As 4282 - Lighting-Control of The Obtrusive Effects

AS 4282—1997
Australian Standard
Control of the obtrusive effects

of outdoor lighting
Accessed by CLOUGH ENGINEERING on 12 Dec 2001
This Australian Standard was prepared by Committee LG/10, Obtrusive Effects of
Outdoor Lighting. It was approved on behalf of the Council of Standards Australia on
29 October 1997 and published on 5 December 1997.
The following interests are represented on Committee LG/10:

The Association of Consulting Engineers Australia
Astronomical Society of Australia
Australian Electrical and Electronic Manufacturers Association
Brisbane City Council
Illuminating Engineering Society of Australia and New Zealand
Local Government and Shires Association of N.S.W.
Outdoor Advertising Association of Australia Inc
University of Sydney
WORKS Australia Department of Administrative Services
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This Standard was issued in draft form for comment as DR 96417.

AS 4282—1997
Australian Standard
Control of the obtrusive effects

of outdoor lighting
First published as AS 4282(Int)—1995.

Revised and redesignated as AS 4282—1997.
PUBLISHED BY STANDARDS AUSTRALIA

(STANDARDS ASSOCIATION OF AUSTRALIA)
1 THE CRESCENT, HOMEBUSH, NSW 2140
ISBN 0 7337 1675 X
AS 4282— 1997 2
PREFACE
This Standard was prepared by the Standards Australia Committee LG/10, Obtrusive
Effects of Outdoor Lighting, to supersede AS 4282(Int) — 1995.
With any outdoor lighting it will rarely be possible to contain all light within the
boundaries of the property on which the lighting system is installed. Some light will
inevitably be spilled outside the property boundaries, either directly or by reflection. The
determination of when the spill light becomes obtrusive to others is difficult since both
physiological and psychological effects are involved.
Local government plays an important role in controlling the obtrusive effects of outdoor
lighting through the development approvals process, and in resolving neighbourhood
disputes involving residents who experience discomfort or annoyance from nearby outdoor
lighting installations. Some local government authorities have applied restrictions on the
frequency of use and hours of operation of outdoor lighting, and on the levels of light
spilled beyond the boundaries of the subject site.
The objective of this Standard is to provide a common basis for assessment of the likely
effects of developments that involve the provision of outdoor lighting. However, it should
be noted that the potentially obtrusive effects of the lighting will normally be only one of
a number of environmental considerations that will need to be addressed. Compliance with
this Standard, i.e. with the recommended limits for the various light technical parameters,
will therefore not usually be the sole basis for the approval of particular development
proposals.
Where any doubt exists on the potential effects of a specific proposal, appropriate persons
with competence in the fields of illuminating engineering and environmental design
should be consulted. This applies particularly to installations that are large in extent or
that are otherwise of a nature which may require a formal development impact statement.
This Standard does not address the requirements which may be necessary for the lighting
system to facilitate the activities for which it is designed. In this respect, for sports
lighting installations, reference should be made to the appropriate Standard in the
AS 2560 series.*
The term ‘informative’ has been used in this Standard to define the application of the
appendix to which it applies. An ‘informative’ appendix is only for information and
guidance.
* The Standards published in the AS 2560 series as at the date of publication of this Standard are as follows:
AS
2560 Guide to sports lighting
2560.1 Part 1: General principles
2560.2.1 Part 2.1: Specific recommendations— Lighting for outdoor tennis
2560.2.2 Part 2.2: Specific recommendations— Lighting of multipurpose indoor sports centres
2560.2.3 Part 2.3: Specific recommendations— Lighting for football (all codes)
2560.2.4 Part 2.4: Specific recommendations— Lighting for outdoor netball and basketball
2560.2.5 Part 2.5: Specific recommendations— Swimming pools
2560.2.6 Part 2.6: Specific recommendations— Baseball and softball
2560.2.7 Part 2.7: Specific recommendations— Outdoor hockey
2560.2.8 Part 2.8: Specific recommendations— Bowling greens
3 AS 4282 — 1997
CONTENTS
Page
FOREWORD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
SECTION 1 SCOPE AND GENERAL

1.1 SCOPE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. .. .. ... ........ 6
1.2 APPLICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... ... .. .. .. .. ... .. 6
1.3 REFERENCED DOCUMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ..... .. ...... ... .. 7
1.4 DEFINITIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... .. .. . ... .. ..... 7
1.5 DEMONSTRATION OF COMPLIANCE . . . . . .. .. .. . .. ........... 9
SECTION 2 POTENTIAL OBTRUSIVE EFFECTS AND ASSOCIATED LIGHT

TECHNICAL PARAMETERS
2.1 SCOPE OF SECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.2 THE PURPOSES OF OUTDOOR LIGHTING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.3 TOTAL ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF A DEVELOPMENT . . . . . . . . 10
2.4 POTENTIAL EFFECTS OF OUTDOOR LIGHTING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.5 INFLUENCE OF SURROUNDING DEVELOPMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.6 SPECIFIC EFFECTS AND RELEVANT LIGHT TECHNICAL
PARAMETERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.7 RECOMMENDED LIMITS FOR LIGHT TECHNICAL PARAMETERS . . . 13
SECTION 3 DESIGN, INSTALLATION, OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE

3.1 SCOPE OF SECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. 20
3.2 DESIGN OBJECTIVES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . 20
3.3 DESIGN GUIDELINES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . 21
3.4 INSTALLATION AND COMMISSIONING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 25
3.5 MAINTENANCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . 26
3.6 REMEDIAL MEASURES FOR EXISTING INSTALLATIONS . . . . . . .. .. 26
SECTION 4 COMPLIANCE WITH DESIGN OBJECTIVES

4.1 SCOPE OF SECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
4.2 STATEMENT OF OBJECTIVES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
4.3 SUPPORTING DOCUMENTATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
SECTION 5 CALCULATION OF LIGHT TECHNICAL PARAMETERS

5.1 SCOPE OF SECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . 30
5.2 DETERMINATION OF ILLUMINANCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . 30

5.3 DETERMINATION OF LUMINOUS INTENSITIES . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . 32
5.4 DETERMINATION OF THRESHOLD INCREMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . 41
SECTION 6 MEASUREMENTS OF LIGHT TECHNICAL PARAMETERS

6.1 SCOPE OF SECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
6.2 CHECK MEASUREMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
APPENDICES
A GENERAL PRINCIPLES FOR CONTROL OF THE OBTRUSIVE
EFFECTS OF OUTDOOR LIGHTING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
B BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
C INVESTIGATIONS INTO THE OBTRUSIVE EFFECTS OF OUTDOOR
LIGHTING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
D ILLUSTRATION OF FLOODLIGHT CLASSIFICATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
AS 4282— 1997 4
FOREWORD
The content and recommendations of this Standard are based on surveys of interested
parties, i.e. local government, electricity utilities and the lighting industry; on studies of
people’s reaction to obtrusive light; on the extent of spill light from lighting installations;
and on precedents for the regulatory control of obtrusive light. Further information is
provided in Appendix C.
Several aspects of potential obtrusiveness are considered, viz. the light falling on
surrounding properties, the brightness of luminaires in the field of view of nearby
residents, the glare to users of adjacent transport systems and the effects on astronomical
observations (see Clause 2.6). For the control of these effects, the limiting values of the
light technical parameters recommended in Tables 2.1 and 2.2 have been developed taking
account of the following:
(a) The level of lighting existing in the area.
(b) The times that the proposed lighting is to operate.
(c) The type of lighting technology available to light the activity.
(d) The use of readily available and easily understood technical data on the lighting
installations which can easily be verified at the design and assessment stages.
(e) The data contained in the experimental survey and analytical studies into obtrusive
light which are summarized in Appendix C.
These criteria have been employed to ensure that the Standard is both credible to the
interested parties and pragmatic in application.
However, the data indicate that the limiting values of illuminance at windows and of the
intensity of bright light sources, necessary to satisfy the large majority of people as being
at all times unobtrusive, are rather low. Furthermore, these values can easily be exceeded
with conventional lighting practice, especially if the area of activity being lit is large and
the required light level is relatively high. Thus, the potentially conflicting requirements
for dark hours activity and the maintenance of amenity and environmental integrity have
to be resolved.
Therefore, two sets of limiting values are given dependent on the levels of lighting
already in the area. One, with higher values, is for application before a nominated or
curfew hour set by local government and one, with lower values, is for application after
that hour. The majority of outdoor lighting systems likely to be subject to this Standard
are expected to operate only before the curfew hour.
The less restrictive values are predicated on dark hour activity taking place whilst giving
passive recipients of spill light relief from it being excessively obtrusive. The limiting
values are based on the use of conventional lighting technology but with good practice
being employed through the selection of appropriate lighting levels, floodlighting
equipment and aiming practices.
The more restrictive values, applying after the curfew hour, are predicated on the
maintenance of amenity and environmental integrity being the dominant considerations.
The spill light at these times should be such that it will not be obtrusive to the large
majority of recipients. To achieve this goal the need for the proposed lighting and its use
during curfewed hours should be considered in the first instance. If the lighting is to
operate during curfewed hours then careful attention needs to be given to the limitation of
spill light, including consideration of the type of lighting system to be used, the type of
floodlights (i.e. light distribution) and their specific location and aiming, and the need for
the fitting of louvres, baffles or shields.
5 AS 4282 — 1997
Public lighting has been excluded from this Standard because such lighting is provided to
facilitate all-night safety and security for the public at large. Such lighting is normally
supplied from the switched public lighting network. Requirements aimed at minimizing
the obtrusive effects of public lighting are addressed in the AS/NZS 1158 series of
Standards. For traffic routes, AS/NZS 1158.1.1* has introduced the upward waste light
ratio (UWLR) as a parameter to control the amount of light emitted in directions above the
luminaires.
Internally illuminated signs often require the evaluation of additional factors such as
colour, movement and cyclic operation. Hence, it was decided to defer consideration of
appropriate guidelines until a later time.
The obtrusive effects of brightly lit surfaces, e.g. floodlit buildings and externally lit
advertising signs, are not addressed in this Standard but may be the subject of future
consideration. However, the Standards covers the obtrusive effects produced indirectly by
these forms of lighting, in terms of the parameters specified in Section 2.
Lighting installations that are designed for colour television broadcasting have been
excluded from the Standard for the following reasons:
(i) They normally require preparation of a formal environmental impact statement
which will include consideration of the effects of any lighting.
(ii) Specialist lighting consultants are usually employed in the design of such
installations.
(iii) High values of vertical illuminance are required for camera operation which will
necessitate special consideration for their control.
Visual intrusion caused by the daytime appearance of outdoor lighting systems, including
associated support structures, is not addressed in this Standard. Whilst the subject is
important, the issues involved are of more general application involving aesthetics and
environmental design.
* As at the date of issue of this Standard, the following Standards have been issued in the AS/NZS 1158
series:
AS/NZS
1158 Road lighting
1158.0 Part 0: Introduction
1158.1.1 Part 1.1: Vehicular traffic (Category V) lighting—Performance and installation design
requirements
1158.1.3 Part 1.3: Vehicular traffic (Category V) lighting—Guide to design, installation, operation and
maintenance
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AS 4282— 1997 6
STANDARDS AUSTRALIA
Australian Standard
Control of the obtrusive effects of outdoor lighting
S E C T I O N 1 S CO P E A N D G E NE R A L
1.1 SCOPE This Standard sets out guidelines for the control of the obtrusive effects of
outdoor lighting except for those applications specifically excluded below. It includes
recommended limits for the relevant lighting parameters to control these effects. As the
obtrusive effects of outdoor lighting are best controlled by appropriate design, the
guidance given is primarily applicable to new installations; however, some advice is also
provided on remedial measures that may be taken for existing installations.
This Standard specifically refers to the potentially adverse effects of outdoor lighting on
nearby residents (e.g. of dwellings such as houses, hotels, hospitals), users of adjacent
roads (e.g. vehicle drivers, pedestrians, cyclists) and transport signalling systems (e.g. air,
marine, rail), and on astronomical observations.
This Standard does not apply to—
(a) public lighting, as defined in Clause 1.4.10;
(b) internally illuminated advertising signs;
(c) the obtrusive effects of brightly lit surfaces, e.g. floodlit buildings, and externally lit
advertising signs;
(d) lighting systems which are installed for the purposes of colour television
broadcasting;
(e) lighting systems which are of a cyclic or flashing nature; and
(f) environmental impacts associated with the daytime appearance of outdoor lighting
systems, including their support structures.
Notwithstanding Item (c) above, whilst this Standard does not cover the obtrusive effects
of the bright objects themselves, it does apply to any indirect effects produced in terms of
the light technical parameters of Table 2.1.
NOTES:
1 Some lighting installations may require, in terms of planning ordinances, the preparation of
an environmental impact statement as a prerequisite for obtaining development approval.
2 See the Foreword for further information on the specific exclusions outlined above.
3 Appendix A sets out general principles that should be applied in the design of outdoor
lighting for the control of obtrusive effects.
1.2 APPLICATION This Standard is intended for reference by the following:

(a) Planning bodies, particularly local government authorities, to assist in assessing the
potential obtrusiveness of outdoor lighting installations.
(b) Designers of outdoor lighting as an aid to producing lighting systems that control
obtrusive effects to an acceptable degree.
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7 AS 4282 — 1997
1.3 REFERENCED DOCUMENTS The following documents are referred to in this

