Communications Layers

You may have heard the term "communications stack" or "that is a layer 3 protocol". This
section discusses the 7-layer OSI stack and will also explain how TCP/IP applies to this way
of understanding the functions performed at each of the protocol layers.

RadCom​ did an excellent poster of showing the various protocols and the placement of these
protocols with the OSI layers. ​Click here​ to get their PDF poster (813 KB).

The OSI Reference Model

The seven-layer reference model for Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) was developed
by members of the International Standards Organization (ISO). It provides a common
basis for the coordination of standards for the purpose of systems interconnection. Each
layer has a unique, defined function and, theoretically, each layer is independent of the
protocol layer above and below it. This independence of each layer allows a system to be
constructed that can use a mix & match approach to communications that can be optimize
for a given task.

Figure 1. The OSI 7-Layer Model

Layer 1: Physical Layer

The physical layer is responsible for the actual transmission of a bit stream across a
physical circuit. It allows signals, such as electrical signals, optical signals, or radio
signals, to be exchanged among communicating machines. This layer addresses the
cables, connectors, modems, and other devices used to permit machines to physically
communicate and controls the generation and detection of signals that are interpreted as 0
bits and 1 bits.
Layer 2: Data Link Layer
The data link layer is responsible for providing data transmission over a single connection
from one system to another. Control mechanisms in the data link layer handle the
transmission of data units, often called frames, over a physical circuit. This layer is also
concerned with how bits are grouped and the beginning and ending of a "frame" of
data. With some types of data links, the data link layer may also perform procedures for
flow control (starting & stopping data), frame sequencing, and recovery from transmission
errors.

Layer 3: Network Layer

The network layer is concerned with making routing decisions and relaying data from one
device to another through the network. Within the network, intermediate systems perform
routing and relaying functions. The application programs running in two end systems that
wish to communicate should not need to be concerned with the route packets take nor with
how many data links they must cross.

Layer 4: Transport Layer

The transport layer builds on the services of the lower layers to ensure a reliable
end-to-end data transport service. This layer for example might the task of asking for
retransmission of a missing packet or reorder packets that arrive out of sequence. The
transport layer hides from the higher layers all the details concerning the actual moving of
packets and frames from one computer to another and shields network users from the
complexities of network operation.
The transport layer may also control the rate at which messages flow through the network
to prevent and control congestion.

Layer 5: Session Layer

The session layer is responsible for organizing the dialog between two application
programs and for managing the data exchanges between them. The top three layers are
more concerned with services that are oriented to the application programs
themselves. To do this, the session layer imposes a structure on the interaction between
two communicating programs.
The session layer defines three types of dialogs: two-way simultaneous interaction, where
both programs can send and receive concurrently; two-way alternate interaction, where
the programs take turns sending and receiving; and one-way interaction, where one
program sends and the other only receives.

Layer 6: Presentation Layer

The presentation layer is interested in the meaning of the bits and deals with preserving
the information content of data transmitted over the network. It is concerned with three
types of data syntax that can be used for describing and representing data including
abstract syntax, transfer syntax, and local concrete syntax.
The presentation layers between systems negotiate a common transfer syntax to be used to
transfer the messages defined by a particular abstract syntax. If the local concrete syntax
in the two communicating systems are different, an implementation of the presentation
 layer is responsible for transforming from the local concrete syntax to the transfer syntax
in the sending system and from the transfer syntax to the local concrete syntax in the
receiving system.

Layer 7: Application layer:

The application layer is concerned with high-level functions that provide support to the
application programs using the network for communication. This layer provides a means
for application programs to access the system interconnection facilities to exchange
information. As far as the application layer is concerned, a program running in one
computer sends a message, and the program running in the other computer receives it. The
application layer is not concerned with any of the details related to how the message gets
from the source computer to the destination computer.

The TCP/IP Internet Layering Mode

TCP and IP are separate layers within the "communications stack" and, in reality, there
are over 30 different protocols involved but generically people call the entire suite of these
protocols "TCP/IP".

