San Beda College Alabang

8 Don Manolo Boulevard, Alabang Hills Village, Cupang,

Muntinlupa, 1771 Metro Manila, Philippines

College of Arts and Sciences

Psychology Department

RESEARCH PROPOSAL TITLES FOR RESEARCH 1

MOSQUERA, REMI RAIN MARIELLE C

RAMOS, ROSE ELSA LEONIDA P.
PROTACIO, ROSELLE MICAELLA D.

In partial fulfilment for our subject this semester, Academic Year 2017-2018

MARCH 2018
Topic 1: “The Perceived Differences of Father Figure on the Emotional Attachment to Opposite Sex of
Selected College Students of San Beda College Alabang”

Abstract: This study aims to extend the existing literature by examining the influence of father
figures on the emotional attachment to opposite sex of selected college students of San Beda
College Alabang. It was hypothesized that adolescents who live with a biological or a non-
biological father figure, have a positive relationship, and those adolescents who communicate
with them regularly has a more favorable developmental outcomes in the form of higher levels
of achievement, high sociability skills, and more positive beliefs about fostering relationship
with other people. The results of this study only partially support the hypothesis in that
adolescents’ perceived closeness to father figures was not significantly related to any of the
observed outcome variables. Still, findings did indicate that father figures play an influential
role in the emotional attachment of their female child. The results of this study provided some
support for promoting the increased involvement of fathers and father figures in the emotional
development of their children regardless of their biological or residential status.

Conceptual Framework:
INDIVIDUAL
FIG. 1: RESEARCH PARADIGM OF
THE STUDY

GENDER

PRESENCE OF ABSENCE OF
FATHER FIGURE FATHER FIGURE

EMOTIONAL
ATTACHMENT TO
HYPOTHESIS: OPPOSITE SEX
1. There is no significant difference between the intensity of emotional attachment to
opposite sex of male students with or without father figures.
2. There is no significant difference between the intensity of emotional attachment to
opposite sex of female students with or without father figures.
METHOD:

RESEARCH METHOD: This research will be a quantitative research which will be approached through a
descriptive comparative design wherein description and comparisons of the nature of situations as it
exists and an exploration to the underlying causes that may affect the intensity and the level of
attachment of the respondents.

PROCEDURES: In this research, sixteen (16) participants will be gathered as our respondents. Eight (8)
students delineate the group with an absentee father through purposive sampling, while the other eight
(8) students will embody the group with present father figure through incidental sampling.

Extremely Extremely
Disagree Neutral Agree
Disagree Agree
I find it difficult to allow myself to
depend on others (Av)
People are never there when you
need them (Av)
I am comfortable depending on
others (S)
I know that others will be there when
I need them (S)
I find it difficult to trust others
completely (Av)
I am not sure that I can always
depend on others to be there when I
need them (Ax)
I do not often worry about being
abandoned (S)
I often worry that my partner does
not really love me (Ax)
I find others are reluctant to get as
close as I would like (Ax)
I often worry my partner will not
want to stay with me (Ax)
I want to merge completely with
another person (Ax)
My desire to merge sometimes
scares people away (Ax)
I find it relatively easy to get close to
others (S)
I do not often worry about someone
getting close to me (S)
I am somewhat uncomfortable being
close to others (Av)
I am nervous when anyone gets too
close (Av)
I am comfortable having others
depend on me (S)
 Often, love partners want me to be
more intimate than I feel comfortable
being (Av)

Adult Attachment Scale (AAS)

The Adult Attachment Scale (AAS) was officially developed in 1990 but built on the earlier work
of Hazen & Shaver (1987) and Levy & Davis (1988). The scale was developed by decomposing
the original three prototypical descriptions (Hazen & Shaver, 1987) into a series of 18 items.

