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‫‪Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research‬‬
‫‪University of Baghdad‬‬
‫‪College of Science‬‬
‫‪Department of Biology‬‬
‫‪Invertebrate Zoology‬‬
‫‪2020-2021‬‬
‫المرحلة الرابعة ‪ -‬الدراستين الصباحية والمسائية‬

‫الفصل الدراسي االول‬
‫تدريسي المادة ‪:‬‬
‫م‪.‬د‪ .‬امجد قيس ابراهيم القيسي‬ ‫أ‪.‬م‪ .‬د‪ .‬حارث سعيد جعفر الورد‬
‫أ‪.‬د‪ُ .‬حال يونس فاضل‬
Invertebrate Zoology Dr. Harith S. Al-Warid & Dr. Amjed Q. Al-Qaisi
LEC 1
Invertebrates
Introduction:
The invertebrates include those animals which are without backbone as opposed to vertebrates in which
a series of vertebrates constitute backbone. The invertebrate constitutes about 97% of the known animals
which number over a million. There is not even positive character which is common to all invertebrates,
and the differences between the groups are very large, each group of invertebrates has certain structural
peculiarities, a special terminology, and distinct classification.
Animal Classification:
There are more than one million species of animals. A way of sorting through all those species is to
organize them by similar properties, or characteristics. There are three different system of classification:
1-Artificial Classification: The ordering of organisms into groups based on non-evolutionary features.
It is a system of classification based on one or two easily recognizable characters.
2-Natural Classification: The natural classification may be defined as “Classification based on
characters which indicate natural relationships”. The natural system of classification is based on
similarity.
3. Phylogenetic Classification: The phylogenetic system is based on the evolutionary and genetic
relationship of the organisms. It enables us to find out the ancestors or derivatives of any taxon.
Taxon and Category:

The taxa are the groups of animals generally groups of species. Any such group of such population is
called taxon.
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Taxonomic Categories:
Kingdom
a taxonomic category of the highest rank, grouping together all forms of life having certain fundamental
characteristics in common.eg Animalia,plantae,etc
Phylum
Phylum is second highest unit of classification after Kingdom. It includes one or more related classes of
animals. In plants, instead of phylum, the term ‘division’ is used.
Class
Class is a taxonomic group consisting of one or more related orders.
Order
Order is a taxonomic group containing one or more families.
Family
Family is a taxonomic group containing one or more related genus.
Genus
Genus is a taxonomic group including closely related species.
Species
A group of closely related organisms that are very similar to each other and are usually capable of
interbreeding and producing fertile offspring. The species is the fundamental category of taxonomic
classification, ranking below a genus or subgenus.
The Importance of Invertebrates:

Some Invertebrates Benefits:
1- Pollinators, Example honey bees
2- Recyclers :recycling and processing of waste in the environment. Example (Dung Beetles).
3- Play a large role in Food webs it is shown that while different species
of invertebrates can play the role of herbivores and carnivores in a food web, there are also many species
of decomposer invertebrates that help to break down animal wastes and bodies of dead plants and
animals.
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4- Biological Control Agents: Uses invertebrate predators and parasitoids, so called natural enemies, for
the sustainable reduction of pest populations, including other invertebrates and invasive plant species.
5- Soil Ecosystem Engineer and Regulators
6- Provider of Goods: Sponges for bathing, Corals, Oysters and others for jewelry, Cloth production (silk).
7- Use as Food
8- Medicinal benefits. Hirudin is a naturally occurring peptide in the salivary glands of blood-sucking
leeches that has a blood anticoagulant property.
9- Invertebrates as model organisms for research. Example : Drosophila melanogaster (fruit fly).This
fruit fly has approximately 15,500 genes on its four chromosomes, whereas humans have about 22,000
genes among their 23 chromosomes. Low and manageable number of chromosomes
make Drosophila species easier to study. Another example is Caenorhabditis elegans which is used in
biological research. Because it has , short lifespan, and small genome.
10- Invertebrates as Bioindicators: Some invertebrate communities are often used as indicators of
ecosystem health because many species are sensitive to pollution.
Some Harms of Invertebrates
1- Many invertebrates affected the agriculture production in field and stores.
2- Some invertebrates transmit and cause variable diseases to man and animals.
Some examples:
Disease Vector Causative agent
Leishmaniasis Sand fly Leishmania tropica,
Leishmania donovani
Leishmania major
Chagas disease (American Various assassin bugs of

Trypanosoma cruzi
trypanosomiasis) subfamily Triatominae
Malaria Mosquito Plasmodium
3- Some group of marine invertebrates cause biofouling (the accumulation of invertebrates such as
cnidarians, protozon and sponges on ships cause reduction of their efficiency.
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LEC 2
Phylum: Protozoa
Introduction:
The organisms referred to as protozoa are united only on the basis of a single characteristic: they are not
multicellular. Protozoan phyla do demonstrate a basic body plan or grade—a single eukaryotic cell—
and they amply demonstrate the enormous adaptive potential of that grade.
Characteristics of Protozoan Phyla
1. Unicellular; some colonial, and some with multicellular stages in their life cycles. Mostly microscopic.
3. All symmetries represented in the group.
4. No germ layer present.No organs or tissues, but specialized organelles are found; nucleus single or
multiple.
6. Free-living, mutualism, commensalism, parasitism all represented in the groups.
7. Locomotion by pseudopodia, flagella, cilia, and direct cell movements; some sessile.
8. Some provided with a simple endoskeleton or exoskeleton, but most are naked.
9. Nutrition of all types: autotrophic, heterotrophic and saprozoic.
10. Aquatic or terrestrial habitat; free-living or symbiotic mode of life.
11. Reproduction asexually by fission, budding, and cysts and sexually by conjugation or by syngamy.
Form and Function
Structures and physiology of protozoan cells are largely the same as those of cells of multicellular
organisms.
Nucleus
The form, structure and size of Protozoan nucleus are extremely variable . Most Protozoa contain a single
nucleus and in many there are two or more. Giardia and Protoopalina contain two similar and identical
nuclei while Paramecium has dissimilar nuclei, i.e., micronucleus and macronucleus. The
macronucleus is considered as ‘somatic or vegetative’ nucleus performing general metabolic activities
while the small one is considered as ‘generative’ which looks after the reproductive part. The macronu-
cleus offers variation in its form and structure. It is compact, spherical or ellipsoidal in most cases. In
Vorticella it is much elongated. In Spirostomum and Stentor, it is like a chain of nodes joined to one
another by filaments.
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Giardia Trophozoit Paramecium

Protozoan nucleus may be vesicular or compact. Vesicular nucleus consists of a nuclear membrane
which is very thin and delicate but nucleoplasm is distinct and chromatin content is less. The compact
nuclei are always massive as they contain large amount of chromatin substance and a comparatively
small amount of nucleoplasm.
Cytoplasm
Cellular organelles like those in cells of multicellular animals can be distinguished in the cytoplasm of
many protozoa. These organelles include mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, and
various vesicles. Chloroplasts, the membrane-bound organelles in which photosynthesis takes place, are
found in most phytoflagellates . Sometimes peripheral and central areas of cytoplasm can be
distinguished as ectoplasm and endoplasm.
Endoplasm appears more granular and contains the nucleus and cytoplasmic organelles. Ectoplasm
appears more transparent by light microscopy, and it bears the bases of the cilia or flagella. Ectoplasm is
often more rigid and is in the gel state of a colloid, whereas the more fluid endoplasm is in the sol state.
Locomotion in Protozoa
1- Pseudopodia: Pseudopodia are blunt, fingerlike temporary protrusions of the cytoplasm. Used for
locomotion, food capture, and endocytosis. In the protozoa, pseudopodia exist in several forms.
 Lobopodia which are rather large, blunt extensions of the
cell body containing both endoplasm and ectoplasm. They
are found in Amoeba.
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 Filopodia are thin extensions, usually branching, and
containing only ectoplasm. They are found in members of
the sarcodine
 Reticulopodia are distinguished from filipodia in that

reticulopodia repeatedly rejoin to form a netlike mesh. They
are found in Allogromia.
2- Cilia: Cilia are small hair-like structures, present usually in large numbers on the body surface. In
some cases (Vorticella), the cilia are restricted only in a concentric circle at the distal end of the
body.
3- Flagella: Flagella are whip-like structures in the formation of which cytoplasm takes part. These
are usually 2-4 in number. A flagellum has an inner stiff structure, known as axoneme, which is
surrounded by a protoplasmic sheath. Both cilia and flagella are organized from centriole that
constitutes basal bodies. These basal bodies control the movement. The movement of cilia and
flagella is due to the presence of microtubules within it, these are called axonemes.
These microtubules are present in doublet. In this doublet structure, one microtubule is incomplete
and the other is complete and hence this way there are total of nine doublets that surrounds the middle
doublet thus creating 9+2 arrangement. The doublet structure that is present in between has both the
complete microtubules. Protein present in between the doublet joins them all and this protein is called
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dynein. This dynein protein has ATPase activity and hence helps the tubulin slide one over the other,
assisting them to bend properly.
Nutrition
Protozoa can be categorized broadly into:
Autotrophs (which synthesize their own organic constituents from inorganic substrates).
Heterotrophs (which must obtain organic molecules synthesized by other organisms.
Another kind of classification, usually applied to heterotrophs:
Phagotrophs, or Holozoic feeders, involves those that ingest visible particles of food.
Osmotrophs, or Saprozoic feeders, involves those that ingest food in a soluble form.
Osmoregulation and Excretion:
Waste products are water, carbon dioxide and nitrogenous compounds and remain in soluble forms.
Waste materials are passed out of the body by diffusion or by the contractile vacuoles. Surrounding water
is hypertonic to freshwater amoeba.
So, water constantly enters inside the body of amoeba through the cell surface. This excess water
interferes with the body functions and is eliminated by the discharge of contractile vacuole. Marine or
parasitic protozoa live in isotonic media and do not have contractile vacuoles. Some amount of carbon
dioxide is diffused out through the cell surface. Rest of the carbon dioxide and ammonia which remain
in soluble state are thrown out of the body by the contractile vacuoles.
Reproduction:
1- Asexual reproduction Can be divided in to four types:
 Binary fission: in which the animal splits
into two approximately equal offspring.
This kind of reproduction is found in
Euglena.
 Budding: Reproduction in which the offspring arises as an outgrowth from the parent and is
initially smaller than the parent. Budding is rare in protozoa except Order: Suctoria.
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 Multiple fission: A mode of asexual
reproduction in which the nuclei divide
more than once before cytokinesis occurs.
Multiple fission, or schizogony, is
common among the Sporozoea and some
Sarcodina. If the multiple fission is
preceded by or associated with union of
gametes, it is referred to as sporogony.
2- Sexual reproduction:
 Syngamy: Fertilization of one gamete
with another individual gamete to form a
zygote. When gametes all look alike, they
are called isogametes, but most species
have two dissimilar types, or
anisogametes. Conjugation: Temporary
union of two ciliate protozoa while they
are exchanging chromatin material and
undergoing nuclear phenomena resulting
in binary fission.This type of reproduction
is found in Paramecium.
Encystment and Excystment

 Survival under harsh conditions surely is related to the ability to form cysts in some protozoa:
dormant forms marked by the possession of resistant external coverings and a more or less
complete shutdown of metabolic machinery. Cyst formation is also important to many parasitic
forms that must survive a harsh environment between hosts. However, some parasites do not form
cysts, apparently depending on direct transfer from one host to another. Reproductive phases such
as fission, budding, and syngamy may occur in cysts of some species. Benefits of encystment are
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Protect against environmental changes and Serve as means of host to host transfer for parasitic
species.
Classification of Protozoa:
1- Class Flagellata:
-Body covered by thin pellicle. -One to many flagella. -Autotrophic or heterotrophic.
- Asexual reproduction. -Free living or parasitic.
a- Ordrer Chrysomonadina b- Order Cryptomonadina c-Order Phytomonadina
- Small with thin pellicle. - Small with rigid pellicle. - Small with rigid cellulose covering.
- Chromatophore 1 or 2, yellowish or - Chromatophore 1 or 2 or non, - Flagella 2 or 4 sometimes more,
brown. yellowish or brown.
d- Order Euglenodina: e- Order Dinoflagellata: f- Order Protomonadina

- Large with rigid cuticle. - Small, naked or with cellulose test. - Small, free livening or parasitic.
- Chromatophore green numerous or - Chromatophores numerous or - Flagella 1 or 2.
non. non.
- Flagella 2. - Flagella two, in groove.
g- Order Diplomonadina h- Polymastigana i- Order Opalinina
- Small, bilaterally symmetry. - Delicate pellicle, parasitic in - Covered by cilia-like flagella.
- Flagella 4 pairs genital tract. - Endopaasites in cold blooded
- Flagella 4 to 6, parabasal body 1 veretebrates.
and axostyle .
Example of Class Flagelata, Order Euglenodina

Euglena:
Is found in freshwater ponds and slow running stream. The animal is large spindle-shaped flagellates
with spirally marked pellicle. Body is simple, fusiform elongated or flattened or spindle shaped,
measuring 50-100 microns in length. It is usually green or red in colour. From the anterior end arise a
whip-like flagellum. The outer covering or plasma membrane is called pellicle which has spiral striations
called as myonemes. The cytoplasm below pellicle is differentiated into ectoplasm and endoplasm. The
endoplasm contains a single large nucleus, star –shaped central pyrenoid (chloroplast) surrounded by
small granules, known as paramylon bodies (are masses of a starch-like food storage material),
contractile vacuole and photosensitive stigma (A red eyespot, or stigma, apparently functions in
orientation to light). Anterior end contains funnel-like cytopharynx. Nutrition of Euglena is normally
autotrophic (holophytic), but if kept in the dark the organism makes use of saprozoic nutrition, absorbing
nutrients through its body surface
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Example of Class Flagellata, Order Opalinina

