Photovoltaic energy

electricity from the sun

 The sun ,
an energy available for free which can be used in many ways

Energy from the sun

can be used in three main ways,
and when talking about solar energy it is Photovoltaic
energy (PV)
important to distinguish between these
Uses energy from the sun
three types: to create electricity to run
appliances and lighting.
A photovoltaic system
requires only daylight - not
direct sunlight - to
Passive heat generate electricity.
This is heat that
we receive from the sun
naturally. This can be taken
into account in the design
of buildings so that less Solar thermal
additional heating Where we use the sun’s
is required. heat to provide hot water for
homes or swimming pools
(also heating systems).
 The process
of turning sunlight into electricity

‘Photovoltaic’ is a marriage
of two words: ‘photo’,
from Greek roots,
meaning light, and ‘voltaic’,
Photovoltaic systems use cells
from ‘volt’, which is the unit
to convert solar radiation into
used to measure electric
electricity. The cell consists of one
potential at a given point.
or two layers of a semi-conducting
material. When light shines on the cell
it creates an electric field across
the layers, causing electricity to flow.
The greater the intensity of the light,
the greater the flow of electricity is.

The most common semi conductor

material used in photovoltaic
cells is silicon, an element most
commonly found in sand.
There is no limitation
to its availability as a raw material; A photovoltaic system therefore
silicon is the second does not need bright sunlight
most abundant material in in order to operate. It can also
the earth’s mass. generate electricity on cloudy
days. Due to the reflection
of sunlight, slightly cloudy days
can even result in higher
energy yields than days with
a completely cloudless sky.

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 The Photovoltaic Technology
how does it work in practice?

The most important parts of a

PV system are the cells which
form the basic building blocks of the
unit, collecting the sun’s light, the
modules which bring together large
numbers of cells into a unit, and, in
some situations, the inverters used to
convert the electricity generated into a
form suitable for everyday use.

• Production process : the Photovoltaic Value Chain

The following chart flow shows the different steps of production of a photovoltaic system
(crystalline based technology)

Raw material (Silicon) Ingot Ingot squaring

Wafer slicing

System

Module Cells Wafer

4
• PV cells and modules

PV cells are generally made either from crystalline silicon, sliced from ingots or castings, from
grown ribbons or thin film, deposited in thin layers on a low-cost backing.

The performance of a solar cell is measured in terms of its efficiency at turning sunlight into
electricity. A typical commercial solar cell has an efficiency of 15% - about one-sixth of the
sunlight striking the cell generates electricity. Improving solar cell efficiencies while holding down
the cost per cell is an important goal of the PV industry.

Overview of available photovoltaic technologies

> Crystalline silicon technology > Thin Film technology

Crystalline silicon cells are made Thin film modules are constructed by depositing
from thin slices cut from a single extremely thin layers of photosensitive materials
crystal of silicon (monocrystalline) onto a low-cost backing such as glass,
or from a block of silicon crystals stainless steel or plastic.
(polycrystalline), their efficiency
ranges between 12% and 17%.
This is the most common Four types of thin film modules
technology representing (depending on the active material
about 90% of the market today. used) are commercially available at the
moment:
• Amorphous silicon (a-Si)
Three main types of crystalline cells • Cadmium telluride (CdTe).
can be distinguished:
• Copper Indium/gallium Diselenide/
• Monocrystalline (Mono c-Si)
disulphide (CIS, CIGS)
• Polycrystalline (or Multicrystalline)
• Multi junction cells (a-Si/m-Si)
(multi c-Si)
• Ribbon sheets (ribbon-sheet c-Si)

5
 Photovoltaic sound barrier along a motorway

Other cell types

There are several other types of photovoltaic technologies
developed today starting to be commercialised or still at the
research level, the main ones are:

> Concentrated photovoltaic
Some solar cells are designed to operate with concentrated
sunlight. These cells are built into concentrating collectors
that use a lens to focus the sunlight onto the cells.
The main idea is to use very little of the expensive
semiconducting PV material while collecting as much
sunlight as possible. Efficiencies are in the range of
20 to 30%.

