UNIT 1

Circuit Switching
• The switching function provides communication pathways
between two endpoints and manages how data flows between
them. The two most common switching methods are circuit
switching and packet switching.
• Integrated Service Digital Network (ISDN), shown in Figure 1, is
an example of a circuit-switched network.

Circuit Switching ISDN Topology

• Circuit switching requires a dedicated physical
connection between the sending and receiving
devices.
• For example, parties involved in a phone call have a
dedicated link between them for the duration of the
conversation.
• When either party disconnects, the circuit is broken,
and the data path is lost.
• This is an accurate representation of how circuit
switching works with network and data transmissions.
• The sending system establishes a physical connection,
and the data is transmitted between the two. When
the transmission is complete, the channel is closed.
Packet Switching
• A Frame Relay network, shown in Figure, is an
example of a packet-switched network.
• In packet switching, messages are broken into smaller
pieces called packets.
• Each packet is assigned source and destination
addresses. Packets are required to have this
information because they do not always use the same
path or route to get to their intended destination.
• Packets can take an alternative route if a particular
route is unavailable for some reason.
 Packet switching is a method of grouping data which is
transmitted over a digital network into packets which are
made of a header and a payload. Data in the header is
used by networking hardware to direct the packet to its
destination where the payload is extracted and used
by application software Packet switching is the primary
basis for data communications in computer
networks worldwide.
• The packet switching has two approaches: Virtual Circuit
approach and Datagram approach.
• WAN, ATM, frame relay and telephone networks use
connection oriented virtual circuit approach;
• whereas internet relies on connectionless datagram
based packet switching.
• Examples of connectionless protocols are Ethernet, Internet
Protocol (IP), and the User Datagram
Protocol (UDP).Internet also relies on connectionless
datagram based packet switching.
• Examples of Connection-oriented protocols
include X.25, Frame Relay, Multiprotocol Label
Switching (MPLS), and the Transmission Control
Protocol (TCP). Virtual Circuit approach. WAN, ATM, and
some telephone networks use connection oriented virtual
circuit approach
Virtual Circuit Packet Switching
In virtual circuit packet switching, a single route is chosen
between the sender and receiver and all the packets are sent
through this route. Every packet contains the virtual circuit
number. As in circuit switching, virtual circuit needs call setup
before actual transmission can be started. The routing is based
on the virtual circuit number.
This approach preserves the relationship between all the
packets belonging to a message. Just like circuit switching,
virtual circuit approach has a set up, data transfer and tear
down phases. Resources can be allocated during the set up
phase, as in circuit switched networks or on demand, as in a
datagram network. All the packets of a message follow the
same path established during the connection. A virtual circuit
network is normally implemented in the data link layer, while a
circuit switched network is implemented in the physical layer
and a datagram network in the network layer.
 Datagram Packet Switching
In datagram packet switching each packet is transmitted
without any regard to other packets. Every packet contain
full packet of source and destination. Every packet is
treated as individual, independent transmission.
Even if a packet is a part of multi-packet transmission the
network treats it as though it existed alone.
Packets in this approach are called datagram.
Datagram switching is done at the network layer. Figure
show how a datagram approach is used to deliver four
packets from station A to station D.
All the four packets belong to same message but they may
travel via different paths to reach the
destination i.e. station D.
• Datagram approach can cause the datagram to arrive
at their destination out of order with different delays
between the packets.
• Packets may also be lost or dropped because of lack
of resources. The datagram networks are also
referred as connectionless networks. Here
connectionless means that the switch does not keep
information about connection state.
• There are no connection establishment or tear down
phases.
• The datagram can arrive at the destination with a
different order from the order in which they where
sent. The source and destination address are used by
the routers to decide the route for packets. Internet
use datagram approach at the network layer.
 X.25 Packet Switched networks
• X.25 Packet Switched networks allow remote devices to
communicate with each other over private digital links
without the expense of individual leased lines.
• Packet Switching is a technique whereby the network
routes individual packets of HDLC data between different
destinations based on addressing within each packet.
• An X.25 network consists of a network of interconnected
nodes to which user equipment can connect.
• The user end of the network is known as Data Terminal
Equipment (DTE) and the carrier’s equipment is Data
Circuit-terminating Equipment (DCE) .
• X.25 routes packets across the network from DTE to DTE.
• X.25 provides it via the network layer of the OSI Model,
whereas Frame Relay provides it via level two, the data link
layer.
• Another major difference between X.25 and Frame Relay is
that X.25 requires a handshake between the communicating
parties before any user packets are transmitted. Frame Relay
does not define any such handshakes.
• X.25 does not define any operations inside the packet network.
It only operates at the user-network-interface (UNI). Thus, the
network provider is free to use any procedure it wishes inside
the network.
• X.25 does specify some limited re-transmission procedures at
the UNI, and its link layer protocol (LAPB) provides
conventional HDLC-type link management procedures. Frame
Relay is a modified version of ISDN's layer two protocol, LAPD
and LAPB. As such, its integrity operations pertain only
between nodes on a link, not end-to-end. Any retransmissions
must be carried out by higher layer protocols. The X.25 UNI
protocol is part of the X.25 protocol suite, which consists of the
lower three layers of the OSI Model.
The user end of the network is known as Data Terminal
Equipment (DTE) and the carrier’s equipment is Data
Circuit-terminating Equipment (DCE) .
The protocol known as X.25 was developed by the organization now known as the International
Telecommunications Union (ITU) and encompasses the first three layers of the OSI 7-layered
architecture as defined by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) as follows:

