because if the
condition is true, then the statement is executed.

12) What is Database Management System?

A Database Management System is a software system is used for creating and managing databases. DBMS make it
possible for the end user to create and maintain databases. DBMS provides an interface between the end
user/application and the databases.

13) List different advantages of DBMS.

Improved data sharing.

The list of several advantages of Database Management System:

o Improved data security.

o Better data integration.
o Minimized data inconsistency.
o Improved data access.
o Improved decision making.
o Increased end-user productivity.

14) What do you mean by Object-Relational DBMS?

The object-relational database (ORD) is a database management system (DBMS) that are composed of both an
object-oriented database (OODBMS) and a relational database (RDBMS). ORD supports the essential components of
an object-oriented database model in its schemas and the query language used, such as inheritance, classes, and
objects.

An object-relational database is also known as an object-relational database management systems (ORDBMS).

 15) What is database Schema?

It is a set of formulas (sentences) called integrity constraints imposed on a database.

16) What is an IC? What is its importance?

IC refers to integrated circuits sets of electronic circuits on single flat piece semiconductor material, and usually,
silicon is used. The integration of a large number of tiny transistors into a small chip results in circuits that are smaller
in size and faster than those discrete electronic components. The importance of integrated circuits than the separate
electronic components is integrated circuits are smaller in size, faster, low costs than discrete electronic components.

17) Write a program to check whether the input number is a perfect number or not.
1. #include <stdio.h>
2.
3. int main()Improved data sharing.
4. {
5. int number, remainder, sum = 0, i;
6.
7. printf("Enter a Number\n");
8. scanf("%d", &number);
9. for (i = 1; i < number ; i=i+1)
10. {
11. remainder = number % i;
12. if (remainder == 0)
13. {
14. sum += i;
15.
16. }
17. }
18. if (sum == number)
19. {
20. printf("Number is perfect number");
21. }
22. else
23. {
24. printf("Number is not a perfect number");
25. }
26. return 0;
27. }

18) Tell me something about DSN?

A Data Source Name as the name suggests it is the logical name for Open Database Connectivity to refer to other
information that is required to access data. For a connection to an ODBC data source Microsoft SQL Server database.
19) What is the difference between a Clustered-index and a non-clustered-index?

Clustered Index - Only one per table is allowed

Faster to read than non clustered because the data is physically stored in index order

Non-Clustered Index - Can be used many times in a table

Quicker for inserting and updating operations than a clustered index

20) Difference between C & embedded C.

C Language

1. C is a type of the computer programming language. C was initially developed by Dennis Ritchie in AT&T Bell
Labs between 1969 and 1973. It has a free-format program source code. C is a general-purpose
programming language.
2. C is generally used for desktop computers
3. C can use the resources of a desktop PC like memory, OS, etc.
4. Compilers for C (ANSI C) typically generate OS dependent executables.

Embedded C

1. Embedded C is the set of language extensions for the C Programming language. It was released by the C
Standards committee. Through the Embedded C extensions, the C Standards committee hoped to address
the commonality issues that exist between C extensions for different embedded systems.
2. Embedded C is for micro-controller based applications.
3. Embedded C is used with the limited resources, such as RAM, ROM, I/Os on an embedded processor.
4. Embedded C requires compilers to create files to be downloaded to the micro-controllers/microprocessors
where it needs to run.

21) What is a pointer in C? What is its use?

The pointer is a particular variable which holds the address of another variable of the same type. Pointers can be of
any data type and structure are allowed in C programming language. Pointer variable stores the address of another
variable of the same data type as the value of the pointer variable.

Following are the uses of pointers:

o To point a variable in the memory.

o Pointers are used to traverse the linked list.
o To point out a structure.

22) Different between a session and a socket?

The Socket is the Combination of Ip address, and Port Number and the session is a Logical Connectivity between the
source and destination.
 23) What is a null pointer?

The null pointer is the pointer with no reference to any location of the memory.

A null pointer contains zero as its value which means pointer is empty and not pointing to anywhere in the memory.
Null pointers can be used further in the program to initialize the address of the memory location with the same data
type of the pointer.

Note: Pointers can only point to the variable having the same datatype. If the data type of pointer and datatype of pointing
variable is different, then the pointer will not work.

24) What is a Real-Time OS?

A real-time operating system is an operating system which acts as an interface between hardware and user. This
system guarantees a specific capability within a specified time. For example, an operating system is designed to
ensure that a specific object was available for a robot on an assembly line.

25) Difference between TCP and UDP.

TCP UDP

Connection-orientated protocol Connectionless protocol

Segment sequencing. No sequencing.

Acknowledge sequencing No windowing and retransmission.

Reliable transmission protocol. Unreliable transmission protocol.

26) Write a c program to swap two numbers without using a temporary variable.
1. void swap(int &i, int &j)
2. {
3. i=i+j;
4. j=i-j;
5. i=i-j;
6. }

27) Which functions are used for memory allocation in C/C++

The Function calloc() allocates a memory area, and the length will be the product of its parameters(it has two
parameters). It fills the memory with ZERO's and returns a pointer to the first byte of the memory. If it fails to locate
enough space, Then it returns a NULL pointer.

