SYMBOLAE PHILOLOGORUM POSNANIENSIUM GRAECAE ET LATINAE XXV/2 • 2015

pp. 73–95. ISBN 978-83-232-3005-2. ISSN 0302-7384

DOI: 10.14746/sppgl.2015.XXV.2.6

COMMENTATIONES AD RECENTIOREM
LATINITATEM SPECTANTES

Kurt Smolak
Universität Wien,
Institut für Klassische Philologie, Mittel-und Neulatein,
Universitätsring 1, A-1010 Wien

The “epigrammatic” epic.

Ekkehart’s IV Versus ad Picturas and the poetic
tradition

Abstract. Smolak Kurt, The “epigrammatic” epic. Ekkehart’s IV “Versus ad Picturas” and the poetic tradi-
tion (Epika „epigramatyczna”. Ekkeharta Versus ad Picturas wobec tradycji poetyckiej).

As a consequence of the large variety of poetic genres dealing with biblical material in Christian-Latin literatu-
re of Late Antiquity, in the 11th century the two extremely opposite forms of poetic expression were artificially
combined, namely continuous epic narration and epigrammatic conciseness of the so called tituli, that is to
say metrical inscriptions which were meant to explain wall paintings or mosaics of selected biblical topics. By
order of Aribo, archbishop of Mainz, Ekkehart IV of St. Gall composed an “epigrammatic epic”, which was
to cover the wide range of the entire Bible from Genesis to Apocalypse, contemporary exegesis partly inclu-
ded. Aribo was supposed to select those “epigrammes” from this “biblical epic” which he needed for a new
decoration of the cathedral – a  project, however, which was never realised. Ekkehart’s highly manneristic
poetic creation, preserved only in his autograph, MS 393 of St. Gall, remained unparalleled. Nevertheless, it
is an important testimony of the experimental and innovative character of medieval Latin poetry in the period
of transition from monastic literary production of the previous centuries to the golden age of medieval Latin
classics, which originated in the cathedral schools, during the late 11th and the 12th centuries.

Keywords: Ekkehart IV of St. Gaull, St. Gaull, Poeta doctus, Medieval Latin Poetry, 11th Century Culture,
Biblical Epic, Tituli, Mainz-Cathedral, Holy Languages, Archbishop Aribo, MS St. Gaull 393

1. Literary presuppositions and constituent factors

1.1 Poeta doctus

In 2004 Stefan Weber published a monograph, titled Ekkehardus poeta qui

et doctus1, its topic being the poetic work of Ekkehart IV of Sankt Gallen, who
1
 Stefan Weber, Ekkehardus poeta qui et doctus: Ekkehart IV. von St. Gallen und sein gelehrt
poetisches Wirken (Nordhausen: Verlag Bautz, Traugott 2004).
74 Kurt Smola k

lived from about 980 to 10602. The two words prefixed to the attribute of po-
eta, namely qui et, which remind the readers of the usual formulation of a late
antique and mediaeval supernomen, raise special attention, since they mark
a modification of the familiar term poeta doctus, which with classical philolo-
gists evokes specific associations. There is a German Wikipedia-article on po-
eta doctus, though of poor quality and without any keywords3. Those, however,
might be the following notions: Hellenism, Alexandrine poetry, Callimachus,
Propertius, Horace. Already Ausonius and Sidonius Apollinaris would probably
be missing. Possibly vernacular writers would be mentioned, such as Dante or
Milton, perhaps also Goethe from the German realm. The ideal of the Romantic
Movement in English and German literature largely excludes the poeta doc-
tus in an Alexandrine sense, modern and post-modern eras – whatever it might
be – do not show conformity in this respect. The item, however, which in the
keywords and associations not only of traditional classical philologists – they
could perhaps mention one or the other neolatin poet such as Johannes Secundus
or Jakob Balde – would most probably be missing, is the Latin literature of the
Middle Ages in spite of its enormous extent, which, as is well known, surpasses
by far the total amount of Roman and late antique literature, even if the latter had
come down to us without any loss. Referring to the Middle Ages, the Wikipedia-
article quoted above only mentions the scholastic genre of the Commentary to
Sentences! It is another well-known fact that the exclusion of almost a thousand
years of Latin literary production goes back to causes related to the history of
scholarship and their philosophical basis, topics that, of course, cannot be dealt
with in this article.
Before turning to my main topic, the epigrammatic epic, as I call it, I would
like to deal with a poem of a mediaeval poeta doctus in a more or less traditional
sense. It is a bitter invective against a man, who attacked the author demanding
his pay, census, probably for a piece of poetry, by trying to strangle him. In this
insulting poem the poet wishes his enemy to burn in the flames of Styx (here
apparently confused with Pyriphlegethon) together with Jude, to meet with an
end as gruesome as that of Ischariot, who, according to Matthew 27, 5, hanged
himself, or of Palinurus in Virgil’s Aeneid, who was drowned to death4, since the
2
 On Ekkehart in general see: Steffen Patzold, Eccardus, St. Galler Klostergeschichten, (Darm-
stadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 2003); Franz Brunhölzl, Geschichte der lateinischen
Literatur des Mittelalters, vol. II (München: Wilhelm Fink Verlag, 1992), 438–445; Hans F. Hae­
fele, “Ekkehard IV” in Die deutsche Literatur des Mittelalters. Verfasserlexikon, vol. II, ed. Kurt
Ruh et al. (Berlin – New York: Walter de Gruyter 1980), 455–65.
3
 http://de.wikipwdia.org/wiki/Poeta_doctus (February 15th, 2013).
4
 Vergilius, Aeneis 5, 860. It may be not by mere coincidence that just Jude and Palinurus are
combined here, for according to a popular belief in either kind of dying not only the body, but also
the soul is killed by being prevented from evading the body into the air, cp. e.g. Statius, Thebais
9, 264; Synesius, Epistola 4, p. 642 Hercher, and also the biblical episode of the herd of swine of
Gerasa (Lk 8, 32–33).
 T he “ epigrammatic ” epic 75

enemy’s menacing words had surpassed by far the fury of Allecto and Megaera
in wickedness. The author compares himself with the fast running Pelops and
the biblical dwarf Zacchaeus of Luke 19, whereas he parallels his enemy with
the giant Briareus from Greek mythology, with the cruel King Herod from the
Bible and the terrifying tyrant Dionysius of Syracuse from ancient history. He
paraphrases Death with Lethe, the river of forgetting in Hades, and twice makes
use of the adjective Stigialis, a  rarely attested neologism of mediaeval Latin.
This poeta doctus adopts an attitude different from that of Callimachus and his
followers, who by appealing to the readers’ education place them on their own
level of knowledge in order to achieve an elitist uniformity between producer
and recipient. The mediaeval poet, however, writing against the background of
the self experienced dramatic situation, possibly described in the poem on the
basis of a  biblical reminiscence, namely the exclusion of groups of Israelites
from priesthood, which they affected, because of not being registered in the list,
census (!), of genuine Israel clans5, wants to superelevate the dramatic quality by
using items of traditional education, an education which exceeds that of ancient
and renaissance poetae docti, since it includes detailed knowledge of the Bible:
biblical characters are presented as of equal standard with those from classi-
cal mythology and history, they even seem to be interchangeable, thus creating
a parallel world of mythology, for which testimony is found in many a place in
the later Middle Ages6. The attitude, which the poet adopted in the poem just
dealt with, becomes evident against the background of the rest of his œuvre: for
Hugo of Orléans, who proudly called himself Primas, in some respect a forerun-
ner of Francois Villon, is a master of mannerist metrical epigrams and of realistic
satires against the vices of his own age in modern rhythmic verse7. His fifteenth