Opalina is oval shape with its anterior end slightly narrower than the posterior. The pellicle is uniformly
covered by equal sized cilia like flagella. The ectoplasm contains contractile fibrils called myonemes
which are responsible for the flexion and extension of the animal. Endoplasm contains many nuclei.
Peristome, cytosome, gullet and contractile vacuole are absent. Food materials are absorbed from the
body of the host through the surface of the body. Reproduction both sexual and asexual. Opalina is found
as parasite in the rectum of frogs
Previously Opalina was placed in ciliata, then it was placed in flagellata because of the following:
Opalina other ciliates
nuclei are similar or monomorphic nuclei are dimorphic (macro and micro nucleus).
binary fission the cleavage is longitudinal binary fission is generally transverse
no conjugation Conjugation is common
2- Class Sarcodina:
-Body naked or with shell. -With pseudopodia for locomotion and food capture.
-No spore formation no conjugation.
a- Order Amoebina b-Order Testacea c-Order Foraminifera
- Body amoeboid, naked, no test or shell - Body enclosed in one chambered shell. - Large size with uni or multi-chambered
- Short pseudopodia. - Psudopodia extruded through the shell shell.
- Fresh water, marine or parasitic. opening. - Pseudopodia are reticulopodia.
- Mostly freshwater. - Reproduce asexually and sexually.
- Mostly marine.
d- Order Heliozoa e-Order Radiolaria

- Body spherical, naked with siliceous - Body spherical with skeleton of mostly
skeleton. siliceous skeleton.
- Cytoplasm divided into outer vaculated - Central capsule of chitin separating the
and inner dense zones. outer and inner zones of cytoplasm.
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Example of Class: Sarcodina
Amoeba
The animal is of irregular shape with simple or branched pseudopodia and is measuring 250-600 microns
in diameter. The body of animal is covered by a thin, delicate and permeable plasma membrane called
plasmalemma. Inside the plasmalemma, the cytoplasm is distinguished into outer ectoplasm and inner
endoplasm. Various distinct organelles are nucleus (for reproduction and metabolism), contractile
vacuole (for osmoregulation) and food vacuole (for nutrition). Nutrition in Amoeba is holozoic.
Reproduction is by fission and encystment. Amoeba move by formation of pseudopodia.
Example of Class Sarcodina, Order

ForaminiferaGlobigerina : Is marine animal
floating on surface. The animal secretes a calcareous
shell of few round chambers. When the living shell
chamber becomes small for animal, it secretes a new
larger chamber. This many chambered shell is
known as multilocular shell. The shell has apertures
through which fine. Globigerina has a branching
pseudopodia called reticulopodia.
3- Class Ciliata:
-Complex protozoa with firm pellicle. -Locomotion by cilia. -Nuclei of 2 kinds. -Nutrition holozoic. –
Asexual reproduction by binary fission. -Sexual reproduction by conjugation and autogmy.
a-Order Holotricha b-Order Peritricha c-Order Spirotricha
-Body cilia simple and uniform. -Without body cilia. -Body cilia spars and compound.
-Aboral cilia absent -Oral cilia are found clearly.
d-Order Chonotricha e-Order Suctoria:
-Vestibular cilia in aspiraly coiled apical -Cilia are found only in early stages.
funnel
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Example of Class: Ciliata

Paramicium: It is a microscopic elongated animal, hving slipper-shaped. The anterior end is bluntly
rounded, while posterior end is pointed. Pellicle covers the body. It is clear, firm and elastic cuticular
membrane. Cilia cover the entire animal. They are hair-like projections of uniform length, except at
posterior end where they are longer and at cytopharynx where they form undulating membrane. The
cytostome at the end of the oral groove leads into a tubular cytopharynx, or gullet. Along the gullet an
undulating membrane of modified cilia keeps food moving. Cytoplasm contains ectoplasm and
endoplasm ectoplasms has myonemes (contain protein filament) and trichocysts (the function of
trichocysts is thought to be defensive). Endoplasm contains two nuclei: a large kidney-shaped
macronucleus and a smaller micronucleus, food vacuoles, granules, anterior contractile vacuole and
posterior contractile vacuole.
Ephelota marine form, found in the sea water. The body is spherical and bearing a stalk. There are two
types of tentacles on the body:Long tentacles which are used for piercing and Short tentacles which are
used for sucking. The endoplasm contains macro and macronucleus and other granules. Reproduction is
by exogenous budding. The bud detaches from parent body and develops to adult.
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LEC 3
Phylum: Porifera
Introduction:
The name Porifera (porus = pore; ferro = to bear). This phylum includes the sponges which are most
primitive of multicellular animals. Approximately 10.000 species of sponges are known at present.
Characteristics of Phylum Porifera
1. Multicellular; Body with pores (ostia), canals, and chambers that serve for passage of water.
3. Mostly marine; all aquatic.
4. Radial symmetry or none.
5. Epidermis of flat pinacocytes; most interior surfaces lined with flagellated collar cells (choanocytes)
that create water currents; a gelatinous protein matrix called (mesoglea) contains amebocytes of various
types and skeletal elements.
6. Skeletal structure of fibrillar collagen (a protein) and calcareous or siliceous crystalline spicules, often
combined with variously modified collagen (spongin).
7. No organs or true tissues; digestion intracellular; excretion and respiration by diffusion.
8. All adults sessile and attached to substratum.
9. Asexual reproduction by buds or gemmules and sexual reproduction by eggs and sperm
Types of cells:
The sponges also have specialized cells. Therefore, division of function is present in them. Following
types of cells are present in phylum porifera.
1- Pinacocytes: Flattened cells composing dermal epithelium in sponges. Pinacocytes are somewhat
contractile and help regulate surface area of a sponge.
2- Porocytes: Tubular cells that make up the pores of a sponge.
3- Choanocyte: Which line flagellated canals and chambers, choanocytes are ovoid cells with one end
embedded in mesoglea and the other exposed. The exposed end bears a flagellum surrounded by a
collar. Choanocytes not only keep the water moving but also trap and phagocytize food particles that
are carried in the water.
4- Myocytes: are usually arranged in circular bands around oscula or pores, where they help regulate
rate of water flow.
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5- Archaeocytes Archaeocytes are ameboid cells that move about in the mesoglea and carry out a
number of functions. They can phagocytize particles at the pinacoderm and receive particles for
digestion from choanocytes. Archaeocytes apparently can differentiate into any of the other types of
more specialized cells in the sponge.
a- Sclerocytes, secrete spicules.
b- Spongocytes, secrete the spongin fibers of the skeleton
c- Collencytes secrete fibrillar collagen
d- Lophocytes secrete large quantities of collagen but are distinguishable morphologically from
collencytes.
Types of Skeletons
Its skeleton gives support to a sponge, preventing collapse of canals and chambers. The major structural
protein in the animal kingdom is collagen, and fibrils of collagen are found throughout the intercellular
matrix of all sponges. In addition, various Demospongiae secrete a form of collagen traditionally known
as spongin. Several types of spongin, differing in chemical composition and form (fibers, spicules,
filaments, spongin surrounding spicules, and so on) are found in various demosponges. Demospongiae
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also secrete siliceous spicules. Calcareous sponges secrete spicules composed mostly of crystalline
calcium carbonate and have one, three, or four rays .
Body opening:
The only body openings of these unusual animals are pores, usually many tiny ones called ostia for
incoming water, and a few large ones called oscula (sing., osculum) for water outlet. These openings are
connected by a system of canals, some of which are lined with peculiar flagellated collar cells called
choanocytes (previously discussed).
Types of Canal Systems
Most sponges have one of three types of canal systems: asconoid, syconoid, or leuconoid .
1-Asconoids (Flagellated spongocoels): Asconoid sponges have the simplest organization. They are
small and tube shaped. Water enters through microscopic dermal pores into a large cavity called a
spongocoel, which is lined with choanocytes. Choanocyte flagella pull water through the pores and expel
it through a single large osculum. Asconoids are found only in the Calcarea.
2-Syconoids: Flagellated Canals Syconoid sponges look somewhat like larger editions of asconoids,
from which they were derived. They have a tubular body and single osculum, but the body wall, which
is thicker and more complex than that of asconoids, contains choanocyte-lined radial canals that empty
into the spongocoel. The spongocoel in syconoids is lined with epithelial-type cells rather than flagellated
cells as in asconoids. Water enters through many dermal ostia into incurrent canals and then filters
through tiny openings called prosopyles into the radial canals. Food is ingested by the choanocytes,
whose flagella force the water through internal pores (apo-pyles) into the spongocoel. From there it
emerges through an osculum. Syconoids are found in classes Calcarea and Hexactinellida.
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3-Leuconoids: Flagellated Chambers Leuconoid organization is the most complex of the sponge types
and permits an increase in sponge size. As a result of further process of out folding of the choanocyte
layer and thickening of body wall, the leuconoid type of canal system develops. The choanocyte layer of
the radial canal of the syconoid stage evaginates into many small chambers, and these may repeat the
process, so that clusters of small rounded or oval flagellated chambers replace the elongated chambers
of the syconoid stage. The choanocytes are limited to these chambers. The interior of the sponge becomes
permeated by many incurrent and ex-current canals join to form larger ex-current canals and spaces
which lead to the oscula. The surface is covered with epidermal epithelium and is pierced by many dermal
pores (ostia) and oscula. The dermal pores lead into incurrent canals that branch irregularly through the
mesenchyme. The incurrent canals lead into the small rounded flagellated chambers by opening still
termed prosopyles. The flagellated chambers open by apertures called apopyles into ex-current channels,
and these unite to form larger and larger tubes, of which the largest lead to the oscula. Most sponges are
of the leuconoid type, which occurs in most Calcarea and in all other classes.
Example: Euspongia
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Sponges Feeding
Sponges feed primarily on particles suspended in the water pumped through their canal systems. Detritus
particles, planktonic organisms, and bacteria. Pinacocytes may phagocytize particles at the surface, but
most larger particles are consumed in the canals by archaeocytes that move close
to the lining of the canals. Sponges also absorb dissolved nutrients from the water passing through the
system. Protein molecules are taken into choanocytes by pinocytosis. Digestion is entirely intracellular
(occurs within cells).
Respiratory and Excretory organs
There are no respiratory or excretory organs; both functions apparently occur by diffusion in individual
cells. Contractile vacuoles are found in archaeocytes and choanocytes of freshwater sponges.
Reproduction
1-Asexual Reproduction:
a-Reduction bodies: Many fresh water and marine sponges disintegrate in adverse environmental
conditions particularly in winter, leaving small rounded balls called reduction bodies. Each body consists
of an internal mass of amoebocytes, covered externally by a pinacoderm and spicules. When favorable
conditions return, these reduction bodies grow into complete new sponges.
b-Budding: In budding, numerous archaeocytes gather near the surface resulting in a small outgrowth
on the pinacoderm. The bud thus formed grows outward to produce a small individual, which either
remains attached with the parent individual or gets detached and attached to a nearby rock to grow into
an independent colony.
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c-Gemmules Production:
Gemmules are formed in freshwater sponges and some marine sponges. Here, archaeocytes collect in the
mesohyl and become surrounded by a spongin coat incorporating siliceous spicules. When the parent
animal dies, the gemmules survive and remain dormant, preserving the species during periods of freezing
or severe drought. Later, cells in the gemmules escape through a special opening, the micropyle, and
develop into new sponges.
2-Sexual Reproduction:
Sponges have no organs but amoebocytes form eggs and sperms in the mesenchyme ; first eggs are
produced and later the sperms. The amoebocytes get filled with food and become large, they become
round to form eggs. Other amoebocytes divide to produce many sperms, a sperm has an oval head and a
long tapering tail. Eggs of one sponge are fertilized by sperms from another sponge to form zygotes.
Regeneration
Sponges have the ability to repair injuries and to restore lost parts, a process called regeneration.
Regeneration does not imply a reorganization of the entire animal, but only of the wounded portion. The
regeneration power is used for cultivation of bath sponge industrially.
Classification of Phylum Porifera
Class Calcarea Have spicules of calcium carbonate that often form a fringe around the osculum (main
water outlet); spicules needle shaped or three or four rayed; all three types of canal systems (asconoid,
syconoid, leuconoid) represented; all marine. Examples: Sycon, Leucosolenia.
Class Hexactinellida Have six-rayed, siliceous spicules extending at right angles from a central point;
spicules often united to form network; body often cylindrical or funnel shaped; flagellated chambers in
simple syconoid or leuconoid arrangement; habitat mostly deep water; all marine. Examples: Venus’
flower basket (Euplectella), Hyalonema.
Class Demospongiae Have siliceous spicules that are not six rayed, or spongin, or both; leuconoid-type
canal systems; one family found in fresh water; all others marine. Examples: Thenea, Cliona, Spongilla,
Myenia, and all bath sponges.
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LEC 4
Phylum: Cnidaria (Coelentrata)
Introduction:
Phylum Cnidaria is an interesting group of more than 9000 species. It takes its name from cells called
cnidocytes, which contain the stinging organelles (nematocysts) characteristic of the phylum.
Nematocysts are formed and used only by cnidarians.
Characteristics of Phylum Cnidaria
1. Entirely aquatic, some in fresh water but mostly marine.
2. Radial symmetry or biradial symmetry
3. Two basic types of individuals: polyps and medusa.
4. Exoskeleton or endoskeleton of chitinous, calcareous, or protein components in some.
5. Body with two layers, epidermis and gastrodermis, with mesoglea (diploblastic).
in some (triploblastic)
6. Gastrovascular cavity with a single opening that serves as both mouth and anus.
7. Special stinging cell organelles called nematocysts
8. Nerve net with symmetrical and asymmetrical synapses; with some sensory organs; diffuse
conduction.
9. Muscular system of an outer layer of longitudinal fibers at base of epidermis and an inner one of
circular fibers at base of gastrodermis.
10. Asexual reproduction by budding (in polyps) or sexual reproduction by gametes (in all medusae and
some polyps)
11. No excretory or respiratory system and no coelomic cavity.
Dimorphism and Polymorphism in Cnidarians One of the most interesting aspects of this phylum is
the dimorphism and often polymorphism displayed by many of its members. All cnidarian forms fit into
one of two morphological types (dimorphism): a polyp, or hydroid form, which is adapted to a sedentary
or sessile life, and a medusa, or jellyfish form, which is adapted for a floating or free-swimming
existence.
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Polyp Medusa
Fixed Free swimming
Body cylindrically elongated Body umbrella-like
Tentacles are usually 24 16 tentacles in young medusa
Mesoglea poorly developed Mesoglea well developed
Sense organs are absent Sense organs are present
Mouth circular Mouth rectangular
Gastro -vascular cavity simple, without radial and Gastro -vascular cavity represented by stomach, 4 radial
circular canal canals and one circular canal
Reproduces asexually Reproduces sexually
Nematocysts: Stinging Organelles