Standard:
NOTE: See Appendix B for the bibliographical details of various sources of information
relevant to the subject of this Standard.
AS
1158 The lighting of urban roads and other public thoroughfares (known as the SAA
Public Lighting Code)
1158.1 Part 1: Performance and installation design requirements
1158.2 Part 2: Computer procedures for the calculation of light technical parameters
for Category A lighting
2560 Guide to sports lighting
2560.1 Part 1: General principles
2560.2 Specific recommendations (all parts)
2560.2.1 Part 2.1: Lighting for outdoor tennis
3665 Simplified definitions of lighting terms and quantities
AS/NZS
1158 Road lighting
1158.1.1 Part 1.1: Vehicular traffic (Category V) lighting— Performance and
installation design requirements.
CIE/IAU
1 Guidelines for minimising urban sky glow near astronomical observatories.*
ABCB†
Building Code of Australia
1.4 DEFINITIONS For the purpose of this Standard, the definitions given in AS 3665
and those below apply.
1.4.1 Control direction —a representative direction, in the principal plane of the
luminaire light distribution, which is used for the purpose of evaluating compliance with
the maximum luminous intensities recommended in Tables 2.1 and 2.2.
NOTE: See Paragraph A3.3, Appendix A, and Clause 5.3.2.1, for further information on the
control direction and its determination.
1.4.2 Dwelling — a building in which people normally reside, especially during the hours
of darkness, e.g. house, hotel, motel, hospital.
NOTE: This will include buildings of Class 1, 2, 3 and 4 in terms of the Building Code of
Australia.
1.4.3 Floodlight —a specific form of luminaire which emits light within a limited range
of directions, i.e. a beam.
NOTE: Within this Standard, the terms ‘luminaire’ and ‘floodlight’ may be used
interchangeably.
1.4.4 Habitable room — a room within a dwelling that is normally occupied by people
for extended periods, especially at night, e.g. living room, bedroom, study.
1.4.5 Lighting installation—that part of a lighting system which comprises the
luminaires and their supporting structures, installed at the location or property concerned.
* Joint publication of the International Commission on Illumination (CIE) and the International Astronomical
Union (IAU ).
† Australian Building Codes Board (formerly Australian Uniform Building Regulations Co-ordinating
Council) .
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AS 4282— 1997 8
1.4.6 Luminaire—apparatus which distributes, filters or transforms the light transmitted

from one or more lamps and which includes, except for the lamps themselves, all the parts
necessary for fixing and protecting the lamps and, where necessary, circuit auxiliaries
with the means for connecting them to the electric supply.
1.4.7 Obtrusive light—spill light which, because of quantitative, directional or spectral
attributes in a given context, gives rise to annoyance, discomfort, distraction or a
reduction in the ability to see essential information, e.g. signal lights.
1.4.8 Outdoor lighting—any form of permanently installed exterior lighting and interior
lighting systems which emit light that impacts on the outdoor environment.
1.4.9 Principal plane (of the luminaire light distribution)— the vertical plane through
the luminaire which contains the reference direction.
1.4.10 Public lighting — lighting provided for the purposes of all-night safety and
security on public roads, cycle paths, footpaths and pedestrian movement areas within
public parks and gardens, but not including car parks.
NOTE: Recommendations for public lighting are covered in the AS/NZS 1158 series.
1.4.11 Reference direction —the direction of the maximum luminous intensity from a
floodlight or, where there is no unique maximum, the direction of the centre of the light
beam.
NOTES:
1 The reference direction will generally be the direction of the origin to which the luminous
intensity distribution is referred.
2 The reference direction and the control direction lie in the same vertical plane, i.e. the
principal plane through the luminaire.
1.4.12 Relevant boundary —any boundary of a residential property over which it is

physically possible for spill light from the subject lighting installation to pass and directly
impact upon either —
(a) a dwelling located on the subject property; or
(b) the potential site of a dwelling if there is no development on the subject property.
NOTE: A boundary screened by a high opaque fence or other substantially continuous physical
barrier that obstructs direct light, preventing it from reaching the dwelling, does not comprise a
relevant boundary (see Figure 2.1 and Clause 5.2.1). The physical barrier may be anywhere
between the subject lighting installation and residential property.
1.4.13 Residential property — land upon which a dwelling exists or may be developed,
e.g. land zoned for residential development.
1.4.14 Sky glow —the brightening of the night sky that results from the reflection of
radiation (visible and non-visible), scattered from the constituents of the atmosphere
(gaseous, molecules, aerosols and particulate matter), in the direction of observation. It
comprises two separate components as follows:
(a) Natural sky glow —that part of the sky glow which is attributable to radiation from
celestial sources and luminescent processes in the Earth’s upper atmosphere.
(b) Artificial sky glow —that part of the sky glow which is attributable to man-made
sources of radiation (e.g. outdoor electric lighting), including radiation that is
emitted directly upwards and radiation that is reflected from the surface of the
Earth.
1.4.15 Spill light (stray light)—light emitted by a lighting installation which falls
outside the boundaries of the property on which the installation is sited.
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9 AS 4282 — 1997
1.4.16 Threshold increment (TI)—the measure of disability glare expressed as the

percentage increase in contrast required between an object and its background for it to be
seen equally well with a source of glare present.
NOTE: Higher values of TI correspond to greater disability glare.
1.5 DEMONSTRATION OF COMPLIANCE Compliance with this Standard should

be deemed to have been achieved if the relevant recommendations in Tables 2.1 and 2.2
are satisfied, using the calculation and design methods set out herein.
Compliance with this Standard does not necessarily imply that consent to the proposed
development will be granted by the relevant authority (see Preface and Clause 2.3).
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AS 4282— 1997 10
S E C T I O N 2 P OT E NT I A L O B T R U S I VE
E F F E C TS A N D A S S O C I A T E D L IG H T
T E C H N I C A L P A R AM E T E R S
2.1 SCOPE OF SECTION This Section describes purposes for which outdoor lighting
is provided and the potential effects that such lighting may have on surrounding areas. It
also describes how the importance of these effects may be influenced by the nature of the
surrounding areas and puts forward recommended limits for the relevant light technical
parameters which should contain the effects to within tolerable levels.
2.2 THE PURPOSES OF OUTDOOR LIGHTING Outdoor lighting is provided for a

variety of purposes, examples of which are as follows:
(a) For work or recreation—to enable people to see essential detail, in order that they
may undertake the work or recreation activities at night for which the area is
intended, e.g. freight yards, sporting fields.
(b) For safety or security—to light the area so as to facilitate the safety or security of
persons or property, e.g. lighting of roads or pedestrian pathways, perimeter lighting
or floodlighting of building facades.
(c) For amenity—to light features of architectural or historical significance, or to light
parks or gardens.
(d) For advertising or display—to promote products or services, e.g. lighting of
advertising signs, or to give emphasis to commercial premises by means of lighting.
Irrespective of the purpose for which the lighting is to be installed, consideration should
be given to the potential obtrusive effects of the lighting system, both by night and by
day.
2.3 TOTAL ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF A DEVELOPMENT For any

development requiring outdoor lighting, the environmental impact from the lighting will
not be the only impact. It may not be the most important impact. Other factors relating to
the uses which are facilitated by the lighting system could be more significant than the
lighting system itself, e.g. noise, traffic or parking.
Lighting is often the focus of complaints because it is, by nature, highly visible and is the
means by which the conduct of the night activity is made possible. The potential effects
of the lighting should therefore be assessed, as part of the overall impacts of a
development, by the relevant development approval authority.
The impact of a lighting installation on the environment is not limited to the imposition of
obtrusive light. The designers of a lighting installation should be encouraged to utilize

luminaires and light sources that efficiently direct the light into the area required, thereby
minimizing the energy consumption and waste light.
2.4 POTENTIAL EFFECTS OF OUTDOOR LIGHTING Outdoor lighting, no

matter how well designed, will generally have some effect on the environment in which it
is installed.
The objectives of the lighting may be incompatible with the containment of light within
the intended area of application. For example, some activities require the illumination of a
volume or space, not just of a surface at ground level. The following examples illustrate
this point:
(a) Lighting for certain sports, e.g. tennis, where it is essential to be able to see the
movement of the ball in the space above the playing surface to an appropriate
height.
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11 AS 4282 — 1997
(b) Lighting a freight terminal where it is necessary to identify containers in multiple

container stacks.
(c) Security lighting at or adjacent to the property boundary.
For such applications, light needs to be directed at high angles to illuminate the space
satisfactorily but this can create difficulties in controlling the light spilled beyond the
boundaries of the installation. Restriction of direct views of bright luminaires also
becomes difficult.
There will also be a general diffusion of light within the lit space resulting from reflection
from surfaces and atmospheric scattering.
As well as the potential effect on the night environment, the daytime appearance of the
lighting installation is important. The size and nature of the lighting support structures
may be intrusive by day although this subject is not addressed in this Standard
(see Foreword and Clause 1.1).
In the design and installation of an outdoor lighting system, consideration should be given
to the potential effects of the lighting on occupants of surrounding properties and on
transport users in the vicinity of the installation. These effects include the following:
(i) Changes to the amenity of an area due to the intrusion of spill light into otherwise
dark areas, both outdoors and indoors, and to the direct view of bright luminaires.
(ii) A reduction in the ability of transport system users to see essential details of the
route ahead, including signalling systems, due to glare from bright luminaires.
(iii) Changes to night sky viewing conditions due to a general luminous glow, i.e.
skyglow, caused by the scattering of light in the atmosphere.
People will have a range of reactions to the installation of outdoor lighting; responses
may vary from positive acceptance to outright rejection. The degree of response will
depend, in part, on the nature of surrounding developments (see Clause 2.5), past
experiences, novelty of the installation, and frequency and times of operation.
NOTE: Appendix C gives details of investigations into the obtrusive effects of outdoor
lighting, including summaries of experimental data on the reactions of persons to obtrusive
light.
2.5 INFLUENCE OF SURROUNDING DEVELOPMENTS The perception of the

lighting system may be significantly influenced by the following factors:
(a) The zoning of the area abutting the proposed development. There is a greater
potential for complaints where the area is zoned for residential development.
(b) The state of development of the area described in Item (a), i.e. whether the area is
sparsely settled or fully built-up.
(c) The topography of the area surrounding the lighting installation. Residential
developments which are at a lower level than that of the lighting installation should
be particularly considered, where a direct view of the luminaires is possible.
(d) Physical features such as adjacent tall buildings, trees and spectator stands, which
may be effective in restricting light spill beyond the boundaries of the development.
(e) The presence or absence of other lighting in the immediate area and the type of
lighting involved. The effect of the proposed lighting will be lessened where the
surrounding area is reasonably well lit, e.g. arterial road lighting or lighting from
adjacent commercial developments.
(f) The location of the proposed development relative to—
(i) areas of special significance, e.g. areas having cultural, historical or scientific
importance;
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AS 4282— 1997 12
(ii) harbours, airports, waterways, roads or railway systems where spill light from
the proposed development may interfere with the visibility of signalling
systems; or
(iii) community and scientific optical observatories where spill light from the
proposed development may interfere with astronomical observations.
2.6 SPECIFIC EFFECTS AND RELEVANT LIGHT TECHNICAL PARAMETERS

2.6.1 Effects on residents Effects on residents generally involve a perceived change in
amenity arising from either of the following:
(a) The illumination from spill light being obtrusive, particularly where the light enters
rooms of dwellings that are normally dark, e.g. bedrooms. The illuminance on
surfaces, particularly vertical surfaces, is an indicator of this effect.
(b) The direct view of bright luminaires from normal viewing directions causing
annoyance, distraction or even discomfort. The luminance of a luminaire, in a
nominated direction, is an indicator of this effect. However, because luminance data
is not normally provided by luminaire manufacturers and because of difficulties
associated with the measurement of luminance, recommendations in this Standard
are expressed in terms of the luminous intensity in specified directions.
The tolerable levels of each of these light technical parameters will be influenced by the
ambient lighting existing in that environment. This will be determined largely by the
degree and type of the development of the area and by the road lighting in place.
Values of the light technical parameters that are acceptable during the earlier hours of the
evening may become intolerable if they persist at later times when residents wish to sleep.
2.6.2 Effects on transport system users Effects on road users (e.g. motorists, cyclists,
pedestrians) normally involve a reduction in the ability to see caused by disability glare
from bright light sources. The contrast of other objects and the surrounds to the user will
be lowered, rendering them less visible or even invisible, especially if the environment is
intrinsically dark. The magnitude of the effect will depend on the level of lighting to
which the user is adapted. The relevant indicator is the threshold increment which is also
used to specify the limitation of glare in road lighting (see AS/NZS 1158.1.1).
Where transport systems operate in the proximity of a proposed outdoor lighting
installation, the relevant transport authority (i.e. road, marine, waterway, rail or air)
should be consulted. Statutory requirements may apply; for example, regulations issued by
the Civil Aviation Authority apply to the effect of outdoor lighting on air navigation.*
2.6.3 Effects on transport signalling systems Effects on transport signalling systems
will normally involve a reduction in the visibility of the signals either by—
(a) disability glare, as described in Clause 2.6.2; or

(b) visual clutter, where signals are viewed against a competing background of other
lights; the effect is exacerbated if these lights are coloured.
Where signals are in the proximity of a proposed outdoor lighting installation, the relevant
road, marine, waterway, rail or air transport authority should be consulted. Statutory
requirements sometimes apply; for example, regulations issued by the Civil Aviation
Authority apply to the effect of outdoor lighting on air navigation.*
* See References 3 and 4 in Appendix B.
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2.6.4 Effects on astronomical observations Effects on astronomical observations will

generally involve the modification of night sky viewing conditions by—
(a) lightening of the dark sky caused by the scattering of light from the installation in
the atmosphere, producing a luminous glow (i.e. sky glow);
(b) the spectral characteristics of the sky glow, so that the light from the glow is not
readily filtered out by optical means at the telescope; or
(c) direct light from the installation falling on the observatory.
Where outdoor lighting installations are proposed in the vicinity of community or
scientific optical observatories located in suburban environments, the limitations of spill
light and luminance of luminaires in nominated directions in accordance with Clause 2.6.1
will mitigate the adverse effects of direct light falling on the optical surfaces of the
telescope.
Sky glow is an area-wide problem which is less amenable to control. Because sky glow is
caused both by reflected light and direct light from the installations, restricting design
illuminances to the minimum necessary for the application will provide additional
mitigation. For example, AS 2560.2.1 recommends various minimum illuminances for
tennis, depending on the level of play involved.
The problem of sky glow may be mitigated if exterior lighting in the immediate vicinity
of the observatory, including local road lighting, utilizes low pressure sodium lighting. If
this measure is to be implemented, close consultation will be needed between all the
parties involved, i.e. observatory, local community and electricity utility.
Where a major scientific optical observatory is involved, the above points are still
pertinent. However, limitations on spill light may be imposed over a considerable area
surrounding the observatory as part of a long-term plan to maintain satisfactory night sky
viewing conditions (see Refs 5 and 13, Appendix B). Such plans should be based on
guidelines set out by the International Commission on Illumination and the International
Astronomical Union*. There may be specific local government ordinances in this regard;
consequently, both the local council and the managing body of the observatory should be
consulted.
NOTE: A list of community and scientific optical observatories is available from the
Astronomical Society of Australia (Designated Observatories Officer), c/o School of Physics,
University of Sydney, N.S.W. 2006.
2.7 RECOMMENDED LIMITS FOR LIGHT TECHNICAL PARAMETERS

