PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLER(PLC)

Block Diagram of PLC

PLC comprises of all above components as shown in figure 3-1 in block diagram of PLC, like
Input card, output card, CPU (Central Processing unit), Power supply card (SMPS) and
programming card.

There are some PLC’s which possess all components and some PLC’s are of such type which
do not possess all components, we have to assemble it in a Rack.
Classification of PLC
On the basis of assembly of all components PLC can be classified as-
1. Rack Type.
2. Brick/Shoe box Type.

Description is given below-

1. Rack Type

Most medium to large PLC systems are assembled within a rack which contains
individual components like CPU, Input/Output card, programming card and Power Supply
card(SMPS).

Fig.3-2 and Fig.3-3 of Rack Type are given below-

 2. Bricks/Shoe Box Type

In smaller PLC systems, all of these components may be contained in a single housing
or "brick" which are sometimes referred to as "bricks type" or "shoebox type” PLCs.
Shoe Box type are given below-

PLC can also be classified on the basis of Size which is described below-

1. Compact/Micro PLC- It covers up to 128 I/O’s and memories up to 2 Kbytes.

2. Modular- It covers up to 1024 I/O’s and memories up to 32 Kbytes.
3. Extreme- It covers up to 8000 I/O’s and memories up to 750 Kbytes.

Compact or Micro Series comes under the Bricks type PLC. Modular and Extreme Series
comes under the Rack type PLC. Some manufacturer like Mitsubishi classify the PLC in two
types-i.e. Micro and Modular, where Micro PLC covers upto 128 I/O and Modular PLC
covers upto 8000 I/O.
Description of PLC Components

POWER SUPPLY

Provides the voltage needed to run the PLC components, It is explained in detail at the
last of this chapter.

I/O MODULES

Provides signal conversion and isolation between the internal logic level signals inside the
PLC and the field’s high level signal.

- The I/O interface section of a PLC connects it to external field devices.

- The main purpose of the I/O interface is to condition the various signals received
from or sent to the external input and output devices.

- Input modules converts signals from discrete or analog input devices to logic levels
acceptable to PLC’s processor.

- Output modules converts signal from the processor to levels capable of driving the
connected discrete or analog output devices.

Here first We are describing the discrete or digital module/card, analog module has described
in analog programming section of this book.

DC INPUT MODULE
3.3.2 (b)AC INPUT MODULE

NOTE: AC input module is product specific, i.e., is not available in all kind of PLC series
and brands
Opto Isolator circuit convert electrical signal to optical signal then optical signal to electrical
signal. Hence we can say it provides isolation between external field devices to CPU that’s
why it is also called optoisolator. Following figure is showing the IC which is performing the
optoisolation,

3.3.2 (c)DC / AC OUTPUT MODULE

PROGRAMMING DEVICE
 The PLC is programmed using a specialty programmer or software on a computer that
can load and change the logic inside. Most modern PLCs are programmed using software on
a PC or laptop computer. Older systems used a custom programming device which has their
memory.

Memory of a PLC can be of two types namely: -

1. VOLATILE
2. NON-VOLATILE
Volatile memory loses its contents when power supply is turned OFF, whereas non-volatile
does not.

PLC will use non-volatile memory from a majority of user’s memory because the
program must be retained during the power off. It is imported that all non-volatile memory in
a PLC uses some of the error checking to ensure that the memory has not changed. The other
memories used in PLCs are:
Description of various input devices

On the machine side the different input components are used. These input components are
connected to input cards (modules) of PLC for feeding input signals to the CPU of PLC.
There are two types of input devices one is digital input and other is analog input devices.

As per ISA standard digital input signal is 24 V DC across the input terminal, typically it’s
having two states on or off.

Whereas analog signals provide a varying voltage, current or resistance value. As per ISA
standard analog input signal is 0 to 10V or 4-20mA. Some of the analog input components
are:

-Thermocouple (TC)

-Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)

-Strain gauges

-LVDT

-Pressure Sensor

-Level Sensor etc.

In this chapter we will understand digital sensor, analog sensor will be covered in analog
programming sections.

Some of the Digital input components are –

 Push Buttons
 Toggle switches
 Emergency Switches
 Limit Switches
 Level Switches
  Pressure Switches
 Selector Switches
 Temperature Switches
 Sensors
 Flow Switches
 Proximity Switches
 Read Switches
 Float Switches

Input components are described as follows-

 Push Buttons

Push Buttons are the simple spring operated switches to give signals for PLC. Push Buttons
are of two types-

1. Normally Open

‘NO’ contact

2. Normally Close

‘NC’ contact

Description-

1. NO Push Button- When we press this push button from upper head signal (+24V)
goes to PLC & when we release the button , due to spring based mechanism , signal
goes to PLC is Zero.
2. NC Push Button-At normal condition PLC is getting +24V , as we press this push
button signal goes to PLC is zero and after releasing the switch PLC is again getting
+24V.
 Some more types of Push Buttons-

 Panel push Buttons

 Toggle Switches

Toggle switches are the switches usually we see in our homes, for ON & OFF home
appliances like Fans, lights etc. These are also of two types-

1. NO type-

When we press the (NO ) switch it gives continuous signal +24V to PLC, after
releasing the contact it remains closed, for disconnecting the supply we have to move
opposite side.

2. NC type

When we not press the (NC ) switch it gives continuous signal +24V to PLC, after
press the contact it will get opened and remains open till have to move it in its opposite side.
  Emergency Switches/ Mushroom type push button

These are also called mushroom type push buttons, these are always NC type. These
are hand operated switches, in emergency when we press this switch it disconnects the whole
supply from PLC and when we release our hand from button supply remains disconnected.
For re-establishing the connection of PLC we have to rotate clock-wise and release it.