5
 2 Ezr (= Nehemia) 7, 64.
6
 For this cultural phenomenon see: Kurt Smolak, “Mythologie der Befreiung”, Wiener Hu-
manistische Blätter 33 (1992): 26–46; Reinhart Herzog, “Metapher – Exegese – Mythos. Interpre-
tationen zur Entstehung eines biblischen Mythos in der Literatur der Spätantike”, in Terror und
Spiel, ed. Manfred Fuhrmann (München: Wilhelm Fink Verlag, 1971), 157–186; in this process
of amalgamation of biblical ‘history’ and pagan myth the Ecloga Theoduli, a probably 9th-century
‘Streitgedicht’ between the allegories of Aletia, “Truth”, who represents the Bible, and Pseustis,
“Ly”, who represents pagan mythology, played an important role, since it was used as a text of
scholastic instruction. But whereas in the Ecloga the contending parties are in unbridgeable op-
position to each other, in the successive centuries they got reconciled. This can also be observed
in renaissance figurative art, e.g. in the tapestries on the Seven Mortal Sins by Pieter Coeke van
Aelst (1502–1550), kept in the Kunsthistorisches Museum in Vienna (Inv. Nr. XXXV, 1–7) and,
although not as a complete series, in Madrid (Patrimonio Nacional) and New York (Piepont Mor-
gan Library).
7
 For Hugo’s poems see: Wilhelm Meyer, “Die Oxforder Gedichte des Primas (des Magisters
Hugo von Orleans)”, in Nachrichten von der Königlichen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Göt-
tingen, Philologisch-historische Klasse 1907, Heft 1, 75–111; Heft 2, 113–175, 231–234 (reprint
Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1970). The poem dealt with is contained in the
Oxford-collection as piece XV.
76 Kurt Smola k

poem in the Oxford collection I referred to reads in parts like a work of Sidonius
or like Martial 5, 28, an epigram which by the way shows thematic parallels with
Hugo’s ‘coat poems’8. What Hugo, Callimachus and Sidonius have in common
is the fact, that they recur to a stock of knowledge presupposed in the reci­pient,
namely a detailed acquaintance with mythology and with what was used to be
called factual knowledge; only Hugo requests also intimacy with the Bible, al-
though Sidonius was also a Christian. To give a more complex picture of me-
diaeval Latin learned poetry, I shortly add another example, as well taken from
the lyrical genre. Only a sufficiently educated person was able to interpret the
expression triplex Charybdis as three spermatic ejaculations during an amorous
night. This metaphor appears in a thirteen’s century Goliardic poem, contained
in the Latin manuscript Nr. 1365 of the Austrian National Library9, and is based
on a passage of Isidore’s of Seville Etymologiae (20, 18, 5). There Charybdis is
said to spit her flood three times a day: ter autem in die erigit (!) fluctus... accipit
aquas ut vomat.

1.2 Epic and Bible

Instead of the just mentioned knowledge of glossaries, commentaries and

late antique or early mediaeval antiquarian literature, in Christian times the Bi-
ble had to be considered as a prerequisite for understanding literary products,
since it was taken for a ‘super-text’, which in its core contains the whole treasure
of what men could know10. Along with the ‘Word of God’ exegetical writings
served as main texts of reference in mediaeval Europe. Already in Hellenistic
Jewry – Philo of Alexandria may be mentioned as the most outstanding exam-
ple – both factors, Bible and exegesis, attracted ancient literary genres: the lat-
ter the didactic poem, the commentary, the philosophical treatise and rhetoric,
the former all the poetic genres including lyric and drama, such as the Exagoge
by a  certain Ezechiel, who dramatized the Book of Exodus11. In the field of
Latin culture, on the contrary, biblical drama appeared only late in the shape

8
 Hugo’s ‘coat poem(s)’ is (are) contained in the Oxford-collection as piece(s) II. For the genre
of ‘Mantelgedichte’, a  species of begging poetry, see: Therese Latzke, “Der Topos Mantelge-
dicht”, Mittellateinisches Jahrbuch 6 (1969): 109–31; ead., “Die Mantelgedichte des Primas Hugo
von Orléans und Martial”, Mittellateinisches Jahrbuch 5 (1968): 54–58.
9
 This poem was first edited by Peter Dronke, Mediaeval Latin and the Rise of European Love-­­
-Lyric, vol. II (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 19682), 369–371, notes 372–374; for corrections of the
text and a complex interpretation of the poem see: Kurt Smolak, “Bemerkungen zu zwei mittel-
lateinischen Liebesgedichten”, Wiener Studien 98 (1984): 203–215.
10
 Similar ‘supertexts’ appear in various cultural regions of Europe: Homer, Virgil’s Aeneid,
Dante’s Commedia, Shakespeare’s works as a whole, Goethe’s Faust I and II.
11
 Clemens Alexandrinus, Stromateis 1, 23, preserved 269 trimetres of this Jewish-Hellenistic
drama.
 T he “ epigrammatic ” epic 77

of liturgical plays, which in their turn served as the basis of baroque oratories
and popular Passion Plays. In Christian Latin literature, on the contrary, the
traditionally most distinguished literary genre, the epic, was the first to take pos-
session of the Bible. As early as in last years of Constantine’s reign the Spanish
presbyter Iuvencus wrote his Evangelia, four hexametric books paralleling the
four canonical gospels, although episodes from Matthew’s gospel prevail12. The
metrical paraphrase of prose texts, which used to be practised in schools at the
level of the grammaticus, provided the requisite technical tools. In the praefatio
Iuvencus explains what his work is meant to be: an epic proclaiming truth, op-
posed to the poetic fictions and lies of Homer and Virgil13.
Already in Late Antiquity Iuvencus had a couple of followers, whose works
found their way into the mediaeval canon of poets studied in monastic or cathe-
dral schools. First of all Sedulius, who being a psalmodist and thus engaged in
lyrics found himself entitled to an epic presentation of the gospels14. He made
a fifth book precede the four of his forerunner, in which he explains the exegetic
parameters, namely typological interpretations, according to which the gospels
should be read. Following the ancient definition of the epic genre, this procedure
was legitimate in so far, as no difference was made between the epic subspecies,
which only in modern times came to be named didactic poem, and epic poetry
in its strict sense. Correspondingly, the decidedly anti-Lucretian didactic epic
of Marius Victorius, titled Alethia, “truth” (one is reminded of Iuvencus’ prae-
fatio), is ranked with biblical epic poetry of late antiquity. With Marius Victo-
rius the inclusion of the Old Testament, which through typological exegesis had
already been prepared in the first book of Sedulius, develops a life of its own.
The author’s primary interest lay in explaining the creation of the world against
the godless physics of the atomists and in demonstrating, that phenomena liable
to scientific discussion, such as the Big Flood or the destruction of Sodom and

12
 See: Reinhart Herzog, C. Vettius Aquilinus Iuvencus “C. Vettius Aquilinus Iuvencus”, In
Handbuch der lateinischen Literatur der Antike, vol. V: Restauration und Erneuerung 284–374
n. Chr., edited by Reinhart Herzog, Peter Lebrecht Schmidt, 331–36. München: Verlag C. H. Beck,
1989, 332.
13
 Iuvencus’ praefatio has often been dealt with, e.g. Furio Murru, “Analisi semiologica
e strutturale della praefatio agli Evangeliorum libri di Giovenco”, Wiener Studien 93 (1980):
133–151; Franz Quadlbauer, “Zur invocatio des Iuvencus”, Grazer Beiträge 2 (1974): 189–
212; P.G. Van der Nat, “Die Praefatio der Evangelienparaphrase des Juvencus”, in Romanitas
et Christianitas. Studia Latina Iano Henrico Waszink a.d. VI Kal. Nov.A. MCMLXXIII XIII
lustra complenti oblata, ed. W. den Boer et al. (Amsterdam, London: North-Holland Publi-
shing, 1973), 249–257.
14
 For Sedulius’ poetical programme see: Kurt Smolak, “Niliacae bibli. Anmerkungen zum An-
fang des Carmen Paschale des Sedulius”, in Gedenkschrift Ulrike Horak (P. Horak), Papyrologica
Florentina 34 (2004), 495–500; on Sedulius’ relationship to Iuvencus see: Salvatore Costanza,
“Da Giovenco a Sedulio. I proemi degli ‘Evangeliorum libri’ e del ‘Carmen Paschale’”, Cultura
Classica e Cristiana 6 (1985): 254–286.
78 Kurt Smola k