2.7.1 Applicable limits The light technical parameters identified in Clause 2.6 as
indicators of potential obtrusive effects are listed in Table 2.1. Recommended maximum
values are given in that Table and in the associated Table 2.2 for various situations on the
basis of present knowledge, experience and precedent. Although these values should
control the obtrusive effects, they will not necessarily ensure that a complying installation
will receive no adverse reaction from those affected by the spill light.
NOTE: Appendix A gives summaries of several studies which were considered when
formulating the limits recommended in Tables 2.1 and 2.2.
For the reasons stated in Clauses 2.6.1 and 2.7.2, two sets of limits are given in Table 2.1
for the parameters E v and I based on the times that the lighting system is to operate.
Unless otherwise specified by the controlling authority, the times for determining which
set of limits applies, i.e. curfewed hours, should be taken as being between 11 p.m. and
6 a.m.
* The relevant guidelines are set out in CIE/IAU Publication No.1.
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If the lighting system is to operate only during pre-curfew hours, the designer may elect
to have compliance based on the assessment methods and limits applicable to curfewed
hours. In this case, compliance with the recommended limits for curfewed hours is
deemed to satisfy the limits for pre-curfew hours.
The lower limit for application during curfewed hours need not apply where it can be
demonstrated that there will be no adverse effects on residents, i.e. no nearby residential
development, either existing or planned. (See also Clauses 5.2 and 5.3.)
Where a different curfew time applies for other reasons (e.g. noise control), consideration
should be given to the coordination of the curfews, i.e. allowing sufficient time of
operation for the lighting after the conclusion of the activity to facilitate crowd dispersal,
particularly where large numbers of spectators are involved.
Figure 2.1 gives an example illustrating the application of the limits for E v and I.
2.7.2 Basis for differentiation of limits for E v and I according to times of operation
The studies reported in Appendix C indicate that the limiting values for E v and I
necessary to satisfy a large majority of the population at all times are rather low. The
values can easily be exceeded from conventional lighting practice, especially if the area to
be lit is large and the illuminance necessary to facilitate the activity is relatively high.
There is, therefore, a potential conflict between the lighting requirements necessary to
facilitate an activity and the maintenance of amenity and environmental integrity. The
solution that has been adopted is to recommend two sets of limits for E v and I, based on
the times that the lighting is to operate, as follows:
(a) Limits for pre-curfew hours The higher of the two sets of limits apply for
operation of the lighting before a nominated or curfewed hour (see Clause 2.7.1 and
Table 2.1). These limits are expected to apply for the majority of lighting
installations subject to this Standard.
The pre-curfew limits have as their objective the facilitation of the intended activity
whilst giving passive recipients of spill light relief from it being excessively
obtrusive. The limiting values for pre-curfew operation are based on the use of
conventional lighting technology, but good practice in stray light control will need
to be employed by the selection of appropriate lighting levels, lighting equipment
and aiming.
Compliance with the pre-curfew limits in Tables 2.1 and 2.2 may be demonstrated
by a check on the application of good practice, using a relatively simple analysis of
the situation based on representative conditions, i.e. property boundaries for Ev and
control direction for I.
The use of the control direction method, for assessing compliance with the
pre-curfew limits for I, is generally suitable for regularly shaped areas that are to be
lit using luminaires with conventional photometric distributions, positioned outside

the area to be lit. However, in some circumstances, the use of this method may be
found to restrict the choices of luminaire distribution, positioning and aiming, the
ability to satisfy lighting performance requirements, or may not meet the intent of
this Standard.
The suitability of the method will normally be determined during the design of the
lighting system; hence the lighting designer may elect to use the curfewed hours
method of assessment and associated intensity limits, as an alternative to the control
direction method and its limits, to demonstrate compliance for pre-curfew times.
NOTE: The curfewed hours method is more onerous to calculate and places greater
restrictions on allowed intensities, but the method requires that calculations be done at
actual site locations where obtrusive light could be a problem, rather than for a
representative direction.
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15 AS 4282 — 1997
(b) Limits for curfewed hours The lower of the two sets of limits apply for operation
of the lighting during curfewed hours during which times maintenance of the
amenity and environmental integrity of the area become the dominant
considerations. The more restrictive limits are necessary to ensure that the degree of
obtrusiveness will be acceptable to the large majority of recipients of spill light.
This implies consideration of the necessity for and the use of the lighting during
curfewed hours. If lighting is to be operated during these hours, particular attention
will need to be given to the limitation of spill light by careful design and the
selection and aiming of lighting equipment.
Demonstration of compliance with the limits in Table 2.1 for curfewed hours will
require a detailed analysis of the situation with the identification of potential
problem locations, e.g. windows of dwellings and specific viewing directions of
concern.
2.7.3 Basis for differentiation of limits in Table 2.1 according to area type The
limits given for E v, I and TI in Table 2.1 are differentiated according to the area type. The
differentiation takes account of land use zoning which, in part, reflects the level of night-
time activity to be expected in the area. The ambient or pre-existing lighting in the area is
characterized by the nature of the road lighting abutting the affected properties.
2.7.4 Assessment of compliance
2.7.4.1 General Compliance with the limiting values recommended in Tables 2.1 and
2.2 should be assessed on the basis of calculations of the applicable light technical
parameters in accordance with Section 5.
The values recommended in Tables 2.1 and 2.2 refer to the installation alone. When
evaluating a proposed lighting installation for compliance with Tables 2.1 and 2.2,
account should be taken of existing obtrusive light. If there is already significant
obtrusive light from existing lighting, the designer of the installation should endeavour to
achieve values of light technical parameters that are well within the recommended limits.
If there is likely to be a significant addition to the vertical illuminance as a consequence
of reflected light (see Clause 3.3.5), the designer should endeavour to achieve values of Ev
that are well below the recommended maximum.
2.7.4.2 Assessment procedure The following procedure should be adopted when
assessing compliance with the applicable values of the light technical parameters in
Tables 2.1 and 2.2:
(a) Step 1 Determine the times of operation of the lighting installation, either —
(i) operation up to a pre-set or curfew time only, e.g. switch-off not later than
11 p.m.; or
(ii) operation beyond 11 p.m. (or any earlier time set by the controlling
authority), e.g. all-night operation (see Clause 2.7.1).
(b) Step 2 Determine the ‘application and calculation conditions’ in Column 2 of
Table 2.1. If in Step 1 it is determined that Item (a)(i) applies, then the ‘pre-curfew
conditions’ will normally be appropriate. However, the designer may elect to use the
calculation conditions and the associated recommended maximum values for the
curfewed hours, instead of the control direction method for assessing luminous
intensity only (see Clause 2.7.1).
In addition, if the proponent of an installation wishes to demonstrate that superior
control of obtrusive effects has been achieved in the design of the lighting system,
then the ‘curfewed hours conditions’ and the associated recommended maximum
values of the relevant light technical parameters may be adopted in their entirety. If
in Step 1 it is determined that Item (a)(ii) applies, then the ‘curfewed hours
conditions’ are those that should be assumed.
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(c) Step 3 Determine the limiting values of the relevant light technical parameters, as
follows:
(i) Identify the light technical parameters relevant to the installation. Note that
the threshold increment may not be relevant if the installation is not in the
vicinity of a transport system (see Clauses 2.6.2 and 2.6.3).
(ii) Calculations should be made, as set out in Section 5, for the ‘application
conditions’ that relate to the times of operation, as determined from Steps 1
and 2.
(d) Step 4 Determine that the values of the light technical parameters comply with the
recommended limits. Compare the values obtained in Step 3 with the maximum
recommended values for the light technical parameters as set out in Columns 3, 4
and 5 of Table 2.1, taking account of the following:
(i) The relevant column is that which matches the assessment of the area in
which the lighting installation is sited (see Clause 2.7.3).
(ii) If the installation has been nominated, in Step 2, to be assessed under
‘curfewed hours conditions’ then, in all cases, the associated maximum
recommended values should be used.
(iii) If the installation has been nominated to be assessed under ‘pre-curfew
conditions’ using the control direction method, then the calculated values of
luminous intensity in the control direction should be compared to the
relevant recommended maximum values in Table 2.2, taking into account the
size of area and level of control required.
It should be noted that the use of Level 1 control is to be preferred to
Level 2, wherever practical, since this will, potentially, yield the more
environmentally acceptable installation.
(e) Step 5 Document details of the compliance of the installation. If the calculated
values of the relevant light technical parameters are equal to or less than the
associated values set out in Tables 2.1 and 2.2, then these values should be
incorporated in compliance documentation, as set out in Section 4.
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17 AS 4282 — 1997
TABLE 2.1
RECOMMENDED MAXIMUM VALUES OF LIGHT TECHNICAL PARAMETERS
FOR THE CONTROL OF OBTRUSIVE LIGHT
(See Clause 2.7)
1 2 3 4 5
Recommended maximum values
In commercial
Light areas or at Residential areas
Application or calculation conditions
technical boundary of
(see also Figure 2.1 and Section 5)
parameter commercial
and residential Light Dark
areas* surrounds† surrounds‡
Illuminance Pre-curfew:
in vertical Limits apply at relevant boundaries of nearby
plane residential properties, in a vertical plane
(Ev) parallel to the relevant boundary, to a height 25 lx 10 lx 10 lx
commensurate with the height of the
potentially affected dwellings. Values given
are for the direct component of illuminance
Curfewed hours:
Limits apply in the plane of the windows of
habitable rooms of dwellings on nearby
residential properties. In the absence of
development (i.e. vacant allotment), the limits
apply on the potentially affected property, in a 4 lx 2 lx 1 lx
vertical plane parallel to the relevant
boundary, at the minimum setback permitted
for a dwelling, to a height commensurate with
land use zoning provisions. Values given are
for the direct component of illuminance
Luminous Pre-curfew : Limits as determined from Table 2.2.
intensity Limits apply to each luminaire (irrespective of Alternatively, the limits and method of assessment
emitted by the number on a head frame) in the principal associated with curfewed hours may be applied, at
luminaires plane, for all angles at and above the control
the discretion of the designer (see Clauses 2.7.1
(I) direction, when aimed in accordance with the
and 2.7.2)
installation design
Curfewed hours:
Limits apply in directions where views of
bright surfaces of luminaires are likely to be
troublesome to residents, from positions where 2 500 cd 1 000 cd 500 cd
such views are likely to be maintained, i.e. not
where momentary or short-term viewing is

involved
Threshold Limits apply at all times where users of
20% based on 20% based on 20% based on
increment transport systems are subject to a reduction in
adaptation adaptation adaptation
(TI) the ability to see essential information. Values
luminance (L̄) luminance (L̄) luminance (L̄)
given are for relevant positions and viewing
of 10 cd/m 2 of 1 cd/m 2 of 0.1 cd/m2
directions in the path of travel
* Applies to residential accommodation in commercial areas or at the boundary between commercial and
residential areas. The term ‘commercial’ is used as a generic description for zoning which provides for urban
uses other than residential.
† Where the affected property abuts roads that are lit to Category V5 or higher in accordance with
AS/NZS 1158.1.1.
‡ Where the affected property abuts roads that are lit to Category B1 or lower in accordance with AS 1158.1, or
where there is no lighting.
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AS 4282— 1997 18
TABLE 2.2
MAXIMUM LUMINOUS INTENSITY PER LUMINAIRE
FOR PRE-CURFEW OPERATING TIMES
(See Table 2.1)
1 2 3 4
Area description Maximum luminous intensity from each luminaire*
Level 1 control Level 2 control
Controlling dimension
Size of area (Note 1) (Note 2)
(Figure 5.1)
Large >75 m 7 500 cd 100 000 cd
Medium ≥25 m ≤75 m 7 500 cd 50 000 cd
Small <25 m 2 500 cd 25 000 cd
* Limits apply to each luminaire (irrespective of the number on a head frame) in the principle plane, for
all angles at and above the control direction, when aimed in accordance with the installation design
(see Clause 5.3.2.1).
NO TES:
1 Level 1 control is appropriate for development control of environmentally sensitive areas, i.e. where the
existing environment is of high quality, where abutting properties are close to the installation, where
they are residential in nature, where the existing ambient light levels are low and where the community
requires the best available environmental safeguards to be applied.
As the use of Type C cut-off luminaires† is likely to be necessary for Level 1 control, the
implementation of this level of control will normally be possible only for lighting applications that
require relatively high illuminances over areas that are small to medium in size, e.g. lighting for tennis
courts or hockey fields. However, Level 1 control may also be suitable for larger areas where lower
illuminances are appropriate, e.g. for car parks and outdoor storage areas.
2 Level 2 control will permit the use of a wide range of currently used lighting techniques but will limit
intensities in the control direction to what might reasonably be expected by careful attention to design
and the selection and aiming of luminaires, especially for applications involving Type A luminaires†.
† See Appendix D for details of these luminaire classifications.
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19 AS 4282 — 1997
NO TE: The pre-curfew assessment of I is based on representative conditions (see Clause 5.3.2.1 and
Paragraph C3.3, Appendix C). The assessment of Ev and I for curfewed hours requires details of dwellings
(see Property 2 and Property 4).
FIGURE 2.1 EXAMPLE SHOWING APPLICATION OF LIMITS FOR E V AND I
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AS 4282— 1997 20
S E C T I O N 3 D ES I G N, I N S T A L L A T I O N ,
O P E R A T I O N A ND M A I N TE NA N C E
3.1 SCOPE OF SECTION This Section describes the measures by which spill light
can be controlled or its adverse effects ameliorated. These measures relate to the design,
installation, operation and maintenance of outdoor lighting.
The greatest potential for achieving satisfactory control of spill light is at the design
stage. The emphasis of the advice given in this Section is, therefore, on measures relating
to the design of new installations. However, advice is also given on remedial action that
may be taken for existing installations (see Clause 3.6).
3.2 DESIGN OBJECTIVES