Broadly, the TCP/IP software is organized into four conceptual layers that build on a fifth
layer of hardware. These layers are slightly different than the OSI layers but they can be
mapped onto it.
● Application Layer - Messages or streams
● Transport Layer - Transport protocol packets
● Internet Layer - Create IP datagrams
● Network Interface Layer - Network-specific frames

Functions of the TCP/IP Application Layer:

TCP/IP defines a wide range of application layer protocols that provide services to
network users, including remote login, file copying, file sharing, electronic mail, directory
services, and network management facilities. Some application protocols are widely used,
others are employed only for specialized purposes. The following are the most commonly
used TCP/IP application layer protocols:
● PING Connectivity Testing
● Telnet Remote Login
● Rlogin Remote Login
● Rsh Remote Execution
● FTP File Transfer
● TFTP File Transfer
● SMTP Electronic Mail
● Kerberos Authentication
● X Windows Presentation
● DNS Name Resolution
● NFS Remote File Service
● SNMP Network Management
Functions of the TCP/IP Network Interface Layer:
The main function of the network interface layer is to handle hardware-dependent
functions and to present a standardized interface to the Internet layer of TCP/IP. The
TCP/IP suite of protocols does not specify details concerning the protocols to be used in
the network interface layer and below. The network interface layer of TCP/IP is
responsible for accepting messages from the Internet layer and preparing them for
transmission across any desired type of data link technology.

An individual TCP/IP network may be a local area network, using LAN data link
protocols such as Ethernet, Token Ring, or FDDI. An individual TCP/IP network may
also be implemented using a wide area network data link technology, such as a
point-to-point leased or dial-up line, satellite link, or specialized digital circuit. One of the
reasons TCP/IP has become widely used is that it can be used in conjunction with almost
any type of underlying physical circuit and data link technology.

One important function of the network interface layer is to examine each frame that the
network interface card receives and to determine, from the way in which control bits in
the frame are set, for which of the internet layer protocols the frame is intended, called a
demultiplexing function.

Functions of the TCP/IP Internet Layer:

The TCP/IP internet layer provides routing and relaying functions for carrying packets of
data from a source system to a destination system through an internet. This is the layer at
which routing decisions are made that determine the path over which each packet travels.
TCP/IP protocols that operate in the Internet layer include the Internet Protocol (IP) and
the Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP), the Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)
and the Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP).

IP is the core protocol of the TCP/IP protocol suite. It provides a connectionless,

best-effort data delivery service that is used in moving packets from one system to another
through the internet. The ICMP employs the services of IP to allow systems to report on
error conditions and to provide information about unexpected circumstances.

The ARP helps a source system deliver data directly to a destination system when the two
systems are on the same physical network. It allows the source system to determine the
destination system's physical hardware address given the destination system's internet
address. The RARP allows a system that does not yet have its internet address to obtain it.
RARP is typically used to support workstations and intelligent terminals that do not have
their own disk storage.

Functions of the TCP/IP Transport Layer:

The transport layer provides an end-to-end data delivery service that application processes
use to exchange messages over the internet. Protocols operating in the transport layer use
the services or IP to deliver messages. The two major TCP/IP transport layer protocols are
 User Datagram Protocol (UDP) and Transfer Control Protocol (TCP).

UDP is the simpler of the two transport protocols. It is a best-effort, connectionless

transport layer protocol that adds little to the underlying IP datagram delivery service.
TCP is a connection-oriented transport layer protocol that provides for reliable, sequenced
stream data delivery.

An application process can use either UDP or TCP to request data transfer services. The
protocol that an application developer chooses to use depends on whether the application
requires only a best-effort, datagram data delivery service or whether it requires the
reliability controls provided by a connection-oriented data transfer service.

General Information
​ ommunications Layers
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In order for two devices to communicate they need connectors, specific cable types,
framing and other agreed-upon parameters. The OSI 7-layer model is the conventional
way of understanding where the various protocols reside in this "communications
stack".