Gomorra by heavenly fire, have their origins in God’s constant interaction with
men by interfering in the material world15.
Apart from the just outlined tradition of biblical epic there is an extensive
epic paraphrase of the initial books of the Old Testament up to Judges, preserved
only in fragments, the – pseudonymous – author of which used to be called
Cyprianus Gallus or Cyprianus poeta or Heptateuchdichter16. In this poem the
epic hexameter totally equales the narrative prose of the paraphrased text. This
statement must be drawn from the fact, that wherever lyrical passages appear in
the text of reference, such as Moses’ song of thanks after crossing the Red Sea,
the author uses lyrical metres as the hendecasyllabus to render them properly by
marking the formal difference between epic narrative and lyrics, which is an un-
heard destruction of a fundamental law of the epic genre by classical standards.
In order to offer a condensed, but (almost) all comprising image of the state
of epic biblical poetry of Latin Late Antiquity at least partly accessible to Ekke-
hart, another four impresses must be brought to attention. First of all the biblical
Virgilian cento: Whereas Ausonius in the pars privata of his cento nuptialis
turned Virgilian verses, that is to say Virgil himself, who according to tradition
was rather reserved towards women17, in an obscene character with the scope
of entertaining the readers by an effect against expectation, the Christian lady
Faltonia Baeticia Proba, who composed a  biblical Virgilian cento probably in
the middle of the fourth century, was praised to offer an “improved Virgil”,
Maronem mutatum in melius, that is to say a Virgil, whose basically Christian
status of mind was to be elucidated by rearranging his verses or parts of them18.

15
 On Marius Victorius in general see: Michele Cutino, L’Alethia di Claudio Mario Vittorio.
La parafrasi biblica come forma di espressione teologica (Roma: Institutum Patristicum Augusti-
nianum: 2009); Ugo Martorelli, Redeat verum. Studi sulla tecnica poetica dell’Alethia di Claudio
Mario Vittorio (Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag, 2008); Helge Hans Homey, Studien zur Alethia des
Claudius Marius Victorius (Bonn: Rheinische Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität 1972).
16
 The traditional denomination, Cyprianus Gallus, was still adopted by Rudolf Peiper in
his edition in Corpus Scriptorum Ecclesiasticorum Latinorum 23 (Pragae, Vindobonae, Lipsiae:
F. Tempsky, G. Freytag, 1891) and by Martin Schanz et al., Geschichte der römischen Literatur,
vol. IV, 2 (München: C.H. Beck’sche Verlagsbuchhandlung, 1920), 655 (Alphabetisches Regi-
ster), whereas Ludmilla Krestan prefers ‘Cyprianus’ (without any specification), in Reallexikon
für Antike und Christentum 2 (Stuttgart: Anton Hiersemann 1957), 477–481; Herzog, Bibelepik
1, 53–60, calls the anonymous poet ‘Heptateuchdichter’, an expression already used in Martin
Schanz et al. 671 (Generalregister).
17
 Aelius Donatus, Vita Vergilii 11.
18
 These are the words of an anonymous who wrote a  poetical preface to Proba’s Cento in
a  copy dedicated to emperor Arcadius, 5–6: dignare Maronem / mutatum in melius divino ag-
noscere sensu, in Poetae Christiani Minores, ed. Carolus Schenkl in Corpus Scriptorum Eccle-
siasticorum Latinorum 16 (Pragae, Vindobonae, Lipsiae: F. Tempsky, 1888); generally on Proba
see: Kurt Smolak, “Maro mutatus in melius? Zum Phänomen des literarischen Zitierens in der
christlich-lateinischen Spätantike”, in Text und Kontext, ed. Oswald Panagl, Ruth Wodak (Würz-
burg: Königshausen & Neumann, 2004), 51–66; Herzog, Bibelepik 1, 14–51.
 T he “ epigrammatic ” epic 79

Secondly the three books De laudibus Dei by Dracontius, who lived in Vandal

Africa in the second half of the fifth century are to be mentioned19. He wrote
a  panegyric to God in epic hexameters, praising his benefits towards men by
a well meditated selection of episodes and praying for liberation from prison,
since he had been incarcerated by King Gunthamund for political reasons. It
must not be excluded, that the poet by outlining the benevolence of the for­giving
God aimed at encouraging the Vandal ruler to pardon him, which, however,
proved to be a failure, for it was only King Thrasamund, who granted him am-
nesty. This highly subjective private poem of Dracontius, which goes far beyond
of what traditionally was supposed to fit with the attitudes of epic poetry, has its
counterpart in an objective, public one, and this is the third instance. In 544 the
Roman subdeacon Arator recited his paraphrase of the Acts of the Apostles in
epic hexameters in the church of S. Petri ad vincula in Rome20. The public recital
of poetic panegyrics to Saints, in the special case of a paraphrase of the Acts of
the Apostles to Peter and Paul, who long before had adopted the protective func-
tion of the pagan penates, corresponds to the public recitations of verse-pane-
gyrics to rulers, whose task in Italy of the Arrian Ostrogoths in the sixth century
had passed to the Catholic Church. Contrary to Dracontius’ panegyric to God
himself, whom he expected to help him in his deplorable situation as a prisoner,
Arator’s panegyric to Peter and Paul was intended to implore their protection of
Rome from the approaching troops of emperor Justinian’s general Belisarius –
in vain, though: in 546 the Byzantine units invaded the City of Peter and Paul.
Finally the historical biblical epic of Alcimus Avitus, bishop of Vienne, has to be
added21. Its title De spiritalis historiae gestis, be it original or not, exactly meets
the poet’s intention: the Bible offers subject matter for his epic, which should
raise traditional Roman epic poetry to a higher level: according to Horace, ars
poetica 73–74 gesta is one of those notions, which constitute the epic genre in
contents and in form: res gestae regumque ducumque et tristia bella / quo scribi
possent numero monstravit Homerus. Avitus’ epic satisfies the definition of the
Roman theoretician of poetry, for God Father, the central character in the initial

19
 On Dracontius see: Myriam De Gaetano, Scuola e Poetere in Draconzio (Alessandria: Edi-
zioni dell’Orso, 2009); Luigi Castagna, Studi Draconziani (1992–1996), (Napoli: Loffredi Edito-
re, 1997); Claude Moussy, Colette Camus, Dracontius Œuvres, tome I, Louanges de Dieu, Livres
I et II (Paris: Les Belles Lettres, 1985), 7–136.
20
 For Arator see: Johannes Schwind, Sprachliche und exegetische Beobachtungen zu Ara-
tor (Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag, 1995); Richard Hillier, Arator on the Acts of the Apostles
(Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993); Johannes Schwind, Arator-Studien (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck
& Ruprecht, 1990): Schwind was the first to demonstrate that the prose-inserts in the metrical
composition are not genuine, but should be dated into the Early Middle Ages.
21
 On Avitus see: Nicole Hecquet-Noti, Avit de Vienne, Histoire spirituelle, tome I (chants
I–III), (Paris: Les éditions de Cerf, 1999), 23–195; Alexander Arweiler, Die Imitation antiker und
spätantiker Literatur in der Dichtung „De spiritalis historiae gestis“ des Alcimus Avitus (Berlin,
New York: Walter de Gruyter, 1999).
80 Kurt Smola k