 Limit Switches

A limit switch or micro switch consists of a switching body and an operating head.
The switch body includes electrical contacts to energize and de-energize a circuit.
The operating head incorporates some types of lever arms or plunger which is also
referred as Actuator.
The standard limit switch is a mechanical device that uses physical contact to detect
the presence of an object (Target). When the target comes in contact with actuator, the
actuator is rotated from its normal position to operating position. This mechanical operation
activates the contacts within the switch body.
  Pressure Switches

These are input components used as a field device installed on the machine and are
connected with input module of PLC. Pressure switches are actually used to control the
pressure and have NO & NC switch over type of contacts, which changes the state when a
preset pressure threshold value is reached.

 Temperature Switches

Thermostats are the devices which have a contact that is NO & NC. When the
temperature reaches the threshold value the contact changes the state from NO to NC. When
the temperature value falls below the threshold value the contact resume its initial position.
Thermostats are widely used in refrigerators and in temperature controlling machines and
heating installations.

 Proximity Switches/Sensors
Sensors are the components just like limit switches whose internal contact will
become ‘NO’ to ‘NC’ when it sense (detect) some object. The major difference between
mechanical switches and proximity sensors are that sensors actuated without any physical
contact with the object.

Digital Sensors Classification

The schematic symbols for the discrete sensor are drawn as limit switches in a diamond
shaped box. In figure 3-16 symbols (a) and (b) are respectively N/O and N/C sensors.
 For discrete sensors, there are two types of outputs, the NPN or sinking output and the
PNP or sourcing output. The NPN or sinking output has an output circuit that functions
similar to a TTL open collector output. It can be regarded as an NPN bipolar transistor with a
grounded emitter and an uncommitted collector, as shown in figure.

Sensor With NPN Output

NPN Sensor and PLC Connection

We can connect a NPN sensor with PLC as in figure

 NPN Sensor Connection with PLC

The PNP, or sourcing output, has output logic levels that switch between the sensors
power supply voltage and an open circuit. In this case, as illustrated in figure 3-19, the PNP
output transistor has the emitter connected to Vcc and the collector uncommitted. When the
output is connected to a grounded load, the transistor will cause the load voltage to be either
zero (when the transistor is off) or approximately Vcc (when the transistor is on).
 Sensor With PNP Output

PNP Sensor & PLC Connection

We can connect a PNP sensor with PLC as in figure 3-20.

 PNP Sensor Connection with PLC

Explanation of Connection of Discrete Sensors to PLC Inputs

Since discrete PLC inputs can be either sourcing or sinking, it is important to know
how to select the sensor output type that will properly interface with the PLC input, and how
to wire the PLC input so that it will interface properly to the sensor. Generally speaking,
sensors with sourcing (PNP) outputs should be connected to sinking PLC inputs, and sensor
with sinking (NPN) outputs should be connected to sourcing PLC inputs.

For sourcing (PNP) sensor outputs, the PLC input circuit is wired with the common
terminal connected to the common of the sensor as shown in figure 3-21. When the PNP
transistor in the sensor is off, no current flows between the sensor and the PLC, and the PLC
input will be OFF. When the sensor circuitry switches the PNP transistor ON, current flows
from the Vcc power supply, through the PNP transistor, through the IN0 opto-isolator in the
PLC input, and out of the common terminal to return to the negative side of the power
supply. In this case, the PLC input will be ON. For this type of connection, the value of the
Vcc voltage must be at least high enough to satisfy the minimum input voltage requirement
for the PLC inputs. Notice the simplicity of the connection scheme. The sensor connects
directly to the PLC input. No other external signal conditioning circuitry is required.
 Sourcing sensor Output Connected to a Sinking PLC Input

Similarly other input devices like switches can connect with Digital Input Card when PLC is
sink type(0V connected with common of input card) as shown in figure
 Digital Input Connected to a Sinking PLC

We can also connect a sinking (NPN) sensor output to the same PLC input. However, since
the sensor has a sinking output, the PLC must be rewired as a sourcing input. This can be
done by disconnecting the common terminal of the PLC input from the negative side of Vcc
and connecting it to the positive side of Vcc as shown in fig 3-23. this connection scheme
converts all of the PLC inputs to sourcing; that is, in order to switch the PLC input ON, we
must draw current out of the input terminal. In operation, when the NPN transistor in the
sensor is OFF, no current flows between the sensor and PLC. However, when the NPN
transistor switches ON, current will flow from the positive side of the Vcc supply, into the
common terminal of the PLC, up through the opto-isolator, out of the PLC input terminal
IN0, and through the NPN transistor to ground. This will switch the PLC input ON. If it is
necessary to operate the PLC inputs and the sensor from separate power supplies, it is
permissible as long as the negative terminals of both power supplies are connected together.
 Sinking sensor Output Connected to a Sourcing PLC Input

Similarly other input devices like switches can connect with Digital Input Card when PLC is
source type (24V connected with common of input card) as shown in figure 3-24.
 Digital Inputs Connected to a Sourcing PLC

Classification of Proximity Sensors according to its working:-

Proximity sensors are discrete sensors that sense when an object has come near to the
sensor face. There are four fundamental types of proximity sensors-the inductive proximity
sensor, the capacitive proximity sensor, the ultrasonic proximity sensor, and the optical
proximity sensor. In order to properly specify and apply proximity sensors, it is important to
understand how they operate and to which applications each is best suited.

Inductive Proximity Sensors

 Inductive Proximity Sensor Picture

As with all proximity sensors, inductive proximity sensors are available in various
sizes and shapes as shown in figure. As the name implies, inductive proximity sensor operate
on the principle that the inductance of a coil and the power losses in the coil vary as a
metallic (or conductive) object is passed near it. Because of this operating principle, inductive
sensors are only used for sensing metal objects. They will not work with non-metallic
materials.