One of the most characteristic structures in the entire cnidarian group is a stinging organelle called a
nematocyst. Nematocysts are tiny capsules composed of material similar to chitin and containing a coiled
tubular “thread” or filament, which is a continuation of the narrowed end of the capsule. This end of the
capsule is covered by a little lid, or operculum. The inside of the undischarged thread may bear tiny
barbs, or spines. A nematocyst is enclosed in the cell that has produced it, the cnidocyte (during its
development, a cnidocyte is properly called a cnidoblast).
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Body Wall The body wall

surrounding the
gastrovascular cavity
consists of an outer
epidermis (ectodermal) and
an inner gastrodermis
(endodermal) with
mesoglea between them.
1-Epidermis:
The epidermal layer contains epitheliomuscular, interstitial, gland, cnidocyte, and sensory and nerve
cells.
a-Epitheliomuscular cells make up most of the epidermis
and serve both for covering and for muscular contraction.
Contraction of these fibrils shortens the body or tentacles.
b-Interstitial cells are undifferentiated stem cells found among the bases of the epitheliomuscular cells.
Differentiation of interstitial cells produces cnidoblasts, sex cells, buds, nerve cells, and others, but
generally not epitheliomuscular cells (which reproduce themselves).
c-Gland cells are tall cells located around the basal disc and mouth, that secrete an adhesive substance
for attachment and sometimes a gas bubble for floating.
d-Sensory cells are scattered among the other epidermal cells, especially near the mouth and tentacles
and on the basal disc. The free end of each sensory cell bears a flagellum, which is the sensory receptor
for chemical and tactile stimuli. The other end branches into fine processes that synapse with nerve cells.
e-Cnidocytes containing nematocysts occur throughout the epidermis
f-Nerve cells of the epidermis are generally multipolar (have many processes), although in more highly
organized cnidarians the cells may be bipolar (with two processes). Their processes (axons) form
synapses with sensory cells and other nerve cells and junctions with epitheliomuscular cells and
cnidocytes.
21
2-Gastrodermis. The gastrodermis, a layer of cells lining the gastrovascular cavity. The cells of the
gastrodermis include nutritive-muscular, interstitial, and gland cells.
a-Nutritive-muscular cells are usually tall columnar cells and have laterally extended bases containing
myofibrils. Water is brought in through the mouth by beating of cilia on the nutritive muscular cells. The
two cilia on the free end of each cell also serve to circulate food and fluids in the digestive cavity. The
cells often contain large numbers of food vacuoles.
b-Interstitial cells are scattered among the bases of the nutritive cells. They transform into other types
of cells when the need arises.
c-Gland cells secrete digestive enzymes.
3-Mesoglea. The mesoglea lies between the epidermis and gastrodermis and is attached to both layers.
It is gelatinous, and both epidermal and gastrodermal cells send processes into it. The mesoglea helps to
support the body and acts as a type of elastic skeleton.
Classification of Cnidaria
1-Class Hydrozoa . Solitary or colonial; 2-Class Scyphozoa. Solitary; polyp stage reduced 3-Class Anthozoa All polyps; no
asexual polyps and sexual medusae, although or absent; bell shaped medusae without velum; medusae; solitary or colonial;
one type may be suppressed; hydranths with no gelatinous mesoglea much enlarged; margin of bell gastrovascular cavity subdivided by at least
mesenteries; medusae (when present) with a or umbrella typically with eight notches that are eight mesenteries or septa bearing
velum; both freshwater and marine. Examples: provided with sense organs; all marine. Example: nematocysts; gonads endodermal; all
Hydra, Obelia. Aurelia marine. Example: Metridium
Examples: Hydra
Is simple, solitary and fresh-water form. It is free living. Hydra has only one form of zooid (the polyp),
no polymorphism. Hydra is elongated, cylindrical and like an elastic tube measures 1-3 cm in length.
Proximal end of the body is known as basal disc or foot, used for attachment with some objects or for
locomotion. The free distal end bears the mouth situated on conical elevation called the hypostome. The
hypostome is encircled by few (6-10) tentacles. The tentacles are hollow, slenderfinger-like projection
provided with nematocyst. Body wall is diploblastic consist of an outer ectoderm and an inner endoderm
separated by mesoglea. Body wall encloses a digestive cavity or gastro-vascular cavity which extends to
tentacles. Lateral buds may present on the sides of the body which may give rise to new individuals by
asexual reproduction. Gonads appear as buds on the sides of the body. Testes lie near the oral end, while
the ovaries near the base. Reproduction both asexual and sexual. Haydra may be monoecious od
dioecious, and it has no free swimming stage.
22
Nutrition Hydra The food consists of small crustaceans like Cyclops, small annelids and insect larvae.
On touching a tentacle by the prey, the stinging apparatus penetrate it and inject a poisonous to paralyze
it. The tentacle holding the captured animal contracts and bends over the mouth. The mucous gland cells
of the hypostome cover the engulfed food with mucus, then enzymatic gland cells produce a proteolytic
enzyme like trypsin which partly digests the proteins this digestion is extracellular. Some endoderm cells
form pseudopodia engulf the smaller partly digested particles into food vacuoles. The remaining
digestion is completed in the vacuoles, and it is called intracellular digestion. Thus, Hydra combines the
intracellular digestion of Protozoa and extracellular digestion of higher animals.
Respiration and Excretion in Hydra There are no special organs for respiration and excretion. Gaseous
exchange occurs through the general body surface. Nitrogenous wastes are largely in the form of
ammonia, which also diffuses through the general body surface. It is also thought that the gastro dermis
of basal disc is said to accumulate some excretory matter, which may be discharged through a pore.
Nervous System of Hydra There are many nerve cells, each with two to four branching nerve fibers.
The nerve fibers are primitive because they do not form axons or dendrites, moreover the nerve fibers
form actual contacts with fibers of other nerve cells.
Reproduction in Hydra:
(i) Asexual Reproduction of Hydra:
23
Asexual Budding: A bud develops as a simple evagination of the body wall. The ectoderm cells increase
in number at one point to form a knob below which the endoderm cells acquire reserve food, then both
ectoderm and endoderm are pushed out to form a bud.
(ii)Sexual Reproduction: Most species are dioecious some are monoecious. Eggs in the ovary usually
mature one at a time and are fertilized by sperm shed into the water. Zygotes undergo holoblastic cleavage
to form a hollow blastula. The inner part of the blastula delaminates to form the endoderm (gastrodermis),
and the mesoglea is laid down between ectoderm and endoderm. A cyst forms around the embryo before
it breaks loose from the parent, enabling it to survive the winter. No free swimming stage is available in
the life history of Hydra.
Regeneration in Haydra Regeneration may be defined as the
ability of certain animals to restore the lost or worn out parts
of their bodies. Hydra has the considerable power of
regeneration.
Example Obelia
Is colonial hydroid. It is trimorphic colony having three types of zooids:
1- Haydranth or polyp has cylindrical body attached to the axis of the hydrocaulus by its proximal
end and free at its distal end. It is covered by cup-shaped hydrotheca. The hypostome is covered
by tentacles. It is nutritive zooid of the colony.
2- Blastostyle or reproductive zooides is club-shaped without mouth and tentacles. It is enclosed
by covering gonotheca. It gives rise to buds which develop into medusa.
3- Medusa is bell-shaped reproductive zooid with concave and convex side. It is provided with
marginal tentacle, four radial canal, a ring canal, four gonads. From the center of the sub-umbrella
arises a short projecting manubrium at its apex is a square mouth surrounded by four oral lobes.
Medusa is free swimming zooid.
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Life cycle
1.Fertilization- the fertilization usually take place in open sea water where the gametes are swims freely.
Sometime the sperm are carried into female medusa with water current.
2.Development- the development include following :
 Cleavage- The zygote undergo holoblastic and equal cleavage to form solid ball of cell called
morula. The morula changed into a single layered blastula. Its single layered cell which then then
convert into solid gastrula.
 Planula is a free-swimming larva but eventually it attached to some solid surface. Once attached
to a substrate, a planula quickly develops into one feeding polyp. As the polyp grows, it begins
developing branches of other feeding individuals, thus forming a new generation of polyps by
asexual budding.
 Hydrula- a simple polyp or hydrula is formed which grows a hydrorhiza from its base, from
which an Obelia colony is formed by budding.
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Example Aurelia
is a commonest jelly-fish or moon-jelly, occurs in coastal waters of tropical and temperate oceans of the
world close to the surface of water. It is cosmopolitan in distribution. Medusa phase is dominant it is
called jelly fish. The bell margin of the umbrella-shaped medusa has 8 notches for tentaculocysts or
rhopalium (which are the sense organs of jelly-fish). As well as the margin equipped with many small
hollow tentacles. The true velum is bscent. Long oral arms are present. Canal system complicated, gastric
pouch present and the canals are branched. Gastric ridges are present and are bearing gastric filaments.
Gonads are exclusively endodermal and four in number.
26
Life Cycle:
Fertilization is either internal or External. Zygote undergoes to produce a solid ball morula.
Morula is transformed into a single layered blastula then two layered gastrula . The embryo now
elongates, its outer cells become ciliated, in this way the typical planula larva is formed. The
ciliated planula attached itself to a stone . Cilia are lost and a mouth opens at its free distal end .
The larva now become elongated . Its proximal end is stalklike and is attached to the substratum
by an adhesive basel disc. Mouth becomes square in outline. Larva now called as young
Scyphistoma . Scyphistoma survive in this stage to several months. scyphistoma undergoes a
remarkable process of budding of oral end called as strobilation. Body develops a series of ring
like transverse grooves . Scyphistoma with a segmented body is called a strobili. Each of the
segment is called as ephyra larva . About a dozen ephyrae are formed in a single strobilation.
Ephyra is finally transformed into adult Aurelia
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LEC 5
Phylum: Platyhelminthes
Platyhelminthes (from the Greek , platy, meaning "flat" and, helminth-, meaning "worm"). This Phylum
includes more than 13,000 species of free-living and parasitic species.
Characteristics of Phylum Platyhelminthes
1. Three germ layers (triploblastic).
2. Bilateral symmetry.
3. Body flattened dorsoventrally.
4. Epidermis may be cellular or syncytial.
5. Muscular system primarily of a sheath form and of mesodermal origin; layers of circular, longitudinal,
and sometimes oblique fibers beneath the epidermis.
6. No internal body space other than digestive tube.
7. Digestive system incomplete or absent in some.
8. Nervous system consisting of a pair of anterior ganglia with longitudinal nerve cords connected by
transverse nerves .
9. Simple sense organs; eyespots in some.
10. Excretory system of two lateral canals with branches bearing flame cells
11. Respiratory, circulatory, and skeletal systems lacking.
12. Most forms monoecious; reproductive system complex.
13. Class Turbellaria mostly free living; classes Monogenea, Trematoda, and Cestoda entirely parasitic.
Classification:
Platyhelminthes divided in to three classes: Cestoda, Trematoda and Turbellaria
28
CLASS I: TURBELLARIA : CLASS II : TERMATODA : CLASSIII:CESTODA:
1. Mostly free - living forms found 1.These are commonly known as 1.Totally endoparasitic forms.
in fresh or sea waters or on land. flukes.
2. Body covered with thick cuticle.
2. Body is unsegmented and is 2.These are ectoparasitic or
dorsiventrally flattened. endoparasitic forms. 3.Mouth,digestive tract and sense
organs are absent.
3. Epidermis is cellular or syncytial. 3. Body is unsegmented and
enlongated. 4.Fertilization is internal. It is
4 Intestine is either absent (Acoela) divided into 2 sub-classes.
or simple and sac like 4.Adhesive organs are, one or two
(Rhabdocoela) or branched. suckers without hooks and spines. Class I: Cestodaria or
Monozoa: These are simple fish
Order (1): Acoela: They are marine 4. Digestive tract is bifurcated and
and small. Mouth and pharynx are highly diverticulated. Anus is parasites. Body without a scolex and
simpleor absent. Oviducts 2 yolk absent.
strobila.
glands are absent. Ex : Convoluta.
Order 1 : Monogenea : These are Ex: Amphilian
Order (2) : Rhabdocoela : They ectoparasitic forms. An oral sucker Class II: Eucestoda (or) Merozoa
are small. A digestive bad is present may be" present, or absent or poorly
and intestine is sac like. Many are developed. Posterior end with : Scolex with adhesive organs. More
free swimming. Reproductive adhesive discs with hooks is than one set of reproductive organs.
organs are present. common
Larva has 6 hooks.
Ex : Microstomum, Temnocephala. Ex : Monocells, Polystomum. Ex: Taenia solium
Order 3 : Alloeocoela : Small sized Order 2 : Aspidobothria : These

worms are included in this order. are endoparasites. Oral sucker is
Intestine is simple or branched. absent. Hooks are absent.
They are mostly marine. Development is direct. Ex .
Aspidogaster.
Ex : Otoplana, Bothnoplana.
Order 3 : Digenea : Endoparasites
Order 4 :Tricladida : are included. Suckers are present
Dorsiventrally flat body is seen. without loops. Life cycle is
Intestine has two lateral limbs and complicated.
one median limb Genital aperture is
single. Ex : Fasciola, Opiathorchis.
Ex: Planaria.
Example: Example: Planaria: Body of Planaria is elongated, bilaterally symmetrical and