The scale consists of 18 items scored on a 5 point likert-type scale. It measures adult
attachment styles named “Secure”, “Anxious” and “Avoidant”, defined as:

• Secure = high scores on Close and Depend subscales, low score on Anxiety subscale
• Anxious = high score on Anxiety subscale, moderate scores on Close and Depend subscales
• Avoidant = low scores on Close, Depend, and Anxiety subscales

The Adult Attachment Scale (AAS) was officially developed in 1990 but built on the earlier work
of Hazen & Shaver (1987) and Levy & Davis (1988). The scale was developed by decomposing
the original three prototypical descriptions (Hazen & Shaver, 1987) into a series of 18 items.

The scale consists of 18 items scored on a 5 point likert-type scale. It measures adult
attachment styles named “Secure”, “Anxious” and “Avoidant”, defined as:

• Secure = high scores on Close and Depend subscales, low score on Anxiety subscale
• Anxious = high score on Anxiety subscale, moderate scores on Close and Depend subscales
• Avoidant = low scores on Close, Depend, and Anxiety subscales

Reliability and Validity

Collins & Read (1990) reported Cronbach’s alpha coefficients of .69 for Close, .75 for Depend,
and .72 for Anxiety. Test-retest correlations for a 2-month period were .68 for Close, .71 for
Depend, and .52 for Anxiety.

JOURNAL:

The Impact of a Father on a Child’s Socio-Emotional Development (By David Millar, 2006)

The Paternal influence upon children has only recently become a more popular area of research
within the academic community. With the advent of various political lobby groups being pro
paternity, social scientists have begun to study the paternal influence upon a child’s
development. The information that we have to draw upon is very conflicting. Auerbach and
Silverstein argued that neither a mother nor a father is necessary (Auerbach & Sliverstein,
1999), whereas Farrell states that a father is essential for holistic well being of a child’s
development (Farrell, W., 2001).

Over the last couple of decades the emphasis has been taken off of father involvement
(presence or absence) to father sensitivity. So, rather than quantity of time spent with a child,
quality of time spent with a child is the more important factor (Journal of family Psychology,
2000). Just because a father is present does not mean that is a good thing for a child. In some
cases, for instance when a father is maladjusted or abusive, a child’s development can be better
without him (Lynn D B., 1974).

One of the factors that make fatherhood and its implications very hard to research is the
contextual framing around fatherhood. There is a much wider contextual frame around fathers
than mothers (Journal of family Psychology, 2000). There are many different types of fathers,
making it difficult to come up with any significant findings, however dealing with confounds can
become easier in this situation.

The vast majority of mothers are residential, making for good statistical findings, but harder to
compensate for confounds. The development of a child’s socio-emotional attributes has to be
multi-factorial and multidimensional, which makes looking at one specific factor of influence
very difficult. I will take a look at several theories of how the father impacts upon his children,
and any implications these theories would have upon the socio-emotional domain of how his
child develops. Furthermore I will then relate some studies to these theories.

Freud had a theory called the “Oedipus conflict” which is where a child desires sexually the
parent of the opposite sex, but is denied its desire by the other parent. Freud was convinced
that a father was responsible for the development of principles, rules and values of society
within a child, if the father was missing; the child’s view of his position in society was askew.
(Lynn, D.B., 1974) He thought the father represents the authority of society instilled in a child,
in which runs parallel with the concept of the superego, and its development.

Freud believed that men were more advanced than women, therefore the development of
“higher” brain functions were more associated with paternal influence. This view has been
challenged and virtually discounted. His theories were also based upon the ideas of
unconscious drives, meaning that a child was motivated to fulfill its drives.

Role of the Father according to Talcott Parson’s theory centers on the structure of the family
echoing the structure of society. Parsons postulates that any group must become one of two
functions; Expressive or Instrumental. One way of differentiating between these two roles was
between the sexes. With the male taking on most of the Instrumental role (but not entirely)
and with the female taking on most of the Expressive role (but not entirely) fathers were to
take on the instrumental role because they are traditionally less tied to child care, work more
often outside the home, are more involved with community affairs, in politics and just dealt
with more people in general.

According to Parsons the father not only brings the society into the family but brings the family
into society. He is supposed to bring discipline into a family so that child will accept
responsibility and eventually separate from its mother, becoming a part of society and then
starting the sequence all over again when the child then becomes a parent. There is the idea
that a mother’s love is unconditional, (ever heard the expression “a face only a mother could
love”?) but a father’s love is conditional upon what the child can do.

