BIO 320

INTRODUCTION TO BIOLOGICAL
DIVERSITY

Title of Practical: Protists

Group: A4AS1204_03
Group Members:
Name Matric No Result Score
Judith Somiyar Raymond
Muhammad Hazwan
Hamim bin Shahfar Amil
Muhammad Danial bin
Zulkepli

Date of experiment: 1st April 2019

Lecturer’s Name: l
1.0 Title of Experiment:
Protists

2.0 Objectives
1. To describe and explain characteristics of protists.
2. To identify and classify the organisms studied in this experiment.
3. To identify the structures of organisms of kingdom Protista.
4. To define phytoplankton, phyt, phycobilin, agar, fucoxanthin, algin, kelp, gametangium,
oogonia and antheridia.
5. To identify selected member of the red, brown and green algae, stonewort and brittlewort.
6. To distinguish between structures associated with asexual and sexual reproduction.
7. To identify the structures of algae.
8. To identify the structure and life cycle of fungus-like protists: slime molds and water molds.

3.0 Introduction

All protists are categorized as eukaryotic organism. Protists seem to share certain
characteristics even when they are classified into different groups. Their organelles are a mixture
of animal and plant structures, but they all have nucleus, a feature which distinguishes protists
from other unicellular organisms. They can be unicellular, multicellular or in colony that does
not show the specialization of the cell. Protists can be found in all aquatic environment such as
freshwater, marine and body fluid of organisms.

There are 3 groups that been listed as protist such as protozoa, algae and molds. Protozoa
major in animal-like characteristics. There are 6 phyla that been identified in group of protozoa
such as Rhizopoda, Foraminifera, Actinopoda, Ciliophora, Apicomplexa and Zoomastigina.
These protists motion is consistent with their locomotion organ: cilia, flagella or pseudopod. The
heterotrophic characteristic of protozoa whereby they ingest food can either be living freely in
aquatic environment or as a parasite in its host.

Group of algae are more to plant-like structures which consist of 7 phyla: Euglenophyta,
Dinoflagellata, Bacillariaphyta, Chrysophyta, Phaeophyta, Rhodophyta, and Chlorophyta. Algae
are autotrophic whereby they can synthesis their own food via photosynthesis. They can be either
unicellular, multicellular or both due to its phyta characteristics. The photosynthetic pigments in
plant-like protists includes chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b and accessory pigments such as
phycoerythrin, phycocyanin, carotenoid and fucoxanthin. Some algae may contain chlorophyll c
or d. These pigments give colour to the algae which are green, red, brown and shiny silver.
 For molds, its characteristics mostly similar to fungi groups. They are absorptive feeders
on decomposing organic substance. The reproduction mode also quite similar with fungi but the
molds are quite different based on their characteristics. They are saprophytic that consists
fungus-like body and thread like structure called hyphae. Their cell contained centrioles which
are animal-like structure and their cell walls are built from cellulose instead of chitin in fungi.
There are 3 phyla that been catagorized under molds such as Myxomycota, Acrasiomycota and
Oomycota.

4.0 Methodology

4.1 Experiment 1: Animal-like Protist

1. The prepared slide of phylum has been observed using the high-dry objective of the
compound microscope.

2. The study of the specific phylum structure has been identified.

3. All the macroscopic appearance of the phylum structures were drawn and labelled
appropriately.

4.2 Experiment 2: Plant-like Protist

1. The prepared slide of phylum has been observed using the high-dry objective of the
compound microscope.

2. The study of the specific phylum structure has been identified.

3. All the macroscopic appearance of the phylum structures were drawn and labelled
accordingly.

4.3 Experiment 3: Fungus-like Protists

1. The prepared slide of phylum has been observed using the high-dry objective of the
compound microscope.

2. The study of the specific phylum structure has been identified.

3. All the macroscopic appearance of the phylum structures were drawn and labelled
justly.
5.0 Results/Observations

The appearance and structures of animal-like protists, plant-like protists and fungus-like protists
observed under the high-dry objective of light compound microscope were drawn and labelled.

