Disaster Readiness

and Risk Reduction

 Chapter 6
Hydrometeorological Hazards
 Learning Objectives
• To identify various potential hydrometeorological
hazards
• To discuss the reasons why different
hydrometeorological events take place
• To analyze the effects of the different
hydrometeorological hazards
• To execute the prescribed precautionary and
safety measures before, during, and after each
hydrometeorological event
Section 6.1
Typhoons
 What Is a Typhoon?
 A typhoon is a severe weather disturbance characterized
by strong winds and heavy rains which revolve around a
central low pressure area.

 A typhoon is the most powerful type of tropical cyclone

that forms in the northwestern Pacific Ocean.

 A typhoon is just one of three types oftropical cyclones ,

which can be distinguished according to their maximum
sustained-wind speed (over 10-minute periods).
 Major Types of Tropical Cyclone
• Tropical Depression
 wind speed up to 62kph

• Tropical Storm
 wind speed ranging from 63-118kph

• Typhoon
 wind speed greater than 118kph
 called hurricane in northeast Pacific and northern
Atlantic regions
 Can be categorized assuper typhoon with wind speed
exceeding 220 kph
Numerous Typhoon Tracks Within
and Near the Philippines

This figure shows the plot of typhoon tracks over the

Pacific region from 1884 to 2012.
 Seasonal Variability of Tropical
Cyclone Activity
 Tropical cyclone activity is usually lowest in May and
increases gradually through June.

 Activity then greatly increases from July until September,

with the level of activity reaching its highest during
August.

 Come November, activity level eventually dies off.

 Tropical Cyclone Structure
• Eye
 The area of lowest atmospheric pressure in the structure of a
tropical cyclone
 With a diameter that may span 20–65 km wide
 Where winds are weak, the temperature is warm, and the sky
is clear

• Eye Wall
 The region immediately surrounding the tropical cyclone’s
center
 Can reach as high as 15 km above mean sea level
 Brings the strongest winds, heavy rains, and turbulence
shortly after the passage of the eye

• Rain Bands
 Spiraling strips of clouds in the fringes of tropical cyclones
which are associated with rainfall
Tropical Cyclone Structure
 Why Do Tropical Cyclones Form?

ANSWER: Tropical cyclones form as a result of the

atmosphere’s natural tendency to maintain equilibrium by
redistributing heat through wind from the equatorial
regions to the polar regions. This mechanism prevents
the tropical areas from getting excessively hot and the
polar regions from becoming extremely cold.
 Importance of Tropical Cyclones
• Rainfall brought about by tropical cyclones
replenishes ground water and surficial water.

• Flora and fauna in the Philippines are heavily

reliant on tropical cyclones for source of water.

• It would simply be too hot for life to thrive if not

for the redistribution of heat which tropical
cyclones facilitate.
How Tropical Cyclones Form
 Activity 1

OBJECTIVE: This activity will let the students track the path
of a typhoon from monitoring data.
 Effects of Tropical Cyclones
• Strong Winds
 Strong winds, which cover a much larger area during tropical
cyclones, cause the most obvious damage.

• Storm Surge
 Storm surges, localized unusual increase of sea water level way
above the predicted astronomical tide level, happens primarily
due to intense winds and lowered atmospheric pressure that
accompany intense tropical cyclones passing from the sea to
the land.

• Heavy Rains
 Heavy rains, unlike strong winds and storm surges, actually
occur in tropical cyclones of lower intensity.
 Flooding due to heavy rains is usually worse during tropical
depressions and tropical storms.
 Measures for Mitigating the
Destructive Effects of Typhoons

1. Determining areas prone to typhoon-related disasters

2. Implementing legislation involving land use planning,

zoning, and building standards

3. Weather forecasting and monitoring

4. Effective public typhoon warning systems

International Names of Tropical Cyclones
Revised List of Names for Tropical
Cyclones within the PAR