3.2.1 Establishment of objectives It is essential that the objectives for the design be
clearly established. These objectives should combine quantitative and qualitative
expressions of—
(a) lighting objectives relevant to the intended function of the area; and
(b) objectives relevant to limitation of the obtrusive effects of the lighting installation.
The definition of these objectives is the responsibility of the client (i.e. proposer of the
development) in conjunction with the lighting designer, having regard to any statutory
requirements that may apply. The objectives should clearly differentiate between pre- and
post-curfew operation of the lighting installation to facilitate development of a design that
satisfies the applicable recommendations of Clause 2.7.
The procedures for establishing the objectives are discussed in Clauses 3.2.2 and 3.2.3.
3.2.2 Funct ional or performance-relat ed objectives W ith ref erence to
Clause 3.2.1(a), the primary objective should be to provide lighting levels and other
lighting parameters that are appropriate for the activity, in accordance with any
recommendations contained in relevant Standards or other authoritative lighting
publications. If, for any reason, lighting levels higher than those recommended for the
activity are to be provided, it should be noted that the potential for spill light will be
increased and greater attention will need to be given to this aspect of the design.
The quality of the lighting is not necessarily improved by adopting higher lighting levels.
Improved visual conditions for the participants of the activity can often be obtained by
giving greater attention to the uniformity of illuminance over the design area and the
control of glare from luminaires.
3.2.3 Environmental objectives With reference to Clause 3.2.1(b), a careful analysis
should be made of the environment in which the lighting system is to be located. This
will include the identification of—
(a) areas adjacent to the development which are likely to be sensitive to spill light; and
(b) relevant values of light technical parameters which will need to be satisfied
(see Table 2.1).
This analysis will require a detailed knowledge of the surrounding area (either from an
examination of plans or by site inspections) including the location and dimensions of
buildings, facades and outdoor living areas. The extent of the information required will
depend on the size of the installation and the sensitivity of the environment in which the
installation is to be placed.
The times that the lighting installation is to operate should be clearly established as this
will influence the required degree of spill light control and the extent of the
environmental and design analysis needed (see Clauses 2.7, 5.2 and 5.3).
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21 AS 4282 — 1997
It is usually the responsibility of the client to provide the lighting designer with the
foregoing information.
A list of the checks that may need to be conducted to assess the potential obtrusiveness of
outdoor lighting is provided in Figure 3.1.
3.3 DESIGN GUIDELINES

3.3.1 Examination of alternatives Before arriving at the final design, consideration
should be given to alternative lighting systems with respect to their capability of fulfilling
both the functional and environmental design objectives established from Clause 3.2.
When evaluating possible alternatives, attention should be given to the recommendations
of Clauses 3.3.2 to 3.3.5.
Table 3.1 provides information on the effects on spill light that may result from changing
various parameters of the lighting installation.
3.3.2 Location of illuminated area/activity When there is some flexibility as to where
the illuminated area/activity can be placed, it should be located and oriented where it will
have the least effect on existing or potential developments. Advantage should be taken of
any screening which may be provided by the surrounding topography or other physical
features, e.g. buildings, trees or earth embankments.
3.3.3 Selection of luminaires The selected luminaires should have a light output
distribution that is appropriate for the application and, when correctly located and aimed
in accordance with the design, should not emit excessive light outside the boundaries of
the property on which the installation is sited. To facilitate an adequate assessment of
compliance with the relevant criteria of Tables 2.1 and 2.2, photometric performance data
will be required for all angles at which light is emitted by the luminaires, not just for the
angles that define the useful light output, e.g. the beam of a floodlight.
For environmentally sensitive sites, particular attention should be given to the selection of
floodlights with good spill light control. Systems for classifying floodlights in terms of
their beam shape and divergence are described in AS 2560.1, and may be used for the
specification of design requirements.
NOTE: Appendix D gives a summary of the floodlight classification systems specified in
AS 2560.1.
For sports lighting installations, attention should be given to the floodlight beam
classifications recommended for the particular application in the AS 2560.2 series.
Louvres, baffles or shields may be fitted to floodlights to control spill light but account
should be taken of the effect of these devices on the performance of the lighting system.
3.3.4 Siting and aiming of floodlights The required locations for floodlights are often
determined by the nature of the activity for which the lighting is provided. For example,
for sports lighting applications, the AS 2560.2 series gives recommended locations for
floodlights based on the visual needs of players and spectators. Small departures from the
recommended positions may be acceptable if this will result in a greater degree of control
of the spill light; however, excessive departures to suit environmental needs may negate
the effectiveness of the lighting installation for its intended purpose.
As the illuminance reduces in proportion to the inverse of the square of the distance from
the floodlight, it follows that the greater distance the floodlights can be set back from the
property line, the lower will be the illuminances at and beyond the property line.
The objective of the design should be to ensure that, as far as is practicable, direct view
of the bright parts of the floodlights is prevented from positions of importance at
eye-height, on neighbouring properties. Where possible, advantage should be taken of the
shielding which may be provided by trees, earth embankments, spectator stands or other
existing physical features.
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Check potenti al obtr usive effects of lighti ng installation
Check eff ects on residents Check eff ects on road users, Check eff ects on tr ansport Check eff ects on
e.g. motori sts, cyclists and pedestr ians signalling systems, e.g. air , astronomical
road, rail, marine observati ons
Check existence of planning regulati ons applicable

to outdoor lighting
Check with controlling

Check potenti al views of lighting installation, both authori ty for possible Identify locations of
by day and by night, including likely eff ects on interference with visibility community or scientific
views of the general surr oundings of signals optical observatories
Identif y positi ons and directions of view in
the path of travel where a reduction in
Determine the ti mes that the lighti ng is to operate visibilit y might have signifi cant
consequences, e.g. at bends, intersecti ons
and crests Check whether the
luminaires used and their
location and aiming will Check existence of
result in a confusing planning controls
Identify relevant boundaries of Identif y locati ons within nearby background for viewing related to observatories
nearby residential propert ies residential properti es where a the signals
(for pre-curf ew assessment) dir ect view of bri ght surf aces of
luminaires is likely to be
troublesome e.g. patios,
verandahs of adjacent dwellings

Identify positions and
dir ecti ons of view in the Assess possible
Identify windows of habit able Check for physical features path of tr avel where a interference fr om
rooms of nearby dwellings (e.g. vegetation, buildings) that reduction in visibility might lighting installation
(for post-curfew assessment) can be utilized to screen have signifi cant
luminaires fr om crit ical consequences
dir ections of view
Assess installati on for Assess installati on for Assess installati on for compliance Check the illuminances
compliance with recommended compliance with recommended wit h recommended limit s for TI in proposed are not excessive in
limit for Ev in Table 2.1 limit for I in Table 2.1 and Table 2.1 relation to those recommended
Table 2.2 for the activity
NOTE: All of the actions listed will not necessarily apply to every installation. Additional checks may need to be undertaken for unique situations.
FIGURE 3.1 CHECKS OF POTENTIAL OBTRUSIVENESS WHICH SHOULD BE UNDERTAKEN IN THE DESIGN OF OUTDOOR LIGHTING
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23 AS 4282—1997
TABLE 3.1
POSSIBLE EFFECTS ON SPILL LIGHT FROM CHANGES TO THE INSTALLATION PARAMETERS*
1 2 3 4 5 6
Parameter Dimension Advantages Disadvantages Influence on design Comments
1 Mounting Greater — Less spill light —More conspicuous by day — Narrower beams — Higher mounting implies more
height ↑ — Simplified shielding —Tighter beam control conspicuity but allows better control of
 — Less glare from luminaires — More downward spill light
 (see comment in Column 6) aiming
 — Mounting height may be determined
 by lighting requirements, e.g. in
 relevant Standards, or vertical
 illuminance component required for
 — Less conspicuous by day — More spill light — Smaller lamps the application
 — More difficult to shield — Wider beams
 — More glare from luminaires — More upward aiming — The listed advantages and
 (see comment in Column 6) disadvantages are reversed for Type C
 cut-off floodlights that incorporate a
↓ pre-set aiming angle, i.e. with no
Smaller means of adjusting the beam
2 Set back Greater — More spill light — Narrower beams
↑ — More difficult to shield — More outward or

 higher aiming — Set back may be determined by
 physical constraints, requirements for
 — Less spill light — Wider beams unobstructed views, safety to users
↓ — Simplified shielding — More inward or lower
Smaller aiming
3 Luminous Greater — Greater efficiency — More spill light —Requires higher

flux ↑ mounting or set back
output  — Fewer luminaires
(per  — Reduces control —Flux output should be selected to
luminaire)  match beam distribution availability to
 — Less efficiency — More luminaires allow efficient and controlled design
↓ — Increases control
Smaller
(continued)
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TABLE 3.1 (continued)
1 2 3 4 5 6
Parameter Dimension Advantages Disadvantages Influence on design Comments
4 Beam type Controlled — Controls spill light — May need more luminaires — Permits light to be well
and distri- (narrow beam or — Reduces need for shielding to light the area directed
bution sharp cut-off)
↑
 — Beam classification does not
 necessarily determine spill
 light control or shielding
— Reduces light containment — Limited directional of high lamp luminances
 — Difficult to shield control of light

↓
Uncontrolled
(wide beam)
5 Distance to Greater — Reduces effect of spill light — Less effect on adjoining — Greater distances from
adjoining ↑ — Simplifies shielding property lighted area to property line
property  — Isolates installation from simplifies containment of
 adjoining properties spill light

 — Increases spill light — Increases need for good
 — Makes shielding more light control

difficult
↓
Smaller
6 Vertical High — More spill light — High vertical illuminance — High aim generally not
aiming ↑ — Lamp more visible contribution recommended due to
angle  — Difficult to shield difficulty in controlling
 spill light


 — Less spill light —High horizontal
 — Lamp less visible illuminances
 — Simplified shielding — Low vertical
illuminances
↓
—Simplifies control of
Low spill light
* In this Table, consideration is generally given to the effect of changing one parameter at a time. In practice, it is possible to compensate for the variation of one parameter by
changing another simultaneously. For example, by increasing set back and mounting height together, aiming angles may be kept constant.
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25 AS 4282—1997
When determining the mounting height of the luminaires, consideration should be given to
the following:
(a) Higher mounting heights can often be more effective in controlling spill light
because floodlights with a more controlled light distribution (i.e. narrower beam)
may be used and the floodlights may be aimed in a more downward direction,
making it easier to confine the light to the design area.
(b) Lower mounting heights may have the advantage of making the lighting installation
less obtrusive by day but can accentuate its effect on the night environment by—
(i) increasing the light spill beyond the property boundaries because, to
illuminate the space satisfactorily, it will often be necessary to use
floodlights with a broader beam and to aim the floodlights in directions
closer to the horizontal than would apply for the case described in Item (a);
and
(ii) making bright parts of the floodlights more visible from positions outside the
property boundary for the same reasons as outlined in Item (i).
The principles described above are illustrated in Figure 3.2.
For sports lighting applications, the AS 2560.2 series provides recommendations for the
mounting heights and aiming angles of floodlights based on the visual needs of the
participants and spectators.
NOTE: General principles that should be applied in the design of outdoor lighting, including
principles relating to the siting and aiming of floodlights, are set out in Appendix A.
3.3.5 Reflective properties of illuminated surface The recommended limits for E v in
Table 2.1 are expressed in terms of the direct illuminance component. However, account
should also be taken of the reflected illuminance component (See Clause 2.7.2).
The reflected illuminance component will depend on the intrinsic reflecting properties of
the illuminated surface. In many cases the reflected illuminance will be low, e.g. where
natural grass or asphaltic surfaces are used, but may be significant where the surface is
relatively light in colour, e.g. uncoloured concrete, artificial grass with sand infill or light
coloured walls.
Where the designer has a choice of surfaces, it is desirable that a surface with the lowest
practical reflectance be selected, compatible with the function of the area.
3.4 INSTALLATION AND COMMISSIONING The lighting equipment installed

should be that specified in the approved design. Where for any reason the use of
alternative lighting equipment is desired, a check should be made with the designer that it
will fulfil the functional and environmental objectives (see Clause 3.2).
At the time of commissioning, a check of the lighting installation should be made to

confirm that the luminaires are of the correct type and are located and aimed in
accordance with the design. It is important that a night inspection be conducted to assess
the completed installation and to make final adjustments to the aiming and screening
which may be needed to satisfy the design objectives.
If light controlling devices, which were not part of the original design, are fitted (e.g.
screens or louvres), it should be noted that—
(a) such devices may adversely affect the performance of the lighting system; and
(b) the mechanical strength of the luminaire fixings and supports may be affected
because of the additional wind loading the devices impose.
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3.5 MAINTENANCE Maintenance inspections of the installation should include a

check of luminaire aiming and screening to ensure that the installation continues to
comply with the objectives of the design, including environmental criteria.
The light emitting/reflecting surfaces of floodlights should be cleaned at the intervals
recommended in the design of the lighting system. The soiling of these surfaces will
modify the light distribution by increasing the general diffusion (scattering) of light
emitted, resulting in a possible increase in spill light.
Light controlling surfaces of the luminaires (e.g. reflectors, glass visors) should be
cleaned at intervals that are appropriate to the luminaire type (e.g. IP rating) and the
environment in which it is located. See AS 2560.1 for guidance.
NOTE: When the light controlling surfaces become dirty there will be an increase in the general
diffusion of the emitted light, thereby increasing unwanted spill light. This applies particularly
for luminaires with highly directional beams, e.g. narrow-beam floodlights.
3.6 REMEDIAL MEASURES FOR EXISTING INSTALLATIONS Where an

existing installation system is deemed to be unacceptable from an environmental
viewpoint, one or more of the measures described below may be necessary.
If an existing floodlight is objectionable, consideration should be given to installing
devices (e.g. hoods, screens or louvres) to restrict the emission of high intensities in the
critical directions. Alternatively, it may be possible to slightly re-aim the floodlight to
achieve the same purpose. However, it is important to note that in either case the
performance of the lighting system may be affected.
If the lighting installation is to be refurbished, consideration should be given to the
replacement of the floodlights with equipment giving improved light control. If the
lighting installation is overdesigned relative to the performance criteria recommended for
the application, it may be possible to use lamps of a lower rated output or, in some cases,
to reduce the number of floodlights used.
Consideration should also be given to the provision or utilization of physical barriers to
restrict light spill beyond the boundaries of the site. Such barriers may take the form of
dense shrubs, trees, fences, earth embankments or shadecloth screens.
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NO TE: Higher mounting heights enable the floodlights to be aimed in a more downward direction, restricting
the spill of direct light. Lower mounting heights may result in less visual intrusion by day but, because the
floodlights need to be aimed in directions closer to the horizontal, unwanted light can be projected some
distance from the installation. Also, there is a greater possibility that the bright parts of floodlights will be
visible from a considerable distance away.
FIGURE 3.2 EFFECT OF MOUNTING HEIGHT

ON THE CONTAINMENT OF DIRECT LIGHT
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S E C T I O N 4 C O M P L I A N C E W I T H D E S I G N
O B J E C T I V E S
4.1 SCOPE OF SECTION This Section sets out the information which should be
provided to a development approval authority to facilitate assessment of a proposed
lighting scheme for compliance with environmental design objectives, particularly those
objectives which relate to the light technical parameters given in Tables 2.1 and 2.2. See
also Clause 1.5 with respect to demonstrating compliance with the recommendations of
this Standard.
Whilst it is the duty of the lighting designer to demonstrate compliance with the light
technical parameters of Tables 2.1 and 2.2, the provision of much of the information
needed to carry out the design, particularly to satisfy the environmental objectives, is the
responsibility of the client (see Clauses 3.2.3 and 4.3.2).
The client should also make the lighting designer aware of any additional requirements or
differences in the format of information needed by the authority which is to assess the
particular development.
4.2 STATEMENT OF OBJECTIVES A statement should be provided indicating the

design objectives for the lighting installation, including—
(a) the proposed lighting levels for the activity, including reference to relevant
Australian Standards or other authoritative lighting recommendation, as appropriate;
and
(b) the environmental factors which have been taken into account and specific features
of the design which have been incorporated to overcome existing or potential
problems.
4.3 SUPPORTING DOCUMENTATION

4.3.1 General The documentation listed in Clauses 4.3.2 to 4.3.4, as applicable, should
be provided to facilitate assessment of the design against the stated objectives.
4.3.2 Information relating to the environment The following information should be
provided on the environment in which the lighting installation is to be located:
(a) Details of the facility which is to be lit including its location on the site; the nature
of the surface to be illuminated; and the nature and location of adjacent properties,
particularly those properties most likely to be affected by spill light.
(b) The nature and location of physical features (e.g. spectator stands or trees) which
might restrict spill light.