5.1. Experiment 1: Animal-like Protists

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5.2. Experiment 2: Plant-like Protists

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5.3. Experiment 3: Fungus-like Protists

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6.0 Discussion

6.1 Animal-Like Protist

The extending part of Amoeba proteus known as pseudopods functions in the

mobility of Amoeba proteus whereby it drags itself from one to another place. Under
compound microscope, Amoebas does not seem to have a particular shape, with the
exception of the pseudopodia that consistently protrude from the cell. This shapeless but
ever shifting quality of the Amoeba’s shape allows it to surround, engulf and ingest its
food. It was observed that this organism has nucleus which is as a resemblance of the
organism itself to the kingdom of Animalia. Food particles in the Amoeba proteus
cytoplasm shows that food particles are surrounded, engulfed and ingested by Amoeba
proteus through phagocytosis.

Paramecium are smaller than Amoeba. Paramecium are classified in the phyla
Ciliophora. Under light compound microscope, it can be observed that there were
microscopic hair-like structures on the membrane of the organism. The microscopic hair-
like structure called cilia helps Paramecium to move. These hair-like structures act like
oars to push the Paramecium through the water. They swim by rotating slowly and
changing directions often. If the, paramecium comes upon an obstacle, it stops, swims
backwards, and then angles itself forward on a slightly different course. Cilia help the
Paramecium move as well as feed. A funnel-shaped opening of the Paramecium was
also observed under the microscope. The opening lined with cilia was called the oral
groove. It functions to draw food into the oral groove for feeding. The oral grooves act as
a mouth, taking food in with the help of cilia, which direct and move to food inward. All
ciliates generally reproduced asexually by binary fission.

Trypanosoma cruzi were classified as parasitic group of protists that can harm their
host. Under 400x magnification of microscope, it a single nucleus, a single flagellum and
a leaf-like or rounded body can be seen. The characteristics were all parasitic, inhabiting
the blood and fixed tissues of all classes of vertebrates. For Tryponosoma cruzi, it spends
one stage of their life cycle in a vertebrate and another in a blood-sucking invertebrate
which functions as a vector. In life cycle of Trypanosoma cruzi, tryponosomatids change
their body form depending on the host or the organ. These parasitic organisms were
located in many wild and domestic animals which served as reservoir hosts and the
arthropods vector was the Redwild bug or “kissing” bug. Trypanosomes are human
parasite that causes African sleeping sickness. They were transmitted by the bite of
infected bug. The symptoms started with recurring attack of fever. The trypanosomes can
 invade into central nervous system whereby the infected people have difficulties in
speaking and walking. Eventually it can cause death if untreated.

Plasmodium falciparum is also a parasitic animal-like protist. These parasitic

protists are harmful to animals and cause serious illness to human. Under 400x
magnifications of light compound microscopes, the gametocytes of Plasmodium
falciparum consist of nucleus, cytoplasm and the vacuole. They were named as
apicomplexans because the apex of the sporozoites contains a complex specialized for
penetrating host cells of the red blood cells. Their life cycle has both sexual and asexual
stages. They require two or more different host species for completion of their life cycle.
In this case, the completion of their life cycle needs two host which is mosquito and
human. In the beginning of life cycle of Plasmodium, an infected Anopheles sp. bites a
person, injecting Plasmodium sporozoites through its saliva. The sporozoites enter the
person’s liver cells through blood stream. After several days, the sporozoites undergo
multiple divisions and become merozoites. The merozoites use their apical complex to
penetrate red blood cells. The merozoites divide asexually inside red blood cells. At
interval 48 and 72 hours, large number of merozoites break out of the blood cells,
causing periodic chills and fever. Some of them may infect another red blood cell. Some
of merozoites form gametocytes. Another Anopheles sp. bites the infected person and
pick up Plasmodium sp. gametocytes along with blood. Gametes form from gametocytes.
Fertilization occurs in mosquito’s digestive tract and a zygote is formed. The zygotes are
the only diploid stage in their life cycle. An oocyst develops from zygote in the wall of
mosquito’s gut. The oocyst releases thousands of sporozoites, which migrate to the
mosquito’s salivary gland.

6.2 Plant-like Protists

Under 100x magnification of light microscope, it was observed that Euglena in

the pond water moves at high speed. Euglena is a single-celled flagellated
microorganism that moves rapidly, using its flagellum to propel itself through the water
rather quickly, shifting directions with whip-like movements. The colour of the
Euglena observed are slightly green in colour. With the help of chloroplast, Euglena
can trap sunlight for photosynthesis. The photosynthetic pigment of Euglena which are
chlorophyll a, chlorophyll c and carotenoid causes Euglena to be green in colour. A red
dotted was also seen under the microscope. The red dotted is known as eyespot which
detects light and therefore the Euglena itself makes its own food by photosynthesis.
Under 400 x magnification, the flagella cannot be seen clearly as it is transparent. The
flagellum is the source of mobility of the Euglena.