The function malloc() allocates a memory area, and length will be the value entered as a parameter. (it has one
parameter). It does not initialize memory area free() used to free the allocated memory(allocated through calloc and
malloc), in other words, this used release the allocated memory new also used to allocate memory on the heap and
initialize the memory using the constructor delete also used release memory allocated by new operator
 28) Write output of the program?
1. int i=10;
2. printf("%d%d%d",i,++i,i++);
3. Answer = 10 12 12

29) What is a virtual function and what is the pure virtual function?

Virtual function:- In order to achieve polymorphism, function in base class is declared as virtual, By declare virtual
we make the base class pointer to execute the function of any derived class depends on the content of pointer (any
derived class address).

Pure Virtual Function:- This is a function used in base class, and its definition has to be provided in a derived class,
In other pure virtual function has no definition in the base is defined as:

1. virtual void fun()=0;

That means this function not going to do anything, In case of the pure virtual function derived function has to
implement the pure virtual function or redeclare it as the pure virtual function

30) What are WPF-WCF?

WPF/WCF application, need in .NET 3.0 Framework. This application will cover the following concepts:

o WCF(Windows Communication Foundation)

o The new service orientated attributes
o The use of interfaces
o The use of callbacks
o Asynchronous delegates
o Creating the proxy
o WPF( Windows Presentation Foundation )
o Styles
o Templates
o Animations
o Databinding
o Multithreading a WPF application

31) Difference between the EXE and the DLL file extension?

The term EXE is a short-term of the word executable as it identifies the file as a program. Whereas, DLL stands for
Dynamic Link Library, which commonly contains functions and procedures that can be used by other programs.

32) Scenarios in which the web application should be used and scenarios in which
desktop application should be used?

Scenarios in which web application used are listed below:

 o Cost effective development
o Accessible anywhere
o Easily customizable

Scenarios in which desktop application should be used are listed below:

o Desktop application usually has more control.

Safe for computationally expensive software that needs to communicate directly with the OS.

The desktop application is often offline and does not need an Internet connection to function compared to a web
application.

33) What is an array?

An array is a group of elements used to store a group of related data of the same data type.

The array uses index number to identify each element in an array.

34) Inner join Vs. Outer join?

35) What are the SQL tables?

A table is a set of related data in a structured format in the database. A table is consists of rows and columns.

36) What is the difference between array and pointer?

An array is the group of similar elements having the same data type, whereas the pointer is a variable pointing to
some data type in the memory. Arrays can only contain the elements of similar data type whereas pointer variable is
used to point to any data type variable.

37) How abstraction and encapsulation complementary?

Abstraction and encapsulation are complementary because in object-oriented programming classes can only be
abstracted if it is encapsulated. The abstraction focuses on the observable behavior of an object, whereas
encapsulation focuses on the implementation that gives rise to this behavior.
38) How is modularity present in C++?

Modularity is the concept explained in oops concept, and it was introduced with class and objects in c++. Functions,
classes, structures implements modularity in C++.

39) Define the structural difference between the b-tree index and bitmap?

Btree

This tree structure was developed by Bayer and McCreight in 1972.

This tree structure is a height-balanced m-way search tree. A B-tree of the order m can be defined as an m-way
search tree.

It is made up of branch nodes and leaf nodes.

Bitmap

It consists merely of bits for every single distinct value. It uses a string of bits to locate rows in a table quickly. Used
to index low cardinality columns.

40) What do you mean by platform independence?

The platform independence refers to the ability of programming language or a platform that you implement on one
machine and use them on another machine without or minimal changes. There are two types of platform
independence, source platform independence, and binary platform independence. For example, Java is a binary
platform independent language whereas c and c++ are source platform independence languages because java uses
java virtual machine to run their programs but c and c++ use compilers to convert the source code to executable
machine language.

41) Differentiate between Char and Varchar in DBMS?

Char and Varchar both are the datatypes in DBMS. Char and varchar both datatypes are used to store characters up to
8000. The only point of difference between the Char and Varchar is Char fixed length string datatype whereas Varchar,
as the name suggests, is a variable length character storing data type.

For example, char(7) will take 7 bytes of memory to store the string, and it also includes space. Whereas varchar will
take variable space, which means that it will only take that much of space as the actual data entered as the data of
varchar data type.

42) Do you know about the different level of languages?

The different levels of programming languages were listed below:

o Low-level Language- Language which is understandable by machine is often known as machine language
(binary language). It is challenging to read and doing code in this language by humans directly.
o Assembly level language- Some mnemonics are used which reduce the complexity of the program.
 o Middle-level Language- This language is not so tricky as the assembly language, but it still requires the
knowledge of computer hardware which makes it little difficult to program. For Example C and C++
programming languages.
o High-level language- Its right to say, this level of the programming language is the highest level of the
programming language in the technology. These types of programming languages do not require the
knowledge of the hardware. This level of the programming language is elementary to learn by the humans.
For Example Java, PHP, Perl, Python, etc.

43) What is the word used for the virtual machine in JAVA? How is it implemented?

