Rhopalocera (Butterfly)

Functions
They are grouped together in the suborder Rhopalocera. Butterflies are closely related to moths, from
which they evolved. The life of butterflies is closely connected to flowering plants, which their larvae
(caterpillars) feed on, and their adults feed and lay their eggs on.

Reproduction and Development

While the larval butterfly was built for eating, the adult is built for mating. Butterflies reproduce the way
other animals do sperm from a male fertilizes eggs from a female. Most provide a spermatophore, a
package of sperm and nutrients the female needs to produce and lay eggs.

All butterflies have "complete metamorphosis." To grow into an adult they go through 4 stages: egg,
larva, pupa and adult. Each stage has a different goal - for instance, caterpillars need to eat a lot, and
adults need to reproduce.

Transportation and Circulation of Nutrients

In a butterfly, there is no transportation of oxygen in the blood. Butterflies have valves called spiracles along
either side of their bodies. Some of these spiracles, located mostly along the abdomen, allow oxygen to
enter. Other spiracles exhale carbon dioxide. In this way oxygen will enter the body directly. Once inside,
there is a network of tunnels similar to the network of veins in the human body. Oxygen will travel
directly to where it is needed and pass into the tissue

There are no veins, arteries, or capillaries in the circulatory system. The blood is restricted only by the
limits of the insect's body cavity, the hemocoel, in which lie the various organs of the body. The tissues
are thus bathed in blood rather than supplied by a system of vessels. Therefore, a caterpillar will bleed to
death if it is punctured. The blood is pumped around the body by the heart, a long, many chambered tube
which lies along the back.
 Immune System
Butterflies are often polymorphic, and many species make use
of camouflage, mimicry and aposematism to evade their predators. Some, like the monarch and
the painted lady, migrate over long distances.

Feedback Mechanisms
Monarchs may also use a magnetic compass, because they possess two crypto chromes that have the
molecular capability for light-dependent magneto reception. Multiple genomic approaches are being
utilized to ultimately identify navigation genes. Monarch butterflies are thus emerging as an excellent
model organism to study the molecular and neural basis of long-distance migration.

.
Caimaninae (Caiman)
Functions
Crocodilian Biology Database - Locomotion (swimming) General Biology / Moving around: Crocodiles
need to move around in order to survive. FUNCTION: Moving the crocodile around in water, for a
variety of reasons (e.g. hunting, thermoregulation, social interactions, relocation).

Reproduction and Development

Mating typically occurs in the wet season from April to august, depending on local climatic
conditions. Males can breed with multiple females can breed with multiple males. Courtship
behavior involves prospective mates swimming together, rubbing backs, bellowing, touching
snouts, circling each other, and bubble-blowing. Both sexes use these behaviors to attract their
mates. After female mates with a male she will build a nest in the mates’ territory. There, the
male and female will guard the nest, eggs, young, once they are hatched.
Some weeks after courtship and copulation, with internal fertilization, females lay their oval, hard-shelled
eggs in a newly made mound of leaf litter and other vegetation. Once the eggs are laid, the female will
cover the nest. Females, and sometimes males, guard their eggs against nest predators. Temperature
influences sex determination during incubation. An average nest temperature of 30 degrees C will
produce mostly females and 34 degrees will produce mostly males. After an incubation period of 65 to
104 days the babies will hatch out of their eggs and move to the nearest water, with some help from their
parents. Once the juveniles have hatched, they will stay near their parents for about 1.5 years. Juveniles
then grow to adult size at around 1.2 to 1.4 meters in length. Once juveniles reach minimum adult size,
they are able to reproduce. If they survive long enough, they can continue to grow until reaching a size
that may exceed 2.4 meters.

Transportation and Circulation of Nutrients

Arteries carry cells that transport oxygen and all other necessary nutrients to the heart and every other
organ in the body. ... The heart's primary function is to pump blood throughout the body, so that the
body's tissues can receive oxygen and nutrients and have waste substances taken away.