books, is apostrophized as a king in the Old Testament in many instances, star­

ting with Hester 13, 15, and Christ, according to his own words to Pilate, John
18, 37 calls himself king (regumque!), whose kingdom is not from this world. He
wages ‘war’ (bella!) against the demons and the Lord of darkness, Satan22, and
last, but not least: he achieved memorable deeds (res gestae!), such as healing ill
and bringing dead back to life. Just like Dracontius Avitus chose significant and
soteriologically relevant episodes from the Old and the New Testament, not for
subject reasons, however, but in order to produce a historical epic, from Ennius
onwards a typically Roman subspecies of narrative poetry, based on an entirely
biblical foundation. In doing so he does not present his subject material in the
form of annales, but he picks out some landmarks, res gestae, of God, which he
treats with remarkable poetic licence, though he asserts in the prose preface to
his epic to refrain from adopting any licentia poetarum which he identifies with
lying23. To give an example: He was the first to introduce the devil as an acting
and speaking character, apart from his appearance as speaking serpent in Ge­
nesis 324, a feature still reflected in the so called Prologue in Heaven in Goethe’s
Faust I. It is a noteworthy fact, that Avitus, in a literary respect, fulfils what the
inventor of biblical poetry in Latin literature, Iuvencus, demands in his praefatio
already mentioned, namely genuine epic poetry vs. the lies of poets, that means
poetry which draws a line between itself and the most prominent representatives
of classical epic, but tops them in its ethical value without changing their style
and setting, as they believed.
The previous quite lengthy parecbasis – to use a  term of rhetoric model
speeches, dictiones – should give a  survey of the literary situation, in which
the products commonly summed up as biblical epics, came to meet at the inter-
section of Late Antiquity and Early Middle Ages in the field of Latin culture.
There is no rounded off picture of a genre, apart from the use of the hexameter,
which on the one hand is not necessarily linked to epic poetry and on the other
hand, as shown before, was not applied with consequence, if one considers the
practice of the Heptateuchdichter. Nor can the common subject, the Bible, fulfil
the demand of constituting a literary genre, as also in Christian lyrics the main
topics are taken from the Holy Scriptures to a large degree. It is only the poem
22
 The concept of Christus militans had been quite popular from Late Antiquity onwards. It is
based on the apocryph Gospel of Nicodemus (in the Latin area called Acta Pilati) 7–8 (23–24).
An instructive example in figurative art is given in an early 6th-century (partly restored) mosaic
in the so called Oratorio di S. Pier Crisologo (or di S. Andrea) or Cappella arcivescovile in the
Archbishop’s Palace in Ravenna, where Christ in armour is shown crushing the lion and the dra-
gon according to Ps 90, 13 and bearing his cross as if it were a sword.
23
 Alcimi Ecdicii Aviti Viennensis episcopi opera quae supersunt, ed. Rudolf Peiper (Berolini:
Apud Weidmannos, 1883), 202.
24
 See: Martina Eisenberger, Non equidem invideo… Die Entwicklung des Teufels von der
Schlange zum epischen Protagonisten in ausgewählten lateinischen poetischen Darstellungen des
Sündenfalls (Wien: Diplomarbeit, not published in print, 2009), 88–122.
 T he “ epigrammatic ” epic 81

of Avitus that might meet the criteria of an epic in the classical sense, as worked
out by Dieter Schaller in connection with his studies on the so called Epic on
Charlemagne (‘Aachener Karlsepos’), critically reviewing the classifications of
Klaus Thraede25.

1.3 The late antique tituli

The wide range of hexametric biblical poetry – this name seems to fit bet-
ter than the traditional term of ‘biblical epic’, which Herzog used as a title of
his epoch making monograph quoted in note 12 – permitted or rather encour-
aged authors to go on experimenting within the coordinates of hexameter and
Bible, since in spite of Iuvencus, Sedulius and Avitus there was no poetic text
of reference of greater authority than Virgil’s Aeneid. The attempt to present
the complete Bible from Genesis to Apocalypse and not only selected land-
marks poetically was such an experiment and will be treated in the following
chapters. It goes without saying that the presentation of this enormous subject
matter could not be managed with the traditional means of narrative hexa­
metric poetry – for this not even an epic as large as Nonnus’ Dionysiaca would
have been sufficient, the only poems to deliver a  possible parallel might be
the gigantic Sanskrit epics. On the other hand, there was a late antique genre
available, also written in dactylic verses, hexameters or elegiac distiches – in
this case the notion of a  literary genre is justified: what I mean are the so
called tituli, epigrams describing and explaining wall paintings in churches or
pictures on vessels, which illustrate biblical scenes. Along with cycles of tituli
accompanying selected images of Elpidius Rusticus, Pseudo-Claudian and
Ambrose – if the latter is genuine has be doubted, though – it is above all the
so called Dittochaeon (Ditropheum?) of Prudentius, which had a considerable
impact – last, but not least due to the high reputation of its author26. Contrary
to the cycles just mentioned, this work offers, in 48 hexametric epigrams (an
additional one is spurious), each consisting of three lines, selected scenes from
the fall from grace of Adam and Eve down to the opening of the seventh seal

25
 Dieter Schaller, “La poesia epica”, in Lo spazio letterario del Medioevo, vol. I, tom. II, ed.
Guglielmo Cavallo et al. (Roma: Salerno Editore, 1993), 9–42, on biblical epic 16–25; Klaus
Thraede, “Epos”, in Reallexikon für Antike und Christentum 5 (Stuttgart: Anton Hiersemann,
1962), 98–1042, on biblical epic 1014–1042.
26
 For a profound introduction, edition, German translation and commentary see: Renate Pil­
linger, Die Tituli Historiarum oder das sogenannte Dittochaeon des Prudentius (Wien: Verlag
der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1980); for details of structure of Prudentius’
tituli and its problematic title see: Kurt Smolak, Ut pictura poesis? Symmikta zum so genannten
Dittochaeon des Prudentius, in Text und Bild. Tagungsbeiträge, ed. Victoria Zimmerl-Panagl, Do-
rothea Weber (Wien: Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, 2010), 167–195.
82 Kurt Smola k

of the Apocalypse, that is to say a survey of the complete history of salvation

on the basis of landmarks. There was a lot of discussion going on about the
question, whether the epigrams referred to a real cycle of paintings in a church
like the mosaics of S. Maria Maggiore in Rome or of S. Apollinare Nuovo in
Ravenna, or whether they served a purely literary purpose and only pretended
to comment on pictures27.

2. Ekkehart IV

The use of hexametric tituli in sacred rooms giving advise to the readers how
to interpret Christian mural paintings has survived in the Middle Ages. Those in
St. George’s Church in Reichenau-Oberzell in the Lake of Constance, which are
dated as early as ninth century by some scholars, but regarded as belonging to
the ottonian period by the majority, supply evidence for this tradition28. Below
each picture there is a titulus consisting of one elegiac distich – unfortunately
most of them are in poor condition. In the early Middle Ages the monastery of
Reichenau was a cultural centre of primary importance and during its prime time
was in constant cultural contact with the nearby situated monastery of St. Gal-
len, an equally active cultural stronghold29. Last but not least Ekkehart himself
has to be mentioned, who already before his stay at Mainz had written tituli for
a cycle of wall paintings showing the history of St. Gall, the Irish founder of
this monastery. In this south German monastic area Ekkehart received his indi-
vidual coinage. He was the first and, as far as I can see, the only to present the
complete Bible – that means in a more comprehensive way than Prudentius – in
a continuous narratio, which is the basic structure of an ‘annalistic’ historical
epic. However, at times the form of the tituli, in our concrete case two hexa­
meters, is broken, namely if a scene requires up to ten lines, that is to say if the
epic element takes possession of the epigram. Ekkehart’s life-time still belongs
to the epoch of literary experiments and the origin of new genres without any
reference to classical literature, such as liturgical sequences, the earliest liturgi-
cal plays and the earliest representative of the Latin beast epic, the so called
Ecbasis cuiusdam captivi.