I​ ntroduction to Data Communications

Some of the basics of datacom including the differences between LANs, MANs and
WANs and why these distinctions exists. This seminar also explains the phone
networks T1, T3, and OC-3 links.

​Making Useful Networks

It takes more than wires to make useful networks. What is the difference between a
name, address, and route? When do you use bridges, switches, and routers? Network
Management allows you to manage and diagnose a network.
​Overview​ - An overview of what it takes to make networks useful.
​Bridges​ - A description of the four main types of bridges.
​Routers​ - A description of the various types of routers and how they work.
​IP addressing​ - A description of the four types of IP addresses, public/private
addresses, and static/dynamic addresses.
​Network Management​ - How these systems monitor complex networks.

Layer 1-2 Technologies

​ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode)
ATM is technology that uses small cell sizes to transport data through networks. It
provides good Quality of Service (QoS) and is often used on DSL modems and
through the Telecom Carriers.
​Overview​ - An overview of ATM, the types of connections, and a description of
the various cell formats.
​Connection Management​ - A description of the various forms of QoS, the
messages that are required to establish a session, and the concept of Virtual Circuits
(VCs).
​ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL)​ - A description of the three types of ATM
 Adaptation Layer mechanisms (AAL-1, AAL-3/4, and AAL-5).

​Cable Modem
The Cable Modem standard for the US is DOCSIS (Data Over Cable System Interface
Specification). This series looks provides an overview of the workings of a cable TV
system, the messages that control the system and the modulation technology.
​Overview​ - An overview of the components of a cable TV system.
​The DOCSIS Protocol​ - A description of the messages between the CMTS and the
CM. This
includes the mechanism to share the coax, ranging and registration.
​The DOCSIS Physical Layer​ - The downstream/upstream modulation and data
rates.
​Quality of Service (DOCSIS 1.1)​ - The changes to DOCSIS 1.0 to implement
Quality of
Service (QoS).

Frame Relay​ (Available soon.)

A packet technology commonly used for businesses allowing simultaneous voice and
data technologies.

​Wireless Data Communications

Wireless communications can be used to cover large distances or short distances. The
basic characteristics that define wireless standards are frequency, power, bandwidth,
and modulation.

x​ DSL - Understanding the various forms of DSL Technology

There are many forms Digital Subscriber Loop (DSL) technologies including the best
known,. ADSL (Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Loop). This seminar covers the
capabilities of each of the xDSL technologies, the major applications, and basic
technology of how they it works.

Layer 3-7 Technologies

​IP Version 6
The next generation of the Internet Protocol (IP) has a number of improvements over
the current IP version 4. Don't ask what happened to version 5.

Other Topics
​Cable Modems vs. ADSL, Technology, Applications and Myths
Learn about these two types of broadband delivery systems. This seminar provides an
overview of the technologies, where they shine and the the truth behind the myths
being spread by these fierce competitors.

​ ableHome: The home networking standard

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CableHome compliant equipment will be required by the cable operators to get
enhanced content to home networking devices. This architecture uses existing home
networking LAN technologies to deliver this content but enhanced routers, NATs, and
bridges are required. If the customer desires, this architecture will allow the operator
to configure your new devices, identify malfunctioning devices, and provide updates
for your firewall.

Network Computing​ (Available soon.)

Network Computing puts the processor into the network and greatly reduces the costs
of computing.

​ oice over IP (VoIP)

V
Voice over IP allows telephone conversations to be delivered using data networks.
This is an overview of the VoIP technology, architecture, and a discussion of the
various aspects of connecting the data networks with the public phone network.
​Overview​ - An overview of the components of the various aspects of VoIP.
​Voice Coding Algorithms​ - A description of the various methods for digitizing
speech.
​VoIP Applications​ - The VoIP technology only becomes useful when compelling
applications
meet the needs of customers. The corporate, cable telephony, and video
conferencing
applications are examined.
​VoIP Problems​ - Deployment of VoIP has been slower than expected because of
problems
with underlying networks, standardization issues, and network control devices.