Regulation of Body Fluids

In freshwater the caiman gains water at the rate of 3.5 ml/kg hr or 1.1 μl/cm2 hr. Of this 70% is the result
of uptake through the skin, the rest being due to drinking. This gain in water is excreted by the kidneys as
hypotonic urine. Urine sodium losses are reduced by active sodium uptake from the urine during storage
for 3 to 4 hours in the cloaca. In vitro and in vivo experiments indicate that the skin is somewhat
permeable to sodium, which moves along concentration gradients.

In air the caiman loses water by evaporation (1.2 μl/cm2 hr). About 75% of this takes place from the skin.

In 3.3% NaCl solution caiman’s show elevated serum sodium concentrations and 20% of them die within
24 hours. The sodium accumulation is mostly due to drinking (4.4% of the body weight/day), and only to
a minor extent to osmotic water loss through the skin (2.5% of the body weight/day or 0.6 μl/cm2 hr). The
permeability of the caiman is compared to that of fishes, Amphibian and other reptiles.

Immune System
The immune function of crocodilians is understudied but is of interest for medical, ecological and
evolutionary purposes. Crocodiles share a common ancestor with birds, comprising the arch saurian
lineage, so they are an important link in our understanding of immune system evolution. As top tropic
carnivores, they inhabit temperate and tropical climates in their semi-aquatic environment. However, they
are also ectodermic, whereby environmental temperatures affect their physiological processes, including
immune function, adding to the complexity of research in this area. Anecdotal observations and recent
research have augmented enthusiasm in the realm of crocodilian immunology. Despite comprising both
adaptive and innate systems, most research has investigated the innate system, which comprises peptides,
proteins and leucocytes functioning in defence.

Feedback Mechanisms
Crocodilians together with birds are the modern representative of archosaurs, a group that also includes
the extinct dinosaurs and pterosaurs. In both crocodilians and birds, sound signaling is important during
parents-young interactions. The use of acoustic communication in the context of parental care is thus
likely to be a shared behavioral feature by all archosaurs, including those of the past.
 Pithecophaga jefferyi (Philippine eagle)
Functions
The Philippine Eagle is the top predator of the Philippine tropical rainforest. It plays an important role in
keeping the ecosystem in balance and provides an umbrella of protection to all other life forms in its
territory.

Reproduction and Development

The natural breeding cycle requires two years. Successful partners have only one offspring every two
years. The breeding season is from October to December in order for the chick to hatch during the dry
season (February to May). The chick hatches after 60 days and becomes a fledging at 7 to 8 weeks.
Independence is reached at 5 months. Females reach sexual maturity at 3 to 5 years and males reach
maturity at 4 to 7 years.

Transportation and Circulation of Nutrients

Philippine eagles primarily use two hunting techniques. One is still-hunting, in which it watches for prey
activity while sitting almost motionlessly on a branch near the canopy. The other is perch-hunting, which
entails periodically gliding from one perch to another. While perch-hunting, they often work their way
gradually down from the canopy on down the branches, and if not successful in finding prey in their
initial foray, they fly or circle back up to the top of the trees to work them again. Eagles in Mindanao
often find success using the latter method while hunting flying lemurs, since they are nocturnal animals
which try to use camouflage to protect them by day. Eagle pairs sometimes hunt troops of monkeys
cooperatively, with one bird perching nearby to distract the primates, allowing the other to swoop in from
behind, hopefully unnoticed, for the kill. Since the native macaque is often around the same size as the
eagle itself, around 9 kg (20 lb) in adult males, it is a potentially hazardous prey, and an eagle has been
reported to suffer a broken leg after it struggled and fell along with a large male monkey.

Immune System
The avian immune system refers to the system of biological structures and cellular processes that
protects birds from disease. ... Birds have lymphoid tissues, B cells, T cells, cytokines and chemokines
like many other animals. In addition, they can also have tumors, immune deficiency and autoimmune
diseases.

Feedback Mechanisms
A positive feedback mechanism is the exact opposite of Mammals and birds share the ability to maintain
a constant body temperature.
Testudines (Turtle)
Functions
Form and function. The turtle's shell is an adaptation that protects it from predators, which compensates
for the reptile's slow crawling speed. Relationship between the dermal bones (plastron and carapace) and
the axial skeleton in a marine turtle.