Effective September 2014

Auxiliary List
Current Public Storm Warning Signals
 Old Public Storm Warning Signals
and the Precautionary Measures That Go
with Each Phase
 Old Public Storm Warning Signals
and the Precautionary Measures That Go
with Each Phase
 Old Public Storm Warning Signals
and the Precautionary Measures That Go
with Each Phase
 Old Public Storm Warning Signals
and the Precautionary Measures That Go
with Each Phase
 Section Assessment
1. Explain why the Philippines is frequented by typhoons.
2. Why do super typhoons like Yolanda happen? What are
the circumstances by which perfect storms occur?
3. Explain why a tropical cyclone does not take a straight
path from its origin in the Pacific Ocean through the PAR
and beyond.
4. Cite four personal measures that you consider most
important in avoiding or minimizing the effects of
typhoons.
 Section 6.2
Storm Surges
 On Storm Surge
 A storm surge is a localized unusual increase of sea
water level beyond the predicted astronomical tide level
primarily due to intense winds and lowered atmospheric
pressure during the passage of an intense tropical
cyclone from the sea to the land.
 Storm surges are the primary cause of about 90% of
casualties and damage to properties in coastal areas
during a tropical cyclone.
 The Philippines is very prone to storm surges because of
its location near the equator in the Pacific region, and
due to its extensive coastline length.
 In terms of magnitude and extent, storm surges are
similar to and often mistaken for tsunamis.
 Factors That Influence the Build-up of
Water Level during a Storm Surge
• Storm Intensity (Wind Speed)
• The Pressure Effect
• Size
• Storm Forward Speed
• Angle of Approach to Coast
• The Effect of the Earth’s Rotation
• The Rainfall Effect
• Geometry of Coastal Area (bathymetry, topography,
coastline shape, and local features)
• Timing
Storm Surge Risk-Reduction Measures

• Storm surge prediction, hazard map preparation, and

zoning

• Construction of storm surge barriers

• Wetland protection
Storm Surge Prone Areas
in the Philippines
 What to Do in the Event of an
Impending Storm Surge
• During an unusually strong tropical cyclone, keep listening to
official warnings of storm surges issued by PAGASA through
television or radio. It is convenient to have a radio that runs on
batteries. Make sure to always have batteries and flashlights
prepared.
• Find the nearest safe high ground where you can evacuate. An
area of high elevation should be identified way ahead of time
especially if you are living in a low-lying area, like along the coast
or near river channels.
• When evacuating, bring with you only what is important and
essential. You do not want to be slowed down by bringing with you
so many things.
• Your planned route of evacuation should avoid streams, drainage
channels, and any other conduits of water as ash floods can
occur and can be life-threatening.
 Section Assessment

1. How are storm surges distinguished from tsunamis and

wind-driven waves?
2. What circumstances lead to the formation of a perfect
storm and storm surge?
3. Why are storm surges potentially very destructive?
4. What must be done to prevent large number of
casualties and property damage due to storm surges?
 Section 6.3
Thunderstorms
 On Thunderstorm
 A thunderstorm is a violent, transient type of weather
disturbance associated with thousands of meters tall
cumulonimbus clouds and which usually involves
lightning and thunder, strong winds, intense rainfall, and
occasionally tornadoes and hail.

 Thunderstorms often occur in the equatorial regions.

 Thunderstorms can occur at any time of the day, but

happen mostly in the afternoon or evening during
summer because the certain atmospheric conditions
which favor the formation of a thunderstorm are related
to maximum daytime heating.
 Requirements for the Formation
of a Thunderstorm
• Moisture (water vapor) which must be readily available in
the lower atmosphere to produce clouds and
precipitation during storm formation

• An unstable, rapidly rising mass of warm air

• A strong upward current of air (updraft) to force moisture

to higher, colder levels of the atmosphere
Thunderstorm Life Cycle
Thunderstorm Life Cycle
Thunderstorm Life Cycle
 Thunderstorm Hazards
• Lightning

• Hail

• Tornadoes and Waterspouts

• Downburst

• Flash Flood
 Lightning
• Lightning is the abrupt, natural, visible high-voltage
electrical discharge which takes place when positive
and negative charges join within a cloud, between
clouds, or between a cloud and the ground.