dorsoventrally flattened. They are 2-15 mm in length. Head is triangular with auricles and two eyes.
Digestive system consist of mouth, proboscis, pharynx and branched intestine. Mouth is situated on the
ventral surface behind the middle of worm. Proboscis is enclosed in the proboscis sheath. Intestine forks
into three diverticulitis branches, one anterior an two posterior. Genital pore is situated a little posterior
to the mouth. Planarians are used for experimental purpose.
29
Eyes :Eyes are two round dark spots on the dorsal surface of the head. The eye has a pigment cup with
its open facing laterally forward. Projecting into the pigment cup are several retinal cells, they are bipolar
nerve cells with expanded inner ends which are striated, and outer ends joined to the brain. Eyes are
capable of a crude discrimination of the direction of light. The pigment cup serves as a shield and light
can enter only through its opening to stimulate the photosensitive expanded ends of retinal cells, thus,
the animal can detect the direction of light.
Body Wall
The body wall is made of an outer epidermis and inner muscle layers. Both these layers are separated by
a basement membrane. The space between muscle layer and the alimentary canal is filled with a special
type of tissue called mesenchyme or parenchyma, therefore, no coelom or body cavity is found in it.
(1) Epidermis: It is single cell-layered thick and made of cuboidal epithelial cells. The epidermis is
ciliated all over in most planarians. Between the epidermal cells are sensory cells and mucous gland cells
in certain areas. The gland cells provide a mucus coating for the animal locomotion. In the epidermal
30
cells are hyaline rods called rhabdites, they are more abundant on the dorsal than the ventral side.
Rhabdites are secreted by rhabdite gland cells usually located in mesenchyme. After the rhabdites are
secreted in the rhabdite gland cells, they migrate to the epidermal cells where they lie. The function of
rhabdites is not known, but they form a slimy substance on discharge to the exterior which may be
protective, and help in obtaining living food.
(2) Basement Membrane: marks the boundary between the epidermis and muscle layers and it helps in
maintaining general form of the body.
(3) Muscle Layer: It contains elongated contractile muscle cells. The muscle layer is differentiated into
an outer layer of circular muscles, middle layer of diagonal muscles and inner layer of longitudinal
muscles. The longitudinal muscle layer is more developed on the ventral side. The dorso-ventral muscles
extend across the body between dorsal and ventral surfaces.
(4) Parenchyma or Mesenchyme: It is a special type of connective tissue of mesodermal origin. It is
filled in the spaces between various internal organs and body wall. It is a net-like syncytium containing
nuclei, free wandering mesenchyme. The mesenchyme cells serve to transport digested food and
excretory wastes.
31
Digestive System: The flatworms are the first in the animal kingdom to possess the alimentary canal
which is incomplete because anus is not found. However, the alimentary canal of consists of mouth,
pharynx and intestine. Digestion is both extracellular and intracellular; the mesenchyme helps to
distribute digested food.
Rejuvenation: Planarians can live without food for long periods, they obtain nourishment by dissolving
their reproductive organs, parenchyma, and muscles, they get smaller in size. The missing parts are
regenerated when they feed again.
Respiratory System: There are no respiratory organs. Exchange of gases takes through the body surface,
i.e., respiratory exchange is by diffusion.
Excretory System: The excretory system consists of a system of excretory tubules having many
excretory cells called flame cells or protonephridia. The flame cell is nucleated and has many
protoplasmic processes reaching into the mesenchyme. The flame cell has an intracellular space which
is continued into the capillary. In the space of the flame cell are many flagella which vibrate giving the
appearance of a flickering candle flame, hence, the name.
Nervous system: The nervous system represents the primitive type of centralized nervous system of
higher animals. It consists of the brain, nerve cords and peripheral nerves.
32
Reproduction:
(i) Asexual Reproduction: Fission occurs when the animal has attained maximum size; the posterior
end adheres firmly, while the anterior region advances forward so that the animal ruptures into two
behind the pharynx.
(ii) Sexual Reproduction: Reproductive organs are
temporary, they are formed during the breeding season,
after which the reproductive organs degenerate and the
animal becomes an asexual strain which will reproduce
by fission till early summer of the following year. The
sexual strain develops hermaphrodite organs and it
reproduces sexually every year in early summer.
Regeneration: Planaria has great powers of regeneration. Regeneration is a process of restitution and
involves the development of lost part of the body automatically.
33
LEC 6
Phylum: Annelida
Phylum Annelida consists of the segmented worms. It is a large phylum, numbering approximately
15,000 species, the most familiar of which are earthworms and freshwater worms (oligochaetes) and
leeches (hirudineans).
Characteristics of Phylum Annelida
1. Body metameric; symmetry bilateral.
2. Body wall with outer circular and inner longitudinal muscle layers; outer transparent moist cuticle
secreted by epithelium.
3. Chitinous setae often present; setae absent in leeches.
4. Coelom (schizocoel) well developed and divided by septa, except in leeches; coelomic fluid supplies
turgidity and functions as hydrostatic skeleton.
5. Circulatory system closed and segmentally arranged; respiratory pigments (hemoglobin, hemerythrin,
or chlorocruorin) often present; amebocytes in blood plasma.
6. Digestive system complete and not metamerically arranged.
7. Respiratory gas exchange through skin, gills, or parapodia.
8. Excretory system typically a pair of nephridia for each metamere.
9. Nervous system with a double ventral nerve cord and a pair of ganglia with lateral nerves in each
metamere; brain a pair of dorsal cerebral ganglia with connectives to cord
10. Hermaphroditic or separate sexes; larvae, if present, are trochophore type; asexual reproduction by
budding in some.
Classification:
Class Polychaeta: Mostly marine; Class Oligochaeta. Body with Class Hirudinea Body with fixed
head distinct and bearing eyes and conspicuous segmentation; number number of segments (normally 34;
tentacles; most segments with of segments variable; setae few per 15 or 30 in some groups) with many
parapodia (lateral appendages) metamere; no parapodia; head annuli; oral and posterior suckers
bearing tufts of many setae; clitellum absent; coelom spacious and usually usually present; clitellum present; no
absent; sexes usually separate; divided by intersegmental septa; parapodia; setae absent (except in
gonads transitory; asexual budding hermaphroditic; development direct, Acanthobdella); coelom closely
in some; trochophore larva usually no larva; chiefly terrestrial and packed with connective tissue and
present; mostly marine. Examples: freshwater. Examples: Lumbricus, muscle; development direct;
Nereis. hermaphroditic; terrestrial,
freshwater, and marine. Examples:
Hirudo
34
Example: Nereis The body of Nereis is approximately 7-8

centimeters in length. The colour is light violet and the regions of the
body which are richly supplied with blood vessels appear reddish.
The body is divisible into about 80 segments and a distinct head is
present at the anterior end. All the segments excepting the head and
the last segment bear laterally placed, hollow, muscular and vertical,
movable paired appendages parapodia (Single. Parapodium). The ter-
minal segment is termed as the anal segment or pygidium and it bears
at its posterior end a small round opening, the anus. Anal segment
bears a pair of elongated anal cirri. On the ventral surface and near
the base of the parapodium lies a nephridial aperture. Thus a pair of
nephridiopores is present in each parapodial segment.
The Head:
The head is divisible into two parts: prostomium and peristomium. Prostomium is an anterior, small,
roughly conical lobe of the peristomium. It lies in front of the mouth. It is not a true body segment. The
lobe bears tentacles, palps and eyes which serve as sensory organs. Peristomium is the first body segment
which is ring-like and bears mouth ventrally.
The prostomium bears following structures:
(1) Prostomial Tentacles—paired, cylindrical, small and placed in front.
(2) Palp—paired, elongated and compact and located after the tentalces.
(3) Eyes—two pairs, simple, round, pigmented and present on the dorsal side of the head. The
peristomium carries:
(1) Peristomial tentacles—four pairs, long, slender, cylindrical and laterally placed.
35
(2) Mouth—present on the ventral side as a transverse aperture.
Parapodium:
All the segments excepting the first and the last segments bear on either lateral side a fleshy, flat and
hollow parapodium. Largest parapodia are encountered in the middle segments of the body, then the size
of the parapodia decreases towards the two ends.
Parapodium consist of: Dorsally placed notopodium, Ventrally placed neuropodium, Dorsal cirrus,
Ventral cirrus, Setae (single Seta) and Aciculum.
The parapodia perform different locomotory functions, such as crawling and swimming. The parapodia
in some polychaetes are highly vascularized structure and function as respiratory organs.
36
Setae: The setae are stiff, needle-like chitinous rods which remain in bundle within a sac in the skin.
They have a locomotory function.
The excretory system: It consists of series of metamerically arranged paired tubes, called nephridia or
segmental organs. They are absent in the anterior and posterior segments.
A nephridium is made up of:
-nephridial tubule: long, narrow, highly convoluted and mostly ciliated duct.
-terminal duct: it is without cilia and opens to the exterior at the base of the parapodium.
-nephridiopore: fine rounded pore, which is capable of being widened or contracted.
-nephrostome: ciliated funnel-like opening.
Digestive System:
Alimentary canal is a straight tube extending from anterior to posterior end of the body. The anterior
opening is the mouth and posterior opening the anus. Mouth is located on ventral side of peristomium
and opens into the buccal cavity, which carries teeth. Pharynx is a large chamber and is lined internally
by cuticle. One pair of jaws is present at the posterior end of pharynx. Pharynx can be protruded out of
mouth by protractor muscles and can be withdrawn by retractor muscles. Oesophagus occupies five
segments and receives a pair of glands. It communicates with stomach–intestine, which is a straight
tube that is constricted in each segment. A distinct stomach is absent in Nereis. Epithelial lining of mid-
gut contains gland cells which secrete digestive enzymes. Rectum is the last part of intestine and opens
to outside by anus. Nereis is a carnivore and feeds on small animals such as crustaceans, molluscs,
sponges and other animals.
Prey is captured by the eversion of pharynx, which brings the jaws in front to grasp the prey. Retraction
is caused by contractions of retractor muscle which brings the prey deep into the pharynx. The ingested
food is masticated in the buccopharyngeal region by teeth. Food passes through the intestine by peristalsis
and digestion is mainly extracellular and the food is digested by the digestive juices .
Reproductive System Nereis is dioecious as sexes are separate. Gonads develop only during the
breeding season, in the summer months. Gametes are released as spermatogonia in male and as oogonia
in female into the coelomic cavity where they undergo maturation to develop into spermatozoa and ova,
respectively. There are no gonoducts and mature sperms and ova are discharged to the outside in water
either through nephridial tubules or by the rupture of body wall. Eggs hatch into a larval stage called
trochophore. This larva is ciliated, unsegmented and almost pear-shaped. The trochophore swims about
37
by its ciliated bands. Gradually the larva metamorphoses into a young worm which settles at the bottom
of the sea and starts burrowing life.
Heteronereis: Some species of Nereis exhibit dimorphism and
two distinct phase. The body is divisible into two parts. The
anterior or asexual part is called ‘Atoke’ and the posterior or
sexual part is called ‘Epitoke’. The changes of the posterior half
of the body are:
1- Parapodia become enlarged.
2- Setae become oar-shaped which help in swimming.
3- Dorsal and ventral cirri appears to be highly large.
4- The notopodium and neuropodium become large and leaf
like and act as fins and gills.
5- Due to excessive development of gonads, the muscles and
alimentary canal are reduced.
Example: Lumbricus (Earth worm)

The common earthworm, Lumbricus terrestris, or one of its near relatives, is usually used as a type in
introductory courses in Zoology.
External features. - The body of Lumbricus is cylindroid, and varies in length from about six inches to
a foot. The segments are easily determined externally because of the grooves extending around the body.
At the anterior end a fleshy lobe, the prostomium, projects over the mouth; this is not considered a true
segment. Segments 31or 32 to 37 are swollen in mature worms, forming a saddle-shaped enlargement,
the clitellum, of use during reproduction. Every segment except the first and last bears four pairs
chitinous bristles, these may be moved by retractor and protractor muscles, and are renewed if lost. The
setae on ,segment or somite 26 are, in mature worms, modified for reproductive purposes. The body is
covered by a thin, transparent cuticle secreted by the cells lying just beneath it. The cuticle protects the
body from physical and chemical injury; it contains numerous pores to allow the secretions from
unicellular glands to pass through.
A number of external openings of various sizes allow the entrance of food into the body, and the exit of
feces, excretory products, reproductive cells (1) The mouth (2) The oval anal aperture lies in the last
38
somite. (3) The openings of the sperm ducts one on either side of somite 15. (4) The openings of the
oviducts, one on either side of somite 14; eggs pass out of the body through them. (5) The openings of
the seminal receptacles appear as two pairs of minute pores concealed within the grooves which
separate somites 9 and 10, and 10 and 11. (6) A pair of nephridiopores by means of dorsal pores.
Internal anatomy:
The body is essentially a double tube , the body wall constituting the outer, the straight alimentary canal,
the inner; between the two is a cavity, the coelom. The external segmentation corresponds to an internal
division of the coelomic cavity into partitions, called septa, which lie beneath the grooves.
Digestive system. - The alimentary canal consists of (1) a mouth cavity or buccal pouch in somites 1 to
3, (2) a thick muscular pharynx lying in somites 4 and 5, (3) a narrow straight tube, esophagous which
extends through somites 11 to 14, (4) a thin-walled enlargement, the crop or proventriculus, in somites
15 and 16, (5) a thick muscular-walled gizzard in somites 17 and 18, and, the gizzard is a grinding organ;
in it the food is broken up into minute fragments by being squeezed and rolled about.(6) a thin-walled
intestine extending from somite 19 to the anal aperture. The intestine is not a simple cylindrical tube; but
its dorsal wall is folded, forming an internal longitudinal ridge, the typhlosole. This increases the
digestive surface. Surrounding the alimentary canal and dorsal blood vessel is a layer of chloragogen
cells. The functions of these cells are not known, but they probably aid in the elaboration of food and are
excretory. Three pairs of calciferous glands lie at the sides of the esophagus in segments 10 to 12; they
produce carbonate of lime, which probably neutralizes acid foods.
39
Excretory system. - Most of the excretory matter is carried outside of the body by a number of coiled
tubes, termed nephridia, a pair of which are present in every somite except the first three and the last.
Reproduction. -Both male and female sexual organs occur in a single earthworm. The female system
consists of: (1) a pair of ovaries in segment 13; (2) a pair of oviducts which open by a ciliated funnel in
segment 13, enlarge into an egg sac in segment 14, and then open to the exterior; and (3) two pairs of
seminal receptacles in somites 9 and 10. The male organs are (1) two pairs of glove-shaped testes in
segments 10 and 11, (2) two vasa deferentia which lead from ciliated funnels to the exterior in segment
15, and (3) three pairs of seminal vesicles in segments 9, 11, and 12, and two central reservoirs. Self-
fertilization does not take place, but spermatozoa are transferred from one worm to another during a
process called copulation.
Two worms come together, slime tubes are formed, and then a band-like cocoon is secreted about the
clitellar region. Eggs and spermatozoa are deposited in the cocoon, but fertilization does not occur until
the cocoon is slipped over the head.
Respiration. - The earthworm possesses no respiratory system, but obtains oxygen and gets rid of carbon
dioxide through the moist outer membrane.
Circulation: The blood of the earthworm circulates through a complex series of closed tubes. Of these,
the dorsal blood vessel is largest and is present just dorsal to the digestive tract. It is connected with the
40
smaller ventral blood vessel by a series of 5 pairs of hearts which pass around the digestive tract in
segments 7-11.
Example: Hirudo medicinalis