(c) Topographical information for the site of the proposed lighting system including
data on height differences of adjacent properties relative to the site.
(d) Details of any transport system in proximity to the lighting installation which
utilizes signalling systems that may be affected.
(e) Details of any road lighting or other public lighting existing in the immediate
vicinity of the proposed lighting installation, to establish the environment category
for application of the limits in Tables 2.1 and 2.2.
(f) Details of the locations of nearby astronomical observatories that may be affected
by spill light (see Clause 2.6.4).
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29 AS 4282—1997
4.3.3 Information relating to the lighting installation The following information

relating to the lighting installation should be provided:
(a) A statement of the design objectives for the lighting installation (see Clauses 3.2
and 4.2).
(b) Plans illustrating the geometric relationship between the locations of the luminaires
and critical locations considered in the design.
(c) Calculated values of the relevant lighting parameters and other information needed
to support the basis of the design (see Tables 2.1 and 2.2).
(d) Luminous intensity distribution data for the luminaires used and aiming angles
(i.e. angle a in Figure 5.1) adopted in the design.
(e) A declaration of compliance with this Standard and any applicable legislative or
statutory requirements.
4.3.4 Information relating to the operation of the lighting Information should be
provided on the proposed operation of the lighting installation, i.e. frequency of use and
times of operation.
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S E C T I O N 5 C A L C U L A T I O N O F L I G H T
5.1 SCOPE OF SECTION This Section sets out recommended procedures for the
calculation of light technical parameters associated with outdoor lighting which are
necessary for determining compliance with the limiting values recommended in Tables 2.1
and 2.2.
5.2 DETERMINATION OF ILLUMINANCE

5.2.1 General The limiting values of illuminance recommended in Table 2.1 apply in
specified vertical planes, dependent on the times of operation of the lighting system. The
values apply to the direct component of illuminance only.
NOTE: In the design of outdoor lighting, consideration should also be given to the possible
illuminance contribution from reflected light (see Clause 2.7.2 and Paragraph C3.2,
Appendix C).
The illuminance calculations should be made in accordance with Clause 5.2.2.
Calculations need not be made for those locations where the direct light is obstructed, e.g.
by a high opaque fence, retaining wall, evergreen trees with dense foliage, or buildings of
appropriate height.
5.2.2 Illuminance calculations
5.2.2.1 Use of computer programs Computer programs used for the calculation of
illuminance should be based on the inverse square law method. Programs using algorithms
based on zonal flux are not acceptable. The program should be compatible with the
system of photometry used to derive the luminaire photometric data.
The luminous intensity data used as input for the program should cover all of the light
emitted by the luminaire(s), not just the angles which define the useful beam.
The luminous intensity data should be obtained from tests conducted by a laboratory that
is independently accredited by NATA as having competence to carry out the type of
measurements involved, or by a laboratory of another country that is accredited under a
mutual recognition agreement with NATA.
The record of the illuminance calculations should state the computer program that was
used, including the specific version of that program.
Verification of computer calculations may be carried out by spot checks of various
parameters with hand calculations, or with simplified installations and photometric data
that allows cross-checking with other computer programs. The data for the calculations
given in the Examples in this Section may be used for this purpose. Such spot checks will
not verify a computer program for all permutations of geometry, photometric data and
other parameters, as the nature of computer programs is such that certain sections of the
program may fail to calculate correctly only when a particular combination of data exists.
5.2.2.2 Calculation conditions for pre-curfew hours The illuminance calculations
should be made for a grid of points in the relevant vertical plane, spaced at intervals of
not more than 5 m in azimuth and 1 m in elevation. The vertical extent of the calculation
grid will be determined by the height of the highest relevant point on the adjacent
properties, e.g. the height of the highest window. The required height of the grid can be
determined by the intersection, on a vertical plane at the boundary of the installation, of
‘lines of sight’ between the luminaires and relevant points on the adjacent properties.
Note that height differences resulting from the topography of the area need to be taken
into account.
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31 AS 4282—1997
The calculation record should clearly identify, by reference to appropriate plans, the grid
points for which calculations were made and the relevant values obtained.
5.2.2.3 Calculation conditions for curfewed hours Calculations of vertical illuminance
should be made normal to the geometric centre of each applicable window. For large
windows, i.e. major dimension 2.5 m or more, the calculations should be made for a grid
of points spaced at intervals of not more than 1 m in the plane of the window.
The calculation record should clearly identify, by reference to appropriate plans, the
locations of the applicable windows for which the calculations were made and the relevant
values obtained.
Calculations necessary to determine the values of vertical illuminance that apply should
be made in a similar manner to Example 5.1.
Example 5.1:
For the purpose of this Example, the same data is assumed as given in Example 5.3 for
calculations of luminous intensity (see also Figure 5.3).
Photometric coordinates of the luminaire with respect to the point of interest (point P in
Figure 5.3):
B = 0°
β = 0°
By interpolation of Table 5.1, the luminous intensity in the direction of the point of
interest is shown to be —
= 50 880 cd
Horizontal distance from the luminaire to the point of interest (distance LP in
Figure 5.3) is—
LP = [ (H P)2 NM 2] . . . 5.1
= [ (18 3)2 224.11 2 ]

= 224.6 m
Angle of incidence (A) at point of interest:
A = . . . 5.2
= 51.4°
NOTE: The above trigonometry is valid for the geometry of the example. Other place
orientations and luminaire geometries are likely to require different trigonometric procedures to
determine the angle of incidence.

Vertical illuminance (E v) at point of interest:
I . cos A
Ev = . . . 5.3
LP 2
= 50 880 . cos2 51.4°

224.6
= 0.63 1x
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5.3 DETERMINATION OF LUMINOUS INTENSITIES

5.3.1 General Tables 2.1 and 2.2 set out the recommended maximum luminous
intensities in relevant directions. These directions will differ according to the times of
operation of the lighting system, as follows:
(a) Pre-curfew — the limiting values of luminous intensity apply for each luminaire, in
the principal plane, for all angles at and above control direction.
NOTE: The principle plane will usually contain or be very close to the maximum intensity
of the light distribution. Controlling intensities in this plane, using the pre-curfew control
direction method, will generally provide adequate control of luminous intensities for pre-
curfew applications. However, for some photometric distributions and for particular
luminaire positioning, aiming requirements and site considerations, this method may not be
appropriate due to the limitations that may be imposed on good lighting design, or failure to
meet the intent of this Standard. The lighting designer, therefore, has the choice of using the
assessment methods and limits applicable to curfewed hours, if this is deemed to be more
appropriate (see Clauses 2.7.1 and 2.7.2(a)).
(b) Curfewed hours —the limiting values of luminous intensity apply for each luminaire
in directions where views of bright surfaces of the luminaire are likely to be
troublesome to residents (see Table 2.1).
The values of luminous intensity that apply for a given situation should be determined in
accordance with Clause 5.3.2 and checked for compliance with the relevant limit in
Table 2.1 or Table 2.2, as applicable. If compliance can be demonstrated with the
intensity limits specified for curfewed hours, no assessment of compliance with pre-
curfew limits need be conducted, even if the lighting system is to operate only during pre-
curfew hours.
NOTE: The assessment method and associated limits for curfewed hours are more rigorous than
those specified for pre-curfew hours. Compliance with pre-curfew limits can therefore be
deemed to have been achieved if the lighting system is demonstrated to comply with the limits
specified for curfewed hours. (See also Clauses 2.7.1 and 2.7.2(a).)
The luminous intensities should be determined directly from photometric data for the
luminaires used, specifically from luminous intensity distribution data. No determination
of luminous intensities need be made, for either pre-curfew or curfewed hours, where the
luminaires cannot be seen from directions of concern* due to permanent physical
obstructions such as a high opaque fence, retaining wall or evergreen trees with dense
foliage.
The luminous intensity distribution data used should be that applicable to the specific
luminaire/lamp combination under evaluation. It will normally provide, in tabular or
electronic form, values of luminous intensity at various angular increments with respect to
a reference direction. It is important to note in which angular format the intensity data are
given, i.e. B, β or C, γ (see Ref. 18, Appendix B).

The luminous intensity data should be obtained from tests conducted by a laboratory that
is independently accredited by NATA† as having competence to carry out the type of
measurements involved, or by a laboratory of another country that is accredited under a
mutual recognition agreement with NATA.
For the particular luminaire, it will be necessary to establish the geometric relationship of
the relevant direction with the angles for which the luminous intensity data is given. Some
interpolation of the data may be necessary but care should be taken where the intensity
distribution undergoes rapid change.
* See Column 2 of Table 2.1.

† National Association of Testing Authorities
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33 AS 4282—1997
The values of luminous intensity derived from the data will normally be expressed in
terms of candelas per 1000 lamp lumens and the value should therefore be multiplied by
the total luminous flux (rated initial values) of the lamp(s) in kilolumens.
Where two or more luminaires are installed at the one location, e.g. on the headframe of a
specific pole or tower, the luminous intensity in the relevant direction should be
separately determined by the above procedure for each of the luminaires involved.
5.3.2 Luminous intensity calculations
5.3.2.1 Pre-curfew To assess compliance with the luminous intensity limits for pre-
curfew times, as given in Table 2.2, the control direction should first be established, as
shown in Figure 5.1. The control direction is a representative direction* and lies in the
principal vertical plane of the luminaire light distribution, which is the plane that
commonly contains the maximum luminous intensity (or the centre of the beam if there is
no unique maximum), or luminous intensities that are close to the maximum.
The luminous intensity in the control direction should be determined as follows:
(a) Intensity data in B, β angular format The intensity value should be read from the
luminaire intensity distribution data at an angle p above the reference direction
which is defined in Clause 1.4.11 and illustrated in Figure 5.1.
The value of the angle p should be determined from the following equation, by
reference to Figure 5.1:
p = 90 − (a + r) . . . 5.4
where
a = the reference angle (see Notes to Figure 5.1)
r = the angular displacement of the control direction below the horizontal,
taken as —
(i) 10° for a controlling dimension less than 25 m; and
(ii) 7° for a controlling dimension equal to or greater than 25 m.
The controlling dimension (given in Table 2.2, Column 2) is the sum of the
dimensions D and S in Figure 5.1.
Where the reference axis of the light distribution and the direction of maximum
luminous intensity do not coincide (e.g. when the maximum intensity is not emitted
perpendicular to the cover glass of the floodlight), the light distribution data should
be adjusted so that the two directions are in coincidence before reading off the
luminous intensity for the angle p, calculated in accordance with Equation 5.4.
Where the maximum luminous intensity does not lie in the principal plane
(e.g. when two distinct peaks of intensity exist, displaced in azimuth either side of
the principal plane), the luminous intensity in the control direction should be taken
as that which would apply if the control direction were rotated in azimuth to lie in
the vertical plane containing the direction of maximum intensity.
Where the same floodlight is used throughout the installation, the determination of
the luminous intensity in the control direction need only be made for the luminaire
with the highest aiming angle (see Figure 5.1).
* See Paragraph C3.3, Appendix C.
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(b) Intensity data in C, γ angular format Where the intensity distribution is in