Once again the idea is that the father primarily is concerned with the incorporation of the child
into society. A mother’s love is to be cherished under this system but it belongs to the child and
the child cannot lose it, but a father’s love is to be earned and a father is the families
representative of society. Therefore if the father loves the child then society will as well.

In interviews, fathers were found to be more concerned for the emotional security and learning
of their child, whereas the mothers talked more about their child being free from anxiety.
Fathers also tended to stress the teaching of certain values or specific child rearing goals more
often than mothers. (Lynn D.B., 1974). When children were interviewed with regards to
perception about fathers in the same study, fathers were characterized as being strong,
powerful, potent, dominant, authoritative, and competent.

Attachment theory was coined by John Bowlby; it has a close partnership with evolutionary
psychology and Psychoanalytic ideals. It is argued that attachment is an evolutionary construct
in order to ensure the survival of the species, and that it is a two way system of ensuring the
continuation of the species.

Psychologists use this theory to explain the way the child – caregiver relationship progresses
the way it does, and has the long lasting impacts that it does. Secure attachment patterns in
children are very good predictors of child behavior, and behavior throughout the life span in
certain domains.

Bowlby specifically used the term “caregiver”, as the signals from the child, are supposed to
elicit the same reactions in any adult. Although he did say that this caregiver was normally the
mother. Recently though, different patterns within attachment have been discovered within
the attachments to mothers and fathers.

Mothers and Fathers interact with their children in different ways, fathers tend to play more
physically and induce more excitement from their children than do mothers as cited in (Berk, L.,
2006). Those fathers who are reacting appropriately to a child’s expression of emotion predict
positive emotional and social models of behavior in later childhood and adolescence. It is
theorised that fathers instil a sense of confidence to explore within relationships (Berk, L.,
2006). This idea also works in well with Parson’s theory.

Maccoby documented that the differences between the sexes were mostly within a social
context and not really with individual differences, as how most gender comparisons have been
performed (Maccoby E. 2000). Bearing this in mind, the father-child dyad can be assumed to be
different to the mother-child dyad, due to the mere fact that each parent is a different gender
and it is the social interaction with the dyads that we are concerned with. This fits in with
Freud’s and Parson’s theories, in that the mother and the father have distinct roles in child
development.
Franz et al found that the most significant predictor of empathy within children was paternal
involvement in child care. (Franz C., et al 1990, as cited in Farrell W., 2001) Farrell theorises that
fathers set clearer boundaries than do mothers, and this in turn teaches the child to respect
other’s boundaries. As per Parson’s theory, where children see their father as authoritive and
powerful, setting clear boundaries would be more associated with the father.

Clark-Stewart and Hayward’s study found that in the context of single parenting, children were
better off in the custody of their father (Clark-Stewart & Hayward 1996). Their study covered a
variety of psychological well-being assessments including self-esteem, anxiety, depression and
problem behaviors. This study also accounted for parental income, the psychological adjust of
both parents and time spent with the non-custodial parent.

Rebecca Ang’s study of aggressive boys in Asian schools found that the highest correlation with
aggression in boys is a bad relationship with the father (Ang, R., 2006). These studies highlight
the importance of father child relationships for socio-emotional development.

However, there have also been studies that have shown that same sex parenting has no
negative affect or effect upon child development (Auerbach. C & Sliverstein L., 1999). This
particular study argues that neither mothers nor fathers are essential for child development.
They state further more that “Neither the sex of the adults nor the biological relationship to the
child has emerged as a significant variable in predicting positive development”. Auerbach &
Sliverstein go on to say that they think it is preferable that both biological parents take a
responsible role in their child’s life, however they argue that it is not essential.

In conclusion, the study of parenting in general is very value laden, there have been books
written to discount other books. This makes finding any hard, unbiased evidence difficult. The
different theories also come from completely different perspectives, Freud’s theory states that
a child is actively seeking to have its goals met, whereas Parson’s theory subscribes neatly into
social learning theory, the child being like a sponge, and soaking up what is around it.