27
 Pillinger 18 is hardly right in assuming that Prudentius described the iconographic decora-
tion of a real church.
28
 Walter Berschin, Ulrich Kuder, Reichenauer Wandmalerei 840–1120. Goldbach, Reichenau
Oberzell St. Georg, Reichenau Niederzell St. Peter und Paul (Heidelberg: Mattes Verlag, 2012);
Kurt Martin, Die ottonischen Wandbilder der St. Georgskirche Reichenau – Oberzell (Sigmarin-
gen: Jan Thorbeke Verlag, 1975).
29
 For the high standard of culture in the monasteries of Reichenau and St. Gallen see: Walter
Berschin, Eremus und Insula. St. Gallen und die Reichenau im Mittelalter. Modell einer lateini-
schen Literaturlandschaft (Wiesbaden: Dr. Ludwig Reichert Verlag, 20052).
 T he “ epigrammatic ” epic 83

Because of his prolific didactic activities in St. Gall Ekkehart was summoned
to Mainz by the metropolitan and archbishop Aribo to be the head of the local
cathedral school. After the cathedral had burned down in 1009, Aribo planned
to have it rebuilt. With this project of his patron in mind, Ekkehart motivates
his epigrammatic biblical epic with a  corresponding commission, namely to
compose tituli for the projected decoration of the cathedral with mural pain­
tings. This might as well be true, but it can also be just a polite gesture, accom-
panying the classical topic of poetry following the order of a superior person.
The predominant motive for producing this piece of work, however, must have
been a different one. For right from the start it was a well known fact, that –
even assuming most generous dimensions of a newly built cathedral – it would
have been impossible to squeeze in about 860 hexameters with leonine rhyme
describing about 400 biblical scenes, though of small size. The entire title of
Ekkehart’s poem runs as follows: Versus ad Picturas Domus domini Mogonti-
nae Veteris testamenti et novi Aribone archiepiscopo Jubente modulati, “Verses
accompanying the pictures of the Old and the New Testament in the House of
the Lord in Mainz, composed by the order of Archbishop Aribo”. There follows
an advise to Aribo: eligantur qui picturis conveniant, “verses should be elected
which match the pictures”. If concrete talks had taken place between Aribo and
Ekkehart concerning the program of the projected paintings, there would not
have originated a work consisting of tituli-epigrams for sure, the dimension of
which was that of a lengthy epic book telling continuously and chronologically,
that is to say like a genuine historical epic of Ennian type, about the past and the
future, about the beginning and the ending of history. A genuine epic is by all
means more voluminous, but the extreme concentration and shortening of such
an ample subject matter follows a tradition of epic reception in Latin literature:
so the Homeric epics of twenty four rhapsodies each, became the twelve books
of the Aeneid, from which arose the six books of the heroic epic poetry on the
‘soldier of Christ’, St. Martin of Tours, written by Paulinus of Périgeux, which
in turn were shortened into four books by Venantius Fortunatus in his panegyric
epic on St. Martin. And above all: one should be aware, that even Prudentius’
Christian epic, the Psychomachia, consists of only 915 verses. Ekkehart, on his
turn, transfers a  constituent epigrammatic element, namely brevity and con-
ciseness, to what had been a narrative epic subject in Christian Latin literature
since Late Antiquity, the Bible, thus enlarging the traditional literary function
of the epigrammatic genre and, at the same time, taming the epic narrative style
by reducing it to the most necessary information. This, however, presupposes
a  profound knowledge of the subject matter, that is the Bible, on the part of
the recipient, since pictures, as demanded in the tituli-genre, inform the viewer
only partially. From this point of view Ekkehart acts as a poeta doctus like the
initially mentioned Hugo Primas of Orléans, but exclusively with reference to
another scientific stratum, namely not to mythology and factual knowledge in
84 Kurt Smola k

general, but to the Bible, its exegesis and various other items of expert know­
ledge. Without being familiar with exegesis a lot remains incomprehensible or
seems to diverge from the biblical text. These divergences, however, are always
supported by exegesis.
The text of the versus ad picturas is preserved only in Ekkehart’s autograph in
Codex Sangallensis 393, pp. 197–238, and is equipped with the author’s glosses
and variations. The poem in question has been recently edited critically, com-
mented and translated into German for the first time by my former Phd-student
Helena Leithe-Jasper in her thesis of doctorate30. The following examples, which
are to prove what has been stated about Ekkehart’s method, give the wording of
Leithe-Jasper’s edition.

2.1 Examples

2.1.1 The first day of creation (verses 1–4)

Principio rerum lux primo facta dierum31,

arida cum cęlis, magnum genus et Michahelis.

Luciferum verbis temerantem sceptra superbis

In primo flore plasmator nudat honore.

“In the beginning of things light was created on the first day, moreover the earth, heaven and
the great race of Michael. Lucifer, who desecrated God’s rule with arrogant words, was robbed
of his honourable position by the creator in his first prime”.

Text of Genesis 1,1–432

In principio, creavit Deus caelum et terram. Terra autem erat inanis et vacua, et tenebrae super
faciem abyssi, et spiritus Dei ferebatur super aquas. Dixitque Deus, “Fiat lux”. Et facta est lux.
Et vidit Deus lucem quod esset bona, et divisit lucem a tenebris.

30
 Helena Leithe-Jasper, Versus ad Picturas Domus domini Mogontinae Ekkeharts IV. Edtion,
Übersetzung und Kommentar (Wien: not published in print, 2001); although Leihte-Jasper follows
mostly the first critical edition, published by Johannes Egli, Der Liber benedictionum Ekkeharts IV.
nebst den kleineren Dichtungen aus dem Codex Sangallensis 393 zum ersten Mal vollständig heraus-
gegeben und erläutert (St. Gallen: Fehr Verlag, 1909), she gives separated lists both of the glosses and
of the textual alternatives proposed by the author himself as well as an apparatus criticus.
31
 Though the aphaeresis in est after primo, according to classical metric, would not affect the
metre, the addition of the modal verb in the manuscript has to be regarded rather as an interlinear
gloss (see: Leithe-Jasper 23) than as a  correction; for it is a  matter of fact that medieval Latin
poetry, metrical as well as rhythmical, increasingly strives to avoid any kind of hiatus – and so
does Ekkehart.
32
 Text and translation (Douay-Rheims Translation) of the Genesis passages are taken from
the most recent edition: The Vulgate Bible, vol. I. The Pentateuch, ed. Swift Edgar (Cambridge,
Massachusetts, London, England: Harvard University Press, 2010).
 T he “ epigrammatic ” epic 85

Contrary to the biblical report, but following patristic and already Jewish
e­ xegesis, which can refer to Isaiah 14, 12–14 as an authority, Ekkehart interprets
the separation of light and darkness on the first day as the creation of angels and
the immediately following fall of arrogant Lucifer33. By calling the angels per
antonomasiam, “the great race of Michael” he mentions the name of Lucifer’s
successful rival without describing their fight in an epic manner – a salon piece
of epigrammatic conciseness and at the same time a significant appeal of a poeta
doctus to the knowledge of his readers. In Ekkehart’s exegesis reference to an
episode from the New Testament is added, namely Luke 10, 18, where the pas-
sage from Isaiah is quoted, but with Lucifer’s name changed to Satan, and where
the statement concerning the bright glare of the former angel, who falls down like
a lightening, is found as an enlargement. To describe this glare, the author uses
the word honor, which also contains the aesthetic element of shine34, an element
that cannot be rendered in the translation, unless by adding a  second attribute
such as ‘splendid’ to the ‘honourable position’. Ekkehart, however, activates this
notion by using primo flore, ‘in his first prime’. But there is still more: by putting
the noun arida, ‘mainland’, instead of the biblical terra, ‘earth’, in verse two,
Ekkehart anticipates a word, which in the Vulgate belongs to the third day of cre-
ation35; when treating with that day he replaces it by tellus, which is phonetically
close to terra. In doing so he establishes a sophisticated connection between day
one and day three: for whereas arida according to Isidore of Sevilla, Etymologiae
14, 2 (with reference to Genesis 1, 10) is the proper denomination of terra, the
noun tellus, still according to a pseudo-etymology of Isidore, Etymologiae 14,
1, designates the earth under the aspect of fertility, because we gather, tollimus,
fruits from it. Since on the same third day God ordered the earth to bring about
grass and fruit trees, only the use of tellus seemed to be appropriate (9–10):

Tertia telluris dies et maris aucta figuris:

Ad domini verba surrexit arbor et herba.