the C, γ angular format, e.g. road lighting luminaires, the reference direction
normally corresponds to the downward vertical axis through the luminaire. For side-
entry luminaires this will apply if the mounting spigot is horizontal. In these
circumstances the angle p should be determined from the following equation:
p = 90 − r . . . 5.5
= 80° where the controlling dimension is less than 25 m
= 83° where the controlling dimension is equal to or greater than 25 m
Where the mounting spigot is tilted above the horizontal by the angle S, then the
angle p should be determined from the following equation:
p = 90 − (S + r) . . . 5.6
In practice, the angle S should be relatively small, if not zero.
The luminous intensity in the control direction, determined in accordance with the
procedure outlined in Item (a) or (b), as appropriate, should be checked for compliance
with the relevant limit in Table 2.2. A check should also be made that luminous
intensities above the control direction, in the principal plane, do not exceed the applicable
limit in Table 2.2.
Example 5.2:
For the purpose of this example assume the following data:
(a) Luminaire —Type B floodlight*; 2000 W metal halide lamp; output 240 000 lm;
luminous intensity distribution data in B, β angular format in accordance with
Table 5.1.
(b) Application (see Figure 5.1) —D = 55 m; S = 3 m; a = 66°.
To determine the luminous intensity in the control direction, as follows, derive the
angle p in Figure 5.1 by use of Equation 5.4, viz.
p = 90° − (66° + 7°)
= 17°
Reference to Table 5.1 shows the luminous intensity at p = 17° (i.e. B = 17°) in the
principal plane (i.e. β = 0°) to be (by interpolation) 223 cd per 1000 lamp lumens. The
luminous intensity in the control direction, in candelas, will therefore be —
223 × 240 = 53 500 cd
Note that the luminous intensity data of Table 5.1 are given in the B, β format of
photometric data presentation. If the data are in the C, γ format, a similar procedure
applies as set out in Clause 5.3.2.1(b) but care should be taken in calculating the
applicable C and γ angles.
From Figure 5.1, the controlling dimension (D + S) is —
55 + 3 = 58 m
Comparing the luminous intensity in the control direction with the maximum value
permitted in Table 2.2 (size of area: medium, Level 2 control) shows the installation to
have marginally failed, i.e. 53 500 cd actual compared with a limiting value of
50 000 cd.
* See information on floodlight classifications in Appendix C.
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35 AS 4282—1997
Adjust the floodlight aim 1° down so a = 65° and thus p = 18°. Reference to Table 5.1
shows the luminous intensity in the control direction is now 49 000 cd. The installation
will now therefore satisfy Table 2.2.
Reference to Table 5.1 shows that luminous intensities at angles of greater than the
control direction (i.e. 18°) are progressively reducing, compared to the luminous
intensity in the control direction, and will therefore be below the 50 000 cd limit.
5.3.2.2 Curfewed hours The luminous intensity from the subject luminaire should be
determined in directions in which views of the bright surfaces of the luminaire are likely
to be troublesome to residents (see Table 2.1 and Figure 2.1).
The luminous intensities should be determined for the actual locations and directions that
apply, in a similar manner to Example 5.3.
Example 5.3:
For the purpose of this example assume the following data (see also Figure 5.3):
(a) Luminaire —as given in Example 5.2.
(b) Application — luminaire mounting height 18 m; aimed 65° above the downward
vertical and 30° in azimuth to house side of normal to subject area; a residential
area with light surrounds.
(c) Position of window of potentially affected dwelling — located as follows:
(i) Distance in front of luminaire (across subject area) —140 m.
(ii) Distance to side of luminaire (along subject area) — 175 m.
(iii) Height of window — 3 m.
Determine the angles of offset of the window with respect to the luminaire aiming
direction, viz.
(A) in azimuth:
angle h = tan −1 175
140
= 51.34° (in horizontal plane)
angle g = h − 30°
= 21.34° (in horizontal plane)
distance NM = QP = √(140 2 + 1752 )
= 224.11 m
distance PS = MT = QP sin g
= 81.55 m
distance QS = QP cos g
= 208.74 m
distance LS = √(QS 2 + LQ 2)
= 209.28 m
NOTE: LQ = luminaire height − window height
= 18 − 3 = 15 m
angle β = tan −1 PS = tan −1 81.55
LS 209.28
= 21.29°
NOTE: Angle β is used to determine the applicable luminous intensity from Table 5.1.
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(B) in elevation:
angle j = tan −1 QS = tan−1 208.74
LQ 15
= 85.9°
angle B = j − 65°
= 20.9°
Reference to Table 5.1 shows the luminous intensity in the direction of the window
(B = 20.9°, β = 21.29°) to be, by interpolation—
212 × 240 = 50 880 cd
This is more than 50 times the maximum intensity recommended in Table 2.1 for
operation during curfewed hours. A review of the design would be needed and might
involve one or more of the following:
(1) Re-aiming the floodlight further away, horizontally, from the window of the
dwelling.
(2) Reducing the aiming angle, perhaps by increasing the luminaire mounting height.
(3) The fitting of baffles, shields or louvres to screen the view of the floodlight from
the window of the dwelling.
(3) Relocation of the floodlight, perhaps to the other side of the subject area.
(4) The selection of an alternative type of floodlight.
Calculations similar to the above reveal that, if the floodlight is re-aimed in azimuth
in a plane perpendicular to the subject area (i.e. 30° horizontally further from the
aiming direction assumed in the example), the intensity in the direction of the window
is reduced (to 5300 cd) but still exceeds the maximum value permitted in Table 2.1.
This results from the relatively broad light distribution in azimuth of the Type B
floodlight and the high lumen output provided by the 2000 W metal halide lamp.
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NO TES:
1 The reference direction is the direction of maximum intensity from the floodlight (or the direction of the
beam where there is no unique maximum). Most often this is the direction of the origin to which the
intensity distribution is referred. The reference and control directions are in the same vertical plane, i.e. the
principal plane of the light distribution of the floodlight.
2 The reference point is the point to which the maximum luminous intensity from the floodlight is aimed.
Most often this will coincide with the aiming point for the luminaire in the design specification.
3 Angle a will most often be the aiming angle of the floodlight (in elevation) in the design specification, i.e.
when the reference direction coincides with origin of the direction of the maximum luminous intensity from
the floodlight.
4 See Figure 5.2 for examples illustrating, in plan view, application of the principles of Figure 5.1 to specific
areas.
FIGURE 5.1 THE SUBJECT LUMINAIRE AND AREA AND THEIR RELATIONSHIP
WITH THE CONTROL AND REFERENCE DIRECTIONS
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NO TES:
1 Dimensions S and D are perpendicular to the edge of the subject area, irrespective of how the luminaire is
actually aimed across the area. These dimensions are used to derive representative conditions for the
determination of compliance with Table 2.2. If the luminous intensity determined for the representative
condition is less than the maximum value recommended in Table 2.2, the luminaire is deemed to comply
for the actual conditions of installation.
2 The floodlight locations, aiming points and aiming directions are illustrative only. Two floodlights per pole
are shown.
FIGURE 5.2 EXAMPLES ILLUSTRATING, IN PLAN VIEW, APPLICATION OF THE
PRINCIPLES OF FIGURE 5.1 TO SPECIFIC AREAS
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TABLE 5.1
LUMINOUS INTENSITY DISTRIBUTION DATA FOR FLOODLIGHT
USED IN EXAMPLES 5.1, 5.2 AND 5.3
Luminous intensity (I), cd/1000 lamp lumens

B
angle, β angle, degrees (left/right)
degrees
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90
30 129 130 142 159 179 180 158 124 80 42 14 11 9 5 2 1 0 0 0
28 132 134 145 160 181 183 164 134 83 44 14 11 9 5 2 1 0 0 0
26 137 139 149 163 182 188 169 134 85 48 15 11 9 7 2 1 0 0 0
24 145 147 156 169 187 198 182 146 89 57 19 12 11 7 3 1 1 0 0
22 158 159 168 179 198 213 195 154 96 57 19 13 12 8 3 1 0 0 0
20 180 182 191 198 216 231 201 152 101 62 22 16 13 8 3 1 0 0 0
18 204 205 212 220 237 249 218 166 106 68 24 19 14 9 3 1 0 0 0
16 242 242 246 252 269 278 236 178 110 74 30 20 15 8 3 1 1 0 0
14 306 305 307 306 321 325 270 198 115 72 32 22 16 9 3 2 0 0 0
12 418 416 408 399 402 397 325 231 120 75 37 23 17 9 3 2 0 0 0
10 604 597 572 541 533 519 421 282 127 80 40 24 19 10 3 2 1 0 0
8 874 852 798 732 709 686 528 328 137 84 45 26 19 10 3 1 0 0 0
6 1 262 1 225 1 124 1 004 952 911 688 409 152 89 51 27 19 10 3 1 0 0 0
4 1 647 1 586 1 451 1 275 1 192 1 130 870 522 162 93 53 27 17 9 3 1 0 0 0
2 1 836 1 778 1 623 1 441 1 337 1 253 966 555 164 95 54 26 17 9 3 1 0 0 0
0 1 855 1 800 1 662 1 491 1 387 1 293 980 563 163 95 52 26 16 8 3 1 0 0 0
−2 1 399 1 380 1 294 1 194 1 126 1 065 821 474 154 94 49 24 15 8 3 1 0 0 0
−4 775 770 744 707 690 673 538 340 136 82 42 23 15 9 3 1 0 0 0
−6 516 512 497 482 479 472 386 260 122 78 38 21 15 9 3 1 0 0 0
−8 338 335 331 326 330 326 272 189 110 69 34 19 14 9 3 1 0 0 0
−10 266 265 264 265 270 261 219 164 102 63 30 16 12 8 3 1 0 0 0
NO TES:
1 The range of B angles has been abbreviated; the data given are confined to that required for Examples 5.1, 5.2 and 5.3.
Negative values of B refer to angles below the reference axis.
2 The direction of maximum intensity of the light distribution in Table 5.1 coincides with the reference direction, i.e.
B = 0°, β = 0°. This often applies for luminaires that have some symmetry in their light distribution. However, for
other luminaires, the maximum intensity may occur well away from the coordinate origin, as for luminaires specifically
designed to control obtrusive light that have a cover glass that is substantially horizontal (see Figure D1(d),
Appendix D).
If the reference direction and the direction of maximum intensity do not coincide in a given light distribution (e.g. the
maximum intensity is not emitted from the floodlight perpendicular to the cover glass and the maximum intensity is at
a value of β other than 0°) then the light distribution should be adjusted so that the two directions are in coincidence
before reading off the intensity for the angle p calculated in accordance with Clause 5.3.2.1.
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FIGURE 5.3 ILLUSTRATION OF PHYSICAL ARRANGEMENT FOR EXAMPLE 5.3
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41 AS 4282—1997
5.4 DETERMINATION OF THRESHOLD INCREMENT

5.4.1 General Limiting values of threshold increment are recommended in Table 2.1.
Such values apply for specific positions and viewing directions that are established as of
importance with regard to the potential reduction in visibility that may be caused by the
lighting installation. Assessment of compliance with the limiting values should be made in
accordance with Clause 5.4.2.
5.4.2 Calculation of threshold increment The threshold increment (TI) for a
particular position and viewing direction should be determined from the following
equation:
65 L v
TI
( L) 0.8
. . . 5.7
where
L = the relevant value of adaptation luminance stated in Table 2.1, in candelas per
square metre
L v = the veiling luminance, defined by either Equation 5.8 or Equation 5.9, in
candelas per square metre, as follows:
E
Lv = 3 × 10 3 Σ . . . 5.8
θ2
E
Lv 10 Σ . . . 5.9
θ2
where
E = the illuminance at the observer’s eye from one luminaire in the plane
normal to the viewing direction, in lux
θ = the eccentricity of the luminaire from the observer’s line of sight, in
radians for Equation 5.8, and in degrees for Equation 5.9.
Σ indicates that the contribution from all luminaires is summed
Only luminaires that lie within the range 1.5° to 60° from the observer’s line of sight
should be taken into account in the calculation of TI.
To establish the veiling luminance, Lv , the illuminance at the observer’s eye should be
calculated for each of the luminaires in the field of view. The luminous intensities in the
direction of the observer from each luminaire in the field of view should be separately
determined from the luminous intensity distribution data for the luminaires
(see Clause 5.3.2) and a calculation of the resulting illuminance, E, made using the
following equation (see Figure 5.4):
I cos θ
E . . . 5.10
d2
where
I = the luminous intensity from the luminaire under evaluation, in the direction of the
observer’s eye, in candelas
θ = the angle subtended at the observer’s eye between the direction of I and a plane
normal to the viewing direction, in degrees
d = the distance from the luminaire to the observer, in metres
When evaluating the effects of the lighting installation on motorists using adjacent roads,
the following observation conditions should be assumed:
(a) The driver’s eye height should be taken as 1.5 m above the road surface.
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(b) The driver’s line of sight should be taken as parallel with the centre-line of the road
and 1° down relative to the plane of the road surface.
(c) The cut-off angle resulting from the configuration of the vehicle windscreen should
be as assumed in AS 1158.2.
These are the observation conditions assumed for the calculation of TI for road lighting
installations in AS 1158.2.
When evaluating the effects of the lighting installation on pedestrians, the following
observation conditions should be assumed:
(i) The eye height of the pedestrian should be taken as 1.7 m above the footpath.
(ii) The pedestrian’s line of sight should be taken as parallel with the direction of the
footpath and 1° down relative to the plane of the footpath.
When evaluating the effects of the lighting installation on users of other transport
signalling systems (e.g. rail, air) observation conditions should be established that are
appropriate for the application having regard to normal paths of travel and directions of
view. Such conditions may need to be determined in consultation with the relevant
authority.
The calculation record should identify the specific types of evaluation made and indicate
the positions and directions for which TI was calculated.
NO TE: The angle θ may have vertical and horizontal components, i.e. the luminaire may be displaced in
azimuth relative to the line of sight.
FIGURE 5.4 PARAMETERS INVOLVED IN CALCULATING