Attachment theory comes from a biological/evolutionary perspective, relying upon survivalist

ideas and motives to explain child behavior. Most of the recent studies however, do show that
paternal influences do have an effect upon child socio-emotional development.

FATHER’S PRESENCE:

Research literature supports the finding that a loving and nurturing father improves outcomes
for children, families and communities. Recent research results show that fathers who live with
their children are more likely to have a close, enduring relationship with their children. Other
results show that children with involved, loving fathers are significantly more likely to do well in
school, have healthy self-esteem, exhibit empathy and pro-social behavior, and avoid high-risk
behaviors including drug use, truancy, and criminal activity.

The National Responsible Fatherhood Clearinghouse (NRFC) recognizes that child poverty is
among the most pervasive social problems challenging Temporary Assistance for Needy
Families (TANF) and other poor households—due to the combination of children born to single
mothers, father absence, and high unemployment. The NRFC also recognizes that child poverty
can be reduced via supporting and strengthening the role of fathers in needy families via:

 Promoting and sustaining healthy marriages through a variety of activities, including

programs to teach couples marriage and relationship skills.
 Equipping men to be responsible fathers through skill-based parenting education.
 Assisting men to achieve financial stability in the form of more consistent and higher
earnings.
 Supporting incarcerated fathers in the development of healthy marriages and effective
fathering skills.
In addition, the NRFC recognizes the importance of father involvement and is guided by the
following principles:

 All fathers can be important contributors to the well-being of their children.

 Parents are partners in raising their children, even when they do not live in the same
household.
 The roles fathers play in families is diverse and related to cultural and community
norms.
 Men should receive the education and support necessary to prepare them for the
responsibility of parenthood.
 Government can encourage and promote father involvement through its programs and
through its own workforce policies.

The Forgotten Parent: The father’s contribution to infant development by Dorothea Kay
Stone, 2008 (abridged and adapted with permission by Malcolm Idoine).

Introduction

I cannot think of any need in childhood as strong as the need for a father’s protection (Freud,
1930/1961a, p32).

Much literature has been devoted to the infant’s relationship with its parents, yet the
importance of fathers to infants is still very much under-researched. This article focuses on the
father’s contribution to the child’s development during infancy. Several themes emerge: the
supportive father; the father object; the parental couple; the father and separation; the father
and gender identity.

The Supportive Father

From the time of conception, the father’s support is valuable for both the mother and the
infant. Even the knowledge that the father is thinking about the infant provides the mother
some relief and allows her to risk forgetting her child and have mental time out (Marks, 2002).

According to Winnicott (1960), the father’s role with the newborn is protecting the
mother/child relationship. This provides a secure environment for the mother, which in turn
enables her to provide a nurturing environment for the baby. The father can offer both physical
and emotional support. Physically he can help with practical matters. Emotionally the father’s
support allows the mother to cope better with the frustrations of motherhood (Winnicott
1964). In some cases, the father is required to provide parenting for the mother who is
struggling with the demands of mothering (Tuttman, 1986). Of course, fathers can also be 'good
mothers' — providing a sensitive and responsive quality of parenting.

The Father Object

The idea of an internal mental and emotional world is central to much psychotherapy. In this
inner world, we create representations of other people that are referred to as 'objects'. These
objects, created in early childhood, profoundly influence later emotional and mental health. As
such, understanding how these internal objects are formed is of central importance.

It is generally understood that the mother-infant pair is experienced by the infant as a single
entity. As such the mother object comes into being by being separated out from the merged
mother-infant dyad. In other words the infant experiences the mother as emerging from within.

How the father object develops is a matter of debate. Many writers argue that there is a
significant difference in how the mother object and the father object develop. They hold the
father is the first object to come from the external world, entering the infant’s consciousness
from the outside.