• If lightning hits an object on the ground, it is called a

lightning strike .

• Cloud-to-ground lightning is a more accurate term

when referring to the most dangerous type of
lightning.
 Effects of Lightning Strike to Humans

• Lightning strike could directly cause harm to people

through contact between the main lightning channel or
its branches and the person’s body or a conductor the
person is touching. The high-voltage electric shock can
cause severe external and internal burns, exposure of
flesh and bones, damage to organs, and damage to the
nervous system. In worst cases, it may result in
electrocution.
 Effects of Lightning Strike to Humans
• Lightning strike could also directly cause either blunt force
trauma to a person thrown by a shock wave or hearing damage
due to thunder or electrical interferences to gadgets they are
using like phones, headphones, and hearing aids. Lightning strike
indirectly
could cause electric shock or electrocution when
electric charges from the ground supposedly running toward the
lightning channel instead flow to a person’s body (which is a
conductor) through his or her feet. Electromagnetic fields and
electromagnetic pulses (EMPs) created by the electrical
discharge between the cloud and the ground can also induce
surges within the nervous system or a pacemaker, disturbing
normal functions of the body—a common cause of cardiac
arrest or seizures due to lightning.
 Effects of Lightning Strike to Humans

• Lightning strike may also cause Injuries or casualties

throughsecondary effects like explosions and fires.
 Effects of Lightning on Infrastructure
and Technology
• On Infrastructure
Lightning strikes produce acid rain which can cause
deterioration of buildings and other types of infrastructure
built by materials like concrete. Acid reacts with the
calcium hydroxide portion of the cement removes it from
the cement and weakens the structure. Lightning strikes
may also cause fires when it hits wood or any other
flammable building materials of structures like houses.
Shockwaves from lightning, which produce thunder, can
also cause damage. These can actually fracture concrete
and masonry work.
 Effects of Lightning on Infrastructure
and Technology
• On Technology
Overhead power and telephone cables, satellite dishes,
and antennas may be hit by lightning strikes. This could
result in power surges which may flow through the
electricity outlets, phone jacks, or coaxial cables and can
damage various delicate electronic appliances like
televisions and stereos; devices like mobile phones and
tablets which are being charged; and telecommunication
devices such as telephones, fax machines, modems, and
computers.
 Effects of Lightning Strike
on the Environment
• Trees and forest fires.
Lightning strike that hits forests with a lot of readily
available flammable material (organic litter) during a
thunderstorm with little precipitation is a perfect recipe for
the occurrence of wildfires.

• Acid rain
The acid rain may increase the acidity of the soil and
aquatic environments which may result in the death of
organisms that dwell in terrestrial and aquatic
environments.
 Hail
• Hailstone is the individual piece of layered, rounded or
irregularly-shaped ice which is occasionally produced
during a thunderstorm.
• When a thunderstorm produces hail, it is called a
hailstorm .
• Usually thunderstorm clouds which produce hail have a
characteristic green hue.
• Hailstones are formed when a high amount of moist
warm air ascends very quickly into thunderstorm clouds
with a large proportion well above the freezing level
(altitude of 0°C temperature).
 Hazards Due to Hailstorms
• Hailstorms in the Philippines usually form only small
hailstones which cause minor damage to property.
• Hailstorms can create dents or abrasions on the coating
of automobiles and metal roofs which may initiate
corrosion and eventually leaks, and can also result in
cracking or breakage of glass in automobiles or
lightweight material used in skylight roof of houses.
• Hailstorms may also potentially pose hazards to aircraft
operation when hailstones damage the airplane and cause
accidents if these hailstones enter the engine or scatter on
the runway right before the airplane lands.
• Hail has destructive effects on sensitive crops such as
corn, wheat, soybeans, and tobacco.
 Tornadoes and Waterspouts

• Tornadoes are narrow, funnel- or cylindrical-shaped, and

intensely-rotating columns of wind that form during
powerful thunderstorms and extend from the base of a
cumulonimbus cloud down to the earth’s surface.

