SEMINAR REPORT

On

SYNTHETIC APERTURE RADAR

Submitted by

Lt Cdr Abhinaw Kumar

Roll No.- 183074016

M.Tech (Electronic Systems)

IIT Bombay

Under the guidance of

Prof Kushal Tuckley

0
 Table of Contents

Abstract.....................................................................................................................3

1. Introduction ..........................................................................................................4

2. Application of SAR ...............................................................................................5

3. SAR principle ……. ..............................................................................................5

3.1 SAR imaging geometry …………………………………………………………..6
3.2 Range Resolution ………………………………………………………………...7
3.3 Azimuth Resolution ………………………………………………………………8

4. SAR processing……………………………………………………………………......9
4.1 SAR block diagram………………………………………………………………..9
4.2 SAR data processing……………………………………………………………..9
4.3 Geometric distortion in SAR images……………………………………………10
4.4 Speckle Noise……………………………………………………………………..12
4.5 Multi-looking……………………………………………………………………….13
4.6 System Bandwidth………………………………………………………………..13

5. SAR imaging modes…………………………………………………………………..13

5.1 Stripmap mode…………………………………………………………………….14
5.2 Spotlight mode…………………………………………………………………….14
5.3 ScanSAR mode…………………………………………………………………...15

6. Surface interaction with radar beam………………………………………………...15

6.1 Surface scattering………………………………………………………………...15
6.2 Volume scattering………………………………………………………………...16
6.3 Surface interaction with soil……………………………………………………..16

7. Polarimetric SAR……………………………………………………………………...17
7.1 Polarisation……………………………………………………………………….17
7.2 SAR polarmetry…………………………………………………………………...17
7.3 Stokes Vector…………………………………………………………………......18
7.4 Decomposition of Polarimetric SAR…………………………………………....20

8. Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………….20

Reference................................................................................................................21

1
 List of Figures

Fig.1 Comparison between Optical and SAR image……………………………….4

Fig. 2 SAR imaging geometry and terminology……………………………………...6
Fig.3 Range resolution for side looking radar……………………………………….7
Fig. 4 Azimuth resolution for side looking radar……………………………………..8
Fig. 5 SAR basic block diagram……………………………………………………….9
Fig. 6 SAR processing steps involving range and azimuth compression………..10
Fig. 7 Layover in SAR image………………………………………………………….11
Fig. 8 Foreshortening in SAR image…………………………………………………11
Fig. 9 Shadowing in SAR image……………………………………………………...12
Fig.10 (a) Image without multi-look. (b) Image after 4 X 4 multi-look……………..13
Fig. 11 Stripmap imaging mode………………………………………………………..14
Fig. 12 Spotlight imaging mode………………………………………………………..14
Fig. 13 ScanSAR imaging mode………………………………………………………15
Fig. 14 Scattering matrix of a quad-pol data set……………………………………..18
Fig. 15 Stokes parameters obtained from data set………………………………….19
Fig. 16 Color coded image of area post decomposing into three components…..20

2
 ABSTRACT

The Synthetic Aperture Radar principle was discovered in the early 50th. Since then,
rapid development has taken place and the progress made in digital signal processing
has lead to highly capable systems for military and civilian applications. Since radar
operates in microwave region it has the capability to operate both in day and night and
can penetrate clouds and rain. This gives radar upper hand vis-à-vis optical instruments
used for imaging. However, large wavelength of radar signals limits the achievable
resolution of real aperture radar systems. Thus, high resolution imaging cannot be
realized using static radar systems. Therefore, to increase the resolution of the radar
image, large aperture was realized by moving the transmitting antenna in space. The
idea of SAR was to transmit pulses and store the echoes along the path of the SAR
sensor and to combine them afterwards using suitable signal processing. The
combination of the target echoes is carried out coherently. Today, more than 15 space
borne SAR systems are being operated for numerous applications. This report provides
an introduction about the SAR principles and theory, followed by an overview on
Polarimetric-SAR.