Sample Of Inductive Proximity Sensor

To understand how inductive proximity sensors operate, consider the cutaway block
diagram shown in figure. Mounted just inside the face of the sensor (on the left end) is a coil
that is part of the tuned circuit of an oscillator. When the oscillator operates, there is an
alternating magnetic field (called a sensing field) produced by the coil. This magnetic field
radiates through the face of the sensor (which is non-metallic). The oscillator circuit is tuned
such that as long as the sensing field sense non- metallic material (such as air) it will continue
to oscillate, it will trigger the trigger circuit, and the output switching device (which inverts
the output of the trigger circuit) will be off. The sensor will therefore send an OFF signal
through the cable extending from the right side of the sensor in fig.

Inductive Proximity Sensor Internal Components

When a metallic object (steel, iron, aluminum, tin, copper, etc.) comes near the face of
the sensor, as shown in fig, the alternating magnetic field in the target produces circulating
eddy currents inside the material. To the oscillator, these eddy currents are a power loss. As
the target moves nearer, the eddy current loss increases, which loads the output of oscillator.
This loading effect causes the output amplitude of the oscillator to decrease.

Inductive Proximity Sensor Sensing Target Object

As long as the oscillator amplitude does not drop below the threshold level of the
trigger circuit, the output of the sensor will remain off. However, as shown in figure 3-29, if
the target object moves closer to the face of the sensor, the eddy current loading will causes
the oscillator to stall (cease to oscillate). When this happens, the trigger circuit senses the loss
of oscillator output and causes the output switching device to switch ON.
 Inductive Proximity Sensor Signals

The sensing range of a proximity sensor is the maximum distance the target object
may be from the face of the sensor in order for the sensor to detect it. One parameter
affecting the sensing range is the size (diameter) of the sensing coil. Small diameter sensors
(approximately ¼” in diameter) have typical sensing ranges in the area of 1 mm, while large
diameter sensors (approximately 3” in diameter) have sensing ranges in the order of 50 mm
or more. Additionally, since different metals have different values of resistivity (which limits
the eddy currents) and permeability (which channels the magnetic field through the target),
the type of metal being sensed will affect the sensing range. Inductive proximity sensor
manufactures derate their sensors based on different metals, with steel being the reference
(i.e., having a derating factor of 1.0). some other approximate derating factors are stainless
steel, 0.85; aluminum, 0.40; and copper, 0.30.

As an example of how to apply the derating factors, assume you are constructing a
machine to automatically count copper object as they travel down to a conveyor, and the
sensing distance will be 5 mm. in order to detect copper object (derating factor 0.30), you
would need to purchase a sensor with a sensing range of 5 mm / 0.30 = 16.7 mm. let’s say
you found a sensor in stock that has a sensing range of 10 mm. if you use this to sense the
copper object, you would need to mount it near the to conveyor so that the object will pass
within (10 mm) (0.30) = 3 mm of the face of the sensor.

Inductive proximity sensors are available in both DC and AC powered models. Most
require three electrical connections ground, power, and output. However, there are other
variations that require two wires and four wires. Most sensors are available with a built-in
LED that indicates when the sensor output is on. One of the first steps a designer should take
when using any proximity sensor is to acquire a manufactures catalog and investigate the
various types, shapes and output configurations to determine the best choice for the
application.
 To illustrate some of the many possible applications of inductive proximity sensors
(sometimes called inductive proximity switch), consider these uses:

 By placing an inductive proximity switch next to a gear, the proximity switch can
sense the passing gear teeth to give rotating speed information. This application is
currently used as a speed feedback device in automotive cruise control systems where
the proximity switch is mounted in the transmission.
 Inductive proximity switches can be mounted on access doors and panels of
machines. The PLC can be programmed to shut down the machine if any of these
doors and access panels are opened.
 Very large inductive proximity sensors can be mounted in roadbeds to sense passing
automobiles. This technique is currently used to operate traffic lights.

Capacitive Proximity Sensors

Capacitive proximity sensors are available in shapes and size similar to the inductive
proximity sensor (as shown in fig). However, because of the principle upon which the
capacitive proximity sensor operates, applications for the capacitive sensor are somewhat
different.

Example of Capacitive Proximity Sensor

 To understand how capacitive proximity sensors operate, consider the cutaway block
diagram shown in fig. The principle of operation of the sensor is that an internal oscillator
will not oscillate until a target material is moved close to the sensor face. The target material
varies the capacitance of a capacitor in the face of the sensor that is part of the oscillator
circuit. There are two types of capacitive sensor, each with a different way that this sensing
capacitor is formed. In the dielectric type capacitive proximity sensor, there are two side-by-
side capacitor plates in the sensor face. For this type of sensor, the external target acts as the
dielectric. As the target is moved closer to the sensor face, the change in dielectric increases
the capacitance of the internal capacitor, making the oscillator amplitude increases, which in
turn causes the sensor to output an ON signal. The conductive type capacitive proximity
sensor operates similarly; however, there is only one capacitor plate in the sensor face. The
target becomes the other plate. Therefore, for this type of sensor, it is best if the target is an
electrically conductive material (usually metal or water-based).

Capacitive Proximity Sensor Internal Components

The waveform diagram, as shown in figure the target approaches the face of the sensor, the
oscillator amplitude increases, which cause the sensor, output to switch on.
 Capacitive Proximity Sensor Signals

Dielectric capacitive proximity sensors will sense both metallic and non-metallic
objects. However, in order for the sensor to work properly, it is best if the material being
sensed has a high density. Low-density materials (foam, bubble wrap, paper, etc.) do not
cause a detectable change in the dielectric and consequently will not trigger the sensor.

Conductive capacitive proximity sensors require that the material being sensed be an
electric conductor. These are ideally suited for sensing metals and conductive liquids. For
example, since most disposable liquid containers are made of plastic or cardboard, these
sensors have the unique ability to “look” through the container and sense the liquid inside.
Therefore, they are ideal for liquid-level sensors.

Capacitive proximity sensors will sense metal objects just as inductive sensors will.
However, capacitive sensors are much more expensive than the inductive types. Therefore, if
the material to be sensed is metal, the inductive sensor is the more economical choice.