• Waterspouts are basically the same as tornadoes, the

only difference is that the rotating column of wind moves
over a body of water.
The Formation of Tornado
 Downburst
• Downbursts are relatively small, localized sources of
violently descending strong winds (and precipitation)
that travel along straight-line paths during thunderstorms.

• Winds of downbursts can reach as fast as 240 kph, but

last for only a couple of minutes. When these reach the
ground, these spread out as very destructive horizontal
winds which travel along a straight path.
The Formation of Downburst
 Flash Flood
• A flash flood occurs especially when rain falls on a low-
lying area where there is low infiltration (soil in the area is
already saturated, inherently impermeable, or is covered
with impermeable material like concrete) and where
natural and man-made drainage channels may not have
enough capacity to allow large amounts of runoff to flow
out of the area with ease (ideally at a rate faster than the
downpour of water).
• Flash floods are very common in highly populated urban
areas.
• Flash floods can destroy vegetation of many sorts,
vehicles, small buildings, bridges and can also cause
widespread soil erosion and landslides.
 Section Assessment

1. Differentiate thunderstorms from typhoons.

2. How does a thunderstorm originating in the Pacific
Ocean develop into a typhoon?
3. When do thunderstorms usually occur?
4. Explain how a thunderstorm can be more devastating
than a typhoon to a locality.
5. How do you protect yourself from tornadoes?
Section 6.4
Flooding
 On Flooding
 Flooding is the abnormal rise of water level in rivers,
coastal areas, plains, and in highly urbanized centers
which may be a result of natural phenomena, human
activities, or both.
 Flooding duration can be as short as a few minutes but
can take as long as several days or even weeks to
subside.
 Flooding can be a natural process and can be the result
of man’s inadvertence.
 Some areas, due to their location, land configuration, and
climactic setting, are naturally susceptible to flooding.
 Primary Flood Types and Causes
• Riverine
 This type of flood happens when he level of water
owing through rivers increases and goes beyond the
average water level, or worse, further encroaches
levee.
 Water levels usually rise slowly in larger rivers with
large catchment areas and rise more rapidly in
smaller rivers which have smaller catchment areas.
 Extreme and sustained rainfall is one cause of
riverine flooding.
 Primary Flood Types and Causes
• Estuarine and Coastal
 This type of flood occurs when seawater encroaches
low-lying land that is usually still above sea level.
 Flooding in these areas can be a result of storm
surges.
 Flooding can also be caused by unusually high tides.
 When an astronomical high tide coincides with the
occurrence of a tropical cyclone, flooding is
aggravated and can cause far more damage.
 Primary Flood Types and Causes
• Urban Flooding
 Urban flooding usually occurs in highly populated,
developed areas set on relatively low-lying areas like
valleys and plains.
 It may largely be a result of: 1) saturation of the
ground due to too much rainfall and 2) the presence
of large areas of impermeable surfaces like concrete
pavements and rooftops.
 Urban flooding is largely due to man-made causes
like lack of proper drainage systems, obstruction of
waterways by solid industrial material, household
wastes, wrongly situated settlements.
 Primary Flood Types and Causes
• Catastrophic Flooding
 Catastrophic flooding may result from ground failure,
the weakening of the rock or soil such as subsidence,
liquefaction, and occurrence of landslides that may
be triggered by earthquakes, volcanic eruptions,
intense rainfall, and other natural disasters.
 Catastrophic flooding may result from infrastructure
failure is the breakage of dams and levees which
hold back large volumes of water.
 Primary Flood Types and Causes
• Flash Floods
 A flash flood is a rapid, short-lived, and violent arrival
of a large volume of water.
 It can be caused by intense localized rainfall on land
that is saturated or unable to absorb water.
 It may also occur due to the collapse of infrastructure
such as dams.
 Destructive Effects of Flooding
• Primary Effects
 Primary effects of flooding include loss of lives and
damage to amenities and loss of access to basic
necessities.
 Primary effect also include damage to infrastructure
such as houses, commercial buildings, bridges, roads,
transportation facilities, drainage and sewerage
disposal systems, power generation and/or
transmission facilities, water supply and treatment
facilities, and farm land.
 Destructive Effects of Flooding
• Secondary Effects
 Secondary effects are the short-term, immediate, but
indirect consequences of flooding.
 These may include: power loss; domestic and potable
water loss or shortage; risk of acquiring waterborne
diseases, usually due to mixing of human sewage
with flood waters; difficulty of mobilization due to
damage to transportation facilities; and food
shortage.
 Destructive Effects of Flooding
• Tertiary Effects
 Tertiary effects are the long-term indirect
consequences of flooding.
 Economic hardships at the local and national levels
and unemployment may result from destruction of
production- and services-based businesses, decline
in tourism in the affected areas, and additional
government expenditures on rehabilitation of public
infrastructure.
 Flooding may also significantly affect the wildlife
habitat in rural areas.
 Mitigation of Flood Hazards