• Layer 1: The Physical Layer is concerned with electrical or

signaling. It includes several electrical standards including V.35
, RS232 and X.21.
• Layer 2: The Data Link Layer, which is an implementation of the
ISO HDLC standard called Link Access Procedure Balanced (LAPB)
and provides an error free link between any two physically
connected nodes. The Data Link Layer is responsible for error-free
communication between any two nodes. Thus errors are checked
and corrected for each hop all the way across the network. It is this
feature that makes X.25 so robust, and so suitable for noisy, error-
prone links.
• Layer 3: The Network Layer that governs the end-to-end
communications between the different DTE devices. Layer 3 is
concerned with connection set-up and teardown and flow control
between the DTE devices, as well as network routing functions and
the multiplexing of simultaneous logical connections over a single
physical connection.
 Three Layers of X.25:
• These three layers correspond to the three lower most
layers of the ISO-OSI reference model. The physical layer
takes care of the interface between a computer terminal
and the link which attaches it to the packet switching node.
• The X.25 defines the interface for exchange of packets
between the user's machine (DTE) and the packet switching
node to which this DTE is attached which is called as DCE.
• The three layers of X.25 interface are as shown in Fig.(a).
• At the physical level X.21 physical interface is being used
which is defined for circuit switched data network. At the
data link level, X.25 specifies the link access procedure-B
(LAP-B) protocol which is a subset of HDLC protocol.
• At the network level (3rd level), X.25 defines a protocol for
an access to packet data sub network.
• This protocol defines the format, content and procedures
for exchange of control and data transfer packets. The
packet layer provides an external virtual circuit service.
 X.25 permits a DTE user on an X.25 network to communicate with a number of
remote DTE’s simultaneously. Connections occur on logical channels of two
types:
• Switched virtual circuits (SVC‘s) – SVC’s are very much like telephone calls; a
connection is established, data are transferred and then the connection is
released. Each DTE on the network is given a unique DTE address which can be
used much like a telephone number.
• Permanent virtual circuits (PVC‘s) – a PVC is similar to a leased line in that the
connection is always present. The logical connection is established permanently
by the Packet Switched Network administration. Therefore, data may always be
sent, without any call setup.
1. To establish a connection on an SVC, the calling DTE sends a Call
Request Packet, which includes the address of the remote DTE to be contacted.
2. The destination DTE decides whether or not to accept the call.
3. A call is accepted by issuing a Call Accepted packet, or cleared by issuing
a Clear Request packet.
4. Once the originating DTE receives the Call Accepted packet, the virtual circuit is
established and data transfer may take place
5. When either DTE wishes to terminate the call, a Clear Request packet is sent to
the remote DTE, which responds with a Clear Confirmation packet.
6. The destination for each packet is identified by means of the Logical Channel
Identifier (LCI) or Logical Channel Number (LCN). This allows the PSN to route
the each packet to its intended DTE.
Applications of X.25
• Since the 1970s, many WANs were built using a
technology standard called X.25. These types of
networks supported automated teller machines,
credit card transaction systems, and some of the early
online information services such as CompuServe.
• Older X.25 networks ran using 56 Kbps dial-
up modem connections.
 Characteristics of X.25
• Maximum packet sizes vary from 64 bytes to 4096 bytes, with 128 bytes
being a default on most networks. Both maximum packet size and packet
level windowing may be negotiated between DTE’s on call set up.