Some of the potential applications for capacitive proximity sensors include:

 They can be used as a non-contact, liquid-level sensor. They can be placed outside a
container to sense the liquid-level inside. This is ideal for milk, juice, or soda bottling
operations.
 Capacitive proximity sensors can be used as replacements for pushbuttons and palm
switches. They will sense the hand and, because they have no moving parts, they are
more reliable than mechanical switches.
  Since they are hermetically sealed, they can be mounted inside liquid tanks to sense
the tank-fill level.

As with the inductive proximity sensors, capacitive proximity sensors are available with a
built-in LED indicator to indicate the output logical state. Also, because capacitive proximity
sensors are used to sense materials with a wide range of densities, manufacturers usually
provide a sensitivity adjusting screw on the back of the sensor. Then, when the sensor is
installed, the sensitivity can be adjusted for best performance in the particular application.

Ultrasonic Proximity Sensors

The ultrasonic proximity sensor operates using the same principle as shipboard sonar.
As shown in fig an ultrasonic “ping” is sent from the face of the sensor. If a target and
returned to the sensor. When an echo is returned, the sensor detects that a target is present,
and by measuring the time delay between the transmitted ping and the returned echo, the
sensor can calculate the distance between the sensor and the target.

Ultrasonic Proximity Sensor

As with any proximity sensor, the ultrasonic proximity switch has limitations. The
sensor is only capable of sensing a target that is within the sensing range. The sensing range
is a funnel-shaped area directly in front of the sensor, as shown in fig.3-34 sound waves
travel from the face of the sensor in a cone-shaped dispersion pattern bounded by the sensor’s
beam angle. However, because the sending and receiving transducers are both located in the
face of the sensor, the receiving transducer is “blinded” for a short period of time
immediately after the ping is transmitted-similar to the way our eyes are temporarily blinded
by a flashbulb. This means that any echo that occurs during this “blind” time period will go
undetected. These echos will be from targets that are very close to the sensor within what is
called the sensor’s deadband. In addition, because of the finite sensitivity of the receiving
transducer, there is a distance beyond which the returning echo cannot be detected. This is the
maximum range of the sensor. These constraints define the sensor’s useable sensing area.
 Ultrasonic Proximity Sensor Useable Sensing Area

Ultrasonic proximity sensors that have a discrete output generally have a switch-point
adjustment provided on the sensor that allows the user to set the target distance at which the
sensor output switches on. Note that ultrasonic sensors are also available with the analog
outputs that will provide an analog signal proportional to the target distance.

Ultrasonic proximity sensors are useful for sensing targets that are beyond the very
short operating ranges of inductive and capacitive proximity sensors. Off the shelf, ultrasonic
proximity sensors are available with sensing ranges of 6 meters or more. They sense dense
target materials such as metals and liquids best. They do not work well with soft materials,
such as cloth, foam rubber, or any material that is a good absorber of sound waves, and they
operate poorly with liquids that have surface ripple or waves. Also, for obvious reasons, these
sensors will not operate in vacuum. Since the sound waves must pass through the air, the
accuracy of this sensors is subject to the sound propagation time of the air. The most
detrimental impact of this is that the sound propagation time of air decreases by 0.17%/ 0C.
This means that as the air temperature increases, a stationary target will appear to move
closer to the sensor. They are not affected by ambient audio noise, nor by wind. However,
because of their relatively long useful range, the system designer must take care when using
more than one ultrasonic sensor in a system because of the potential for crosstalk between
sensors.

One popular use for the ultrasonic proximity sensor is in sensing liquid level. Fig
shows such an application. Note that since ultrasonic sensors do not perform well with liquids
with surface turbulence, a stilling tube is used to reduce the potential turbulence on the
surface of the liquid.
 Ultrasonic Liquid level Sensor

Optical Proximity Sensors

Optical sensors are an extremely popular method of providing discreate-output

sensing of objects. Since the sensing method uses light, they are capable of sensing any
objects that are opaque, regardless of the colour or reflectivity of the surface. They operate
over long distances (as opposed to inductive or capacitive proximity sensors), will sense in a
vacuum (as opposed to ultrasonic sensors), and can sense any type of material whether it is
metallic, conductive, or porous. Since the optical transmitters and receivers use focused beam
(using lenses), they can be operated in close proximity of other optical sensors without
crosstalk or interference.

There are fundamentally three types of optical sensors. These are the thru-beam,
diffuse reflective, and retro-reflective. All three types have discrete outputs. These are
generally available in one of three types have discrete outputs. These are generally available
in one of three types of light source-incandescent light, red LED, and infrared LED. The red
LED and IR LED sensors generally have a light output that is pulsed at a high frequency and
a receiver that is tuned to the frequency of the source. By doing so, these types have a high
degree of immunity to other potentially interfering light sources. Therefore, red LED and IR
LED sensors function better than incandescent sensors in areas where there is a high level of
ambient light (such as sunlight) or light noise (such as welding). In addition to specifying the
sensor type and light source type, the designer also needs to specify whether the sensor output
will be on or off when no light is received. Generally, this is specified as the logical condition
when there is no specified as dark-on and Dark-off
Thru-Beam (Interrupted)

The thru-beam optical sensor consists of two separate units, each mounted on
opposite sides of the object to be sensed. As shown in fig, one unit (the emitter) is the light
source that provides a lens-focused beam of light that is aimed at the receiver. The other unit,
the receiver, also contains a focusing lens and is aimed at the light sources. Assuming this is a
dark-on sensor, when there is nothing blocking the light beam, the light from the source is
detected by the receiver, and there is no output from the receiver. However, if an object
passes between the emitter and receiver, the light beam is blocked and the receiver switches
on its output.

Thru- Beam Optical Sensor, Dark On

Thru-beam sensors are the most common type known to the general public since they
appear in action movies in which thieves are attempting to thwart a matrix of optical burglar
alarm sensors setup around a valuable museum piece.