• Flood hazard assessment and mapping

• Flood prediction

• Flood forecasting and warning

• Flood-control engineering measures

 Flood Control
• Dams
 A dam is a barrier that holds back water and can
regulate water flow rates.
 In the Philippines, dam operations are closely
monitored by PAGASA together with agencies like the
National Power Corporation (NPC) and the National
Irrigation Administration (NIA).

• Diversion Canals
 Diversion canals are artificial waterways utilized to
reroute the excessive storm water to an area with
lower risk or impact to flooding such as the open sea
or in a reservoir intended for floodwater containment.
 Flood Control
• Artificial Levees (or Dikes)
 A levee or a dike is a permanently fixed barrier which
is constructed parallel to the channel and built to be
sufficiently higher than the estimated maximum flood
levels in the area.
• Self-closing Flood Barrier (SCFB)
 SCFB is designed to prevent foods due to overflow of
natural and artificial waterways from entering
property.
• Sea Walls
 Sea walls are constructed along coasts to protect
communities from being destroyed by flooding during
high tide, by storm surge, and by tsunamis.
What to Do Before, During,
and After a Flood
What to Do Before, During,
and After a Flood
 Section Assessment

1. What do you consider as the cause of the most serious

floods in the Philippines?
2. Why do people live in flood-prone areas?
3. Cite ways by which floods can be reduced in large cities
like Metro Manila?
4. What are the things that you need to prepare to survive
an unexpected flood?
5. Where do you procure flood hazard maps? How can
these help you prepare before a flood strikes?
 Section 6.5
The El Niño Southern Oscillation (Enso)
Cycle
—El Niño and La Niña
 El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO)
 ENSO is a natural climatic phenomenon characterized
mainly by cyclic fluctuation of warm and cold sea
surface temperatures and atmospheric pressure in the
central and eastern equatorial Pacific.
 ENSO causes extreme regional-scale weather and
climate pattern changes (i.e., temperature and rainfall)
which can result either in droughts or floods in various
regions of the earth. Making it the most powerful
climatic force on earth.
 Opposite extremes of this phenomenon are the El Niño
(warm phase) and theLa Niña (cold phase).
 What Is El Niño?
 El Niño is a prolonged unusual warming of sea surface
temperatures in the central equatorial Pacific and the
eastern equatorial Pacific.

 It entails a 3-month, greater-than-usual warming in a

specific portion of the east-central tropical Pacific Ocean.

 This phenomenon usually lasts for 9 months up to 2

years.
 Cause of El Niño
The warmer ocean makes the easterly trade winds weaker and as a consequence
it makes the oceans get even warmer. This process keeps on going and causes the
El Niño to intensify. This loop of events, wherein the output of a system results in
positive feedback .
the intensification of the input, is called
 Effects of El Niño on Domestic Water
Supply, Irrigation, and Electricity
Generation
The persistent low amount of rainfall over river basins
causes drastic lowering of water levels in reservoirs
resulting in reduced irrigation water supply; reduced
electricity generated by hydropower plants driven by water
stored in reservoirs; and weak water pressure, if not total
loss, of domestic water supply in areas dependent on
centralized water distribution companies which tap from
reservoirs that have become nearly-depleted.
 Effects of El Niño on Agriculture

 Because of the drastic reduction in irrigation water

supply, farmlands yielding staple food crops (e.g., rice,
corn, etc.) sustain great losses in harvest.