Commonly called Indian Cattle leech. Ectoparasite on cattle and even on man. Setae, prostomium,
appendages and distinct head are absent. Only a well-developed posterior sucker is present. The anterior
sucker being reduced. Each segment is further divided into 5 annuli except first two and last seven
segments. Anterior and posterior segments smaller in size and middle ones larger. First five segments
bear paired eyes. Tri-radiate mouth is located on ventral side, proboscis non- protrusible and Jaws three
and well developed. Male genital pore is located on 10th and female genital pore on 11th segments mid-
ventrally. Hermaphrodite and reproduction sexual. Salivary glands are found in pharyngeal wall secret
anticoagulant enzyme (Hirudin).
41
Lecture: Seven Dr. Amjed Qays Ibrahim & Dr. Harith Saeed Al-Warid
Phylum Arthropoda
Phylum Arthropoda (ar-throp_o-da) (Gr. arthron, joint, _ pous, podos, foot) is the largest
group of the animal kingdom, composed of more than 80% of all known species.
Approximately 800,000 species of arthropods have been recorded, and probably at least as
many more remain to be classified.
Characteristics of Phylum Arthropoda

1. Triploblastic animal with Bilateral symmetry; metameric body (external metamerism)
divided into tagmata consisting of head, thorax, and abdomen; or cephalothorax and
abdomen
2. Jointed appendages; primitively, one pair to each somite, these appendages give
arthropods generalized appendages which were modified, specialized and adapted for:
 Locomotion: (walking legs, tails and wings)
 Feeding: (mouth parts and pincers)
 Sensory reception: (antennae)
 Defense: (pincers, stingers)
3. Body is covered with exoskeleton made of chitinous cuticle which is often hard, but it is
flexible in trunk and limbs to provide moveable joints. This exoskeleton is secreted by
underlying epidermis and shed (molted) at intervals. The presence of thick cuticle
prevents the water loss, and enabled arthropod to invade land, so arthropod regard the
only invertebrates which have adapted to live on land on a high level scale.
4. Complex muscular system.
5. Reduced coelom in adult; most of body cavity consisting of haemocoel (sinuses) filled
with blood.
6. Complete digestive system; starts with mouth and ends with anus.
7. Open circulatory system, with dorsal heart and arteries but without capillaries.
8. Respiration by body surface, gills, tracheae (air tubes), or book lungs.
42
9. Paired excretory glands called coxal green, or maxillary glands, some with other
excretory organs, called Malpighian.
10. Nervous system has paired dorsal ganglia over the mouth, with connectives to a pair of
ventral nerve cords.
11. Sexes usually separate, with paired reproductive organs and ducts; usually internal
fertilization; oviparous or ovoviviparous.
12. Cilia are entirely absent from all parts of the body.
Classification of Arthropoda
Arthropoda can be classified in to four sub phyla
1. Sub phylum: Onychophora Ex: Peripatus
2. Sub phylum :Trilobitomorpha
3. Sub phylum : Mandibulata
a- Class: Crustacea Ex: Astacus (Crayfish)
b- Class: Insecta
c- Class: Chilopoda Ex: Scolopendra
d- Class: Diplopoda Ex: Julus
e- Class:Pauropoda Ex: Pauropus
f- Class:Symphyla
4. Sub phylum :Chelicerata

a- Class: Merostomata Ex: Limulus
b- Class: Arachnida Ex: Buthus, Argiope
c- Class: Pycnogonida Ex: Pycnochonum
d- Class: Tardigrada
e- Class: Pentastomida
43
1-Sub phylum :Onychophora (Example :Peripatus)

Members of Sub phylum Onychophora (on-y-kof_o-ra) (Gr. onychos, claw, _ phora, to
bearing) are commonly called “velvet worms”. They live in rain forests and other moist, leafy
habitats in tropical and subtropical regions. The onchophoran have been described as the
connecting link between arthropods and annelids.
Characteristic features of Onychophora
1. Indistinctly segmented, with elongated bodies
2. Short antennae
3. Stumpy legs present on all segments except the first and last
4. Entirely terrestrial and found in moist tropical areas.
Ex: Peripatus
Habitat of Peripatus:
Peripatus is a terrestrial animal, found living in moist places such as crevices of rock, under
bark, under fallen leave and damp places. It is a nocturnal in nature and carnivorous in
feeding habit. Most species of it are predaceous and feed on small intestine for instance,
snails, insects and worms.
External Morphology of Peripatus
The body of this animal is characterised by its caterpillar-like with soft and bilateral
symmetry. Its length ranged from 1.4 cm – 15 cm, the external segmentation is indistinct and
marked only by the presence of paired appendages. The color varies according to the species
from dark grey to brown.
The entire body of Peripatus is divided into indistinct head and elongated trunk (Fig. 1).
Head Trunk
Figure (1): Peripatus external feature
44
1. The head: the head of Peripatus bears a pair of simple and dorsal eyes, a pair of
antennae which represent the first pair of appendages, a pair of jaws or mandibles
which represent the second pair of appendages, and a pair of oral papillae which
regarded as a third pair of appendages, and found on both sides of head (figure 2-A).
On the terminal end of each oral papillae, there is a special kind of gland called slime
gland. Mouth is located on the ventral side of the head. The anus lies on the posterior
end of the body, and the genital opening lies on the ventral surface between the last
pair (Fig.2-B).
Figure (3): Peripatus A- Anterior end in ventral view B- Posterior end in ventral view
2. The trunk: This structure is lacking of exoskeletal covering, and its skin has many
papillae like ridges. It posses appendages or legs which differ in number from 14-43
pairs depending on the species and sex. Each leg consists of two main divisions, the
leg and foot. The foot is large, hollow, conical and unjointed protuberance bearing a
pair of terminal claws (Fig 3). At the distal end of each leg on the ventral are three to
six transverse spiniferous pads, on which the leg rests when walking. The entire
surface of the leg consists of numerous papillae. The foot is attached to the distal end
of the leg. It is narrow and bears two sickle shaped claw, in addition two, three or four
papillae.
45
Figure (3): Peripatus leg
The body cavity: The body cavity is a haemocoel as in arthropods lined with epithelium, and
consist of four parts, one central, two lateral and one pericardial. The central part is the
largest and contains alimentary canal, reproductive organs and the slime gland. The lateral
parts are much smaller, and extent within the leg. The pericardial part contains a special
cellular tissue like heart (Fig.4).
Figure (4): The body cavity

46
Slime glands: These glands located on each side of the body cavity, and open on the oral
papillae. When disturbed by a predator, the animal can eject from the slime glands two
streams of a sticky substance that rapidly hardens.
The mouth, surrounded by lobes of skin, contains a dorsal tooth and a pair of lateral
mandibles for grasping and cutting prey. There is a muscular pharynx and a straight digestive
tract.
Each segment contains a pair of nephridia, each nephridium with a vesicle, ciliated funnel
and duct, and nephridiopore opening at the base of a leg.
Onychophorans are dioecious, with paired reproductive organs. Males usually deposit their
sperm in spermatophores in the female seminal receptacle. A male deposits the
spermatophores on a female’s back, which may accumulate a number of them, then sperm
can enter the body cavity and migrate into the blood to the ovaries to fertilize the eggs.
Affinities of Peripatus
Peripatus has no economic importance; but it is zoologically very interesting , because
it exhibits both arthropod and annelid characteristics as well as peculiarities of its own.
A. Annelidan characteristics
1. Vermiform body.
2. Absence of true head.
3. Dermo-muscular body –wall, consisting of a thin flexible cuticle and the underlying
circular and longitudinal muscles.
4. Locomotion slow and peristalsis as in earthworm.
5. Structure of the simple eye as in polychaeta
6. Unjointed , hollow , stumpy appendages of the nature of the extensions of the body-
wall , like the parapodia of Polychaeta.
7. Simple and straight alimentary canal.
8. Segmantally arranged paired nephridia.
9. Presence of cilia in the reproductive ducts.
47
B. Arthropodan characteristics
1. Presence of antennae.
2. Mandibles are modified appendages provided with striped muscles.
3. Locomotion by define legs, having definite muscular and provided with claws.
4. Cuticle has a thin deposit of chitin, like that of arthropods.
5. Body-cavity is a haemocoel.
6. Coelom reduce to the cavities of excretory and reproductive organs.
7. Dorsal tubular heart with lateral ostia.
8. Presence of a tracheal respiratory system
9. Brain is large and typically arthropodan.
C. Onychophoran characteristics
1. Body shows no or indistinct external segmentation.
2. Texture of the skin.
3. Antennae not homologous to the antennae of other arthropods.
4. Three segmented head.
5. Restriction of mandibles to a single pair.
6. Irregular distribution of spiracles or tracheal openings.
7. Two ventral nerve cords widely separated and without true ganglia.
8. Structure of eyes is less complicated.
48
2-Subphylum Trilobita
Trilobites have been extinct for 200 million years. Their name refers to the trilobed
shape of the body, caused by a pair of longitudinal grooves, they ranged from 2 to 67 cm in
length.
1. Their exoskeleton contained chitin, strengthened in some areas by calcium carbonate.
2. There were three tagmata in the body: head, thorax, and pygidium.
3. Their head was one piece.
4. Two longitudinal furrows divided the body longitudinally.
5. Their thorax had a variable number of somites; and the somites of the pygidium, at
the posterior end, were fused into a plate.
6. Their head bears a pair of antennae, compound eyes, mouth, and four pairs of jointed
appendages.
7. Each body somite except the last one also bear a pair of biramous (two-branched)
appendages. One of the branches had a fringe of filaments that may have served as
gills (Figure 5).
Figure (5): External feature of Trilobita
49
Lecture: Eight Dr. Amjed Qays Ibrahim & Dr. Harith Saeed Al-Warid
3-Subphylum Mandibulata
A- Class: Crustacea
 Body divided into cephalothorax (head+thorax) and abdomen.
 The length of crustacea ranged from less than a millimetre to 4 metres.
 Crustaceans are the only arthropods with two pairs of antennae.
 A pair of mandibles and two pairs of maxillae on the head, followed by a pair of
appendages on each body segment or somite. All appendages, except the first
antennae, are primitively biramous (two main branches)
 Respiration by gills or body surface.
Example Astacus (Crayfish)
External features
The body of Crayfish consist of two well defined regions: the anterior cephalothorax and
posterior abdomen.
Cephalothorax segments consists of (5 cephalic segments + 8 thoracic segments) and
covered by a hardened carapace, and it has a projection to the front of the head called
rostrum, this structure have eye stalks on both sides of it, these stalks bears a compound eye
(Figure 6). The portion of carapace covering the head region is separated from that covering
the thoracic region by the dorsal cervical groove. On the lateral side of the carapace, the
branchiostegite (dorsal and lateral branchial region of carapace), covers the gills.
Abdomen: The abdomen is composed of six segments and modified posterior extension, the
telson which may or may not be considered a true segment (Figure 6).
Openings: Several openings may be seen on the ventral side such as (Figure 7):
 Mouth: mouth is in the head region and is surrounded by the jaws and other
mouthparts.
 Anus: the anus is in the telson.
 Opening of the oviducts are at the base of the third pairs of walking legs.
 Openings from vas deference are at the base of the fifth walking legs.
50
Figure (6): External feature of Astacus.
Figure (7): The ventral side of Astacus
51
Appendages: there are three types of appendages in Astacus

1- Biramous: The basal portion, bears a
lateral exopod and a medial
endopod. ex: swimmerets and
antennules.
2- Follaceous: its segment modified to leaf-
like structure ex:second maxillae.
3- Uniramous: having a single branch only

(endopod) ex: walking legs.
Appendages of Crayfish (Figure 8):