Thru-beam opto sensor works well as long as the object to be sensed is not
transparent. They have an excellent (long) maximum operating range. The main disadvantage
with this type of sensor is that because the emitter and receiver are separates units, this type
of sensor system requires wiring on both sides of the transport system (generally a conveyor)
that is moving the target object. In some cases, this may be either inconvenient or impossible.
When this occurs, another type of optical sensor should be considered.
Diffuse Reflective (Proximity)

The diffuse reflective optical sensor, shown in fig 3-37, has the light emitter and
receiver located in the same unit. Assuming it is a dark-off sensor, light from the emitter is
reflected from the target object being sensed and returned to the receiver, which, in turn,
switches on its output. When a target object is not present, no light is reflected to the receiver
and the sensor output switches off (dark-off)

Diffuse Reflective Optical Sensor, Dark Off

Diffuse reflective optical sensors are more convenient than thru-beam sensors because
the emitter and receiver are located in the same housing, which simplifies wiring. However,
this type of sensor does not work well with transparent targets or targets that have a low
reflectivity (dull finish, black surface, etc). Care must also be taken with glossy target objects
that have multifaceted surfaces (e.g., automobile wheel covers or corrugated roofing material)
or objects that have gaps through which light can pass (e.g., toy cars with windows, compact
discs). These types of target objects can cause optical sensors to output multiple pulses for
each object.

Retro-Reflective (Reflex)

The retro-reflective optical sensor is the most sophisticated of all the sensors. Like the
diffuse reflective sensor, this type has both the emitter and receiver housed in one unit. As
shown in fig 3-38, the sensor works similar to the thru-beam sensor in that a target object
passing in front of the sensor blocks the light being received. However, in this sensor does
not require the additional wiring for the remotely located receiver unit.

Retro-Reflective Optical Sensor, Dark On

Generally, this type of sensor would not work well with glossy target objects because
they would reflect light back to the receiver just as the remote reflector would. However, this
problem is avoided by using polarizing filters. This polarizing filter scheme is illustrated in
fig.3-39 Notice in our illustration that there is an added polarizing filter that polarizes the
exiting light beam. In our illustration, this is a horizontal polarization. In figure 3-39 above
picture, notice that, with no target object present, the specially designed reflector twist the
polarization angle by 900 and sends the light back in vertical poiazrition to allow the light
retiring from the reflector to pass through and be detected by the receiver.

In figure 3-39 notice that when a target objet passes between the sensor and the
reflector, not only is the light beam disrupetd, but if the object has a glossy surface and
reflects the light beam. Since the receiver filter has a vertical polarizaion, the receiver does
not receive the light so it activates its output.
 Retro-Reflective Optical Sensor Using Polarizing Filters

Retro –reflective sensor, work well with ball types of target object. However, when
purchasing the sensor, it is important to also purchase the reflector specified by the
manufacturer. These sensors have a maximum range that is more that the diffuse reflective
sensor, but less than thru- beam sensor.

Description of various outputs

There are two common categories of outputs; they are- Digital and ANALOG.

 Digital outputs can be- motors, relays, solenoid valves or enunciator windows.
 ANALOG outputs can be –Signal to variable speed drives, to input control valves (it
will explained in chapter number 10)

There is some different digital output devices are-

1. Motors (Generally connected with relays and contactors)

2. Valves
3. Actuators
4. Coils
 5. Buzzers
6. Bells
7. Alarms
8. Enunciators etc.

Digital output voltage of any PLC depends on the output devices connected to the PLC’s. We
can take any voltage up to the maximum rating of PLC output card.

Digital Output card Connections

Some of the output devices are described as follows-

3.5.1 Motor
AC Motor

An electric motor is an electromechanical device that converts electrical energy

into mechanical energy. Most electric motors operate through the interaction of magnetic
fields and current-carrying conductors to generate force. The output signal from
programmable logic controller is used to operate the motor which in turn is used to run many
applications such as industrial fans, blowers and pumps, machine tools, household
appliances, power tools, disk drives etc.

As motor are taking more current then rated current of a PLC output cards. In this
case motor has to be connected through relay or contactor.

Relays

Relays are electromechanical switching devices. Relays consist of an electromagnet and also
a set of contacts. The switching mechanism is carried out with the help of the electromagnet.

The main operation of a relay comes in places where only a low-power signal can be used to
control a circuit. It is also used in places where only one signal can be used to control a lot of
circuits.

Relay Design
There are only four main parts in a relay. They are

 Electromagnet
 Movable Armature
 Switch point contacts
 Spring
The figures 3-42 show the actual design of a simple relay.

FIGURE 3-42: Relay Construction

It is an electro-magnetic relay with a wire coil, surrounded by an iron core. A path of very
low reluctance for the magnetic flux is provided for the movable armature and also the switch
point contacts. The movable armature is connected to the yoke which is mechanically
connected to the switch point contacts. These parts are safely held with the help of a spring.
The spring is used so as to produce an air gap in the circuit when the relay becomes de-
energized.

Working of relay:
The working of a relay can be better understood by explaining the following diagram given
below in figure 3-43.
 Relay Design

The diagram shows in figure 3-43 an inner section diagram of a relay. An iron core is
surrounded by a control coil. The power supply is given to the electromagnet through a
control switch. When current starts flowing through the control coil, the electromagnet starts
energizing and thus intensifies the magnetic field. Thus the upper contact arm starts to be
attracted to the lower fixed arm and thus closes the contacts causing a short circuit for the
power to the load. On the other hand, if the relay was already de-energized when the contacts
were closed, then the contact move oppositely and make an open circuit.

As soon as the coil current is off, the movable armature will be returned by a force back to its
initial position with spring. This spring force will be almost equal to half the strength of the
magnetic force.

Cross sectional diagram of relay without control coil energising condition

Cross sectional diagram of relay with control coil energising condition
Relay Basics
The basics for all the relays are the same. Take a look at a 4 – pin relay shown in figure 3-46.
Terminals 1 & 3 represents, control coil of relay and terminals 2 & 4 are the switching
contacts of a relay where load has to be connected. This switch is controlled by the coil in the
control circuit. Now let us take the different steps that occur in a relay.