“The third day was abundantly endowed with the forming of sea and (fruit bearing) earth: On
the Lord’s commandment trees and grass sprang up”.

On the other hand, taking into consideration Isidore’s pseudo-etymology

(Etymologiae 14, 1) of terra, namely “terra is named in respect of its surface,
33
 For this concept which does not appear in the Genesis see: Fall of the Angels, ed. Christoff
Auffahrt, Loren T. Stuckenbruck (Leiden: Brill, 2004).
34
 For this notion see: Thesaurus Linguae Latinae, vol. VI, 3, 2930, 49–2931, 2.
35
 Genesis 1, 9–10: Dixit vero Deus, “Congregentur aquae quae sub caelo sunt in locum
unum, et appareat arida”, Factumque est ita. Et vocavit Deus aridam terram, congregationesque
aquarum appellavit maria”, God also said, “Let the waters that are under the heaven be gathered
together into one place, and let the dry land appear”. And it was so done. And God called the dry
land earth, and the gathering together of the waters he called seas.
86 Kurt Smola k

which is rubbed”, teritur, “by the feet of animals and humans”, this noun must
seem definitely inadequate to be used for an earth, which was inanis et vacua,
“unfurnished and empty”, and “over the surface of which was dark chaos”, te­
nebrae super faciem abyssi. Furthermore, one cannot exclude (nor prove), that
Ekkehart modifies both the wording of the Bible and that of Virgil, Aeneid 6,
724, principio caelum ac terram (camposque liquentis / lucentemque globum
lunae Titaniaque astra / spiritus intus alit), “first of all heaven and earth (and the
liquid fields, the shining globe of the moon and the Titanic star are vivified by
an interior spirit)”, according to Isidore’s specifications of the Latin synonyms
of ‘earth’. Virgil’s verses Aeneid 6, 724–726 show considerable verbal parallels
to Genesis 1, 1 (and to the first chapter of Genesis as a whole), although they do
not deal with the creation of the universe, but with its actual form of existence
under a Stoic aspect. Thus the first word, principio, is used rather as the starting
point of an enumeration than in a strict chronological sense as in the Bible. In
‘correcting’ Jerome’s Vulgate and Virigil’s Aeneid Ekkehart would prove him-
self as a fastidious school-teacher, what he indeed was, and at the same time as
a poeta doctus.

2.1.2 The fourth day of creation (verses 11–12)

Quarta sol reduce lustrat novus ęthera luce,

Quam sibi non una facie rapit obvia luna.

“On the fourth day the newly created sun illuminates the ether with recurring light, which the
moon, facing him, robs for her in ever changing shape”.

Text of Genesis 1, 14–16

Dixit autem Deus: “Fiant luminaria in firmamento caeli ut dividant diem ac noctem, et sint in
signa et tempora et dies et annos ut luceant in firmamento caeli et inluminent terram”. Et fac-
tum est ita. Fecitque Deos duo magna luminaria – luminare maius ut praeesset diei et luminare
minus ut praeesset nocti – et stellas.

“And God said, ‘Let there be lights made in the firmament of heaven to divide the day and
the night, and let them be for signs and for seasons and for days and years to shine in the
firmament of heaven and to give light upon the earth’. And it was so done. And God made
two lights – a greater light to rule the day and a lesser light to rule the night – and the stars”.

In the slight paradox of reduce, “recurring”, put in view of the task of the
sun in the future, but also referring to the past days, which had not been with-
out light since the creation of light on the first day on the one hand, and novus,
“new”, on the other hand, Ekkehart seems to allude to the relation between light
 T he “ epigrammatic ” epic 87

in itself and the sun, a question often discussed in the patristic exegesis of the
(H)exaemeron, e.g. by Ambrose of Milan36. He adds to the report of the Bible the
astronomic discovery of the moon not possessing light of her own37, a discovery
not known to the text of reference and, at first sight, without any importance for
the intention of the biblical report. The moon appears in the metaphor of a more
or less successful robber of the light, depending on her respective phase. But
if one compares the biblical report of the functions of the celestial bodies and
Ekkehart’s statement about the nature of moonlight, one will discover a learned
allusion, fitting a poeta doctus, to the chronometric role of the moon, since in an-
cient times, and especially in the Jewish and Early Christian liturgical calendar,
her phases were and partly still are of major importance, e.g. for fixing the date
of Pessah and Easter, respectively.

2.1.3 The creation of the first human couple (verses 15–24)

Sexta dies pecudum genus edidit atque ferarum,

Astat homo primus, vivit spiramine limus.

Sabbata stant sancta requiescunt et sibi cuncta,

Tamquam lassatus factor sedet ipse quietus.

Vivit homo primus anima de complice limus,

Quem pater et natus creat et vi compare flatus.

Personis trinus, deitate perenniter unus,

Arbitrio similem sibi plasmat Adam et ratione.

Dormit Adam et lęvam costa spoliatur in Aevam.

In cruce transfixę reparandus vulnere costę.

“The sixth day brought about the race of domestic and wild animals, the first man appears,
the loam is vivified by afflation. It is Holy Sabbath, all is resting, the Creator himself, as if
he were tired, reposes quietly. The first man is loam and lives by the soul closely tied to him.
He was created with equal power by Father, Son and Holy Ghost. Triune in person, in deity
forever the only one, he creates Adam similar to him in free will and reason. Adam is sleeping
and is bereaved of a rib for the making of unfortunate Eve; he had to be restored on the Cross
to make up for the wound of his transfixed rib”.

36
 See: Ambrosius, Exaemeron 1, 9, 35; 3, 6, 27; 4, 1, 1.
37
 Note three outstanding examples from sources which are generally of great importance for
the Middle Ages: Cicero, De re publica 6, 17, 131 (De somnio Scipionis) states that the moon “is
lighted by the rays of the sun”; Martianus Capella, De nuptiis Philologiae et Mercurii 1, 77, 23
speaks of the “moon taking her glance from her brother’s lamp”; Isidorus, Etymologiae 3, 53, 2
refers to philosophers, who, in contrary to others, affirm that the moon is illuminated by the sun
and lacks genuine light.
88 Kurt Smola k

The text of Genesis 1, 24–27; 2, 2; 2, 7; 2, 21–2.

Dixit quoque Deus, “Producat terra animam viventem in genere suo, iumenta et reptilia et
bestias terrae secdundum species suas”. Factumque est ita. Et fecit deus bestias terrae iuxta
species suas et iumenta et omne reptile terrae in genere suo. Et vidit Deus quod esset bonum.
Et ait, “Faciamus hominem ad imaginem et similitudinem nostram, et praesit piscibus maris
et volatilibus caeli et bestiis universaeque terrae omnique reptili quod movetur in terra”. Et
creavit Deus hominem ad imaginem suam; ad imaginem Dei creavit illum; masculum et fe-
minam creavit eos.

Complevitque Deus die septimo opus suum quod fecerat, et requievit die septimo ab universo
opere quod patrarat.

Formavit igitur Dominus Deus hominem de limo terrae et inspiravit in faciem eius spiraculum
vitae, et factus est homo in animam viventem.

Inmisit ergo Dominus Deus soporem in Adam, cumque obdormisset, tulit unam de costis eius
et replevit carne pro ea. Et aedivicavit Dominus Deus costam quam tulerat de Adam in mulie-
rem et adduxit eam ad Adam.