The word "Java Virtual Machine known as JVM in short" is used for the virtual machine in Java. This word is
implemented from the java runtime environment (JRE).

44) List the areas in which data structures are applied extensively?

The list of areas where data structures are applied extensively are listed below:

o Compiler Design
o Operating System
o Database management System
o Numerical analysis
o Artificial Intelligence
o Simulation
o Statistical analysis package

45) Difference between Class and Struct.

A structure and a class differ a lot as a structure has limited functionality and features as compared to a class. A class
can be defined as the collection of related variables and functions encapsulated in a single structure whereas a
structure can be referred to as an user-defined datatype for processing its operations. A keyword "Struct" is used for
declaration of Struct Where a keyword "class" is used for the declaration of a class in the programming language.
Default access specifier of the class is private whereas default access specifier of the struct is public. The purpose of
the class is data abstraction and further inheritance whereas the use of the struct is generally, Grouping of data.
General usage of the struct is a small amount of data whereas general usage of the class is to store a large amount of
data.

46) What is the difference between a white box, black box, and gray box testing?
White Box Testing Black Box Testing Gray Box Testing

Internal programming fully known. Internal programming is not known. Internal programming is
partially known.

Tester knows the internal working of the The knowledge of the internal working Internal working of the
application. of the application is not required. application is partially known.
 White box testing is also known as glass, Black box testing is also known as a Gray box testing is also known
open box, clear box, structural testing, or closed box, data-driven, and as translucent testing.
code-based testing. functional testing.

Performed by tester and developers. Performed by the end user and also Performed by the end user and
by tester and developers. also by tester and developers.

The tester can design test data. Testing is based on external By high-level database
expectation. diagrams and data flow
diagrams.

Most exhaustive and time-consuming. Least time consuming and exhaustive. Partially time-consuming and
exhaustive.

Data domain and internal boundaries can be Performed by the trial, and error Data domains and the internal
better tested. method. boundaries can be tested if
known.

Not suited for algorithm testing. Not suited for algorithm testing. Suited for algorithm testing.

47) Describe three levels of data abstraction? Which layer is at the user end?

The three levels of data abstraction are listed below:

1. Physical level: This is the lowest level of database abstraction describes how the data are stored.
2. Logical level: This level is the next higher level than the physical level of database abstraction, which
represents the data stored in the database and what relationship among those data.
3. View level: This is the highest level of database abstraction describes only part of the entire database.

No doubt, View level layer of database abstraction is at the user end.

48) Difference between 'Macro' and 'ordinary' definition.

o Macro takes parameters whereas the ordinary definition does not.
o Based on the parameter values to macro, it can result in different value at runtime. Ordinary definition value
remains same at all place at runtime.
o Macro can be used for conditional operations whereas the definition cannot.
o Using macro one can achieve inline functionality in C, i.e., a macro can be a function performing simple
operations. This is not possible using definitions.

49) Write the program in C language to swap two numbers without using a third
variable.
1. #include<Stdio.h>
2. #include<conio.h>
3. void main()
4. {
5. int i,j;
6. printf("Enter the value of i: \n");
7. scanf("%d",&i);
8. printf("Enter the value of j: \n");
9. scanf("%d",&j);
10. printf("Value of i before swap:%d \n",i);
11. printf("Value of j before swap:%d \n",j);
12. i=i+j;
13. j=i-j;
14. i=i-j;
15. printf("Value of i after swap:%d \n",i);
16. printf("Value of j after swap:%d \n",j);
17.
18. }

50) What are IPv4 and IPv6? Differentiate between them.

IPv4 IPv6

IPv4 contains 32 bit Ip address. IPv6 contains 128 bit IP address.

The older version of the IP address. The newer version of the IP address.

generates 4.29 x 109 unique network addresses produces 3.4 x 1038 addresses

51) What is the difference and similarity between C and C++?

C and C++ both use the same syntax. C++ is the extension of the C language. C and C++ both have same compilers.
C++ language consists of classes and objects whereas there are no classes and objects available in the C language.
C++ is an OOP based programming whereas C is not OOPS based programming language.

52) What are the different modulation techniques?

The two types of modulation techniques are an analog and digital modulation. Further analog modulation is subdivided
into amplitude, frequency and phase modulation.

53) Differentiate between 'a' and "a."

"a" is string value whereas 'a' is a character value in c programming language.

 54) What is the pre-processor?

The pre-processor is just a text substitution tool, and they instruct the compiler to do required pre-processing before
actual compilation.

55) Write a program in c language to check whether the input number is a prime
number or not.
1. #include<conio.h>
2. #include<stdio.h>
3.
4. int main()
5. {
6. int num,i;
7. int flag=0;
8. printf("Enter the number:");
9. printf("\n");
10. scanf("%d",&num);
11. for(i=2;i<num;i++)
12. {
13. if(num%i==0)
14. {
15. flag++;
16. }
17. }
18. if(flag>0)
19. {
20. printf("number is not a prime number\n");
21. }
22. else
23. {
24. printf("Entered number is an prime number\n");
25. }
26. return;
27. }