Following on from this various authors argue that the father and mother object have different
qualities. Davids (2002) maintains that the two objects occupy two mental domains of the
infant; the mother’s domain is that of nurturing, comforting and attending to the infant’s
needs, whereas the father’s domain consists of boundary setting and reality testing. Similarly
Wisdom (1976) explains that the father encourages the infant to tolerate frustrations, and to
bear difficulties.

Many writers have noted that fathers are often more exhilarating, interactional, playful and
stimulating than mothers in the way they relate to the infant. This include encouraging
muscular activity, a sense of body self and exploration of space.

Attachment theory

According to attachment theory, a secure relationship is essential to healthy development

(Bowlby, 1988). While the mother is usually the first person with whom the infant forms an
attachment, infants also develop attachments with a small number of other individuals
including fathers. As such the father offers an alternative attachment figure and a bridge to the
external world.

The Parental Couple

A strong relationship between the father and mother provides security and safety for the
infant. This provides the infant a “rock to which he can cling and against which he can kick”
(Winnicott, 1964, p.115). There is some evidence that if the parental couple is missing in the
mother’s (or father’s) mind, it can lead to an impairment to the infant’s capacity to think
clearly. The infant may feel forbidden to think about one parent in the presence of the other
(McDougall 1989). This interferes with the infant’s ability to think creatively (Feldman, 1989).
Indeed, Marks (2002) cites evidence that links poor parental relationship and impaired
cognitive and social development in the child.

The Father and Separation

The father becomes an important figure who can assist the child in separating from the mother
and provide a way into the world (Mahler & Gosliner, 1955). Indeed, an infant who lacks the
assistance of a third may struggle to emerge from the maternal relationship (Greenspan 1982).
Thus the father plays a crucial role in the disentanglement from the mother (Abelin 1975). One
way the father can do this by spending time with the infant away from the mother, knowing
that the child can be returned to a secure base with the mother (Bowlby 1969; Trowell, 2002).

The Father and Gender Identity

Coming to terms with the anatomical differences of sexes is an important and necessary
milestone. Benjamin (1988) asserts that the father’s role in assisting differentiation of self
makes a vital contribution to gender identity formation.

Many feminist psychoanalysts argue that the boy is at an advantage during this time, one
reason being that he has more motivation to separate from the mother because he does not
want to be associated with dependency. Society’s perception of the father as the powerful
other is also advantageous to the boy in the formation of gender identity.

For boys, fathers tend to respond more to their son’s needs and form a more intense bond of
identification (Lamb 1981 and Gunsberg 1982). Further, the father may recognise in his son’s
need his own need to dis-identify with his own mother which contributes to him treating his
son differently to his daughter (Benjamin, 1988). Benjamin (1991) adds that in addition to the
mother’s support of the boy's move towards independence, the boy is able to recognises
himself in his father and to feel both protected and powerful like him. Loewald (1951) contends
that the boy dreads re-engulfment by the mother and that identification with the father
provides support against a fear of fusion with the mother.

The ‘Good Enough Father’

Under optimal conditions, the father plays many roles for both the infant and the mother. From
the infant’s conception, the father supports the mother by providing a secure environment,
protecting the mother-infant child relationship, (Winnicott, 1960). If required he may provide
‘fathering’ or ‘mothering’ to the mother (Tuttman, 1986). Like the ‘good enough mother’ the
‘good enough father’ is not required to be perfect. Rather, he is required to fail from time to
time, enabling the infant to develop.

The father assists the infant in separation from the mother (Mahler et al., 1975). He provides a
source of early identification and offers support against re-engulfment by the mother (Loewald,
1951). The father is a model of work and the world (Winnicott, 1964) and represents
progression, independence, activity (Chodorow, 1989), boundary-setting and reality-testing
(Davids, 2002). He assists in the formation of gender identity (Stoller, 1968) and finally he
provides a real relationship for the infant (Winnicott, 1964).

The Actual Father and the Father Object

Under optimal conditions, the actual (real) father both offers a real relationship and contributes
towards the development of the father object. The actual father, being a male, possesses
qualities and attributes that are different to the mother. It is not only his role that influences
the infant, but the father by his very essence is different to the mother (Forrest, 1966) and the
infant can distinguish these subtleties in his presence.