3
1. INTRODUCTION

SAR systems are based on pulsed radar installed on a moving platform with forward
movement and a side-looking imaging geometry. The radar system transmits
electromagnetic pulses with high power and receives the echoes of the backscattered
signal in a sequential way. Typical values for the pulse repetition frequency range from
a few hundred to a few thousand Hertz for airborne and space borne systems,
respectively. The swath width varies typically from a few kilometers to 20 km in the
airborne case and from 30 to 500 km in the space borne case. The transmitted pulse
interacts with the Earth surface and only a portion of it is backscattered to the receiving
antenna which can be the same as the transmit antenna (for a mono-static radar) or a
different one (for a bi-static radar). The amplitude and phase of the backscattered signal
depends on the physical properties like shape, size and roughness and dielectric
properties like permittivity of the object being imaged. Since radar operates in
microwave region, considerable penetration can occur into the surface. Therefore, the
imaged objects should be modeled as a volume (e.g., vegetation, ice and snow, dry soil,
buildings etc). Longer the wavelength, greater the penetration of the electromagnetic
waves in the media will occur which will result in higher volume contribution in the
backscattered signal.

The simplest SAR radar system provides a two-dimension map of the imaged area
wherein high backscattered signals are identified as bright spots and low backscattered
signals as dark areas. The flight direction is denoted as azimuth and the line-of-sight as
slant range direction. Images shown below compare between optical image and SAR
image of an area:

Fig. 1 Comparison between Optical and SAR image.

4
2. APPLICATION OF SAR

SAR has got a broad range of applications like remote sensing, surface mapping etc.
For remote sensing few earth-observing satellites are currently in operation, having
imaging sensors working in different spectral areas. In military context, SAR has found
its usability in global reconnaissance. Aircrafts and high flying unmanned platforms fitted
with SAR equipment is used for battlefield surveillance. The resolution of SAR systems,
which indicates the smallest distance between two targets in the scene which can be
separated in the SAR image, has improved over the period up to the order of decimeter.
Advanced classification algorithms are also able to identify military objects in the scene
which is of great interest. Other application areas are mentioned below:

• Topography (DEM generation with interferometry)

• Oceanography (wave spectra, wind speed, ocean currents)
• Glaciology (snow wetness, snow water equivalent, glacier monitoring)
• Agriculture (crop classification and monitoring, soil moisture)
• Geology (terrain discrimination, subsurface imaging)
• Forestry (forest height, biomass, deforestation)
• Moving Target Indication (MTI)
• Volcano and earthquake monitoring (differential interferometry)
• Environment monitoring (oil spills, flooding, urban growth, global change)
• Military surveillance and reconnaissance (strategic policy, tactical assessment)

3. SAR PRINCIPLE

Synthetic Aperture Radar is two-dimensional imaging radar mounted on a fast moving

platform, generally space-borne or air-borne. Similar to conventional radar,
electromagnetic waves in pulsed form are sequentially transmitted and the
backscattered echoes are received by the radar antenna. The receiver antenna can be
same in case of mono static radar and can be different in case of bi-static radar. In case
of SAR the consecutive time of transmission/ reception translates into different spatial
positions due to the movement of the platform carrying radar. An appropriate coherent
combination of the received signals results in a virtual aperture that is much longer than
the physical length of the antenna. This basic attribute of SAR is the origin of its name
“synthetic aperture,” giving it the property of being imaging radar. The radar image
results from processing the raw data and represents a measure of the reflectivity of the
object/ area being imaged. Before moving forward, the SAR imaging geometry needs to
be understood along with the various jargons used frequently in respect of SAR.

5
3.1 SAR IMAGING GEOMETRY

Fig. 2 SAR imaging geometry and terminology

• Flight path - It is the direction of the movement of the aircraft or platform carrying
SAR. It is the also the direction along which the length of the synthetic aperture
radar is formed.

• Look angle - The radar look direction defines the angle in which the radar
antenna is pointing when transmitting a pulse and receiving the return signal from
the ground or from an object. The look direction is an angular measurement (in
degrees) and is often orthogonal (normal) to the flight trajectory (azimuth) of the
platform carrying the radar and is thus synonymous with the range direction.

6
 • Slant Range - Represents the distance measured along a line between the
radar antenna and the target.

• Ground Track – It is the normal projection of the flight path on the ground.

• Ground Range - Ground Range is the perpendicular distance from the ground
track to a given object on the Earth's surface. It is also defined as the range
direction of a side-looking radar image as projected onto the nominally horizontal
reference plane, similar to the spatial display of conventional maps.