1- Cephalic Appendages: The function
 Antennae(1st & 2nd ) Touch , taste
 Mandibles Crushing food
 1st ,2nd Maxillae Food handling and bailing water from gill
chamber.
2- Thoracic Appendages The function
 1st , 2nd & 3rd Maxillipeds Touch , test and food handeling
 1st walking leg (Cheliped) Offense and defense
 2nd & 3rd walking legs Walking & prehension
 4th & 5th Walking legs Walking
3- Abdominal Appendages The function
 1st swimmeret In female protopod reduced or absent in
male modified to transfer sperm to
female.
 2nd swimmeret
Male Transfer sperm to female
Female Creating water currents ; carrying eggs
and young.
 3rd , 4th and 5th swimmeret Creating water currents; in female

carrying eggs and young.
 Uropod Swimming; egg protection in female.
52
Figure (8): Types of appendages in Astacus
53
Internal Anatomy:
Digestive System:
Digestive tract divided into three main regions:
1- Foregut 2- Midgut 3- Hindgut
1- Foregut: the mouth, which opens between the jaws on the ventral surface, leads into the
short esophagus and then into the stomach. The stomach is divided into two main parts: the
cardiac stomach and the pyloric stomach. The cardiac stomach is a large sac-like structure
in which food is stored, while the digestion occurs in a pyloric stomach. Digestive glands
(liver) are located on each side of pyloric stomach which produce digestive enzymes.
Undigested material passes into the hindgut (rectum) that opens into anus.
2- Midgut: the digestion and absorption of food occur in the midgut. This portion of the
digestive tract consist of short intestine to which are connected large digestive diverticula,
these are complex in both structure and function. Two diverticula are lateral in position and
one is dorsal. the two lateral ones are often termed "livers" their secretion is both
proteolytic and lipolytic.
3-Hindgut: the hindgut consists of the long straight intestine which broadens into the short
rectum just before the anus (figure 9).
Figure (9): Digestive system in Astacus
54
Nervous Systems The nervous systems of crustaceans and annelids have much in common,
although those of crustaceans have more fusion of ganglia. The brain is a pair of
supraesophageal ganglia that supplies nerves to the eyes and two pairs of antennae. A fusion
of at least five pairs of ganglia that supply nerves to the mouth, appendages, esophagus, and
antennal glands. The double ventral nerve cord has a pair of ganglia for each somite and
nerves serving the appendages, muscles, and other parts (figure 10).
Circulatory System: heart is a single-chambered sac of striated muscle located in the dorsal
portion of the thoracic region, blood enters the heart through three pairs of ostia. Crayfish
has open circulatory system (no veins), the abdominal aorta (toward the posterior, and
anterior dorsal aorta (toward the anterior). Blood flows from the dorsal arteries to capillaries
and then into tissue spaces called sinuses which function as veins. The blood flows over the
gills before returning to the heart.
Figure (10): Internal anatomy of Astacus
55
Excretory System: The excretory system consist of a pair of green gland lying in the head region,
each organ possesses end sac, glandular region (labyrinth) for waste removal and bladder. The
labyrinth connects by an excretory tubule to a dorsal bladder, which opens to the exterior by a pore
on the ventral surface of the basal antennal segment (figure 11).
Figure (11) Excretory system in crayfish
Respiratory system: 17 pairs of gills located in the bronchial chamber on the lateral side
between carapace and the body. These gills are attached to the chelipeds and walking legs.
The blood passes through the gills where the carbon dioxide releases and oxygen picks up
(figure 12).
Figure (12): Respiratory system in crayfish
56
Reproductive system: the gonads lie in the cephalothorax beneath the pericardium and
above the gut.
The ovaries and the testes are similar in shape and each consist of hollow, three –lobed, two
sac laying anteriorly and one posteriorly.
The oviducts are short, thin walled, and almost straight, passing vertically downwards to
their openings on the 3rd walking legs (figure 13-A).
The vasa deferentia are long , and coiled , the straighter , terminal , muscular portions
leading downwards to open on the 5th walking legs (figure 13-B).
A B
Figure (13): reproductive system in Astacus;
A- female reproductive system, B- Male reproductive system
Regeneration & Autotomy: crayfish are able to regenerate broken or lost appendages. For
example, if an entire eye is removed, it is replaced by antenna like structure.
If walking legs is injured, the crayfish is able to cast it off in a process known as autotomy.
B- Class: Insecta (Hexapoda)

Insecta are the most diverse and abundant of all groups of arthropods. The general
characteristic of insect are:
 The body is divided into three regions :head , thorax and abdomen . three pairs of
legs are present on the thorax, and often there are one or two pairs of wing (figure
14-A).
57
 The mouth parts consist of: the labrum, the mandibles, maxillae, labium and
hypopharynx (figure 14-B).
 Most forms respire by trachea; only some aquatic forms possess gills.
 The insects are well supplies with sense organ.
A B
Figure 14: A- Body regions in insects B- Mouth parts in insects
C- Class: Chilopoda(Centipeds)
Chilopoda (ki-lop_o-da) (Gr. cheilos,margin, lip, _ pous, podos, foot), or centipedes, are land
forms with somewhat flattened bodies that may contain from a few to 177 somites.
 Body is dorso-ventrally depressed.
 Antennae are long and many jointed
 Mandibles are toothed and cutting.
 Two pairs of maxillae.
 First pair of legs(maxillepeds) form poison claws
 The genital opening is situated at the hind end of the body
 Carnivorous.
Example :Scolopendra ‫ن‬
)‫واربعي‬ ‫(ام اربعة‬
 Body is elongated, dark greenish brown in color and dorsoventally flattened with
numerous of segment.
58
 Body is divided into head and trunk.

 Head is distinct and bears a pair of antennae, a pair of mandibles and two pairs of
maxillae.
 Trunk segment are 22 in number and nearly all alike

 First pair of trunk appendages or maxillipeds bears a sharp claw connected with
poison gland.
 Sex are separated, genital opening situated in the last segment.

 Carnivorous, feeding on insect spiders and worms (figure 15).
Figure (15): External feature of Scolopendra
D- Class: Diplopoda(Millipedes)
The Diplopoda (Gr. diploo, double, two _ pous, podos, foot) are commonly called
millipedes, which literally means "thousand feet".
 Body is cylindrical or sub cylindrical.

 Antennae are short with fewer segments
59
 Mandible are broad and masticating

 One pair of maxillae
 Each trunk segment bears two pairs of legs mid-ventrally.
 Poison claws are absent
 The genital opening is situated at the anterior end of the body.
 Herbivorous.
Example : Julus )‫(خاتم سليمان‬
 Julus is commonly called millipede or wire worm.
 Body is elongated and cylindrical, consist of large number of segments.
 Body is divided into head, thorax and abdomen.
 Head consists of five segments, thorax of four segments and abdomen of 20-100
segments.
 Head bears a pair of short antennae, a pair of mandibles and a pair of maxillae.
 Thoracic segments with one pair of legs in each , while abdominal segments bear two
pairs of legs.
 Poison claws are absent.
 Stink glands present along the sides of the body , secreting noxious substance.
 Sex are separated (figure 16).
Figure (16): External feature of Julus.
60
Figure (17): Difference between class: Millipede and class: Centipede
E- Class: Pauropoda
Pauropoda (Gr. pauros, small, _ pous, podos, foot)
 Pauropoda are a group of minute (2 mm or less), soft-bodies myriapods, numbering
almost 500 species.
 They have a small head with branched antennae and no eyes, but they have a pair of
sense organs that resemble eyes.
 Their 12 trunk segments usually bear nine pairs of legs (none on the first or the last
two segments).
 They have only one tergal plate covering each two segments.
 Tracheae, spiracles, and circulatory system are lacking (figure 17).
Ex: Pauropus
Figure (18): External feature of Pauropus

61
F- Class: Symphyla
 Are small (2 to 10 mm) and have centipede-like bodies.
 They live in humus, leaf mold, and debris.
 They are soft bodied, with 14 segments, 12 of which bear legs and one a pair
of spinnerets.
 The antennae are long and unbranched.
 Only 160 species have been described.
62
Lecture Nine Dr. Amjed Qays Ibrahim & Dr. Harith Saeed Al-Warid
4-Sub phylum Chelicerata

Characteristic features of Chelicerata:
 They have no head.
 Only one pair of mouth parts.
 Unlike all other groups of arthropods, no antennae.
 The body is divided into an anterior prosoma and a posterior opisthosoma. The
prosoma usually consists of eight segments. The first segment never bears
appendages, the second bears paired chelicerae (feeding and grasping structures)
and the third bears paired pedipalpi (sensory, prehensile or reproductive
appendages). The fourth to seventh segments bear walking legs (i.e. four pairs)
which have small pincers (chelae) at their ends.
A- Class: Merostomata
 All are marine
 Appendages on the opisthosoma are flattened and modified for gas exchanges as
"book gills".
 Terminal portion of the body (telson) drawn out into an elongated spike.
Example: Limulus (horseshoe crab)
External features
Prosoma (Cephalothorax): the body is covered by an exoskeleton consist of two tagmata
prosoma, opisthosoma, in addition to the tail spine. The prosoma is a convex carapace
horseshoe, the opisthosoma is a middle portion, and thin elongated tail called telson. The
prosoma bears a pair of lateral compound eyes and pair of median simple eyes on dorsal
side. Also it contains a six pairs of appendages located On the ventral side around the mouth
which are:
63
Chelicera Are small and are used for feeding.

Pedipalps In females they are morphologically and functionally
(1st walking leg) similar to other walking legs.
In male it is modified for grasping the female during
mating.
2nd , 3rd , 4th walking legs In both sexes , the first 4 pairs of walking legs,
(bear claws) including pedipalps , are each modified near the base
to form a toothed food-grinding surface called
gnathobase.
th
5 walking legs(not bear Is slightly modified for cleaning the gills, and for
claws) removing mud during burrowing.
Opisthosoma (Abdomen): the abdomen bears six pairs of spines along the sides, and its
ventral side, six pair of flat , plate-like appendages.
 The first of these forms the genital operculum, on the underside of which are two
genital pore.
 The other five abdominal appendages are modified as gills. the underside of each gill
flap bears approximately 150 leaf-like fold called lamellae.
Telson:the long slender telson or tail spine, is used for anchoring when the animal is
burrowing or plowing through the sand , the anus located under the proximal end of the
telson (Figure 19).
Reproduction: after several weeks of mating the egg hatch as free-swimming trilobite larvae,
so named because their resemblance to trilobite, the larvae looks much like the adult except
that it lacks the tail spine and have only two of the five pairs of book gills.
64
Figure (19): Limulus top and bottom side
B- Class: Arachnida
 The adult has six pairs of appendages: pair of chelicerae, pair of palps and four pair of
walking legs.
 Segmented or unsegmented abdomen with or without appendages and generally
distinct from cephalothorax.
65
 Respiration by gills, tracheae, or book lungs.

 Excretion by malpighian tubules or coxal glands.
 Dorsal bilobed brain connected to the ventral ganglionic mass with nerves, simple
eyes.
 Chiefly oviparous.
Order Scorpionida
 Elongated and distinguished from the other arachnids by their large size.
 Prosoma is short and unsegmented , broadly joined to abdomen.
 Carapace bear 2 median and 6-10 lateral eyes.
 Opisthosoma differentiated into two portion : mesosoma and metasoma.
 Small chelicerae.
 Large and powerful pedipalps
 Respiratory by 4 pairs of book lungs.
Example : Buthus (Scorpion)
The Scorpion is a dangerous arthropod, widely spread in tropical and temprate region.
It is nocturnal hiding away in the day time and become active during the night.
External Features:
The body, is divided into an anterior prosoma or cephalothorax and posterior opisthosoma
or abdomen, the last one is subdivided into broad mesosoma and selender metasoma that
end with terminal sting which have venome of different toxicity which is used to defend
themselves, and to seize the prey, the pedipals are large, pincer like with sensory hairs on
them which used to sense vibrations (figure 20).
The Prosoma, is covered by a dorsal carapace which carries dorsally a pair of large median
eyes and two groups of five smaller lateral eyes; all the eyes are simple. The mouth is small
and ventral. The prosoma carries 6 pairs of appendages:
66
1st appendages Chelicerae Consist of 3 joints the distal two of which form a
chela.
2nd appendages Pedipalps Each pedipalps consist 6 jointes, the distal two of
which form large toothed pincers (offensive).
3rd , 4th , 5th & 6th Walking Each consist of 7 segments: coxa, trochanter,
appendages legs femur, patella, libia, basitarsus and tarsus which
usually bears two dorsal claws.
The mesosoma , is consist of 7 segments in the adult, the exosceleton of each is formed of a
dorsal tergum , a ventral sternum and two lateral pleural membranes.
The 1st segment carries on its ventral surface a genital operculum which
covers the single genital operator.
The 2nd segment carries a pair of camb-like structures known as pectens
(modified appendages , tactile in function) with teeth like
processes on their posterior edge.
3rd ,4th , 5th & 6th There are 4 paired stigmata or spiracle , they led into lung-
segments books.
7th segment Has no appendages
The metasoma, consist of 5 short cylindrical segments with no appendages, each has its
tergum fused with its sternum, thus forming narrow cylindrical segments. Metasoma end
with stinging apparatus which is bulbous at the base and curved to form a sharp spine or
hook, two poison glands that contains a neurotoxin produce by the glands and transfer via
ducts to be discharge through a pore at the end of the sharp spine.
Scorpion poison is used for defense and assassinating the prey, in addition it is a lethal to
human (figure 20)
67
opisthosoma
prosoma mesosoma metaosoma
Figure (20): External morphology of Buthus.
Anatomy:
The heart: It is dorsal, tubular and extends within mesostoma, and has 7 pairs of ostia located
in the heart wall through which the blood enters the heart. Blood leaves the heart into
anterior and posterior aortae and paired lateral arteries (figure 21).
Digestive system : alimentary canal is a straight tube differentiated into:
 Mouth and pharynx
 The Mesentron : stomach and intestine
 The proctodaeum it is extremely short, and ends by the anus (figure 21) .
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The Excretory System: Excretion in the scorpion is carried out by:

 The coxal glands: which are two small oval glands, that lie in the posterior part of the
prosoma, and each opens to the exterior by short duct on coxa of the 3rd walking legs
(figure 21).
 The Malpighian tubules: are 2 pairs of branching tubules open in the intestine (figure
21).
The reproductive system: the sexes are separated, the gonads lie in the mesosoma, in the
male there are 2 testes, in the female , there is a single ovary (figure 21).
Nervous system: like other artropoda.
Figure (21): Internal anatomy of scorpion.
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Order Araeneae (True spiders)