Mixed diatoms which were observed under 400x magnifications light

microscope shows various shapes of Mixed diatoms living in a colony. Every diatom
has girdle, nucleus and cytoplasm. Their main morphological character is the frustule, a
silica cell wall that consists of two valves, encasing the protoplasm, joined together by
girdle. The unique characteristics of diatoms lies on their cell wall that deposited with
silicates in intricate patterns. The pattern leads to the classification of diatoms into two
major group that is Centrales and Pennales. It moves by gliding facilitated by secretion
of slimy materials from diatoms shell. Photosynthetic pigment in Mixed diatoms
contains chlorophyll a, chlorophyll c and carotenoid including fucoxanthin. The modes
of reproduction were commonly by asexual reproduction.

Under 400x magnification light microscope, the chromatophore, lateral spine,

apical horn, antapical horn and the horizontal groove can be seen clearly in ceratium.
These structures show that ceratium are Dinoflagellates. Their cell body were made
intracellular shells of interlocking cellulose plates impregnated with silicates.
Chromatophores are pigment-containing and light-reflecting cells which contributes the
shiny appearance of ceratium. The horizontal groove that was observed was the place
where the flagellum wrapped along the horizontal groove of ceratium. Supposedly,
there is another flagellum wrapped around the vertical groove ceratium which cannot
be detected under light microscope. The presence of both the flagella is the source of
the mobility of ceratium whereby it moves like a spinning top along the water medium.
Photosynthetic pigments of Dinoflagellates are chlorophyll a, chlorophyll c, and a
special yellow brown carotenoid, fucoxanthin. Reproduction in Dinoflagellates is
primarily asexual with longitudinal cell division. The phenomenon of population
explosion, red tides, causes a harmful effect to the surrounding environment. The water
turns to orange, brown or red in colour. Dinoflagellates that form red tides produce a
toxin that attacks the nervous system of aquatic organisms and any person who is in
contact with the infected organisms.

Porphyra are red algae under the phylum of Rhodophyta. Under 400x
microscope light microscope, dark red pigmented ellipsoid cells were observed. The
cells are embedded perpendicular to the thallus surface in the tough gelatinous matrix
derived from the cell walls and are strongly thickened and covered with cuticle. The
cells contain photosynthetic pigments of phycoerythrin and phycocyanin which gives
the algae a red colour appearance If Porphyra were seen under naked eyes, the shape of
Porphyra are composed blade which is the interwoven sheet-like body and the thallus
is often unbranched and attached to the substratum by a small, basal disc cushion-like
holdfast. Majority of them lives attach to rocks or any substrates by their holdfast. The
importance of red algae is that it is a source of Vitamin A and C and minerals for
humans. Besides that, Carrageenan, another type of polysaccharides extracted from red
algae is a food additive used in stabilizing chocolate milk, ice-cream and as other foods.

Brown algae is the largest and most complex protist. Laminaria is an example
of brown algae. Under 400x magnification of light microscope, the cells of inner cortex
of Laminaria are cells that are cylindrical and arranged in columns while the outer layer
are radial rows of typically parenchymatous cells. The cuticle, a thin layer of mucilage
slime containing polysaccharide which gives better structural support compared to
Porphyra. Meristoderm is another layer between the cuticle and inner cortex that
includes the cubical or columnar epidermis where this is meristematic and 2 or 3 layers
of large hypodermal cells that are meristematic and photosynthetic and contain
chromoplasts. The photosynthetic pigment in Laminaria are composed of chlorophyll a,
chlorophyll c, carotenoid and fucoxanthin give Laminaria a brown colour appearance.
If Laminaria is seen under naked eye, the body consist of thick and flattened branches
supported by the presence of bladder, numerous gas-filled floats and holdfasts that
anchors the protist. The presence of bladder contributes to the buoyancy mechanism of
brown algae. The brown algae are economically important because they can be used as
a thickening and stabilizing agent in ice creams, toothpastes, shaving creams and hand
lotions.