• Image swath - The width of an imaged scene in the range dimension, measured
in either ground range or slant range on the swath.

• Incidence Angle – The angle with respect to normal at which the radar pulse hits
a target or scene.

3.2 Range Resolution - Resolution in the range dimension, usually applied to

the image domain, either in the slant range plane or in the ground range plane. Range
resolution is fundamentally determined by the system bandwidth in the range channel.

Fig. 3 Range resolution for side looking radar

Range Resolution, ∆R = CƬ / (2 cos β)

C= speed of light, Ƭ= pulse width

7
3.3 Azimuth Resolution - Resolution characteristic of the azimuth dimension,
usually applied to the image domain. Azimuth resolution is fundamentally limited by the
Doppler bandwidth of the system. Excess Doppler bandwidth is usually used to allow
extra looks, at the expense of azimuth resolution.

Fig. 4 Azimuth resolution for side looking radar

Azimuth Resolution, ∆A = Rλ / 2L = D/2

R= slant range, λ= wavelength,

L= synthetic length of antenna, D= antenna length

8
4. SAR PROCESSING

4.1 SAR block diagram. SAR sensors transmit frequency modulated pulsed
waveforms also called chirp signals wherein the amplitude of the transmitted waveform
is constant during the pulse time, while the instantaneous frequency varies linearly with
time. This is followed by the hearing time during which the radar “listens” to the echoes
scattered back from the target or the scene and stores the received signals. This
transmission and reception procedure is repeated in every Pulse Repetition Interval
(PRI) seconds, where PRI is the reciprocal of pulse repetition frequency (PRF). The
basic block diagram of SAR depicting signal flow is as shown below.

Fig. 5 SAR basic block diagram

As we can see in the diagram, the signal received is complex and has I (in-phase) and
Q (quadrature phase) components. The received echo signal data forms a two-
dimensional data matrix of complex samples, where each complex sample is given by
its real and imaginary part, thus representing an amplitude and phase value. The first
dimension corresponds to the range direction and the second dimension of the data
matrix corresponds to the azimuth direction. The echoes from the illuminated scene are
sampled both in range and azimuth.

4.2 SAR data processing. Simplistically, the complete SAR processing can be
understood as two matched filter operations; one along the range and the other along
the azimuth direction. The first step compresses the transmitted chirp signal to a short
pulse, thereby achieving pulse compression in range direction. Here, each range line is
multiplied in the frequency domain by the complex conjugate of the spectrum of the
transmitted chirp. This result is a range compressed image, which depicts relative
distance between the radar and the target or point on ground. For azimuth compression,
the signal is convolved with its reference function, which is the complex conjugate of the
response expected from a point target on the ground. Fig. 6 shows the basic steps of
SAR signal processing.

9
 Fig. 6 SAR processing steps involving range and azimuth compression.

The range reference function depends on the chirp waveform whereas the azimuth
reference function depends on the SAR geometry and is adapted to the range. The
resolution in range and azimuth forms a resolution cell which depicts a pixel in the radar
image. The SAR image is mostly displayed in terms of intensity values of the back
scattered echo from the target or scene. Each pixel of SAR image gives a direct
indication of the reflectivity of the corresponding point on the ground.

Two additional steps are applied on the output of the signal processor, which are
calibration and geo-coding. Calibration step ensures that the intensity value actually
represents the sigma zero (σ0) value of the reflectivity i.e. the radar cross section
normalized to area using both internal instrument calibration as well as external SAR
calibration using targets of known reflectivity. Geocoding ensures that the location of a
pixel in the SAR image is directly associated with the position on the ground.

4.3 Geometric distortion in SAR images. SAR images are geometrically

distorted as the radar measures the projection of a three-dimensional scene on the
radar coordinates. The distortion in a SAR image is of mainly three types as mentioned
below:

• Layover – It occurs when the radar beam reaches the top of a tall feature before
it reaches the base. The return signal from the top of the feature will be received

10
 before the signal from the bottom due to which the top of the feature is displaced
towards the radar from its true position on the ground.

Fig. 7 Layover in SAR image

• Foreshortening - It occurs when the radar beam reaches the base of a tall
feature tilted towards the radar (e.g. mountain) before it reaches the top. As the
radar measures in slant range, the slope will appear compressed and the length
of the slope will be depicted incorrectly in the image plane.