Reproduction and Development

For most species, courtship activity usually occurs several weeks before the nesting season. Two or more
males may court a single female. Male sea turtles of all species except leatherbacks have enlarged claws
on their front flippers. These help grasp the shells of the females during mating. Fertilization is internal.
Copulation takes place in the water, just offshore.

After an adult female sea turtle nests, she returns to the sea, leaving her nest and the eggs within it to
develop on their own. The amount of time the egg takes to hatch varies among the different species and is
influenced by environmental conditions such as the temperature of the sand. The hatchlings do not have
sex chromosomes so their gender is determined by the temperature within the nest.

Transportation and Circulation of Nutrients

Human activities have substantially altered the quantity of energy and nutrients transported, and the
distribution of those nutrients on the beach. By introducing nutrients into beach ecosystems, sea turtles
may help maintain stable dune systems that are critical to their reproductive success.
Reef ecosystems to transporting essential nutrients from the oceans to beaches and when sea turtles
green graze, they increase the productivity and nutrient content of sea grass.

Immune System
The mammalian immune system has evolved to protect the host against disease. The system is complex,
involving specialized tissues, cells, soluble mediators and membrane‐bound molecules.
The mammalian adaptive immune response is characterized by extreme specificity in terms of antigen
recognition.

Feedback Mechanisms
Turtle eye movements were measured during full-field horizontal opt kinetic stimulation under closed and
open loop conditions. Because these animals display unyoked slow-phase eye movement behavior, open
loop stimulation could not be presented to a paralyzed eye, while monitoring the position of the contra
lateral eye. The turtle's opt kinetic reflex loop was opened electronically by a continuous adjustment of
the pattern's position that effectively canceled the effect of the movement of the recorded eye.
Coccinellidae (LadyBug)
Functions
Most ladybugs voraciously consume plant-eating insects, such as aphids, and in doing so they help to
protect crops. Ladybugs lay hundreds of eggs in the colonies of aphids and other plant-eating pests. When
they hatch, the ladybug larvae immediately begin to feed..

Reproduction and Development

The ladybug life cycle starts with mom and dad ladybug mating. The ladybugs pictured to the right are
mating. Ladybugs reproduce sexually. Each species of ladybug has its own pheromones for attracting a
mate. When they find each other, the male grips the female from behind and holds on tight. They can
copulate (stay together) for more than 2 hours at a time. Female ladybugs can store a male's sperm for 2-3
months before laying eggs. Ladybugs tend to lay their eggs where food is abundant.

Transportation and Circulation of Nutrients

It consumes two to three times more plant tissue after being fed a prey-only diet than after being fed a
mixed diet of prey and plant tissue. This suggests that plant material is providing some key nutrients
lacking in prey-only diets. It is important to recognize that non-prey foods contain different nutrients than
insect prey and that beetles that are fed mixed diets are often healthier that those fed only on prey,
according to Lundgren.

Immune System
The innate form of the immune response is conserved across all organisms, including insects. ... Priming
of the insect innate immune system involves the exposure of insects to dead or a sub lethal dose of
microbes in order to elicit an initial response.

Feedback Mechanisms
The importance of these principles in the regulation of the analogous system in insects (the
protocephalic corpus cardiacum–allatum system) has, however, been little studied. Here I illustrate
certain general functional parallels in the regulation of the vertebrate and insect systems by reference to
work on the regulation of the neurosecretory pathway controlling moulting in Rhodnius prolixus.
Euphorbia pulcherrima (Poinsettia)
Functions
The bright red bracts of poinsettias could easily be mistaken for petals. ... Bracts are specialized plant
structures that serve varied functions such as attracting pollinators and protecting inflorescences (flower
structures). Often leaf like bracts range from the inconspicuous to the wildly showy.

Reproduction and Development

The colorful parts of the poinsettia are not flower petals but bracts. ... The staggered emergence
of male and female flowers in poinsettias allows the plants to fertilize each other, but reduces
the chance of self-pollination. This is a plant's way of preserving diversity and disease
resistance within its species.

Transportation and Circulation of Nutrients

Proper nutrition is one of the most critical factors in the production of greenhouse crops. Generally
speaking, greenhouse crops may be classified as “heavy feeders”, requiring relatively large quantities of
fertilizers. However, the ratio and sources of elements supplied are as important as their amounts.