 Drought may also bring about death among livestock due

to heat stress and outbreaks of pests and diseases that
damage crops.
 Effects of El Niño on Marine
Ecosystem, Capture Fishery,
and Aquaculture
 Massive coral bleaching may, but not always, result from
elevated sea surface temperatures affecting the
thousands of species of plants and animals the reefs
host.
 The warmer and drier conditions can cause drying of
fish ponds.
 The more saline (because of quick evaporation of
surface waters) and warmer coastal and lacustrine
waters can drastically affect fish growth.
 Other Environmental Effects
of El Niño
• Land Degradation
• Water Quality Deterioration
• Forest Wildfires
• Land Subsidence
• Direct Economic and Societal Effects
• Disruption of Usual Human Activities Due to the Extreme
Heat
 What Is La Niña?
 La Niña involves prolonged unusual cooling (of at least
-0.5 °C) of sea surface temperatures in central and
eastern equatorial Pacific that may last for 1–3 years.
 A La Niña can follow an El Niño but historical records
show that El Niños occur twice as frequent as La Niñas.
 What Causes La Niña?

A La Niña is caused by the strengthening of the easterly

trade winds which blows more warm water toward the
west and allows the upwelling of cold water in the east
(near west coast of South America).
 What Are the Effects of La Niña?

 In the Philippines, La Niña causes near normal to

above normal rainfall conditions, particularly over the
eastern sector of the country.

 There is also an observed increase in the number of

tropical cyclones that enter the Philippine Area of
Responsibility (PAR) as tropical cyclone formation
shift toward the western Pacific Ocean.
 Examples of Health Problems
during a La Niña?
• Diseases due to flood-contaminated water such as
acute gastroenteritis, cholera, hepatitis A, and typhoid
fever
• Leptospirosis, which is related to striding in flooded
areas contaminated by urine of infected animals, like
rats
• Dengue and malaria, due to the proliferation of
mosquitoes
• Injuries and accidents like contusions, lacerations,
fractures (usually because of flying objects due to
strong winds) and electrocution by livewires
submerged in flood waters
 Southern Oscillation
 Southern Oscillation is see-saw shift in atmospheric
pressure between the eastern and western tropical
Pacific that accompanies both El Niño and La Niña
episodes in the ocean.

 During periods of reduced rainfall in the west Pacific

(El Niño), escalation of pressure in the west was
usually accompanied by lowering of pressure in the
east Pacific.
 El Niño or La Niña Monitoring
in the Philippines
 PAGASA defines and detects El Niño or La Niña
phenomena based on SOI (Southern Oscillation Index)
and SSTA (Sea Surface Temperature Anomaly)
indicators.

 The SOI indicates whether an El Niño or La Niña

events will take place in the Pacific Ocean.
PAGASA’s Categories of ENSO Events
Based on SSTAs Are the Following:
 Recurrence of El Niño and La Niña

El Niño and La Niña occur alternatingly and usually

recur every 3–5 years but can range from 2 to 7 years.
El Niño and La Niña both usually develop during March–
June, reach maximum intensity during December–April,
and eventually weaken during May–July.
 What Is an ENSO-neutral?

An ENSO-neutral is a period when neither an El Niño nor

a La Niña occurs. ENSO–neutral periods usually occur
during the transition between El Niño and a La Niña.
During an ENSO-neutral, sea surface temperatures
(tropical precipitation amount and patterns, and
atmospheric wind patterns in the equatorial Pacific
Ocean) are close to the long-term
average conditions.
 Section Assessment

1. How did the term El Niño come to be adapted for the

phenomenon it was named after?
2. Differentiate El Niño from La Niña.
3. Why are El Niño events more frequent than La Niña?
4. How can farmers protect their living from the effects of
El Niño and La Niña?
5. What mitigation measures are being implemented by
government agencies for El Niño and La Niña?