Fig. 8 Foreshortening in SAR image

11
 • Shadowing - This effect is similar to the shadow effect due to sunlight. The
shadow becomes longer as the incident angle increases.

Fig. 9 Shadowing in SAR image

4.4 Speckle Noise. Another important albeit unwanted property of a SAR

image is speckle noise. Speckle is a granular noise that exists in a SAR image
inherently and degrades the quality of the image. This primarily occurs due to
roughness or the irregularities of the scale of the wavelength within the resolution cell.
The coherent sum of the amplitudes and phases of the reflections results in strong
fluctuations of the backscattering from resolution cell to resolution cell. This results in
speckle noise in the image.

The signal processing quality can be quantitatively measured by determining the

Impulse Response Function (IRF). IRF is a two dimensional complex image that would
be obtained from a target or scene which consists of a single point-like scatterer. It is
generally computed based on simulated data and sometimes derived analytically. On
analyzing the IRF, it can be derived that the phase, especially in azimuth, is very
important for the proper focusing of the radar image. This requirement affects the
hardware which then requires having high phase stability so that the processing
remains coherent throughout the process of data acquisition. This is achieved using
ultra-stable oscillators in the radar system. Improper stability of phase can also result in
aggravated speckle noise.

12
4.5 Multi-looking To mitigate the speckle noise a technique known as multi-
look is utilized, which is a non-coherent averaging of the intensity image. The process of
multi-looking improves the SAR image quality by reducing the speckle and can be used
to obtain a square pixel on the output image. The averaging can be done either in range
or azimuth direction or in both the directions. For example, if the resolution in azimuth
and range directions of a SAR image is 5 and 20 respectively, the image can be multi-
looked 4 times in azimuth direction so that the size of each pixel becomes 20 X 20.
Although multi-look causes improvement in speckle noise, it causes degradation in the
image resolution as can be seen in Fig. 10.

(a) (b)

Fig. 10 (a) Image without multi-look. (b) Image after 4 X 4 multi-look.

4.6 System Bandwidth. One of the key issues of SAR is the signal sampling.
In range, the sampling rate of the analog-to-digital converter must be larger than the
transmitted chirp bandwidth (assuming I/Q demodulation) according to Shannon’s
sampling theorem. The same is true in azimuth. When determining the required
sampling rate it turns out that improving the range resolution increases the data rate
and volume on board the satellite. In azimuth the situation is more complex due to the
interrelation between various parameters. Here, improving the azimuth resolution
means a higher Doppler bandwidth of the received echo signal and consequently a
higher sampling, which in this case means increasing the PRF. This, however, reduces
the echo window length and by this the time available for receiving the echoes, which
means a reduced swath width. It is seen that fine azimuth resolution and wide swath
contradict each other and cannot be obtained simultaneously; at least not with
conventional single-channel SAR.

5. SAR imaging modes. The antenna radiation pattern of SAR can be

controlled to operate the radar system in different imaging modes. For a planar antenna
this can be done by using phased array radar and controlling the phase and amplitude

13
of each sub-antenna through different transmit/receive modules (TRM). Typically a few
hundred software controlled TRMs are employed. Following are the typical imaging
modes of SAR.

5.1 Stripmap mode. In this mode the antenna stays in a fixed position, generally
orthogonal to the flight path or squinted in forward or backward direction. The antenna
aperture travels along the flight path during which the signal is transmitted at pulse
repetition frequency (PRF). Doppler bandwidth of the radar limits the lower boundary of
the PRF. The backscattered echo of each of these signals is commutatively added on a
pixel-by-pixel basis coherently to obtain the fine azimuth resolution.

Fig. 11 Stripmap imaging mode

5.2 Spotlight mode. The spotlight mode of radar imaging gives better resolution
for a given area of the scene. In this mode, the radar beam is steered continually as the
platform moves, so that the same patch is illuminated over a long period of time. This
mode has high azimuth resolution.

Fig. 12 Spotlight imaging mode

14
5.3 ScanSAR mode. In this mode, the antenna beam sweeps the swath
periodically and thus covers much larger area than spotlight and stripmap modes.
Consequently, the azimuth resolution becomes lower than stripmap mode due to
decreased azimuth bandwidth. Mosaic operation is required in azimuth and range
directions to finally arrive at the composite image of the swath.