Immune System
Plant disease resistance protects plants from pathogens in two ways: by pre-formed structures and
chemicals, and by infection-induced responses of the immune system. ... However, plants do not have
circulating immune cells, so most cell types exhibit a broad suite of antimicrobial defenses.

Feedback Mechanisms
Is a very popular Christmas plant that is brought into many households during the holiday season, the
uppermost leaves of the plant develops red, white, or pink coloration, resembling a flower. However, the
actual flowers are the tiny yellow structures resembling stamens but it is a toxic plant.
Pachira aquatic (Money Tree)
Functions
It energizes the home by filtering air and increasing oxygen inflow. Feng Shui experts recommend
keeping one plant near each computer, television, or Wi-Fi router. Placing a money plant in front of a
sharp corner or angle reduces anxiety and stress. It also helps avoid arguments and sleep disorders.

Reproduction and Development

The flowers of the money tree are monoecious, meaning they contain both male and female reproductive
functions. In other words, a single tree can self-pollinate. The pistil collects pollen produced by the
stamens, and below the pistil, in the ovary, fertilization occurs. Because it grows in consistently warm
climates, the money tree can fruit and flower throughout the year.

Transportation and Circulation of Nutrients

With any bonsai plant, watering is crucial. Most bonsai like to have plenty of water, but proper water
drainage is key. This is maintained by two very important factors: soil and the pot. The soil should
contain a mixture of earth and small gravel pebbles which lie in the pot with one or more drain holes.
These holes need to be covered with mesh, to allow the water to flow freely but retain the soil. You can
also add some river rock to the mixture, to create porous areas in the soil which aid in draining. Some
bonsai even grow well in a mix of peat, vermiculite and perlite. Our Bonsai All Purpose Blend provides
the perfect amount of airiness and nutrition for your Money Tree. The Braided Money Tree prefers much
less water than other plants - once a week is sufficient. Some do well on as little as a cup of water per
month, but the amount varies with the pot size and soil composition. Misting the plant is also another
recommendation. It helps the plant leaves get extra moisture and keeps them free of dust. Our handy
Haws Mister can be pressurized with just a few quick strokes for continuous spraying for your Money
Tree. The soil in the pot should be allowed to dry completely out before another watering. There are
several ways to realize if the amount of water is adequate, if the plant leaves become droopy and yellow
this is a sign of too much water. When the leaves are wrinkly and curled up, this means you are not
watering it enough.

Immune System
It has earned its right into every plant shop because of its resilience, ease of growth, and ability to
rebound if neglected. It comes in a 4" wide grow pot, but with love and good care can grow to be tall and
strong.

Feedback Mechanisms
Is a very popular Christmas plant that is brought into many households during the holiday season, the
uppermost leaves of the plant develops red, white, or pink coloration, resembling a flower. However, the
actual flowers are the tiny yellow structures resembling stamens but it is a toxic plant.
Dracaena sanderiana (Fortune tree)
Functions
Also called Ribbon Dracaena, Lucky Bamboo, Belgian Evergreen or sometimes Ribbon Plant, is a kind of
Dracaena. It is one of a group of small, shrubby plants with slender stems and flexible strap-shaped
leaves.

Reproduction and Development

If you want to grow your own, my understanding is that the curly stems are created by placing the plant in
a box which is open on one side, and then as the plant grows to the side, reaching for the light, one keeps
turning the plant, or the box. It doesn't have to be grown in water, though this is probably a lot easier for
most people to keep up with, since that way you don't have to wonder when to water it. Opinions differ
about whether this is a practical long-term growing situation: I've seen it claimed that plants grown in
water indefinitely will yellow and die, and that it's better to plant it in soil. I couldn't say, personally,
though a certain percentage of the plants we have in soil at work will also suddenly decline and die for no
obvious reason from time to time, so I kind of lean to the theory that this is just something they're prone
to do.