• X.25 is optimized for what today would be considered quite low speed
lines: 100kbps and below. At line speeds above 100 kbps the effects
of latency, small packet sizes and small window sizes are such that the
bandwidth cannot be efficiently utilized.
• X.25 has been the basis of the development of
other packet switched protocols like TCP/IP and ATM.
• These protocols also have the ability to handle one-to-many connections
and the ability to match DTE’s having different line speeds, both
characteristics of X.25.
• X.25 has been around since the mid 1970’s and so is pretty well debugged
and stable. There are literally no data errors on modern X.25 networks.
• The major technical drawback of X.25 today is the inherent delay caused
by the store-and-forward mechanism, which in turn restricts the useful
data transmission rate. Frame Relay and ATM, for instance, have no inter-
node error or flow control, so end-to-end latency is minimal.
 Frame Relay networks
• Frame Relay is a high-performance WAN protocol that operates at the physical
and data link layers of the OSI reference model. Frame Relay originally was
designed for use across Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) interfaces.
Today, it is used over a variety of other network interfaces as well. Frame Relay
is a simplified form of Packet Switching, similar in principle to X.25, in which
synchronous frames of data are routed to different destinations depending on
header information. The biggest difference between Frame Relay and X.25 is
that X.25 guarantees data integrity and network managed flow control at the
cost of some network delays. Frame Relay switches packets end to end much
faster, but there is no guarantee of data integrity at all
• Frame Relay technology was created to simplify X.25 protocols and provide a
less expensive solution for wide area networks that needed to run at higher
speeds.
• Frame Relay became a popular choice for telecommunications companies in
the United States during the 1990s, particularly AT&T.
• A packet-switching protocol for connecting devices on a Wide Area Network
(WAN).
• In the U.S., Frame Relay is quite popular because it is relatively inexpensive.
However, it is being replaced in some areas by faster technologies, such
as ATM.
 How Frame Relay Works
• Frame Relay supports multiplexing of traffic from multiple connections
over a shared physical link using special-purpose hardware components
including frame routers, bridges, and switches that package data into
individual Frame Relay messages.
• Each connection utilizes a ten (10) bit Data Link Connection Identifier
(DLCI) for unique channel addressing. Two connection types exist:
• Permanent Virtual Circuits (PVC) - for persistent connections intended to be
maintained for long periods of time even if no data is actively being transferred
• Switched Virtual Circuits (SVC) - for temporary connections that last only for the
duration of a single session
• Frame Relay achieves better performance than X.25 at a lower cost
primarily not performing any error correction (that is instead offloaded to
other components of the network), greatly reducing network latency.
• It also supports variable-length packet sizes for more efficient utilization
of network bandwidth.
• Frame Relay operates over fiber optic or ISDN lines and can support
different higher level network protocols including Internet Protocol (IP).
Performance of Frame Relay
• Frame Relay supports the data rates of standard T1
and T3 lines - 1.544 Mbps and 45 Mbps, respectively,
with individual connections down to 56 Kbps.
• It also supports fiber connections up to 2.4 Gbps.
• Each connection can be configured with Committed
Information Rate (CIR) that the protocol maintains by
default.
• CIR refers to a minimum data rate that the connection
should expect to receive under steady stage.
• Frame Relay does not restrict maximum performance
to that of the CIR but also allows burst traffic, where
the connection can temporarily (typically for up to 2
seconds) exceed its CIR.