THE ILLUMINANCE AT THE OBSERVER’S EYE
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S E C T I O N 6 M E A S U R E M E N T S O F L I GH T
6.1 SCOPE OF SECTION This Section applies to measurements of the light technical
parameters which may be required for the following purposes:
(a) For new installations —as a limited check to confirm the documentation of the
design with respect to compliance with Tables 2.1 and 2.2.
(b) For existing installations — to provide an approximate assessment of compliance
with the limiting values in Tables 2.1 and 2.2.
NOTE: For new installations, compliance is based on calculations of the relevant parameters in
accordance with Section 5. (See also Clause 1.5. )
6.2 CHECK MEASUREMENTS Credible measurements of the light technical

parameters in Tables 2.1 and 2.2 are not easy to conduct. Where such measurements are
desired, they should be undertaken by persons who are professionally qualified and
competent in the discipline of illuminating engineering, who will have access to
measuring instruments of appropriate accuracy and calibration and a knowledge of the
necessary measurement procedures.
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APPENDIX A
GENERAL PRINCIPLES FOR CONTROL OF THE OBTRUSIVE
EFFECTS OF OUTDOOR LIGHTING
(Informative)
A1 SCOPE This Appendix sets out general principles that should be applied in the
design of outdoor lighting for the control of obtrusive effects.
NOTE: Observance of these principles does not obviate the need to ensure compliance with the
limiting values of the light technical parameters recommended in this Standard.
A2 PRINCIPLES In the design of exterior lighting, application of the following

principles will help to reduce the problems of unnecessary obtrusive light:
(a) Switch off lights when not required for safety, security or enhancement of the
night-time scene. In this respect, one can introduce the concept of a curfew with
further limitations on lighting levels between agreed hours, e.g. the reduction or
switching of advertising and decorative floodlighting between 11 pm and dawn.
(b) Wherever possible, direct light downwards, not upwards, to illuminate the target
area. If there is no alternative to up-lighting, then the use of shields and baffles will
help reduce spill light to a minimum.
(c) Use specifically designed lighting equipment that, once installed, minimizes the
spread of light near to, or above, the horizontal.
(d) Do not ‘over’ light. It is a cause of light pollution and a waste of money.
Recommended light levels exist for some applications —see relevant Standards.
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45 AS 4282—1997
(e) To keep glare to a minimum, ensure that the main beam angle of all lights directed
towards any potential observer is kept below 70°. It should be noted that the higher
the mounting height, the lower can be the main beam angle. In places with low
ambient light, glare can be very obtrusive and extra care should be taken in
positioning and aiming.
(f) Wherever possible use floodlights with asymmetric beams that permit the front
glazing to be kept at or near parallel to the surface being lit.
(g) For domestic and small scale security lighting, the following solutions may be
applied:
(i) Passive infra-red detectors can be used to good effect, if correctly aligned and
installed. A 150 W (2000 lm) tungsten halogen lamp is more than adequate.
Lamps of 300 W/500 W create too much light, more glare and darker shadows.
(ii) All-night lighting at low brightness, is equally acceptable. For an entry light, a
9 W (600 lm) compact fluorescent lamp is more than adequate in most
locations.
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APPENDIX B
BIBLIOGRAPHY
(Informative)
1 ASSMANN, J., GAMBER, A., and MULLER, H.M. Messung und beurteilung von
lichtimmissionen . [Measurement and evaluation of the disturbing effect on the
environment caused by light emissions.] Licht. Vol. 7, 1987, p. 509-515.
2 CATT, I.H. Lighting, law and litigation . Proceedings of 2nd Annual Convention of
The Illuminating Engineering Society of Australia and New Zealand, 1992.
3 CIVIL AVIATION AUTHORITY. Civil Aviation Regulation No 94. Canberra: Civil
Aviation Authority, 1988.
4 CIVIL AVIATION AUTHORITY. Lighting in the vicinity of airports—Advice to
designers. Canberra: Civil Aviation Authority, 1988.
5 COONABARABRAN SHIRE COUNCIL. Coonabarabran Development Control Plan
No. 2, Lighting code for the protection of Siding Spring Observatory.
Coonabarabran: Coonabarabran Shire Council, 1990.
6 DEUTSCHE LICHTTECHNISCHE GESELLSHAFT e.V. Messung und beurteilung
von lichtimmissionen . [Measurement and evaluation of the disturbing effect on the
environment caused by light emissions.] Licht—Publication No. 12, Berlin, 1991.
7 FISHER, A. J. Guide to the assessment of the environmental impacts of outdoor
lighting; recommended maximum values of luminous intensity; derivation of values.
Doc LG/10/1/90— 313, Standards Australia, 1990.
8 FISHER, A. J., AND MCLEAN, P. Obtrusive light intensity . Proceedings of 2nd
Annual Convention of The Illuminating Engineering Society of Australia and
New Zealand, 1992.
9 FISHER, A. Obtrusive light and skyglow: Is it all gloom? Lighting , 1993. Vol. 13,
No. 2, p. 42.
10 HARTMANN, E., SCHINKE, M., WEHMEYER, K. and WESKE, H. Measurement
and judgement of the light emissions of artificial light sources—Short report.
Conducted by the Institute for Medical Optics of the University of Munich, for the
Bavarian State Ministry of Development and Environment, Rosenkavalierplatz 2,
8000 Munchen 81 (Federal Republic of Germany), 1984.
11 JULIAN, W.G. The limitation of unwanted spill light from floodlighting.
Lighting in Australia. February 1982, Vol. 2, No. 1, p. 25.
12 JULIAN, W. G., AND BAXTER, P. A. The control of spill light from outdoor
lighting installations . Proceedings of 5th Lux Europa. Union Suisse pour la Lumiere,
1985.
13 NEW SOUTH WALES DEPARTMENT OF PLANNING. Orana Regional
Environmental Plan No. 1. Sydney: Department of Planning, 1990.
14 PIERCE, M.C. Floodlighting of the Melbourne Cricket Ground —Planning and
design, Lighting in Australia. June 1986, Vol. 6, No. 3, p. 22-27.
15 SHOTBOLT, T. AND JULIAN, W.G. Obtrusive light from outdoor floodlighting
installations. Proceedings of 6th Lux Europa. Hungarian Electrotechnical
Association. 1989, Vol. 2, p. 360-366.
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16 SUBCOMMITTEE ON LIGHT TRESPASS OF THE IES (OF NORTH AMERICA)

ROADWAY LIGHTING COMMITTEE. A statement on astronomical light pollution
and light trespass. Journal of the Illuminating Engineering Society of North America.
1985, Vol. 14, No. 2, p. 658-662.
17 VAN OOSTEN, P.L. Spill lighting and the law, a solution? Lighting in Australia.
August 1990, Vol. 10, No. 4, p. 134-141.
18 INTERNATIONAL COMMISSION ON ILLUMINATION. CIE Publication No. 70.
Measurement of absolute luminous intensity distributions. Vienna: International
Commission on Illumination, 1987.
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APPENDIX C
INVESTIGATIONS INTO THE OBTRUSIVE EFFECTS
OF OUTDOOR LIGHTING
(Informative)
C1 INTRODUCTION This Appendix provides information on investigations into the

perceived extent of the problem of obtrusive light and on the studies on which the
quantitative recommendations contained in this Standard, particularly those in Tables 2.1
and 2.2, are based.
The Appendix also provides some indication of the sensitivity of response by people to
values of light technical parameters different from those in Tables 2.1 and 2.2.
C2 EXTENT OF CONCERN ABOUT OBTRUSIVE LIGHT IN AUSTRALIA In

1981, in response to a growing community concern, a national conference of the then
Illuminating Engineering Societies of Australia was held on the limitation of unwanted
spill light from floodlighting. The conference recommended that an Australian Standard
should be prepared.
A subsequent survey (See Ref. 12, Appendix B) was undertaken on the extent of the
problem as perceived by local government, electricity utilities and lighting equipment
suppliers. The findings in summary, taking the responses at face value, were as follows:
(a) Local government:
(i) Received 130 responses from 180 questionnaires (72%).
(ii) Spill light is a relatively minor problem (63% of councils have one to five
complaints per year).
(iii) Noise and parking are more major causes of complaints, to which spill light
is often added.
(iv) Complaints about spill light most often stem from road and sports lighting
(49%).
(v) Councils have no assessment criteria but only 25% of respondents saw a
need for an Australian Standard, whereas 63% preferred other controls
(unspecified).
(b) Electricity utilities :
(i) Received 21 responses from 42 questionnaires (50%).
(ii) Indications were that road and tennis court lighting are common causes of
complaint.
(iii) A majority of respondents (55%) said a Standard would be useful and should
cover allowable encroachment of illumination, permitted luminance of
sources and limitation of disability glare.
(c) Lighting equipment suppliers:
(i) Response rate 33%.
(ii) Favoured a Standard based on good design rather than restrictive criteria.
Since the early 1980s awareness of the need for environmental protection has grown in
the community. Cursory examination of local papers shows that the lighting of sporting
facilities can be a major local issue; some local governments have developed ad hoc
regulations for the control of spill light, especially from recreational tennis lighting, by
way of the limits on encroachment of illumination and the use of prescribed lighting
equipment; the protection of the Siding Spring Observatory from obtrusive light by a
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49 AS 4282—1997
State government regional plan; the widespread requirement for some form of
environmental audit to be submitted with land development applications; litigation about
spill light (see Refs 2, 4, 9, 11 and 17, Appendix B).
There is, therefore, justification for this Standard on the grounds of providing a common
quantitative basis for the assessment of obtrusive light at the design and development
stages of outdoor lighting installations.
C3 INVESTIGATIONS INTO THE EFFECTS OF OBTRUSIVE LIGHT AND

THEIR INTERPRETATION
C3.1 General In establishing the recommended maximum values in Tables 2.1 and 2.2,
the Standards Australia Committee on Obtrusive Effects of Outdoor Lighting (LG/10)
considered investigations from overseas (See Refs 6 and 10, Appendix B) and Australian
sources (see Refs 7 and 8, Appendix B). The latter were specifically undertaken to assist
in the formulation of this Standard. Also considered were Australian local government
ordinances which had set precedences for the control of obtrusive light (see Ref. 17,
Appendix B).
Investigations, detailed below, indicated that the necessary controlling values are rather
low and can easily result from conventional lighting practice. This is not to condone the
practice but, rather, to recognize the facts.
There has to be a balance between the rights of those in the community who wish to be
active in, say, playing sport during the hours of darkness and the rights of those who find
the encroachment of light onto their property or persons to be obtrusive.
Thus a strategy was adopted for developing controlling values of spill light based on the
following:
(a) The level of lighting existing in the area.
(b) The time that the proposed lighting is to operate.
(c) The type of lighting technology available to light the activity.
(d) The use of readily available and easily understood technical data on the lighting
installations that can easily be verified at the design, and assessment stages.
In general, lower values should apply to the more intrinsically dark areas and to all areas
after some nominated (or curfew) hour set by local government as one at which it is
reasonable to require the switching off of selected outdoor lighting (such as sports
lighting) say, at 2200 h or 2300 h.
C3.2 Limitation of the encroachment of spill light In the literature on the subject of
spill light there are references to local government ordinances (predominantly from the
USA) limiting the illumination from spill light (see Ref. 17, Appendix B). The controlling
values range from 0.2 lx to 10 lx measured in the horizontal or vertical plane at various
distances from the subject site. No rational justification for the values is apparent.
Recently, objective data was collected in Germany through a nationwide survey
(see Ref. 10, Appendix B). From the survey the following conclusions were drawn by the
investigators:
(a) Complaints about outdoor lighting were 10 times less frequent than those about
noise; 2.4% of respondents were troubled by spill light.
(b) About 80% of those affected named the bedroom as the room in which light
emission impairs the quality of living; about 85% complained about sleep
disturbance.
(c) About 50% of those affected stated the spill light to be disturbing, 20% declared it
to be only just bearable and 30% felt unreasonably harassed; the assessment of
disturbance is intensified with increasing age.
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(d) About 60% complained of health impairment; a poor general state of health
strengthens this assessment.
The investigators measured the illumination at 41 sites and related the values to the
answers to questions used in the survey. They concluded that with a vertical illuminance
of more than 3 lx at the window, complaints of a strong brightening of the room
predominated and from 5 lx, the relative proportion of those disturbed by light who felt
themselves exposed to a strong health impairment increased rapidly.
Examination of the data presented in the reference showed that the frequency of response
of ‘strong’ or ‘moderate’, both to brightening of the room and to perceived health
impairment, climbed rapidly by the time an illumination level of 1 lx was reached.
Observations, albeit limited in nature, by a person adapted to the ambient lighting
recorded a noticeable penetration of light into a room such as to cast harsh shadows of
building structure onto the walls when the illumination on the uncurtained window was
1.25 lx.
In German recommendations (see Ref. 6, Appendix B) for the limitation of the
environmental impact of outdoor lighting, the value 1 lx is essentially the basis for the
control of illumination on facades. Table C1 is a summary of these recommendations.
TABLE C1
RECOMMENDED MAXIMUM PERMISSIBLE VALUES OF
VERTICAL ILLUMINANCE (E v) ON WINDOWS OF DWELLINGS
ARISING FROM LIGHTING (EXCEPT ROAD LIGHTING)
DURING HOURS OF DARKNESS (After Ref. 6)
Maximum Ev , lx
Location
0600 h to 2200 h 2200 h to 0600 h
Health services and
residential areas 1 1
Mixed areas 3 1
Central, business and
industrial areas 15 5
There is potential conflict between the lighting needed to facilitate desired night activities
and the degree of spill light control required to maintain the amenity and environmental
integrity of an area. Based on the strategy outlined in Paragraph C3.1, the Standards
Australia Committee resolved to recommend two sets of illuminance limits based on the
times of operation of the lighting, i.e. pre-curfew and during curfewed hours
(see Clause 2.7 and Table 2.1).

The pre-curfew limits are based on what can be achieved using good lighting practice.
Assessment of compliance involves a relatively simple procedure based on the illuminance
at relevant boundaries of nearby residential properties.
The limits for curfewed hours are more demanding in terms of the design of the lighting
installation, and assessment of compliance involves a more complex procedure based on
the illuminance at windows of habitable rooms of nearby dwellings.
On the evidence, the Standards Australia Committee used 1 lx as the basis for the control
of illumination (Column 5, Table 2.1) after the nominated curfew hour. This value is
likely to take into account the reactions of the majority of the population rather than just
an ‘average’ person. The value applies to the most intrinsically dark areas after the
nominated curfew hour. Higher values apply for areas with lighter surrounds and for
operation before the curfew hour.
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The value of 10 lx (Column 5, Table 2.1) for pre-curfew hours is based on a Brisbane
City Council ordinance limiting the emission of light from a subject site. This ordinance
limits the vertical illuminance on a vertical surface 1.5 m outside the boundary of the
subject site to 8 lx. It refers to any level upwards from ground level and includes direct,
reflected or other incidental light emanating from the site (see Ref. 17, Appendix B).
The ordinance has been particularly applied to the lighting of tennis courts in residential
areas where the best of lighting technology, with respect to the containment of spill light,
needs to be employed. The ordinance requires that a buffer zone be provided between the
tennis court fence and the property line, which will ensure that the luminaires are set back
within the subject property.
The illuminance values recommended in Table 2.1 are for the direct component only and
do not include reflected light because —
(i) most computer programs used for illuminance calculations will only provide values
of direct illuminance; and
(ii) the reflected illuminance component will normally be relatively small.
However, cautionary advice is included in Clauses 2.7.1 and 3.3.5 calling attention to the
fact that reflected light will always be present to some degree.
A hierarchy of controlling values is given, but if an affected site is deemed by the
community to warrant the highest level of environmental control at all times, then more
stringent recommendations may need to be applied.
C3.3 Bright light sources in the field of view The Standards Australia Committee had
before it two studies into the tolerable brightness of luminaires in a person’s field of
view. Both studies were syntheses of the work of others. The German study (see Ref. 6,
Appendix B) was based on four investigations into discomfort glare with a criterion of
discomfort of ‘borderline between comfort and discomfort (BCD)’. The Australian study
(see Ref. 7, Appendix B) was based on three investigations, two specifically involving
night conditions in road transport. They also employed multiple criteria of discomfort and
recorded the frequency of responses of persons at each criterion.
The outcome of the German study was a simple formula relating the maximum tolerable
luminance of a glaring light source to the angular size of the light source and the
background luminance. The formula is translated into tables of tolerable light source
luminance for a range of areas of light source and distances away, for various adaptation
luminances.
The Committee, following the strategy referred to in Paragraph C3.1 of using simple,
readily available technical data, resolved to use luminous intensity rather than luminance
as the controlling parameter.
Therefore, the outcome of the Australian study was given in tolerable luminous intensities
and for the criterion of the light being ‘too bright’ by 10% of respondents. An example of
these data is given in Table C2.
The values in brackets are derived from the German study. It can be seen that the
agreement between the values in the Table, for the two studies, is good, especially as D
increases.
From Table C2, a value of 1000 cd was selected as being a representative value for the
tolerable intensity of a light source directed towards a person in a residential area with
light surrounds (see Table 2.1, Column 4). The values 2500 cd and 500 cd for the other
two types of area arise from factoring to take into account the relevant light adaptation
level.
However, there was much adverse comment on these values when the draft Standard was
first issued for public review; the values were very low when compared to those arising
from conventional practice.
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TABLE C2
MAXIMUM TOLERABLE LUMINOUS INTENSITY OF A LIGHT SOURCE
OF DIAMETER d AT A DISTANCE D, FOR AN ADAPTATION
LUMINANCE OF 1.0 cd/m 2 (LIGHT SURROUNDS, RESIDENTIAL)
Maximum luminous intensity, cd