Transportation and Circulation of Nutrients

Dracaena sanderiana, of the family Liliaceous, is among the ornamental plants most frequently imported
into Egypt. Typical anthracnose symptoms were observed on the stems of imported D. sanderiana
samples. The pathogen was isolated, demonstrated to be pathogenic based on Koch’s rule and identified
as Colletotrichum dracaenophilum. The optimum temperature for its growth ranges from 25 to 30° C,
maintained for 8 days. Kemazed 50% wettable powder (WP) was the most effective fungicide against the
pathogen, as no fungal growth was observed over 100 ppm. The biocontrol agents Trichoderma
harzianum and T. viride followed by Bacillus subtilis and B. pumilus caused the highest reduction in
fungal growth. To the best of our knowledge, this report describes the first time that this pathogen was
observed on D. sanderiana in Egyptmuch water. When the leaves are wrinkly and curled up, this means
you are not watering it enough.

Immune System
Traditional hot water treatments were not effective for controlling the latent fungus. However, application
of the fungicide Azoxystrobin prevented new infections by the fungus and cured latent infections and
anthracnose development on the plants.

Feedback Mechanisms
We don’t know exactly when and how the plant came to be known as Lucky Bamboo Tree, but its
appearance is instructive; its cane stalks bear a striking resemblance to real bamboo stalks. The latter,
though, belongs to a completely different family. As for the Lucky Bamboo tree, it has been hugely
popular in Asian culture where it has been considered a symbol of good fortune for well over four
millennia. The reason you and I have come to know it, however, is almost certainly its use in gardening as
a houseplant.
Davallia (Rabbit Foot Fern)
Functions
This fuzzy rhizome has earned the Davallia species their common names: deer'sfoot ferns, squirrel's foot
ferns and rabbit's foot fern, among others. ... Although the rhizomes do extend below the surface of the
soil, they should never be buried. These roots serve something of the same function as orchid roots.

Reproduction and Development

Planting your rabbit foot fern, Purchase a rabbit foot fern plant. Because rabbit foot ferns do not grow
from seeds, but instead are propagated by dividing rhizomes or collecting spores, you must buy an
existing plant. Your fern can still be a young plant when you buy it.

Transportation and Circulation of Nutrients

During spring and summer try and keep the soil moist at all times, without leaving the soil soaked. This
species only has small roots so it's taking most of its water and nutrients from the top soil and storing
them within its rhizomes. Propagate divide 2 inch sections of a rhizome and include at least one stem
with a frond. You will have to pin the rhizome within moist potting soil using strong wire or toothpicks.
Once you see new growth, new plants are growing

Immune System
Polypodium aureum, rabbit's-foot fern, serpent fern increased risk of skin cancer, and harm done
to immune system function.

Feedback Mechanisms
The rhizome is used in different forms by local populations, especially in Honduras, to treat a variety of
ailments, from high blood pressure and arthritis to diarrhea, stomach and kidney pain, irregular
menstruation, blood disorders and even certain forms of cancer. The Witotos in Amazonia use the
rhizome buds to treat coughs. This is a highly prized ornamental fern.
 Tecoma stans (Yellow Bell)

Functions
Ethno botanical Uses: Medicinal (Its primary applications have been in treating diabetes and digestive
problems. Extracts from Tecoma stans leaves have been found to inhibit the growth of the yeast infection,
Candida albicans.)

Reproduction and Development

Tecoma stans produces numerous light and papery seeds that are primarily wind-dispersed. They may
also be spread by flood water and in dumped garden waste.

Transportation and Circulation of Nutrients

Tecoma stans, from the family Bignoniaceae is an important medicinal plant. All parts ... associated with
diverse functions, including nutrient uptake, protein species produced by the photosynthetic electron
transport system.

Immune System
Ethanolic extract of Tecoma stans (EETS) was prepared by percolation method, Agent or an abnormal
host immune response to ubiquitous.

Feedback Mechanisms
Yellow trumpet bush is an attractive plant that is cultivated as an ornamental. It has sharply toothed,
pinnate green leaves and bears large, showy, bright golden yellow trumpet-shaped flowers. It is drought-
tolerant and grows well in warm climates. The flowers attract bees, butterflies, and hummingbirds. The
plant produces pods containing yellow seeds with papery wings. The plant is desirable fodder when it
grows in fields grazed by livestock. Yellow trumpet bush is a ruderal species, readily colonizing
disturbed, rocky, sandy, and cleared land and occasionally becoming an invasive weed.