 Prosoma and opisthosoma both unsegmented and jointed by slender pedicel.
 Prosoma covered by a uniform carapace bearing not more than 8 simple eyes
anteriorly.
 Opisthosoma soft, rounded, without a telson , bearing 2-4 pairs of spinnerets which
extrude silk. The protein that forms silk is emitted as a liquid, but hardens as it is
drawn out.
 Chelicerae, contain poison gland
 Pedipalps, simple form copulatory organ in male
 Respiratory organs 2-4 book lungs or trachea or both.
Example: Argiope
The body, is divided into anterior prosoma and posterior opisthosoma, connected to each
other by narrow soft pedicel.
The prosoma (the fusion of head an thorax), is covered by a dorsal carapace, it carry 4 simple
eye.
The prosoma carries 6 pairs of appendages:
1st pair Chelicerata Each formed only of 2 joints, a large conical joint which
contains a poison gland, and hook like terminal joint
which bears the orifice of the poison gland.
2nd pair Pedipalps Are short leg-like feeler. In male the terminal segment
of each pedipalp is enlarged and modified into sexual
organ , in which the sperms are sucked up and
transferred to the female.
3rd ,4th ,5th Walking legs The 4 pairs of walking leg are long and each composed
and 6th pairs of 7 segments covered with hairs , and end with 2 or 3
claws
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The opisthosoma is oval, with no trace of segmentation and its skin is uniformly soft, covered
with hairs, the opisthsoma carry the following:
1- Stigmata: there are 2 lateral stigmata which lead into a pair of book lungs.
2- Genital opening,
3- Spinnerets: there are three pairs of jointed movable processes known as the
spinnerets (2 superior , 2 inferior and 2 middle) the tip of which are perforated by
numerous opening of silk gland which secreted the protein that formed silk.
4- The anus. (Check figure 22)
Figure 22: External morphology of Argiope
Respiratory System: compose of one or two pairs of book lungs and trachea, each lung
compose of 15-20 thin lamellae (figure 23) .
Digestive System
All spiders are predaceous, feeding largely on insects. After a spider seizes prey with its
chelicerae and injects venom, it liquefies the tissues with a digestive fluid and sucks the
resulting broth into the stomach. Spiders with teeth at the bases of chelicerae crush or chew
prey, aiding digestion by enzymes from their mouth.
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Mouth, Esophagus, Sucking stomach, True stomach, Two caeca branched into 5caeca,
Intestine associated with Liver, Rectum, (check figure 23).
Excretory System
Spiders and insects have a unique excretory system of Malpighian tubules, which work in
conjunction with specialized rectal glands. Potassium and other solutes and waste materials
are secreted into the tubules, which drain the fluid, or “urine,” into the intestine. Rectal
glands reabsorb most potassium and water, leaving behind such wastes as uric acid (figure
23).
Reproduction
Before mating, a male spins a small web, deposits a drop of sperm on it, and then picks the
sperm up and stores it in special cavities of his pedipalps. When he mates, he inserts his
pedipalps into the female genital opening to store the sperm in his mate’s seminal
receptacles. A female lays her eggs in a silken net, which she may carry about or attach to a
web or plant. A cocoon may contain hundreds of eggs, which hatch in approximately two
weeks. Young usually remain in the egg sac for a few weeks and molt once before leaving it.
Several molts occur before adulthood.
Circulatory System
Circulatory System in spider compose of : Blood , Blood sinuses , heart and blood vessel , the
tube like heart lie in the dorsal region and it is surrounded with pericardium , the heart
connected with 2 blood vessel :
Posterior aorta: provide the posterior region
Anterior aorta: provide the cephalothorax region
From the blood sinuses the blood transported to the book lung where it oxygenated then it
returns back to the heart (figure 23).
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Figure (23): Internal anatomy of Argiope

C-Class Pycnogonida
(pik_no-gon_ida) (Gr. pyknos, compact, _ gony, knee, angle): sea spiders.
 Small (3 to 4 mm), but some reach 500 mm;
 Body chiefly cephalothorax; tiny abdomen;
 Usually four pairs of long walking legs (some with five or six pairs);
 Mouth on long proboscis;
 Four simple eyes;
 No respiratory or excretory system.
Example: Pycnogonum. (Figure 24)
Figure (24): External morphology of Pycnogonum

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D- Class: Tardigrada
(tar-di-gray_da) (L. tardus,slow, _ gradus, step), or “water bears,” are minute organisms
usually less than a millimeter in length.
 They have an elongated, cylindrical, or a long oval body that is unsegmented.
 The head is merely the anterior part of the trunk. The trunk bears four pairs of short,
stubby, unjointed legs, each armed with four to eight claws .
 The body is covered by a nonchitinous cuticle that is molted along with the claws and
buccal apparatus four or more times in the life history.
 Cilia are absent (figure 25).
Figure (25): External morphology of water bears.
E- Class: Pentastomida
Pentastomida (pen-ta-stom_i-da) (Gr. pente, five, _ stoma, mouth),
 Adults range from 1 to 13 cm in length.
 Transverse rings give their bodies a segmented appearance
 The body is covered with a chitinous cuticle that is molted periodically during larval
stages.
 The anterior end may bear five short protuberances (hence the name Pentastomida).
Four of these bear claws. The fifth bears the mouth and two pairs of hooks for
attachment to the host tissues.
 There is a simple straight digestive system, adapted for sucking. The nervous system,
similar to that of annelids and arthropods
 There are no circulatory, excretory, or respiratory organs.
 Sexes are separate, and females are usually larger than males (figure 26).
74
Figure (26): External morphology of Pentastomida.

The Importance of Arthropoda
Advantages
 Food for human: The larger crustaceans—shrimps, lobsters, and crabs—are used as
food throughout the world.
 Small planktonic crustaceans, such as copepods, and other , are a major link in the
food chain between the photosynthetic phytoplankton and the larger carnivores, such
as many fish and whales.
 Approximately two-thirds of all flowering plants are pollinated by insects. Some are
used in biological control.
 Recently insects have also gained attention as potential sources of drugs and other
medicinal substances.
Disadvantages
 Diseases carried by blood-sucking insects may infect human and livestock animals.
 Many species of arthropods, principally insects but also mites, are agricultural and
forest pests.
 Some arthropods, may act as intermediate host of some parasites.
75
Lecture Ten Dr. Amjed Qays Ibrahim & Dr. Harith Saeed Al-Warid
Phylum: Mollusca
Mollusca (mol-lus_ka) (L. molluscus, soft) is one of the largest animal phyla after
Arthropoda. There are nearly 50,000 living species and some 35,000 fossil species. The name
Mollusca indicates one of their distinctive characteristics, a soft body.
Characteristics of Phylum Mollusca
1. Body bilaterally symmetrical (bilateral asymmetry in some); unsegmented; often with
definite head.
2. Ventral body wall specialized as a muscular foot, variously modified but used chiefly for
locomotion.
3. Dorsal body wall forms pair of folds called the mantle, which encloses the mantle cavity, is
modified into gills or lungs, and secretes the shell (shell absent in some).
4. Surface epithelium usually ciliated and bearing mucous glands and sensory nerve endings.
5. Coelom limited mainly to area around heart, and perhaps lumen of gonads and part of
kidneys.
6. Complex digestive system; rasping organ *(radula) usually present; anus usually emptying
into mantle cavity.
7. Open circulatory system .
8. Gaseous exchange by gills, lungs, mantle, or body surface.
9. One or two kidneys (metanephridia) opening into the pericardial cavity and usually
emptying into the mantle cavity.
10. Nervous system of paired cerebral, pleural, pedal, and visceral ganglia, with nerve cords
and subepidermal plexus.
11. Sensory organs of touch, smell, taste, equilibrium, and vision (in some); eyes highly
developed in cephalopods.
12. Both monoecious and dioecious forms; spiral cleaveage; larva primitively a trochophore,
many with a veliger larva, some with direct development.
(Check figure 27).
-Radula
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The radula is a rasping, tongue-like organ found in all molluscs except bivalves. It is a ribbon-
like membrane on which are mounted rows of tiny teeth that point backward. Complex
muscles move the radula and its supporting cartilages (odontophore) in and out while the
membrane is partly rotated over the tips of the cartilages. There may be a few or as many as
250,000 teeth, which, when protruded, can scrape, pierce, tear, or cut. The usual function of
the radula is twofold: to rasp off fine particles of food material from hard surfaces and to
serve as a conveyor belt for carrying particles in a continuous stream toward the digestive
tract (figure 27).
Figure (27): Internal morphology and radula structure in mollusca
Classification of Mollusca
1. Class : Monoplacophora Ex: Neopilina
2. Class: Polyplacophora Ex: Chiton
3. Class: Aplacophora Ex: Neomenia
4. Class: Gastropoda
Order: Prosobranchiata
Order: Opistobranchiata
Order: Pulmonata Ex: Helix
5. Class: Scaphopoda Ex: Dentalium
6. Class: Lamillibranchiata Ex: Anodonta
7. Class: Cephalopoda
Order: Dibranchiata Ex: Octopus , Sepia
Order: Tetrabranchiata Ex: Nautilus
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1- Class: Monoplacophora
 Body oval and bilaterally symmetrical, with internal metamerism.
 Shell is made of a single piece.
 Foot is flat, and located on the ventral side.
 2 ventricles, 5 or 6 pairs of gills and 6 pairs of nephridia present.
Ex: Neopilina
Until 1952 it was thought that Monoplacophora were extinct; However, in that year
living specimens of Neopilina were dredged up from the ocean bottom near the west
coast of Costa Rica.
Neopilina has:
 Five pairs of gills,
 Two pairs of auricles,
 Six pairs of nephridia,
 The mouth bears the characteristic radula.
Body of Neopilina is oval , has single shell (35 mm) , one ventral foot (Figure 28).
Figure (28): Dorsal and ventral side of Neopilina
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2- Class: Polyplacophora
 Body elliptical and flattened.
 Shell of mid dorsal row of 8 broad plates.
 Foot ventral , large , broad muscular.
 Mantle surrounds the shell as fleshy girdle with scale and spines.
 Sexes separated.
Ex: Chiton
Is a sluggish, marine animal found attached to the rocks.
 Body is elongated, bilateral symmetrical and dorso-ventrally compressed and consist
of shell, foot , mantle and the visceral mass.
 Shell is calcareous present in the dorsal side and composed of eight overlapping plates.
 Head is not distinct.
 Foot is ventral , muscular with a flat sole extending along the whole length of body.
 Mantle covers grater part of the body and partly covers the edges of the shell plates.
 Mouth and anus are at opposite ends.
 Sexes are separated gonad is single and median gonoducts are paired.
 Development includes a trochophore larva (figure 29).
Figure (29): Dorsal and ventral side of Chiton.
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3- Class: Aplacophora
 Body worm like , bilaterally symmetrical and cylindrical.

 Head , mantle , foot ,shell and nephridia are absent.
 Body covered with cuticle beset with numerous calcareous spicule.
 Mouth and anus are terminal or sub-terminal at opposite end.
 Digestive tract straight generally provided with radula.
 A mid dorsal longitudinal keel or crest is often present.
 Sexes are separated or united (figure 30).
Ex: Neomenia
Figure (30): Neomenia

4- Class: Gastropoda
 Head distinct with one or two pairs of tentacles and eyes and containing
a scraping radula.
 Shell univalved , often spiral or conical or absent.
 A large ventral foot in the form of a creeping sole.
 Gills 1 or 2 or replaced by secondary gills or lung.
 Nepheridia 1 or 2.
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 These animals are basically bilaterally symmetrical, but because of

torsion, a twisting process that occurs in the veliger stage, their visceral
mass has become asymmetrical.
 Sexes separated or united.
 Marine, fresh water or terrestrial.
Order:Prosobranchiata:
 Mantle cavity opens anteriorly and contains gills anterior to heart
 Sexes are separated.
Order:Opistobranchiata
 Mantle cavity opens posteriorly and contains one gill.
 Sexes are united.
Order: Pulmonata
 Anterior mantle cavity vascularized as lung
 Sexes are united.
Ex: Helix (garden snail)
Is common terrestrial , air breathing gastropod . it is nocturnal and feeds on leafy
vegetation.
Mantle: The thin mantle covers the visceral hump and forms the roof of the mantle
cavity. It is thickening anteriorly to form collar that secret the shell.
Shell: the shell is thin, with low conical spire, measuring 4 cm in length ,the shell has a
smooth aperture and prominent lines of growth.
Foot: foot is undivided longitudinally.
Head: head comprise of two pairs of tentacles and mouth . the posterior pair of
tentacles bears eye and it is longer than the anterior tentacles , the mouth is provided
with three prominent lips.
Digestive system:
 mouth is opened into buccal cavity with buccal mass (radula , cartilages and
muscles) ,
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 the buccal cavity connected with esophagus and crop which surrounded with
salivary gland.
 Stomach
 Two digestive gland : occupy the most space of visceral hump , these two
glands secrete amylase.
 Intestine and rectum which lead to anus.
Respiratory system: Gills are absent in Helix
There is a small opening called pneumostome under the edge of the collar. It is open
into a highly vascular portion of the mantle cavity, that serve as lung . here diffusion
of gases occurs between the air and the blood.
Blood vascular system: Heart is located in the pericardium at the upper mantle rim,
behind the respiratory cavity. It is divided into two chambers, an atrium and a
ventricle, both connected by a narrow duct, a valve avoiding blood fluid flowing back.
Excretory system: only one kidney leads to ureter which open near the anus.
Reproductive system:
 Helix is a hermaphrodite animal cross fertilization occure between two animals.
 Direct development no larval stages.
 Sperms and eggs are synthesize in ovotestis (figure 31).
Figure (31): Internal anatomy of Helix
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Torsion in Gastropoda
Of all molluscs, only gastropods undergo torsion. Torsion is a peculiar
phenomenon that moves the mantle cavity, which was originally (primitively)
posterior, to the front of the body, thus twisting the visceral organs as well through a
90- to 180-degree rotation. It occurs during the veliger stage, and in some species the
first part may take only a few minutes. The second 90 degrees typically takes a longer
period. Before torsion occurs, the embryo’s mouth is anterior and the anus and mantle
cavity are posterior (figure 32).
Figure (32): Torsion in Helix