The Father, Mother and Infant

Under optimal conditions, both father and mother are attuned to each other’s and the infant’s
needs. It is the complexities of these relationships that contribute to the infant’s development.
The father is one half of the ‘parental couple’ and the presence of this relationship in the
parent’s mind is important to the infant (Marks, 2002).

Conclusion

This paper has explored psychoanalysis’ growing appreciation of the role of the father for
infants. This includes the complex dynamics with the mother and the ‘parental couple’, and the
many variables that may affect the quality of fathering provided. Furthermore, the absence of
‘good enough fathering’ and its possible consequences and implications have been briefly
explored.

While mindful of the complexities of the role of the ‘father’, and differing theoretical
perspectives in the reviewed literature, I argue that the ‘good enough’ father plays a pivotal
role in the infant’s emotional development.

Father Absence and Its Effects on Daughters

(by Lisa Mancini, 2010)

Abstract

94% of the annulment cases that was filed in the Philippines were granted, with that 94%
fathers seem to be disappearing from their daughters’ lives. Research shows that girls and
young women who have an unstable father figure are more liable to unplanned pregnancy, pre-
marital sex, low-self-esteem, high school and college drop-out, poverty, divorce and sexually
promiscuous behaviors. This research examines and explains the reasons linking fathers’
absence to the problems of one’s daughter.

DEFINITION OF FATHER ABSENCE

Many sources agree on what constitutes father absence. In an article entitled, “Absent
Fathers.” on the website “dictionaryfordads.com” explains that absent fathers usually do not
reside with their children and in some cases those fathers are away for long periods of time.
This includes fathers who are divorced, annulled, separated, incarcerated, in the military, travel
regularly for business and are absent in the home more than they are present” (Absent Fathers
1). One article titled, “Father’s Absence Increases Daughter’s Risk of Teen Pregnancy” says that,
“the researchers [Bruce J. Ellis et al.] defined absence of the biological or adoptive birth father
at or before the child reached age 5 as early onset of father absence, while late onset of father
absence was defined as occurring when the child was between 6 and 13” (“Father’s Absence”).
The “Absent Fathers” article also states that divorce is the most common reason why fathers
are absent in America. A fatherless daughter can experience different kinds of loss, it can be
considered that they are survivors of trauma and agony from a young age. The impact of the
trauma may affect the daughter at every major developmental phase of her life.