“And God said, ‘Let the earth bring forth the living creature in its kind, cattle and creeping
things and beasts of the earth according to their kinds’. And it was so done. And God made the
beasts of the earth according to their kinds and cattle and every thing that creepeth on the earth
after its kind. And God saw that it was good. And he said, ‘Let us make man to our image and
likeness, and let him have dominion over the fishes of the sea and the fowls of the air and the
beasts of the whole earth’. And God created man to his own image; to the image of God he
created him; male and female he created them.

And on the seventh day, God ended his work which he had made, and he rested on the seventh
day from all his work which he had done.

And the Lord God formed man of the slime of the earth and breathed into his face the breath
of life, and man became a living soul.

Then the Lord God cast a deep sleep upon Adam, and when he was fast asleep, he took one
of his ribs and filled up flesh for it. And the Lord built the rip which he took from Adam into
a woman and brought her to Adam”.

After the shortened report of God’s deeds on the sixth day, there follows
the seventh day as a break before his further actions. On this day of rest Adam,
though not mentioned by name – only the etymology of Adam, “man of loam”,
is present through the words homo and limus – is already alive. By the means
of the rhetorical figure of epanalepsis of the central notions from verse 16, vivit
and limus in verse 19 – after God’s Sabbatical rest of verses 17–18 – Ekkehart
succeeds in making the two biblical reports about the creation of the first human
being as just one. The woman from the priests’ report, in which she is mentioned
only after the man (Genesis 1, 26), but already in the following line with regard
 T he “ epigrammatic ” epic 89

to the order to multiply as his equal, is left aside by the poet just like the com-
mand to multiply itself. In verses 19–22 the plot does not really proceed. For,
considering their contents, these verses still belong to the (H)exaemeron, since
they only offer an exegesis of verse 16 under the aspect of Trinitarian theology,
an exegeses which seems to have its base in the hortative plural faciamus, “let
us make”, in the priests’ report38. This procedure of interpreting God’s activity
exclusively in connection with the first man creates the impression of a devalu-
ation of the woman, who, so to speak, seems to be created only on the ‘eighth
day’, which is also expressed verbally in her attribute, lęvam. This corresponds
both to Eve’s traditional role as seduced and seducing mother of sin – here Ekke-
hart follows the misogynic tendency of 1 Timothy 2, 13–14 – and to the mo-
nastic aversion from women. Already in his description of Eve being shaped
from one of Adam’s ribs Ekkehart in verse 24 indirectly points to the fall from
grace in a comforting sentence by referring to the typological relation between
Eve’s creation from a rib of Adam and the lateral wound of crucified Jesus being
pierced by the lance of a Roman soldier (John 19, 34): Jesus as the ‘New Adam’
will annul the original guilt of man, introduced by his wife. This typology which
has been attested since the Fathers of the Church is concentrated in one word:
transfixę. Here – in epigrammatic brevity – Ekkehart executes the soteriologi-
cal concept of Paul (1 Corinthians 15, 45) and, as far as the presentation of the
subject matter is concerned, makes use of what is characteristic of a didactic epic
from the age of Hellenism onwards: the sophisticated versification of a scientific
or philosophical text of reference in prose. In order to understand this, the reader
must be familiar with the Bible, which has to be assumed as a matter of course
in monastic and other educated clerical circles of the eleventh century, but also
must have profound knowledge of traditional exegesis. Thus the mediaeval po-
eta doctus claims an equal capacity from his recipients as the poets of biblical
epics in Late Antiquity.

2.2 The ‘Holy Languages’

What for a poeta doctus of antiquity – let him be a poet of epics, lyrics, ele-
gies or epigrams – were rare proper names from mythology, history, geography
or any other field of knowledge, for his mediaeval successor was the really inex-
haustible treasure of Hebraic and Greek notions from the Old and the New Tes-
taments, provided that he dealt with biblical matters. Moreover, the use of such
38
 E.g. Ambrosius, Exaemeron 6, 7, 40. In modern exegesis the Plural is explained either as
a ‘plural of deliberation’ or as a relics of the well known concept of a council in heaven held by
(the supreme) God with a heavenly court or an assembly of gods; see: Josef Scharbert, Genesis
1–11 in Die Neue Echter Bibel. Kommentar zum Alten Testament mit der Einheitsübersetzung
(Würzburg: Echter Verlag, 20066), 44.
90 Kurt Smola k

names and terms in a Latin context complied with the educational ideal of the
three ‘Holy Languages’, which based on their evaluation by Isidore of Seville39,
an ideal which could stand its ground from the Early Middle Ages, in particular
in Hibernolatin literature, till the epoch of Renaissance Humanism and even up
to the concept o f the German ‘Humanistisches Gymnasium’ of the nineteenth
and early twentieth centuries.

2.2.1 Hebrew (verses 487–8)

Pręcinit egregias Achazzi res Esaias:

Parturiens alma prolem generabit Ahalma.

“Isaiah prophesies to Achaz sublime events: by her confinement a gentle virginal girl will give
birth to a child”.

The text of Isaiah 7, 1440

Propter hoc dabit Dominus ipse vobis signum: Ecce virgo concipiet et pariet filium et vocabi-
tis nomen eius Emmanuel.

“Therefore the Lord himself shall give you a sign. Behold: a virgin shall conceive and bear
a son, and his name shall be called Immanuel”.

Ekkehart paraphrases a passage of central importance for Christians about

the “sign”, which the prophet announces to King Achaz: the birth of a  “baby
boy”, called “Immanuel”, by a “young girl”. This prophecy, of course, in Chri-
stian exegesis has always been interpreted as referring to the Virgin Mary. The
Hebraic word for a young woman, almá, was known to mediaeval readers from
Jerome, In Isaiam 3, 7, 1441, just like its synonym, ahalmá, equally conveyed by

39
 Isidorus, Etymologiae 1, 3, 4: ... ut nosse possimus linguam Hebraicam omnium linguarum
et litterarum esse matrem, “... so that we can learn that the Hebraic language is the mother of all
languages and literatures”. On the enormous importance of the three Holy Languages in early me-
diaeval learning, espicially in the Irish tradition, see: Walter Berschin, Griechish-lateinisches Mit-
telalter (Bern: Francke Verlag 1980); Bernhard Bischoff, The Study of Foreign Languages in the
Middle Ages, in “Speculum” 36 (1961): 209–224; enlarged reprint in Bernhard Bischoff, Mittel-
alterliche Studien, vol. II (Stuttgart: Anton Hiersemann 1967, 227–245); id., Das griechische Ele-
ment in der abendländischen Bildung des Mittelalters, in “Byzantinische Zeitschrift” 44 (1951),
27–55; reprint in Mittelalterliche Studien, vol. II, 246–275.
40
 Text and translation (Douay-Rheims Translation) are taken from the most recent edition The
Vulgate Bible, vol. IV, The Major Prophetical Books, edited by Angela M. Kinney (Cambridge,
Massachusetts, London, England: Harvard University Press, 2012).
41
 Hieronymus, In Isaiam 3, 7, 14 deals largely with the different meanings of the Hebrew
word alma and points to the fact that in Punic language, which is close to Hebrew, alma is the
usual word for virgo. Furthermore he stresses the homophony of Latin alma in the meaning of
 T he “ epigrammatic ” epic 91

Jerome, Adversus Iovinianum 1, 32. Since Ekkehart puts both Hebraic notions
in one syntactic unit, an unbiased reader could not understand almá but as the
Latin adjective alma, attribute to Hebraic ahalmá in the nominative case (in
mediaeval Latin hexameters the syllable preceding the caesura semiquinaria
usually is treated as syllaba anceps). The notion of Latin alma, “mild” (origi-
nally: nourishing), fits perfectly in with the linguistic realm of ‘motherhood’
and with the neighbourhood of parturiens, “by her confinement”, with which
Ekkehart replaces the verb concipiet, “will conceive”, from the Isaiah-passage
and stresses the ultimate aim, and not the beginning of the pregnancy, by the
means of a hendiadyoin which results from the syntactic relation with the predi-
cate generabit, “will give birth”. Moreover, the adjective alma as an epithet of
Mary is attested e.g. in the hymn Ave maris stella, in which the invocation of the
Virgin which follows immediately is Dei mater alma, “mild (nourishing) mother
of God”. This popular hymn is prior to the eleventh century42.