Relay Operation
 Energized Relay (ON)
As shown in figure, the current flowing through the coils represented by pins 1 and 3 causes a
magnetic field to be aroused. This magnetic field causes the closing of the pins 2 and 4. Thus
the switch plays an important role in the relay working. As it is a part of the load circuit, it is
used to control an electrical circuit that is connected to it. Thus, when the relay in energized
the current flow will be through the pins 2 and 4.

Relay Energized ON
 De – Energized Relay (OFF)
As soon as the current flow stops through pins 1 and 3, the switch opens and thus the open
circuit prevents the current flow through pins 2 and 4. Thus the relay becomes de-energized
and thus in off position.

Relay De-Energized (OFF)

In simple, when a voltage is applied to pins 1 & 3, the electromagnet activates, causing a
magnetic field to be developed, which goes on to close the pins 2 and 4 causing a closed
circuit. When there is no voltage on pin 1&3, there will be no electromagnetic force and thus
no magnetic field. Thus the switches remain open.

Concept of Pole and Throw

Relays have the exact working of a switch. So, the same concept is also applied. A relay is
said to switch one or more poles. Each pole has contacts that can be thrown in mainly three
ways. They are

 Normally Open Contact (NO) – NO contact is also called a make contact. It closes the
circuit when the relay is activated. It disconnects the circuit when the relay is inactive.

 Normally Closed Contact (NC) – NC contact is also known as break contact. This is
opposite to the NO contact. When the relay is activated, the circuit disconnects. When
the relay is deactivated, the circuit connects.
 Change-over (CO) / Double-throw (DT) Contacts – This type of contacts are used to
control two types of circuits. They are used to control a NO contact and also a NC
contact with a common terminal. According to their type they are called by the
names break before make and make before break contacts.

Relays are also named with designations like

 Single Pole Single Throw (SPST) – This type of relay has a total of four terminals. Out
of these two terminals are acting as switching circuit. The other two terminals are used
as control circuit as shown in figure 3-49
 Single Pole Double Throw (SPDT) – This type of a relay has a total of five terminals.
Out of these two terminals are acting as a control circuit in remaining three one is
common or pole other two are switching contacts NO and NC as shown in figure 3-49.

Types of Relays

 Double Pole Single Throw (DPST) – This relay has a total of six terminals. These
terminals are further divided into two pairs. Thus they can act as two SPST’s which are
actuated by a single coil. Out of the six terminals two of them are coil terminals as
shown in figure 3-49,
 Double Pole Double Throw (DPDT) – This relay has eight terminals. these terminals
are further divided into two pairs. Thus they can act as two SPDT’s which are actuated
by a single coil. out of the eight terminals two of them are coil terminals as shown in
figure 3-49.
Relay Applications
 Relays are used to realize logic functions. They play a very important role in providing
safety critical logic.
 Relays are used to control high voltage circuits with the help of low voltage signals.
Similarly they are used to control high current circuits with the help of low current
signals.
 They are also used as protective relays. By this function all the faults during
transmission and reception can be detected and isolated.

Contactors:

When a relay is used to switch a large amount of electrical power through its contacts, it is
designated by a special name: contactor. Contactors typically have multiple contacts, and
those contacts are usually normally-open, so that power to the load is shut off when the coil
is de-energized. The most common industrial use for contactors is the control of electric
motors.

Contactor schematic
The top three contacts are called main contacts. Main contacts switch the respective phases
of the incoming 3-phase AC power (terminal A,B & C) to motors (terminal U, V & W).
The lowest contacts are “auxiliary” contact which has a current rating much lower than that
of the large motor power contacts, but is actuated by the same armature as the power
contacts. The auxiliary contact is often used in a relay logic circuit, or for some other part of
the motor control scheme, typically switching is 230 V AC or 24 V DC Voltage instead of
the motor voltage. One contactor may have several auxiliary contacts, either normally-open
or normally-closed, if required.
Contactors are looking as shown figure

FIGURE 3-51 : Contactor Picture (ABB Make)

We can connect auxiliary contacts as shown in figure

Contactor attached with External Auxiliary contact

When motor never connects with contactor directly; it always connects thermal overload
protection series with main contacts of contactor.
 Contactor Schematic with Over Load(OL) Coil