EFFECTS OF FATHER ABSENCE ON DAUGHTERS

TEENAGE PREGNANCY

It is common knowledge that the United States has the highest rate of teen pregnancy.
Evidence supporting this trend in teen pregnancy is extensive. According to Rachel Nowak‟s
article titled, “Absent Fathers Linked to Teenage Pregnancies,” unintended pregnancies seem to
be linked to father absence (Nowak 1). Nowak says, “A team led by psychologist Bruce Ellis …
followed more than 700 girls [in New Zealand and the U.S.] from preschool to age 17 or 18,
monitoring 10 different aspects of their lives including family income, behavioral problems,
exposure to violence and parenting styles. They confirmed that teenage girls raised without
fathers are more likely to suffer from depression, drop out of school, and have other behavioral
problems” (Nowak 1). These traits suggest that the girl may be prone to sexually promiscuous
behavior, which thus spikes the teenage pregnancy rate in the U.S. The study also suggested
that the age the father became absent weighed heavily on the way it affected the daughter
(Ellis et al).When it comes to father absence and links to teenage pregnancy, timing is critical.
The article, “Father‟s Absence Increases Daughter‟s Risk of Teenage Pregnancy” noted that the
study done by Ellis and his colleagues found that, “… girls whose fathers left the family earlier in
their lives had the highest rates of both early sexual activity and adolescent pregnancy,
followed by those whose fathers left at a later age, followed by girls whose fathers were
present” (“Pregnancy” 1). One speculation as to why father absence is linked to teenage
pregnancy involves girls‟ earlier menstruation and „mirroring‟ their mother‟s behavior. Ellis‟
study postulated that the significant psychological effects a father‟s absence has on a girl may
jumpstart her experiences with males. Ellis suggests that, “… girls whose father is absent
undergo personality changes at an early age that make them more likely to interact with males.
Other studies show that girls raised in the absence in the absence of their fathers tend to sit
closer to and interact more readily with men” (Nowak 1). This evidence seems like common
knowledge to the one who believes that girls without fathers seek male attention to fill the void
in their life. However, it may surprise them to think that the mothers may influence their early
sexual behavior, too, thus resulting in the unplanned pregnancies.The article, “Study Sheds
Light on Why Girls With Absent Fathers Tend to Go Through Puberty Earlier Than Girls From
Intact Families” points to the fact that father absence may trigger a hormonal change in girls
that jumpstarts puberty, which may be the reason why fatherless girls tend to have unintended
pregnancies. The article cites, “Early puberty is often cited as a risk factor for young women,
linking them to early pregnancy and an array of health problems, such as breast cancer”
(“Study” 1). In this study conducted by Ellis and University of Canterbury and Christchurch
Jacqueline M. Tither it was observed that the longer the child was without a father figure the
earlier she began menstruating (“Study” 1). More notably, Ellis believes that it is the shifting
identity of the girls‟ fathers that sparks a bodily change that results in early puberty, as it is
stated here, “The theory that we‟re working from suggests that something about the children‟s
experiences in their families, and particularly about the presence of different members of the
families in the home, actually alters the reproductive axis and timing of puberty” (“Study” 1). In
addition, Ellis smartly relates this change to early human traits, where, “In the world in which
humans evolved, dangerous or unstable home environments meant a shorter lifespan, and
going into puberty earlier in this context increased chances of surviving, reproducing and
passing on your genes” (“Study” 1). This appears to bolster the fact that girls being reared in
single-mother homes tend to have higherrates of birthing illegitimate children. Teenage
pregnancy is usually indicative to sexual behavior.

PROMISCUITY

The actual study, titled “Does Father Absence Place Daughters at Special Risk for Early Sexual
Activity and Teenage Pregnancy?” conducted by Ellis et al., provides a more detailed and
comprehensive look at the factors of the timing of father absence in the daughter‟s life and it‟s
link to teenage pregnancy and sexually promiscuous behavior. The study states, “ … early
conduct problems and exposure to familial and ecological stressors consistently predicted early
sexual activity and adolescent pregnancy. Thus, girls‟ behavioral, familial, and ecological
profiles could potentially account for the relations between timing of the father absence and
subsequent sexual outcomes” (Ellis et al, 14). From this quote, Ellis postulates that the girls‟
personality, environment and lifestyle they are reared in affects her risk of teenage pregnancy.
In addition, the study, which was conducted over a period of at least 5 years, Ellis et al. also
discovered traits of the types of environments the girls live in when the father leaves before
age 13 (Ellis et al). A man is a crucial ingredient to a strong nuclear family. Mothers who are not
with a man may date several men to find a suitable mate for her and herchildren. According to
Ellis‟s study, the female child may, “…learn „dating‟ behavior earlier by mimicking their
mothers” (Nowak 1). Thus, girls‟ early dating behavior may be the reason why teenage
pregnancy is linked to father absence. This suggestion made by Ellis‟ research team buffers the
fact that there seems to be a trend that absent fathers are linked to teenage pregnancy and
promiscuous behavior. The promiscuous behavior in fatherless girls also leads one to question
their emotional health.