Chlamydonomas is unicellular algae which lives in fresh water. Under 400x

magnifications light microscope, it is clearly seen that the shapes are mostly about
spherical with cell wall surrounded by the central nucleus, cytoplasm and the eyespot.
The anterior part of thallus bears two flagella. Both flagella are whiplash or
acronematic type, equal in size. Chlamydomonas has red eye spot for photosensitivity
and reproduces both sexually and asexually. Asexual reproduction happens by
zoospores (Formation takes place during favourable conditions), aplanospores
(Formation takes place slightly under unfavorable conditions), hypnospores (Formed
during extreme unfavorable conditions) or a pamella stage (Formed under unfavorable
conditions as shortage of water, excess of salts, etc). Sexual reproduction through
isogamy (Fusion of gametes which are morphologically similar take place), anisogamy
(Fusion of gametes whereby both were unequal in size) or oogamy (Fusion of gametes
whereby both were unequal in size).
 Volvox thallus is a motile colony with definite shape and number of cells.
Volvox grows as planktons on surface of water bodies such as, lakes and water tanks.
The colony is hollow, spherical or oval in shape and the size of colony is about the size
of pinhead. The cells of anterior end possess bigger eye spots than those of proterior
end cells. Each Volvox cell have two flagella. Feeding Volvox can have chlorophyll and
make their own food by photosynthesis. Most of Volvox species reproduce both
sexually (Fusion of gametes whereby both were unequal in size) and asexually.

Spirogyra is a genus of green algae that belong to the order Zygnematales.

Under 400x magnification light microscope, a long, unbranched filaments with
cylindrical cells that are connected from end to end can be seen. The ribbon-shaped
chloroplasts that are arranged in helical manner inside the cells were also observed. The
reproductive cells were located nearby the cells with ribbon-shaped chloroplast. The
mode of reproduction in Spirogyra only include sexual reproduction that is isogamous
and takes place by conjugation. A conjugation tube is formed between the cells of two
filaments or between the adjacent cells of the same filaments. Gamete of the cells
passes through the tubes to other cells and fuses with the gamete there formed
zygospore. Zygospore on germination gives rise to a new filament.

The cell wall of Oedogonium is made up of an outer layer of pectin and an

inner layer of cellulose. The cells are elongated and cylindrical. The cell wall is mostly
thick, rough and rigid. It is made up of three concentric layers, the inner cellulose,
middle pectose and the outer layer is chitinous in nature. Oedogonium have both sexual
and asexual reproduction. In asexual, it takes place by zoospores which are provided
with crown of flagella round the colourless ends. Sexual reproduction is oogamous and
takes place by fertilization. Oogonia are produced on normal filaments. Oospores on
germination produces four zoospore each of which give rise to new filaments.

Ulva is also classified as green algae. Under 400x magnification light

microscope, it can be seen that all the cells are more or less like basal cells and each
cell contains only one nucleus. Since, the cells of Ulva are similar to like basal cells, no
differentiation of cells occurs. Supposedly, each cell contains one nucleus and have a
cup-shaped chloroplast with a single pyrenoid. Ulva undergoes a very definite
alternation of generations. Biflagellate isogametes are formed by certain cells of the
haploid, gamentangial algae. These are liberated and fuse in pairs to form a diploid
zygote which germinates to form a separate diploid alga called sporophyte. Certain
cells of the sporophyte undergo meiosis and form zoospores in sporangia. These
zoospores quite different to the gamete form quadriflagelatte zoospores (4 flagella).
 Haploid gametes are capable of settling and germinating without fusion to form haploid
thallus directly.

6.3 Experiment 3: Fungal-like protists

Saprolegnia is one of the water-mold species that been observed in this lab.
Under 400 x magnifications, it can be seen that Saprolegnia consists of many branches
of threadlike structure or known as coenocytic hyphae. The hyphae will form mycelium
that grows on organic materials, digesting and absorbing the pre-digested nutrient. It
can also be seen that Saprolegnia reproduce sexually and asexually. When observed
under microscope, sexual reproduction is identified when the antheridium (male organ)
were attached to oogonium (female organ) while asexual reproduction is identified
when the tip of the hyphae (zoosporangium) swells forming mycelium. In sexual
reproduction, the antheridium will fuse with the oogonium to form zygote. Sexual
reproduction occurs under unfavourable condition while asexual reproduction occurs
under favourable condition.