The three “opposed-question-mark” shaped devices in series with each phase going to the
motor are called overload heaters. Each “heater” element is a low-resistance strip of metal
intended to heat up as the motor draws current. If the temperature of any of these heater
elements reaches a critical point (equivalent to a moderate overloading of the motor), a
normally-closed switch contact (not shown in the diagram) will spring open. This normally-
closed contact is usually connected in series with the relay coil, so that when it opens the
relay will automatically de-energize, thereby shutting off power to the motor. Overload
heaters are intended to provide over current protection for large electric motors, unlike
circuit breakers and fuses which serve the primary purpose of providing over current
protection for power conductors.
Overload heaters are designed to thermally mimic the heating characteristic of the particular
electric motor to be protected. All motors have thermal characteristics, including the amount
of heat energy generated by resistive dissipation (I2R), the thermal transfer characteristics of
heat “conducted” to the cooling medium through the metal frame of the motor, the physical
mass and specific heat of the materials constituting the motor, etc. These characteristics are
mimicked by the overload heater on a miniature scale: when the motor heats up toward its
critical temperature, so will the heater toward its critical temperature, ideally at the same
rate and approach curve. Thus, the overload contact, in sensing heater temperature with a
thermo-mechanical mechanism, will sense an analogue of the real motor. If the overload
contact trips due to excessive heater temperature, it will be an indication that the real motor
has reached its critical temperature (or, would have done so in a short while). After tripping,
the heaters are supposed to cool down at the same rate and approach curve as the real motor,
so that they indicate an accurate proportion of the motor’s thermal condition, and will not
allow power to be re-applied until the motor is truly ready for start-up again.
Shown in figure 3-54, it is a contractor for a three-phase electric motor, installed on a panel
as part of an electrical control system;
 Contactor Actual Picture
Three-phase, 480 volt AC power comes in to the three normally-open contacts at the top of
the contactor via screw terminals labeled “L1,” “L2,” and “L3” (The “L2” terminal is
hidden behind a square-shaped “snubber” circuit connected across the contactor’s coil
terminals). Power to the motor exits the overload heater assembly at the bottom of this
device via screw terminals labeled “T1,” “T2,” and “T3.”
The overload heater units labeled “W34,” indicating a particular thermal response for a
certain horsepower and temperature rating of electric motor. If an electric motor of differing
power and/or temperature ratings were to be substituted for the one presently in service, the
overload heater units would have to be replaced with units having a thermal response
suitable for the new motor. The motor manufacturer can provide information on the
appropriate heater units to use.
A white pushbutton located between the “T1” and “T2” line heaters serves as a way to
manually re-set the normally-closed switch contact back to its normal state after having
been tripped by excessive heater temperature. Wire connections to the “overload” switch
contact may be seen at the lower-right of the photograph, near a label reading “NC”
(normally-closed). On this particular overload unit, a small “window” with the label
“Tripped” indicates a tripped condition.
Heater elements may be used as a crude current shunt resistor for determining whether or
not a motor is drawing current when the contactor is closed. There may be times when
you’re working on a motor control circuit, where the contactor is located far away from the
motor itself. How do you know if the motor is consuming power when the contactor coil is
energized and the armature has been pulled in? If the motor’s windings are burnt open, you
could be sending voltage to the motor through the contactor contacts, but still have zero
current, and thus no motion from the motor shaft. If a clamp-on ammeter isn’t available to
measure line current, you can take your multimeter and measure millivoltage across each
heater element: if the current is zero, the voltage across the heater will be zero (unless the
heater element itself is open, in which case the voltage across it will be large); if there is
current going to the motor through that phase of the contactor, you will read a definite
millivoltage across that heater:

Contactor Schematic

This is an especially useful trick to use for troubleshooting 3-phase AC motors, to see if one
phase winding is burnt open or disconnected, which will result in a rapidly destructive
condition known as “single-phasing.” If one of the lines carrying power to the motor is
open, it will not have any current through it (as indicated by a 0.00 mV reading across its
heater), although the other two lines will (as indicated by small amounts of voltage dropped
across the respective heaters).
A hydraulic system is a transmission system that uses pressurized hydraulic fluid to
drive machinery. The term hydrostatic refers to the transfer of energy from flow and
pressure, not from the kinetic energy of the flow. A hydraulic system is basically used to get
linear displacement with power (in tonnes). Applications of hydraulics are in various
machineries like in cutting machine, press machine, bending machine, packaging machines,
cranes etc. Figure showing hydraulic application. Hydraulics system is control by solenoid
valves when apply a control voltage across it. This control voltage is controlled by PLC.
Means if we want to control a hydraulic system we have to think about it solenoid valves.
Solenoid valves have to connect with PLC output card. Solenoid valve are controlled by
either 24V DC or 230AC.
3.5.6 Pneumatic system

Pneumatics is a section of technology that deals with application of pressurized gas to

affect mechanical motion. These systems are extensively used in industry, where factories are
commonly plumbed with compressed air or compressed inert gases. This is because a
centrally located and electrically powered compressor that powers cylinders and other
pneumatic devices through solenoid valves is often able to provide motive power in a
cheaper, safer, more flexible, and more reliable way than a large number of electric
motors and actuators. Pneumatic systems can be use upto 10 bar pressure. Pneumatic system
is also control by solenoid valves when apply a control voltage across it. This control voltage
is controlled by PLC. Means if we want to control a pneumatic system we have to think about
it solenoid valves. Solenoid valves have to connect with PLC output card. Solenoid valve are
controlled by either 24V DC or 230AC.

PLC output card wiring:

The concept of wiring is based on current rating of PLC output card, as shown in figure.

In figure 12V DC motor is connected with output terminal OUT0 and rating of output is less
than the rated output terminal of PLC. Where as in OUT1 terminal motor current is greater
than rated current of output card of PLC, that’s why a relay is required for switching the
motor. Important condition is that relay should be selected as its current rating should be
greater than the current rating of motor. Here we have taken a relay of 24V DC, which is
connected at the output OUT1 terminal.

One more importance of a relay; it provides isolation between PLC and Load.

FIGURE 3-62 : PLC Output Card Wiring for DC Output

 PLC Output Card Wiring for AC Output

For connecting a 3 phase motor in PLC Output Card; we have to use one contactor at the
output of PLC as shown in figure. Here we have DC contractor which works in 24 V DC.
When OUT0 gets high in program, contactor will get operated and 3 phase motor will get
started.

: PLC Output Card Wiring

Description of some of the best PLC Brands

 Here is the description of different Companies PLC’s , their Softwares and
communication cables used -

ALLEN BRADLY

 PLC:

 Micro Logic 1000

 Micro Logic 1200
 Control Logic
 SLC 500
 ML 1500

 Software:

 RX Logic 500
 RX Logic 5000 (latest version)

 Communication Cable:

 RS485
 RS232

 Addressing of Allen Bradely PLC

Input Output Bit Data Integer Data Timer Counter

I1:0/0 O0:0/0 B3:0/0 N7:0 T4:0 C5:0
I1:0/1 O0:0/1 B3:0/1 N7:1 T4:1 C5:1
. . . . . .
. . . . . .
. . . . . .
. . B3:0/15 N7:15 T4:15 C5:15
 . . . N7:16 . .
. . . . . .
. . . . . .
I1:0/15 O0:0/15 B3:0/4095 N7:2047 T4:255 C5:255

SIEMENS

 PLC:
 S7 200
 S7 300
 S7 400

 Software:

 Step7 Microwin
 Simatic Manager
 TIA Portal

 Communication Cable:

 PC/PPI Card
 PC/MPI Card
 USB PPI Multi master Cards
 USB MPI Multi master Card

 Addressing of Siemens PLC:

Auxiliary
Input Output Memory Timer Counter
Relay
I0.0 Q0.0 M0.0 MB0 T0 C0
I0.1 Q0.1 M0.1 . T1 C1
. . . . . .
. . . MB31 . .
 I0.7 Q0.7 M0.7 MW0 . .
I1.0 Q1.0 M1.0 . T15 C15
. . . . . .
. . . MW31 . .
. . . MD0 . .
. . . . . .
. . . . . .
I15.7 Q15.7 M31.7 MD28 T255 C255
Where, MB: Memory Byte
MW: Memory Word
MD: Memory Double Word

MITSUBISHI

 PLC:

 FX2N
 FX1N
 FX1S
 Q Series
 FX3G
 FX3U (latest version)

 Software:
  GX Developer
 GX Works2

 Communication Cable:

 RS422

 Addressing of MITSUBISHI PLC

Auxiliary Data
Input Output Timer Counter
Relay Register

X0 Y0 M0 D0 T0 C0

X1 Y1 M1 . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . T119 C99

. . . D119 T200 C100

. . . D200 . .

. . . . . .

. . . . T245 C199

X15 Y15 M15 . T246 C200

. . . D512 . .

. . . D8000 . .

. . . . T249 C219

. . . . T250 C220

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

X128 Y128 M1023 D8255 T255 C254

Data Register, D0 to D119 : General

D200 to D512 : Latched
D8000 to D8255 : Special
 Timer, T0 to T119 : 100ms
T200 to T245 : 10ms
T246 to T249 : 1ms
T250 to T255 : 100msR (R- retentive)

Counter, C0 to C99 : 16-Bit Up-Counter

C100 to C199 : 16-Bit Latched Up Counter
C200 to C219 : 16-Bit General Counter
C220 to C254 : 32-Bit Latched Up-Down Counter

DELTA

 PLC:

 DVP – 14ES/EX/EH/SS
 DVP – 16ES/EX/EH/SS
 DVP – 32ES/EX/EH/SS
 DVP – 64ES/EX/EH/SS
 DVP – 128ES/EX/EH/SS
  Software:

 WPL Soft 2-12

+
 Communication Cable:

 RS232

 Addressing of DELTA PLC

Auxiliary Data
Input Output Timer Counter
Relay Register

X0 Y0 M0 D0 T0 C0

X1 Y1 M1 . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . T119 C99

. . . D119 T200 C100

. . . D200 . .

. . . . . .

. . . . T245 C199

X15 Y15 M15 . T246 C200

. . . D512 . .

. . . D8000 . .
 . . . . T249 C219

. . . . T250 C220

. . . . . .

X128 Y128 M1023 D8255 T255 C254

Data Register, D0 to D119 : General

D200 to D512 : Latched
D8000 to D8255 : Special

Timer, T0 to T119 : 100ms

T200 to T245 : 10ms
T246 to T249 : 1ms
T250 to T255 : 100msR (R- retentive)

Counter, C0 to C99 : 16-Bit Up-Counter

C100 to C199 : 16-Bit Latched Up Counter
C200 to C219 : 16-Bit General Counter
C220 to C254 : 32-Bit Latched Up-Down Counter

ABB

 PLC:

 AC500 PM574
 AC500 PM564
 AC500 PM571
 AC500 PM581
 AC500 PM591
  Software:

 CodeSys v 2.3
+
 Communication Cable:

 RS 232 cable
 Addressing of ABB

Input Output Flag Word Timer Counter

%IX0.0 %QX0.0 %MX0.0 %MW0

%IX0.1 %QX0.1 %MX0.1 %MW1

Any Any
. . . . alphabet alphabet
can be taken can be taken
. . . . for for
addressing. addressing.
. . . .

. . . .

SCHNEIDER ELECTRIC

 PLC:

 COMPACT
 TWDLCDAA16DRF
 TWDLCDAA24DRF
 TWDLCDCA16DRF
 TWDLCDCA24DRF

 MODULAR
 TWDLMDA20DTK
 TWDLMDA20DRT
 TWDLMDA40DTK
 TWDLMDA40DRT

 EXTREME
 TWDLEDCK1
  Software:

 Twido Suite

 Communication Cable:

 RS485

 Addressing of Schneider PLC

Input Output Flag Word Timer Counter

%I0.0 %Q0.0 %M0 %MW0 %TM0 %C0

%I0.1 %Q0.1 %M1 %MW1 %TM1 %C1

. . . . . .

. . . . . .

MESSUNG

PLC:

 XMPS Microseries
 Nexgen 4000
 Nexgen 10000

 Software:

 CodeSys V2.3
+
 Communication Cable:
  RS232

 Addressing of Messung PLC:

Input Output Flag Word Timer Counter

%IX0.0 %QX0.0 %MX0.0 %MW0

Any Any
%IX0.1 %QX0.1 %MX0.1 %MW1 alphabet alphabet
can be taken can be taken
. . . . for for
addressing. addressing.
. . . .

Power Supply using in PLC is always a SMPS (Switching Mode Power Supply).

Working Principle of SMPS

The Unregulated Voltage is fed to the control network. The control network consists
of a transistor switch, an inductor, a capacitor and a diode.
Block Diagram:

Unregulated Regulated
Control
input output
Network

Reference Control
voltage
Logic

High
Frequency
Oscillator

Sampling
Element
SMPS Block Diagram
 By varying the duty cycle or frequency by switching the transistor, one can vary the
stored energy into the inductor in each cycle and thus control the output voltage. The
capacitor storage is used to keep the output voltage constant.
The control logic controls the duty cycle or frequency of switching of transistor. The
HF Oscillator drives the control logic since there is no energy consumption is switching, the
efficiency is higher.

SMPS Picture(MW Make)

SMPS Picture(Siemens Make)

SMPS Picture (Omron Make)