2.2.2 Greek (verses 701–2)

Spe petit immani Sother ipse domum publicani.

Pęnitet, in quadruplum redit et cum fęnore simplum43.

“In hopeful expectation the Saviour himself comes to visit the house of a publican. The latter
is penitent, the simple amount returns with quadruple rate”.

The text of Luke 19, 2–3; 19, 5; 19, 8–944.

Et ecce vir nomine Zaccheus, et hic erat princeps publicanorum et ipse dives, et quaerebat
videre Iesum, quis esset.

sancta; he seems to blame the Hebrew language for taking over words from various other langua­
ges: nostro quoque sermone alma sancta dicitur, “also in our language ‘mild’ is used in the sense
of ‘holy’” (Corpus Christianorum, Series Latina 73, 103, 39). As translator of the Old Testament
from Hebrew, he reflects on the meaning of alma in his œuvre in 17 instances.
42
 For the history of this hymn which is attested from the eighth century onwards see: Heinrich
Lausberg, Der Hymnus ‘Ave maris stella’ (Opladen: Westdeutscher Verlag, 1976).
43
 Leithe-Jasper replaced the reading of the manuscript, which is redit, by reddit according
to the wording of Luke 19, 8: reddo quadruplum, thus disturbing the metre that requires a short
e. It is, however, more reasonable to keep redit, taken for a form of redire with simplum as its
syntactical subject: the simple amount “returns” to the defrauded person with quadruple rate. The
seemingly abrupt transition from the acting persons in the previous line to a non personal noun,
simplum, as the acting subject is smoothened by the fact that pęnitet, situated between the perso-
nal and the non personal subject, can be understood both as a personal predicate referring to the
publican according to medieval Latin grammar, and as an non personal verb with the publican as
the logical subject according to classical usage.
44
 The text is taken from the Edition of the Vulgate by Robert Weber, Biblia Sacra iuxta Vul-
gatam Versionem, vol. II (Stuttgart: Württembergische Bibelanstalt, 1969), the translation is that
of the English Standard Version.
92 Kurt Smola k

Et cum venisset ad locum, suspiciens Iesus vidit illum, et dixit ad eum, “Zachee, festinans
descende, quia hodie in domo tua oportet me manere”.

Stans autem Zaccheus dixit ad Dominum, “Ecce dimidium bonorum meorum do pauperibus,
et si quid aliquem defraudavi, reddo quadruplum”. Ait Iesus ad eum, quia, “Hodie salus domui
tuae facta est”.

“And behold, there was a man named Zacchaeus. He was a chief tax collector and was rich.
And he was seeking to see who Jesus was”.

“And when Jesus came to the place, he looked up and said to him, “Zacchaeus, hurry and
come down, for I must stay at your house today”.

“And Zacchaeus stood and said to the Lord, ‘Behold, Lord, the half of my goods I give to the
poor. And if I have defrauded anyone of anything, I restore it fourfold’. And Jesus said to him,
‘Today salvation has come to this house’”.

In this distich Ekkehart paraphrases the episode of the rich chief publican
Zacchaeus, visited by Jesus in his own house, who remorsefully promises to
pay back the unduly high taxes he collected, at a high rate of interest. The use of
the Greek expression for saviour, wrongly reassured as a pyrrhichius instead of
a spondaeus and contrary to orthography written with an aspirate dental, alludes
to Jesus’ sentence in Luke 19, 9: hodie salus domui huic facta est, “today salva-
tion has come to this house”, that is to say, ‘the saviour brought salvation to this
house’. The notion soter, both in its original meaning and as a proper name, is
given reference for in classical and in patristic Latin literature, though in prose
texts, so that the metrical quantities could not be ascertained any more. In me-
diaeval Latin poetry there is a proof to be found in Ademarus, Carmina 5, 1, 2,
where the word appears as a trochaeus. On the other hand, Hrabanus Maurus,
Carmina 53, 44, measures the female proper name Sotheris (sic!) as tribrachys.
In view of the free availability of quantities of the Greek noun for Latin poets
and of its brevity Ekkehart could use it instead of its Latin equivalent, salva-
tor, in order to allude to the biblical reading salus. So, in epigrammatic brevity,
a complete biblical verse has been summed up in just one word (petit domum in
the same verse connects with Luke 19, 5: hodie in domo tua oportet me manere,
“I must stay at your house today”) and is an integral part of the plot that moves
on like an epic narrative. This procedure, once again, requires a more than edu-
cated reader.

3. Conclusion

The analyses of some units of Ekkehart’s ‘epigrammatic epic’ were to present

him as a poeta doctus. His carmen perpetuum – to apply the expression Ovid
 T he “ epigrammatic ” epic 93

used for characterizing his mythological epic of the Metamorphoses, which co­
vers a similar space of time (met. 1, 4) – is based on numerous presuppositions,
which were by no means self-evident to all the readers in the eleventh century.
Consequently, the term poeta doctus in Latin studies should neither, if one wants
to describe the phenomenon of a learned poet in general, be limited to anti­quity,
nor to the Alexandrine stylistic ideal of poets like Callimachus, Lycophron, Pro­
pertius and Horace. As far as the problematic nature of literary genres carefully
separated from one another is concerned, a relevant notion for Ekkehart’s versus
ad picturas is definitely missing in traditional terminology: ‘epigrammatic epic’
or, perhaps more specific, ‘epic tituli’ is nothing but a  makeshift expression,
which probably characterizes no other piece of poetry than Ekkehart’s Versus
ad picturas. It seems that the Early and High Middle Ages up to the thirteenth
century had become resigned facing the vacillating situation of terms and thus
used to apply the ancient notions theoreticians of literature had established in
antiquity. As a consequence of that uncertainty and insufficiency of the tradi-
tional terminology a lot of poetic products of those centuries in the manuscripts
are simply entitled versus, a title describing merely the outward form in a highly
generalizing way. Obviously even the learned poet Ekkehart IV did not know
any better term for his complex ‘historical epic’ about the “ways of God to men”
as John Milton puts it in his epic of Paradise Lost (1, 26). For realizing his ambi-
tious concept the mediaeval poet created an epic made of a series of tituli that is
to say of epigrams in the original meaning of this word.

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Das ‘epigrammatische Epos’ Die Versus ad Picturas Ekkeharts IV.

und die Dichtungstradition

Zusammenfassung

Die unterschiedlichen Traditionen dichterischer Behandlung biblischer Stoffe in der christli-

chen lateinischen Literatur der Spätantike führten im 11. Jahrhundert zu einer Kombination ihrer
formal extremen Ausformungen, nämlich der durchgehenden Erzählung epischen Charakters und
der epigrammatischen Kürze metrischer Beischriften, tituli, zu bildlichen Darstellungen biblischer
Einzelszenen. Im Auftrag des Mainzer Erzbischofs Aribo schuf Ekkehart IV von St. Gallen ein
‘epigrammatisches Epos’, das die gesamte Bibel, Altes und Neues Testament, teils mit Integration
der zeitgenössischen Exegese, umfasste. Aus diesem Material sollte Aribo für die Neugestaltung
des Domes einzelne Szenen auswählen – was allerdings nie geschah. Ekkeharts höchst manie­
ristisches Produkt, erhaten in dem Autograph St. Gallen 393, blieb ohne Parallele. Es ist aber ein
wichtiges Zeugnis für die Experimentierfreudigkeit der mittellateinischen Literatur am Übergang
von der monastischen Klosterliteratur des Frühmittelalters zur hochmittelalterlichen Klassik der
Kathedralschulen.