Concentrated photovoltaic module

> Flexible cells
Based on a similar production process to thin film
cells, when the active material is deposited in a
thin plastic, the cell can be flexible.
This opens the range of applications,
especially for building integration (roofs-tiles)
and end-consumer applications.

Flexible solar cells, these can be easily integrated

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• Photovoltaic applications
The Photovoltaic technology can be used in several types of applications:

> Grid-connected domestic systems

This is the most popular type of solar PV system for homes and businesses in developed areas.
Connection to the local electricity network allows any excess power produced to feed the electricity
grid and to sell it to the utility. Electricity is then imported from the network when there is no sun.
An inverter is used to convert the direct current (DC) power produced by the system to alternative
current (AC) power for running normal electrical equipments.

1. Photovoltaic modules
2. Inverter DC/AC
3. Feed-in electricity meter
1 4. Consumption meter

2
3
4

> Grid-connected power plants

These systems, also grid-connected, produce a large
quantity of photovoltaic electricity in a single point.
The size of these plants range from several hundred
kilowatts to several megawatts. Some of these
applications are located on large industrial buildings such
as airport terminals or railway stations. This type of large
application makes use of already available space and
compensates a part of the electricity produced by these
energy-intensive consumers.
Large photovoltaic power plant in Bavaria

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 > Off-grid systems for rural
electrification
Where no mains electricity is available, the system
is connected to a battery via a charge controller. An inverter
can be used to provide AC power, enabling the use of normal
electrical appliances. Typical off-grid applications are used
to bring access to electricity to remote areas (mountain huts,
developing countries). Rural electrification means either
small solar home system covering basic electricity needs in
a single household, or larger solar mini-grids, which provide
enough power for several homes. More information is available
on www.ruralelec.org.
Off-grid application in South America

> Hybrid systems
A solar system can be combined with another
source of power - a biomass generator,
a wind turbine or diesel generator - to ensure
a consistent supply of electricity. A hybrid
system can be grid-connected, stand-alone or
grid-support. More information is available on
www.ruralelec.org.

PV-wind hybrid system

> Consumer goods
Photovoltaic cells are used in many daily
electrical appliances, including watches,
calculators, toys, battery chargers,
professional sun roofs for automobiles.
Other applications include power for services
such as water sprinklers, road signs, lighting
and phone boxes.
Sun roof system used to cool down the car

> Off-grid industrial applications

Uses for solar electricity for remote applications are very frequent
in the telecommunications field, especially to link remote rural areas
to the rest of the country. Repeater stations for mobile telephones
powered by PV or hybrid systems also have a large potential.
Other applications include traffic signals, marine navigation aids,
security phones, remote lighting, highway signs and waste water
treatment plants. These applications are cost competitive today
as they enable to bring power in areas far away from electric
mains, avoiding the high cost of installing cabled networks.
PV used for a remote
telecommunication station

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 10 Good Reasons 
to switch to solar photovoltaic electricity

Photovoltaic is emerging
as a major power source due to its
numerous environmental and economic
benefits and proven reliability. Annual solar irradiation
to the earth

Gas
Oil Established global
Coal energy resources
Uranium
Global annual energy consuption

1 Source: Eco Solar Equipment Ltd.

The fuel is free.
The sun is the only resource
needed to power solar panels.
2
It produces no
And the sun will keep shining until
noise, harmful emissions
the world’s end. Also, most photovoltaic
or polluting gases. The burning
cells are made from silicon,
of natural resources for energy can create
and silicon is an abundant and non-
smoke, cause acid rain, pollute water and
toxic element (the second most
pollute the air. Carbon dioxide CO2 , a leading
abundant material in
greenhouse gas, is also produced.
the earth’s mass).
Solar power uses only the power of the
sun as its fuel. It creates no harmful by-
product and contributes actively
to reduce the global
warming.