EMOTIONAL EFFECTS
Depending on the age, fathers who leave their daughters may leave them with emotional
wounds that can manifest in promiscuous behavior. Franklin B. Krohn and Zoe Bogan examine
this behavior trait that is associated with fatherless girls. They note, “Females without father
figures often become desperate for male attention … Females who lose their father figures to
divorce or abandonment seek much more attention from men and had more physical contact
with boys their age than girls from intact homes … These females constantly seek refuge for
their missing father and as a result there is a constant need to be accepted by men from whom
they aggressively seek attention (Bogan and Krohn 1). Fatherless daughters were shown signs
that they have been missing out on gaining a sense of security in life, as they missed out on
having their father in the home as their protector. As young girls grow into a woman, all of
these repressed emotions tend to burst out to the surface as a result of another significant
trauma, agony, loss or abandonment. This lack of understanding of her current emotional
reaction can be often seen as over-reaction to others and it can leave one feeling guilty,
isolated, misunderstood, and sometimes out of control. In addition to this, a journal that was
written in 2016 by Denna Babul, RN & Kena Luise, PhD, they stated in that said journal that
specifically, fatherless women have been documented to experience lower levels of well-being,
higher levels of anger-related depression, and emotional difficulty in intimate relationships. The
hallmark psychological fall-out, however, those fatherless women carry an overriding, often
disabling, fear of abandonment.

EDUCATION

It has been cited that a girl‟s academic performance may plummet due to little or no
interaction her father. Krohn and Bogan state that fathers play a significant role in their
daughter‟s math skills and, “Mathematics is typically associated with masculinity therefore
females without father figures may have less interest in the subject matter. Female high school
seniors were more likely than their male peers to say they did not take mathematics and
science courses because they disliked the subject matter … females are discouraged from
pursuing a career in mathematics and father absence contributes to this phenomenon by not
providing them with a male role model to stimulate interest” (Krohn and Bogan 2). The authors
mention that the lack of encouragement can stem from feeling unprotected by their fathers,
and may feel insecure, even when it comes to their future education (Krohn and Bogan 2).
Moreover, they state that “Stability is another important aspect affecting the lives of females,
which inevitably shape their college careers. Fathers‟ absence not only hinders their ability to
make sound decisions, it also triggers negative reactions as opposed to positive ones … a
confident base enables females to be successful in theirendeavors and accomplish what they
attempt” (Krohn and Bogan 2). This stunt in intellectual growth may affect a fatherless girl‟s
chance at financial success. Due to an increased chance of lack of education and teenage
pregnancy, fatherless females‟ financial futures are at risk for poverty. The article, “Why the
absence of dads increases the number of children in poverty” by Richette L. Haywood states
that, “A principal reason for the increased number of children living at or below the poverty
level, according to the recently released report Kids Count, is the rise in absentee fathers”
(Haywood 1). One indicator of poverty is that single parent homes do not have as much access
to resources (Haywood 1).
POVERTY

Due to an increased chance of lack of education and teenage pregnancy, fatherless females‟
financial futures are at risk for poverty. It is obvious that families without a father lack a source
of income. It is especially difficult for a single mother to provide ample financial health to her
children. The article, “Why the absence of dads increases the number of children in poverty” by
Richette L. Haywood states that, “A principal reason for the increased number of children living
at or below the poverty level, according to the recently released report Kids Count, is due to the
rise in absentee fathers” (Haywood 1). One indicator of poverty is that single parent homes do
not have as much access to resources (Haywood 1). According to the article titled, “The Father
Factor: Facts of Fatherhood,” cites the U.S. Census Bureau‟s data from March 2002 titled
“Children's Living Arrangements and Characteristics.” The U.S. Census Bureau states, “Children
in father-absent homes are five times more likely to be poor. In 2002, 7.8 percent of children in
married-couple families were living in poverty, compared to 38.4 percent of children in female-
householder families,” (Fatherhood 1).

CONCLUSION
It is critical that fathers remain to be a crucial ingredient to healthy and successful families.
Without fathers, daughters are kind of deprived of a significant amount of love, confidence, and
self-worth. Research has shown that the effects of father absence are highly detrimental to the
overall wellbeing of their daughters. It is believed that the catalyst of father absence is divorce
and in our country today, annulment. Thus, to rectify this social problem, we must all learn to
prepare for healthy marriages and learn the dynamics of marriage to decrease the amount of
fathers lost to divorce or annulment. Loss of a father to death, war, careers and any natural
phenomenon is inevitable; however, we can learn to ameliorate the number of involved fathers
by making wiser choices.
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