Fig 13. ScanSAR imaging mode

6. Surface interaction with radar beam. When the radar wave reflects off
a surface, following basic properties of the surface come into play:

• Dielectric property
• Roughness (rms height relative to a smooth surface)
• Local slope

When EM wave interacts with a surface, it is called scattering. There are basically two
types of scattering; surface scattering and volume scattering. Surface scattering occurs
at the interface of two different homogeneous media such as the atmosphere and the
Earth's surface. Volume scattering is the interaction of the EM eaves with particles
within a non-homogeneous medium like a tree. Another type of scattering is called
double bounce scattering which generally results from building or structures which stand
erect on ground.

6.1 Surface scattering. A smooth surface acts as a mirror for the EM waves
and reflects them at an angle equal and opposite to the incidence angle ϴ. Most of the
incident energy is scattered away from the radar and therefore the intensity of the

15
resolution cell is very low. Thus a smooth surface is seen as black in the SAR image as
the echoes never reach the antenna. As per the Rayleigh criterion, a surface is smooth
when,

h < λ / 8 sinϴ

where,

h is the surface roughness, defined as the root-mean-square (rms) height relative to

a perfectly smooth surface

λ is the wavelength of the wave and,

ϴ is the angle of incidence.

Surface scattering can be of two types:

• Specular scattering – when the surface is smooth and the EM wave's angle of
incidence is equal to the angle of reflection and thereby obeys Snell's Law. It is
basically a mirror like behavior of the surface.

• Bragg Scattering - For a homogeneous medium having rough surface (an rms
height variation of less than λ/8), the scattering can be described using the Bragg
model. Any section of that spectrum which resonates with the incident wave will
produce a strong backscatter. The Bragg model is useful for describing the
backscatter from the ocean surface as the periodic ocean waves provide high
backscatter. When imaging slightly rough terrain with little vegetation, the Bragg
model can be used to classify rock types and ages based on the surface
roughness.

6.2 Volume Scattering. In practical world, natural surface results in both

surface and volume scattering due to inhomogeneous nature of surface. Depending on
the radar wavelength and the permittivity of the media, EM waves will penetrate the
surface to a certain depth. Since different material has different dielectric constants, the
media is dielectrically variant resulting in volume scattering. The fraction of the incident
wave reflected back to the radar antenna depends on the shape, density and orientation
of the media as well as on its relative permittivity.

6.3 Surface interaction with soil.

• Dry Soil. Some of the incident radar energy is able to penetrate into the soil
surface resulting in less backscattered intensity. So the radar image will show it
with low intensity.

16
 • Wet Soil. The large difference in electrical properties between water and air
results in higher backscattered radar intensity and also in lowering of the
penetration of the EM waves. This will appear on the radar image as bright area.

• Flooded Soil. Radar waves are specularly reflected off the water surface,
resulting in very low backscattered intensity. Therefore the flooded area appears
dark in the SAR image.

7. Polarimetric SAR.

7.1 Polarisation. Polarisation is the direction of the electric field of the EM

wave. In unpolarised waves, energy vibrates in all possible directions perpendicular to
the direction of travel. Radar antennas send and receive polarized waves which mean
that the electric field is pointing towards one direction. Polarisation can be vertical,
horizontal, circular or elliptical. In SAR application there are four ways of sending and
receiving waves vis-à-vis the polarization which are as below:

• VV - Sending vertically polarized and receiving vertically polarized waves.

• HH - Sending horizontally polarized and receiving horizontally polarized waves.
• VH - Sending vertically polarized and receiving horizontally polarized waves.
• HV - Sending horizontally polarized and receiving vertically polarized waves.

Amongst the above four configurations, VV and HH are called like-polarised or co-
polarised radar imagery and HV and VH are called cross polarized imagery.

7.2 SAR polarimetry. Polarimetric SAR systems show the capacity to separate
different scattering elements available in single SAR resolution cell. This model includes
scattering of EM waves from different scatterers based on polarization. Radar
polarimetry is the science of acquiring, processing and analyzing the polarization state
of an EM field. Anisotropic materials like grass or tree leaves often reflect different
polarization with different intensities and some also convert one polarization into
another. SAR emits a mixture of polarization and receives those using specific receiving
antennas.