Greenhouse gases
(grams per kilowatt-hour Coal 900

of CO2 equivalent)
Oil 850

Gas combined-cycle 400

Biomass 45

Multi-crystaline silicon 37

Photovoltaics
Cadium telluride (thin film) 18

Wind 11

From: Externe project, 2003; Kim and Dale, 2005; Fthenakis and Kim, 2006; Fthenakis and Kim, 2007; Fthenakis and Alsema, 2006

9
 4
PV Modules can be
3 recycled and therefore the
PV systems are very materials used in the production process
safe and highly reliable. (silicon, glass, aluminium, etc.) can be reused.
The estimated lifetime of a PV module Recycling is not only beneficial for
is 30 years. Furthermore, the modules’ the environment but also for helping to reduce
performance is very high providing over 80% the energy needed to produce those materials
of the initial power after 25 years which makes and therefore the cost of fabrication.
photovoltaics a very reliable technology More information is available on the following
in the long term. In addition, very high website: www.pvcyle.org
quality standards are set at a European
level which guarantees
that consumers buy reliable
products.

6
It brings electricity

5
to remote rural areas.
Solar systems give an added value
It requires to rural areas (especially in developing
low maintenance. countries where electricity is not available).
Solar modules are almost House lighting, hospital refrigeration systems
maintenance-free and water pumping are some of
and offer an easy the many applications for off-grid systems.
installation. Telecommunication systems in
remote areas are also well-known
users of PV systems.

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 7
It can be
aesthetically integrated in
buildings (BIPV). Systems can cover
roofs and facades contributing to reduce the
energy buildings consume. They don’t produce noise
and can be integrated in very aesthetic ways. European
building legislations have been and are being reviewed to
make renewable energies as a required energy source in
public and residential buildings. This fact is accelerating
the development of ecobuildings and positive energy
buildings (E+ Buildings) which opens up
many opportunities for a better integration PV cells used as sunshade in an office building, UK
of PV systems in the built environment.
More information is available on
www.pvsunrise.eu

Semi-transparent facade

9 PV system integrated in a facade

It creates
thousands of jobs.
The PV sector, with an average
PV system integrated in a facade
annual growth of 40% during
the past years is increasingly
contributing to the creation of

8 thousand of jobs in Europe

The energy pay-

back time of a module is
and worldwide.
10
It contributes to
constantly decreasing. improving the security
This means that the time required for a of Europe’s energy supply.
PV module to produce as much energy as In order to cover 100% of the electricity
it needs to be manufactured is very short, demand in Europe, only the 0.7% of the
it varies between 1,5 years to 3 years. total land of Europe would be needed to
A module therefore produces 6 to 18 be converted by PV modules. Therefore
times more energy than is needed Photovoltaics can play an important
to manufacture it. role in improving the security of
Europe’s energy supply.

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 I am interested in this technology
and I would like to take the next step…

How can I proceed ? Who should I contact ?

You are convinced that solar photovoltaic energy is an increasingly

important source of energy and you would like to contribute to its
development by installing a photovoltaic system at home.
As an indication a system of about 3 kWp (~30 m2) is enough
to cover the yearly electricity needs of your household.

Good news!
In an increasing number of countries, adapted support mechanisms
are helping citizens to take the next step by providing a financial support.
This is, in particular the case in Germany, Spain, Italy, France, Greece
or Slovenia where feed-in tariff schemes have been adopted.

How do feed-in tariff mechanisms work in practice?

If you install a PV system at home, all electricity generated can be injected
and sold to the electricity provider at higher price than the price paid
in your monthly electricity bill. This mechanism enables you to pay-back
your investment in a short time. The country which has best succeeded
to develop photovoltaic energy today is Germany. Spain, Italy, France
and Greece have also developed this system and step by step electricity
consumers, aware of the importance of renewable energies, are switching
to solar electricity receiving a compensation for their effort. Some other
systems exist to develop renewables (green certificates, tendering, tax credit)
but they have not proved to be as efficient in particular when they depend
from State budgets. More information is available on www.epia.org.

In the long run no more support will be required to

help the development of photovoltaic electricity.
With increasing sales leading to scale economies
and efforts realised by producers to reduce the
cost of photovoltaic products, it is expected that
photovoltaic will be competitive with electricity
prices in the South of Europe by 2015 and in most
of Europe by 2020.