Distance from source
D Light source diameter, d
m 0.15 m 0.30 m 0.50 m

30 270 (130) 930 (260) 2 500 (430)
100 470 (430) 1 270 (850) 2 900 (1 400)
300 2 200 (1 300) 1 800 (2 600) 4 700 (4 300)
The German recommendations give a relaxation of their even more rigorous requirements
(e.g. 50 cd maximum for a light source of 0.1 m2 area at 50 m in dark surrounds) for
different locations and for pre-curfew times (see Table C3). Even with these relaxations
the requirements are still onerous.
TABLE C3
FACTORS TO BE APPLIED TO MAXIMUM
PERMITTED LUMINANCE OF A LIGHT SOURCE
BY LOCATION AND TIME (After Ref. 6)
Time
Location
0600 h to 2200 h 2200 h to 0600 h
Health services ×1 ×1
Residential areas ×2 ×1
Mixed areas ×3 ×1
Central, business,
— ×5
industrial areas
The limiting values of luminous intensity suggested in Tables C2 and C3 were recognized
by the Committee to be onerous in comparison with existing good practice. Consequently,
in a similar approach to that taken for the control of illuminance (see Paragraph C3.2),
intensity limits have been relaxed for operation of the lighting system during pre-curfew
hours (see Table 2.2).
An investigation was carried out into what intensities are likely to arise from practical
lighting installations (see Ref. 7, Appendix B). The investigation was based on ‘on-paper’
designs using a range in the size of areas to be lit, lighting equipment and position of
subject persons but using good design practice, e.g. in the aiming of floodlights.
The direction of view of the luminaire in the vertical plane containing the beam or
maximum intensity (i.e. the principal plane), the ‘control direction’ was used as a
surrogate for directions in all other possible vertical planes. Limiting the intensity in the
principal plane to what is practically reasonable implies that this degree of control would
also be exercised inherently in these other planes.
It became apparent that reasonable, practical intensity limits depended on the size of the
area to be lit and the type of floodlights employed (see Table 2.2). This limitation can
only depend on the activity carried out and the area needed for it, and not on its area
location once the activity is permitted to be undertaken.
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The concept of a ‘control direction’ was derived from an analysis (see Ref. 7,
Appendix B) of the displacement of floodlight beams, aimed in accordance with good
practice, with respect to the likely locations of people outside the subject area. The
analysis suggested that the control direction be assumed to be at an angle of 10° below
the horizontal for small areas and 7° below the horizontal for large areas (see Figure 5.1).
If the lighting equipment has the best of stray light control, i.e. Type C cut-off
floodlights, then a Level 1 control will be achieved. However, the use of this equipment
will normally only be possible where the areas to be lit are relatively small or when the
illuminance required is low.
After the nominated curfew time, the lower values, derived as first described, can be used
but should then be applied to those directions where views of bright luminaires are likely
to be troublesome, i.e. in directions particular to a given situation and not in a
representative or control direction as used in the pre-curfew assessment.
A hierarchy of controlling values is given but if an affected site is deemed by the
community to warrant the highest level of environmental control at all times, then more
stringent recommendations may need to be applied.
The values in Tables 2.1 and 2.2 are not related explicitly to the distance away of the
subject person; they do relate to each separate luminaire and not to any multiple array
there might be; and they are not related explicitly to the likely response by the community
at large. Each of these points is dealt with, in turn, as follows:
(a) Distance away of the subject person In the investigation on which the practical
limits are based, a representative distance was taken, being twice the width of the
subject area being lit.
Obviously the subject person cannot be closer than the width of the area concerned
but, in the analysis, it is assumed that the larger the area the further the person is
likely to be from the edge of the area, viz. large areas are within commensurately
large sites.
With reference to Figure 5.1, as the person recedes the angle r diminishes at a slow
rate, i.e. the person is displaced further from the beam and, potentially, subject to
lower intensities but the luminaire is closer to the line of sight (taken as horizontal).
As the person comes closer r increases at a relatively fast rate, i.e. the person is
closer to the direction of the beam and, potentially, subject to higher intensities but
the luminaire is displayed further from the line of sight.
It can be seen from Table C2 that the limiting values decrease as the luminaire is
approached and increase as it recedes. At first sight this is the reverse of what is
required to militate against the change in intensity effect observed in the previous
paragraph. However, the effective area of the light source that is capable of being
seen will increase as the luminaire is approached and the acceptable intensity will
rise (see Table C2).
Of greater significance is that the luminaire is increasingly displaced from the line
of sight on approaching it; at 10° the acceptable intensity will be increased by a
factor of ×3.2 over that for an angle of 1° from the line of sight.*
* The values derived from both the German and Austr alian studies, given in Table C2, are based on the bri ght light source
being very close to the line of sight. Allowance, being rather complex, has not been made for the light source being
increasingly off the line of sight at relatively shorter distances.
When the luminaire is close to the general line of sight, say wit hin 10°, it is likely to be directly viewed, fr equently, by
reason of natural eye movements and attr acti on of bri ght li ghts; that is why the recommended values were based on 1°
angle. However, when the luminaire is off the general line of sight, say, by greater than 10°, direct viewing is less
li kely. Going fr om 1° to 10° the light will appear one scale point less glari ng or it can be increased by 101/2 (×3.2) in
intensit y and sti ll retain the same glare rating. The scale used is one of nine scale points (1 to 9) wit h 1 having the
assessment of unbearable, 3 disturbing, 4 too bri ght, 5 just admissible, 7 acceptable, 9 noti ceable.
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AS 4282—1997 54
Thus there are safety factors at work to limit the potential rise in obtrusiveness as a
luminaire is approached, within the rather complex relationship of parameters that
determine the obtrusiveness of a light source.
Coupled with this is the practical consideration that the subject person can only be very
close to a luminaire, in a relative sense, when the area is small. In this case the
luminaire is likely to be aimed such that the angle a in Figure 5.1 is smaller than for a
larger area and the person is likely to be more displaced from the beam.
It would appear that the use of one distance away of the subject as a surrogate for all
distances does not introduce any gross prejudice into the analysis.
(b) Multiple luminaires The values in Table C2 refer to one luminaire; it can be seen
that as the diameter of the luminaire increases the acceptable intensity also
increases. Multiple luminaires in a headframe can be considered as being contiguous
and forming a single luminaire of larger area. The increased intensity in a given
direction from multiple luminaires appears to be largely offset by the increase in
area, keeping the obtrusiveness of several luminaires at about the same level as a
single luminaire. Thus allowing the application of the intensity limit to each
luminaire is more justified than might be intuitively supposed.
(c) Community response The values given in Table C2 derived from the Australian
study are based on 10% only of respondents deeming the light source to be ‘too
bright’.
For a response to change one scale point, e.g. from ‘too bright’ to ‘disturbing’, the
intensity of a light source needs to be increased by a factor of ×3.2. Further, for the
frequency of response to rise from 10% to 50% in a population, the intensity needs to
rise by a factor of ×6.6.
Thus an increase in intensity of 21 times (i.e. 3.2 × 6.6) will result in the response
changing from only 10% finding a light source ‘too bright’ to some 50% finding the
light source ‘disturbing’ and an increase of 32 times (i.e. 10 3/2) in intensity will be
necessary to change the initial response to 10% finding the light source ‘intolerable’.
These factors, read in conjunction with Tables 2.1 and 2.2, indicate that even when
good practice is employed in a lighting installation for use in the pre-curfew hours
some public disapprobation may arise. This is more likely if Level 2 control is
employed and there are subject persons in the direction of the principal plane of any
floodlight.
C3.4 Glare to road users The value of threshold increment (TI) has, by precedent,
been taken from the requirements for traffic route lighting; see Section 2 of
AS/NZS 1158.1.1. The Committee had no good reason for allowing other forms of
lighting to produce a higher level of glare on any public road.
The calculation of TI (see Clause 5.4) requires a value for the adaptation or general
background luminance (L). Different representative values for this term have been
nominated for the three area categories in Table 2.1. These values are the same as have
been used in the determination of the limitation on bright light sources
(see Paragraph C3.3, Appendix C) given in Table 2.1 for curfewed hours.
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55 AS 4282—1997
APPENDIX D
ILLUSTRATION OF FLOODLIGHT CLASSIFICATIONS
(Informative)
Two systems for classifying floodlights are described in AS 2560.1, namely—
(a) a classification system based on the general shape of the light beam provided,
designated Type A, B or C; and
(b) a classification system based on the degree of divergence of the light beam,
separately evaluated in both horizontal and vertical planes through the floodlight,
designated Class NN, N, 1, . . . . . 6 or 7.
Reference should be made to AS 2560.1 for the details of these systems.
For the purpose of this Standard, Figures D1 and D2 illustrate the classification system
described in Item (a).
NO TE: Reference is made in this Standard to Type C cut-off floodlights which are not described in
AS 2560.1. Such floodlights are designed to be mounted with the light-emitting face horizontal, or near
horizontal, and are sometimes referred to as ‘environmental’ type floodlights.
FIGURE D1 GENERAL TYPES OF FLOODLIGHTS
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AS 4282—1997 56
FIGURE D2 TYPICAL FLOODLIGHT DISTRIBUTIONS

SHOWN DIAGRAMMATICALLY
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AS 4282—1997

Control of the obtrusive effects

The following interests are represented on Committee LG/10:

This Standard was issued in draft form for comment as DR 96417.

Control of the obtrusive effects

First published as AS 4282(Int)—1995.

PUBLISHED BY STANDARDS AUSTRALIA

SECTION 1 SCOPE AND GENERAL

SECTION 2 POTENTIAL OBTRUSIVE EFFECTS AND ASSOCIATED LIGHT

SECTION 3 DESIGN, INSTALLATION, OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE

SECTION 4 COMPLIANCE WITH DESIGN OBJECTIVES

SECTION 5 CALCULATION OF LIGHT TECHNICAL PARAMETERS

5.2 DETERMINATION OF ILLUMINANCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . 30

SECTION 6 MEASUREMENTS OF LIGHT TECHNICAL PARAMETERS

 Copyri ght STANDARDS AUSTRALIA

1.2 APPLICATION This Standard is intended for reference by the following:

1.3 REFERENCED DOCUMENTS The following documents are referred to in this

1.4.6 Luminaire—apparatus which distributes, filters or transforms the light transmitted

1.4.12 Relevant boundary —any boundary of a residential property over which it is

1.4.16 Threshold increment (TI)—the measure of disability glare expressed as the

1.5 DEMONSTRATION OF COMPLIANCE Compliance with this Standard should

2.2 THE PURPOSES OF OUTDOOR LIGHTING Outdoor lighting is provided for a

2.3 TOTAL ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF A DEVELOPMENT For any

obtrusive light. The designers of a lighting installation should be encouraged to utilize

2.4 POTENTIAL EFFECTS OF OUTDOOR LIGHTING Outdoor lighting, no

(b) Lighting a freight terminal where it is necessary to identify containers in multiple

2.5 INFLUENCE OF SURROUNDING DEVELOPMENTS The perception of the

2.6 SPECIFIC EFFECTS AND RELEVANT LIGHT TECHNICAL PARAMETERS

(a) disability glare, as described in Clause 2.6.2; or

* See References 3 and 4 in Appendix B.

2.6.4 Effects on astronomical observations Effects on astronomical observations will

2.7 RECOMMENDED LIMITS FOR LIGHT TECHNICAL PARAMETERS

* The relevant guidelines are set out in CIE/IAU Publication No.1.

lit using luminaires with conventional photometric distributions, positioned outside

where momentary or short-term viewing is

† See Appendix D for details of these luminaire classifications.

FIGURE 2.1 EXAMPLE SHOWING APPLICATION OF LIMITS FOR E V AND I

3.2 DESIGN OBJECTIVES

3.3 DESIGN GUIDELINES

Check potenti al obtr usive effects of lighti ng installation

Check existence of planning regulati ons applicable

Check with controlling

verandahs of adjacent dwellings

↑ — More difficult to shield — More outward or

3 Luminous Greater — Greater efficiency — More spill light —Requires higher

TABLE 3.1 (continued)

3.4 INSTALLATION AND COMMISSIONING The lighting equipment installed

At the time of commissioning, a check of the lighting installation should be made to

3.5 MAINTENANCE Maintenance inspections of the installation should include a

3.6 REMEDIAL MEASURES FOR EXISTING INSTALLATIONS Where an

FIGURE 3.2 EFFECT OF MOUNTING HEIGHT

4.2 STATEMENT OF OBJECTIVES A statement should be provided indicating the

4.3 SUPPORTING DOCUMENTATION

might restrict spill light.

4.3.3 Information relating to the lighting installation The following information

5.2 DETERMINATION OF ILLUMINANCE

= [ (18 3)2 224.11 2 ]

determine the angle of incidence.

= 50 880 . cos2 51.4°