SAR polarimetry uses a scattering matrix for quantifying the scattering behavior of the
targets on interaction with EM waves. The matrix is represented by a combination of all
the configurations of polarization states of transmitted and received signals. This can
also be called as quad-pol data set as has all the four configuration of polarization.

𝑆 𝑆𝐻𝑉
S = [ 𝐻𝐻 ]
𝑆𝑉𝐻 𝑆𝑉𝑉

17
 Fig. 14 Scattering matrix of a quad-pol data set

7.3 Stokes Vector. The polarization state of a plane monochromatic wave can
be represented by a vector called Stokes Vector,

𝑆⃗= [𝑆0 , 𝑆1 , 𝑆2 , 𝑆3 ]
For a fully polarized plane wave the stokes parameters are related by the identity,

𝑆02 = 𝑆12 +𝑆22 +𝑆32

The data from the scene is stored in the format of stokes vector wherein the Stoke
parameters are a convenient alternative to describe polarized waves in terms of its
intensity and polarization parameters.

Stokes Parameters,

18
 𝑆0 < |𝐸𝐻 |2 + |𝐸𝑉 |2 > 𝑆0
2 2
𝑆 < |𝐸𝐻 | − |𝐸𝑉 | > 𝑆0 cos 2𝜓 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜒
[ 1 ]= =[ ]
𝑆2 2 𝑅𝑒 < 𝐸𝐻 𝐸𝑉∗ > 𝑆0 sin 2𝜓 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜒
𝑆3 [ −2 𝐼𝑚 < 𝐸𝐻 𝐸𝑉∗ > ] 𝑆0 sin 2𝜓
Where, S0, S1, S2, S3 are the four stokes parameters

EH and EV are the received horizontal and vertical components of the electric field
vector.

Ψ is orientation angle and χ is ellipticity.

Stokes parameters can be derived from the radar data set which can be quad-pol in
nature which means it contains all the four configuration of the polarization, HH, HV, HH
and VH. Once, the Stokes parameters are known, the information regarding orientation
angle and the ellipticity of the polarization data can be derived. Fig. 14 shows the
various Stokes parameters in radar image form. In the image it can be clearly seen that
the first parameter image has high intensity as can be seen from the discussion above.
The intensities of the other parameters are lower than the first one as per the relation.

Fig. 15 Stokes parameters obtained from data set.

19
7.4 Decomposition of Polarimetric SAR. The main objective of decomposition
approach is to break down the polarimetric backscattering property of distributed
scatterers which is depicted as the superposition of different scattering contributions
within a resolution cell into a sum of individual scattering contributions. The method is
based on simple physical scattering mechanisms e.g. surface scattering, double-bounce
scattering, and volume scattering. The contributions are generally colour coded to give
an easily interpretable view of the radar image.

Fig. 16 Color coded image of an area post decomposing into three components

8. Conclusion. Synthetic Aperture Radar has high resolution capability

which is almost independent of flight altitude and is not dependent on weather. It has
day-night capability and hence can be operated 24 x 7 unlike optical systems. The
Polarization signatures can be exploited to obtain information regarding the physical
structure and dielectric properties of the scene. It has got wide applications areas
ranging from remote sensing to military applications. The scientific community has been
showing great interest in the development of SAR techniques to meet the commercial
and security related demands.

20
References

A. Moreira, P. Prats-Iraola, M. Younis, G. Krieger, I. Hajnsek and K. P. Papathanassiou,

"A tutorial on synthetic aperture radar," in IEEE Geoscience and Remote Sensing
Magazine, vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 6-43, March 2013.

Brown, William M, “Synthetic Aperture Radar,” in IEEE Transactions on Aerospace and

Electronic Systems, issue 2, pp. 217-229, March 1967.

W. M. Brown and L. J. Porcello, "An introduction to synthetic-aperture radar," in IEEE

Spectrum, vol. 6, no. 9, pp. 52-62, Sept. 1969.

Fitch, J Patrick. Synthetic Aperture Radar. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1988.

Harger, Robert C. Synthetic Aperture Radar Systems: Theory and Design, New York:
Academic Press, 1970

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synthetic-aperture_radar

http://www.radartutorial.eu/20.airborne/ab07.en.html

Video lecture on overview of SAR remote sensing by Shri. Shashi Kumar under
EDUSAT, IIRS Dehradun.

21