Photovoltaic system integrated on

the roof of a house, Germany

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You are interested to know more about the situation
in your country, the existing support to switch
to green energy? You will find the most up-dated
information about your country situation through
energy agencies. A directory of European national,
regional and local energy agencies is available
on the following website:
http://www.managenergy.net/emap/maphome.html

PV system integrated in the facade

of a social housing, France

The Photovoltaic Sector

is becoming a decisive employer in Europe and worldwide

The photovoltaic sector is particularly promising in terms of job and local wealth creation.
The sector invests heavily in research and technological innovation and generates employment,
which to a very high degree means skilled, high quality jobs. Moreover, the PV sector
and the renewable energies in general have a decentralized structure, which leads to employment
in the less industrialised areas.

The PV industry has created more than 75.000 jobs in Europe in the last few years, the following
countries have been leading this trend:

> In Germany (the largest PV market worldwide), employment in the PV sector rose from
1.500 (1999) to over 40.000 (2007).
> In Spain, until 2007, more than 23.000 jobs were created.
> In Italy, until 2007, 1.700 jobs were created.
> In France over 2,100 persons were directly employed by the photovoltaic sector in 2007.

In 2008, EPIA estimates that over 130,000 people were employed directly by the European PV Industry
and 60,000 people indirectly. By 2020 it could create around 1.4 million jobs and 2.2 million by 2030.

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 Solar Photovoltaic Electricity
Sunny Future Ahead!

• Historical development
of cumulative PV power installed per Regions

MWp
17,000 The solar PV market has been
16,000 15 658 booming over the last years
15,000 Europe
and is forecasted to confirm
14,000 Japan this trend in the coming years.
13,000
12,000
USA By the end of 2008 the global
11,000 Rest of the world cumulative capacity exceeded
9,707
10,000 15.6 GWp. The European
9,000 Union contributes to over
8,000 7,224 60% of the global cumulative
7,000
6,000 5,569 capacity. We estimate
5,000 that today, over 3 million
4,075
4,000 households in Europe get
2,927
3,000 2,309
1,533
1,869 electricity produced from solar
2,000 1,252
1,000
1,042 photovoltaic electricity.
0
1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

• Cumulative power production potential

in Europe by 2020 - 12% scenario
(TWh produced, GW installed)
By 2020, EPIA believes solar
TWh photovoltaic electricity can
become a mainstream energy
500
462 source in Europe and cover
450 up to 12% of the electricity
400 demand. This is possible
350 with appropriate policies,
constant reduction of costs
300
and an adapted environment
250
(modernisation of the grid
200 164 infrastructures, introduction of
150 electric cars, improvement of
100 storage, etc.). Learn more on
43 www.setfor2020.eu.
50
5 However efforts to achieve
0
this potential have to start
2008 2012 2016 2020
now. By switching to green
GW 5 energy today, you can
35 140 390 contribute to this change.

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Credits
Photos
BP Solar (page 11)
First Solar (page 5)
Isofoton (pages 5 & 6)
Phoenix Solar (page 7)
Q-Cells (page 4)
Schott Solar (pages 8 & 11)
Sharp (page 15)
SMA (pages 8 & 11)
SolarWorld (page 12)
Tenesol (page 13)
TramaTecnoambiental (page 8)
United Solar Ovonic (page 6)

Text
Daniel Fraile
Marie Latour
Adel El Gammal
Michael Annett

Frisian Solar Challenge,

solar boat competition, The Netherlands

“Published in the frame of the RESTMAC project

‘Creating Markets for Renewable Energy Sources’
financed by the 6th European Framework Programme
for Research”

European Photovoltaic Industry Association

Renewable Energy House
Rue d’Arlon 63-65, 1040 Brussels - Belgium
Tel.: +32 2 465 38 84 - Fax: +32 2 400 10 10
com@epia.org - www.epia.org

The European Photovoltaic Industry Association is the world’s largest industry

association devoted to the solar electricity market. The association aims to promote
photovoltaics at the national, European and worldwide levels and to assist its
members in the development of their businesses in both the European Union
and in export markets.
 u tu r e w i t h S o l a
ig ht F rP
“ Br ho
to
vo
lta
ic
Ele
c tr i c
it y ”

© EPIA a.i.s.b.l. - www.epia.org

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