Physarum plasmodium is classified under plasmodial mold or slime mold. It is

observed under microscope that Physarum plasmodium does not have a fixed shape and
its body consists of multinucleated cells. Physarum plasmodium or other species of
slime mold inhabits on shady, cool and moist area, such as decaying leaves and log as it
is sensitive to light where it can repel and affected the spore growth. The difference
between slime mold and water mold from fungi is that these fungus-like protists have
centrioles and their cell walls are composed from cellulose instead of chitin in fungi.

7.0 Conclusion

Conclusively, protists are eukaryotes that have nucleus and other membrane-bound
organelles. Most of the protists are unicellular eukaryotes. A few protists are multicellular and
surprisingly large such as seaweeds. Protists live in aquatic environments such as freshwater and
marine ecosystems. Protists are difficult to classify because some organisms have mix of
elements of plants, fungi and animal in its body composition.

From this experiment, three category of protists that been studied are Protozoa, Algae
and Molds. Animal-like protists (Protozoa) are heterotrophs and have the ability to move by
using their flagella, cilia and pseudopod. Plant-like protists (Algae) are autotrophs whereby they
can produce their own food by photosynthesis. Fungus-like protists (Molds) are saprophytic
consisting hyphae and reproduce by using spores. Some fungus-like protist of are parasitic.

Phytoplankton is a free-floating, microscopic algae that inhabit the sunlit, upper layer of
most freshwater and marine environments. Phyt is defined as plants. Phycobilins are any of a
class of water-soluble, mostly red, orange, and blue pigments found in cyanobacteria and red
algae. Agar is a gelatinous material derived from algae, specifically used as a culture medium of
bacteria and other cells for diagnostic or laboratory experiments purposes. Fucoxanthin is a
carotenoid that can be found in brown algae. Algin is any of various colloidal substances derived
from marine brown algae and used especially as emulsifiers or thickeners. Kelps are large brown
algae seaweeds that make up the order Laminariales. Gametangium is an organ or cell in which
gametes are produced that is found in many multicellular protists, algae, fungi, and the
gametophytes of plants. Oogonia are immature female reproductive cells that gives rise to
primary oocytes by mitosis. Antheridia are haploid organs producing and containing male
gametes.

From this experiment, selected members for red algae is Prophyra, green algae are
Chlamydomonas, Spirogyra and Ulva and brown algae which is Laminaria. The members of
stonewarts and the brittleworts is Chara. Sexual reproduction involving two parents cell
combining the genetic each other but for asexual reproduction, only involves one parent cell.
Structures of algae can be identified using cell wall composition, structure of chloroplast, types
and composition of photosynthetic pigments and number and arrangements of flagella.

Slime molds are multinucleate mass of cytoplasm. The plasmodium is slimy and creeps
along the wet substances forming a network of channels that covers large of surface areas. Under
favourable condition, the plasmodium creeps to the exposed surface areas and initiates
reproduction process. Stalked structure starts to produce and sporangia developed. Within
sporangia, meiosis took place produces haploid cells that are resistant towards unfavourable
conditions. If condition is favourable, the spores germinates and a haploid reproductive cell
emerges from each. The haploid cells may develop to be swarm cell or myxamoeba. More swarm
cell will develop if the humidity is high. Both swarm cells and myxamoeba act as gametes. They
fused together to form a zygote with diploid nucleus. The diploid nucleus divides many times but
the cytoplasm didn’t. As a result, it produces multinucleate plasmodium.

Water molds have fungus-like body and threadlike structure called hyphae. Branches of
coenocytic hyphae will form a mycelium that grows on organic materials, digesting and
absorbing the pre-digested nutrient. Their cell wall may be composed of cellulose, chitin or both.
Water molds reproduce asexually under favourable condition whereby the tip of the hyphae
swells and a cross wall is formed, separating the hyphal tip from the rest of mycelium. This
 structure is known as zoosporangium and tiny biflagellate zoospores are formed within
zoosporangium. Each of zoospores finally developed into new mycelium. Under unfavourable
condition, sexual reproduction is triggered. Some of the mycelium developed to be antheridium
(male structure) and fused together with oogonium (female structure) forms a zygote. The zygote
eventually becomes oosphere (thick-walled structure) and finally forms oospores.

8.0 References

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