5- Class: Scaphopoda
 Burrowing and marine molluscs known as tooth shell.
 Body, bilaterally symmetrical, elongated with no distinct head, and
without eyes and gills.
 Shell and mantle univalve, cylinder or tubular and open at both
ends.
 Foot small , conical .
Ex: Dentalium
83
Shape and size: the body is headless , bilaterally symmetrical , slender antrero-
posteriorly and slightly curved. The larger end is ventral and concave side dorsal ,
Dentalium is 13-25 cm long an 2.5 cm diameter.
Mantle: the body is completely enveloped in a tubular mantle derived from two larval
mantle folds which become united ventrally to form a cylinder open at both ends.
Shell: in Dentalium the mantle secretes an external, cylindrically tubular , slightly

curved and tapering shell open at both ends . it is shaped like trumpet or elephant's
tusk.
Foot: the foot which protrudes from the larger anterior end of the shell, is long ,
pointed , spade like and highly extensible . In Dentalium , the free end of the foot is
conical and trilobed , carrying wing like ridge on either side. The conical foot is well
adapted for burrowing.
Respiratory system: gills are absent , the respiratory exchange of gases taking place
through the mantle surface.
Digestive gland: the mouth situated on the oral proboscis leads into true buccal cavity
, containing a mandible dorsally and odontophore with radulla ventrally. The short
esophagus lead into a simple stomach with a caecum and gastric shield. It receives the
ducts of a large bilobed digestive gland. The much coiled intestine end into short caeca
which open by anus. Anus lying mid-ventrally behind the base of foot in mantle cavity.
Blood vascular system: the circulatory system is extremely simple. The colourless
blood circulates in a system of rudimentary sinuses without an endothelium lining .
the pericardium is lacking and rudimentary heart is merely an enlargement of sinus
near anus.
Excretory system: A pair of symmetrical , sac –like (kidney) nephredia is situated in

front of the gonad , one on each side of rectum. They open into mantle cavity by a
nephridiopore on either side of anus.
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Reproductive system: the sexes are separated. There is a single , median and
extremely long gonad occupying the postero-dorsal region high up into visceral dome.
The sexual products are discharged through the right kidney serving as the gonoduct
(figure 33).
Nervous system: composed of 4 pairs of ganglia:
- Pairs of cerebral gangelia
- Pairs of plural ganglia
- Pairs of pedal ganglia
- Pairs of visceral ganglia.
Figure (33): Dentalium
85
Lecture Eleven Dr. Amjed Qays Ibrahim & Dr. Harith Saeed Al-Warid
6- Class: Lamellibranchiata (Pelecypoda)

 Body bilaterally compressed, with no distinct head and without pharynx,
jaws, radula and tentacles.
 Shell bivalve, one right, one left.
 Gills plate –like, 1 or 2 pairs.
 Marine and freshwater.
Ex: Anodonta
Shells: Dorsally the shells or valves of Anodonta are connected by the hinge teeth and
an elastic hinge ligament. The hinge teeth not only hold the valves together, but also
aid in their opening and closing.
On the outer surface of the shell lines of growth may be seen, with the heavier lines
representing the annual growth rings. The oldest part of the valve is the swollen
anterio-dorsal portion known as the umbo (figure 34).
Figure (34): Anodonta External morphology
86
In a shell cross section, the shell is seen to be made up of three distinct layers:
 An outer periostracum layer: which is work as a protective layer, and it is thin
and darkly colored.
 The middle prismatic layer: which is the thickest one, and is formed chiefly of
calcium carbonate.
 The inner layer (the nacre or mother of pearl) (check figure 35).
Figure (35): Cross section of shell and mantle in Anodonta

Muscles: Large muscles are fastened to the dorsal inner portion of the shell:
 The anterior and posterior adductors which withdraw the valves together.
 The anterior and posterior retractors which withdraw the foot.
 The anterior protractor which extends the foot. (Check figure 36).
Figure (36): Muscle types in Anodonta.
87
Foot: in the anterio-ventral region is a large muscular foot which capable of being
thrust out between the valves and is used for locomotion.
Mantle: The mantle is a sheet-like structure which secretes the shell. The mantle is
attached to the shell, but has free margins which are capable of being drawn together
to produce the mantle cavity. The posterior margin of the mantle forms two openings
or siphons:
 The incurrent siphon, which act as passageway permitting the water carrying
food and oxygen to pass in.
 The excurrent siphon, the passageway, which permits the escape of water
(figure 37)
Figure (37): incurrent and excurrent siphon in Anodonta
The Digestive system: the digestive tract begins at the anterior portion in the mouth,
which is located between the two labial palps. There is no radula. Posterior to the
mouth are a short esophagus and rounded stomach, located in the visceral mass. From
the stomach, the long coiled intestine passes posteriorly. Posteriorly it becomes the
rectum, which surrounded by the heart. The anus opening is in the region of the dorsal
siphon (check figure 38).
Surrounding the stomach is a large digestive gland , which produces digestive enzyme.
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Circulatory System: the heart is consisting of two auricles and a ventricle within the
pericardial cavity leading from the ventricle are:
 Anterior aorta: which carries blood to the foot and visceral mass.
 Posterior aorta: which supply rectum and mantle.
Blood is pumped both backward and forward. Some of the blood is oxygenated in the
mantle and returned directly to the auricle. In the organs the blood is circulated
through veins and sinuses. From the organs other than the mantle, the blood passes
through the kidney into the gills where it is oxygenated and then returns to the auricle
(check figure 38).
Respiration: respiratory exchange takes place in the gills, each of which consist of two
very thin sheets, or lamellae. Above the gills, there is special chamber called the
suprabranchial chamber. water coming in through the incurrent siphon passes into the
gill lamellae, which are divided by partitions into many vertical water tubes. The water
is finally collected in the suprabranchial chamber and passed out through the
excurrent siphon (check figure 38).
The nervous system consists of three pairs of widely separated ganglia connected by
commissures and a system of nerves. Sense organs are poorly developed (check figure
38).
Figure (38): Internal anatomy of Anodonta
89
Reproduction and Development: In most freshwater clams fertilization is internal. Eggs drop
into the water tubes of the gills where they are fertilized by the sperm entering with the
incurrent flow. They develop there into a bivalved glochidium larva stage, which is a
specialized veliger. When discharged, glochidia are carried by water currents, and if they
come in contact with a passing fish, they attach to its gills or skin and live as parasites for
several weeks. Then they sink to the bottom to begin independent lives. Larval “hitchhiking”
helps distribute a form whose locomotion is very limited (figure 39).
Figure (39): glochidium larva

Pearl Formation:
The pearl is secreted by the mantle as protective measure against foreign objects like sand
particles, parasites, small larvae or any object of organic and inorganic origin. In fact as soon
as foreign object, somehow , enters the body of a bivalve in between the shell and mantle ,
the mantle immediately gets irritated and at once enclose it like a sac .the mantle wall then
starts secreting layers of nacre around the foreign object from defense point of view , thus
mantle wall secrets continuously several layers of nacre around the foreign object and finally
pearl is formed (figure 40).
Figure (40): Pearl formation in Anodonta.
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Lecture Twelve Dr. Amjed Qays Ibrahim & Dr. Harith Saeed Al-Warid
7-Class: Cephalopoda
 Body elongated dorso-ventrally and bilaterally symmetrical, with distinct head
bearing large eyes, radula and jaws.
 Shell external, internal or absent.
 Foot modified into arms or tentacles attached to the head and the siphon.
 Dioecious, development direct.
 All marine and free-swimming.
Order :Dibranchiata
 Shell internal, reduced or absent.
 A few tentacles (8-10) bear suckers.
 1 pair of gills, 1 pair of nephridia
Example 1: Octopus
Octopus is a marine , bottom dwelling nocturnal cephalopod spending daylight hours
in rocky crevice.
 Octopus is popularly known as a devil-fish.
 Body is globes and bag-like with large head and trunk.
 Head bears a pair of eyes and eight elongated equal arms which surrounded
the mouth.
 Each arm bears suckers arranged in two rows. suckers are sessile and large.
 Third right arm in male is modified into spoon – shaped structure which serves
for transferring spermatophore into the mantle cavity of the female for
fertilizing ova.
 Nidamental glands absent. Nidamental glands secrete a capsule or covering
material for an egg or egg masses
 Shell is absent.
 Mantle encloses the mantle cavity and visceral mass (figure 41).
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Figure (41): External morphology of Octopus.
Example 2: Sepia
Sepia is a marine form, found in the shallow waters. It is a good swimmer. It usually
swims at night and rest flat on the bottom during day time. It is carnivorous feeds on
small fishes, crustaceans and other animals.
 Body is bilaterally symmetrical , dorso-ventrally flattened and is divisible into head
, collar and trunk.
 Head bears large eyes and five pairs of arms surrounding the mouth.
 Of the five pairs of arms , four pairs are short and stout bearing four longitudinal
rows of suckers on the inner flat surface.
 The fifth pair of arms is known as tentacles which are comparatively long and
narrow and provided with suckers only towards their free ends.
 Collar is constricted and connects the head with the trunk.
 Trunk is elongated, bordered by narrow lateral fin on either side.
 Mantle is thick and muscular, enclosing a large mantle cavity on the ventral side
which contains the viscera.
 Funnel is tubular opening into the mantle cavity.
 Shell is internal.
 A pair of large plume-shaped gills , one on each side of the mantle cavity, performs
the respiratory function.
92
 A pear-shaped ink-sac lies over the posterior ventral surface.

 In male , the left fourth arm is modified to serve as intromittent organ.
 Sexes are separated. The males are usually smaller.
 Nidamental glands usually present in female , nidamental glands secrete a capsule
or covering material for an egg or egg masses. (Check figure 42).
Figure (42): Sepia
Order: Tetrabranchiata
 External shell , coiled or straight.
 Tentacles many , suckerless.
 2 pairs of gills , 2 pairs of nephridia.
Example: Nautilus
Nautilus is a marine animal, found living in deep water near the shores and coral reefs,
it is a nocturnal cephalopod, crawling over the bottom at night time in search of animal
food.
 Body is enclosed in a calcareous spirally coiled many chambered shell. the shell
is about 25cm in diameter.
93
 The animal occupies the outermost and largest chamber into which body can
be withdrawn for protection.
 The chambers are separated by a system of septa.
 Except the outermost chamber, all chambers are filled with air so that the shell
can float and animal can swim easily.
 Body of the animal consists of head bearing eyes and a system of tentacles and
a sac-like trunk.
 Mouth is situated at the end of the head and surrounded by numerous lobes
bearing two rows of retractile tentacles.
 Arms and suckers are absent.
 two pairs of gills, two pairs of nephridia and two pairs of auricle are present.
 Sexes are separate (figure 43).
Figure (43): External, internal and septa system in Nautilus
94
Importance of Mollusca:
Advantages:
 Many mollusks are great source of food for man in many parts of world. Large
quantity of clams, oysters and mussels are eaten in Fareast, Europe and
America.
 Shell of fresh water mussels is used in button industry.
 The shell of oyster are mixed with tar for making roads in America.
 Shells in certain parts of world are also used for making ornaments.
 Some oysters also make valuable pearls.
Disadvantages:
 Slugs are injurious in gardens and cultivations. They not only eat leaves but also
destroy plants by cutting up their roots and stems.
 Some of snail act as intermediate host of some parasites (Schistosoma spp ,
Fasciola hepatica …)
95

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‫‪Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research‬‬

‫المرحلة الرابعة ‪ -‬الدراستين الصباحية والمسائية‬

‫تدريسي المادة ‪:‬‬

Taxon and Category:

The Importance of Invertebrates:

Chagas disease (American Various assassin bugs of

Malaria Mosquito Plasmodium

Giardia Trophozoit Paramecium

 Reticulopodia are distinguished from filipodia in that

Encystment and Excystment

d- Order Euglenodina: e- Order Dinoflagellata: f- Order Protomonadina

Example of Class Flagelata, Order Euglenodina

Example of Class Flagellata, Order Opalinina

d- Order Heliozoa e-Order Radiolaria

Example of Class Sarcodina, Order

Example of Class: Ciliata

Nematocysts: Stinging Organelles

Body Wall The body wall

Order 3 : Alloeocoela : Small sized Order 2 : Aspidobothria : These

Example: Example: Planaria: Body of Planaria is elongated, bilaterally symmetrical and

Example: Nereis The body of Nereis is approximately 7-8

Example: Lumbricus (Earth worm)

Example: Hirudo medicinalis

Characteristics of Phylum Arthropoda

4. Sub phylum :Chelicerata

1-Sub phylum :Onychophora (Example :Peripatus)

Figure (1): Peripatus external feature

Figure (3): Peripatus leg

Figure (4): The body cavity

Figure (5): External feature of Trilobita

Figure (6): External feature of Astacus.

Figure (7): The ventral side of Astacus

Appendages: there are three types of appendages in Astacus

3- Uniramous: having a single branch only

Appendages of Crayfish (Figure 8):

 3rd , 4th and 5th swimmeret Creating water currents; in female

Figure (8): Types of appendages in Astacus

Figure (9): Digestive system in Astacus

Figure (10): Internal anatomy of Astacus

Figure (11) Excretory system in crayfish

Figure (12): Respiratory system in crayfish

B- Class: Insecta (Hexapoda)

 Body is divided into head and trunk.

 Trunk segment are 22 in number and nearly all alike

 Sex are separated, genital opening situated in the last segment.

Figure (15): External feature of Scolopendra

 Body is cylindrical or sub cylindrical.

 Mandible are broad and masticating

Figure (16): External feature of Julus.

Figure (17): Difference between class: Millipede and class: Centipede

Figure (18): External feature of Pauropus

4-Sub phylum Chelicerata

Chelicera Are small and are used for feeding.

Figure (19): Limulus top and bottom side

 Respiration by gills, tracheae, or book lungs.

prosoma mesosoma metaosoma

Figure (20): External morphology of Buthus.

The Excretory System: Excretion in the scorpion is carried out by:

Figure (21): Internal anatomy of scorpion.