ELECT~ICAL MACHINES,

DRIVES, AND POWER

SYSTEMS
FIFTH EDITION

THEODORE WILDI
PROFESSOR EMERITUS, LAVAL UNIVERSITY

Prentice
Hall

Upper Saddle River, New Jersey

_LcC(\\ t
Columbus, Ohio
. ~" \l ,! (
 F)

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 PREFACE

;\'

This fifth edition was prompted in part by the great in- is no longer pertinent to discuss de and ac machines
crease of computers in industrial controls and au- in isolation because wherever they are being in-
tomation, which has produced computer programs stalled, an electronic control forms part of the pack-
that can simulate relays and relay contacts. These age. Consequently, the term drive now involves not
on/off discrete controls have eliminated the wiring the motor alone but the entire unit that directs the
and installation of hardware components in favor of torque and speed of the machine. This is having a
virtual relays and contacts that can be programmed on direct influence on the way electrical machinery
a keyboard. The devices that perform these operations courses are being taught.
are called Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs), How has this dramatic change come about? It is
or simply programmable controllers. These devices mainly due to the high-power solid state switching
were initially stand-alone computers that controlled a devices, such as insulated gate bipolar transistors
specific robot or manufacturing operation. However, (lGBTs), which can operate at frequencies of up to
with the advent of the Internet, they have now been 20 kHz. The change has also been driven by thyris-
integrated with the overall manufacturing process, tors and gate turn-off thyristors (GTOs) that can
leading seamlessly to integration with management, handle currents of several thousand amperes at volt-
sales, procurement, and consumer satisfaction. ages of up to 5 kV. Another key element is the com-
The relay control of machines covered in Chapter puting power of microprocessors that can process
20 is now supplemented by coverage of PLC controls signal data in real time with incredible speed.
in Chapter 31. Chapter 31 covers the basic principles The high switching frequencies of IGBTs permit
of PLCs and shows, by way of example, how they are the use of pulse-width-modulation techniques in
used in running the activities of a large service enter- power converters. This, in turn, enables torque and
prise. This new chapter illustrates how these trend- speed control of induction motors down to zero
setting computer-based activities involving controls speed. This was not feasible in rectangular-wave
and automation are being integrated with other busi- converters that were employed only a few years ago.
ness activities, including e-commerce. Most industrial drives are in the fractional horse-
As I mentioned in the last edition, similar up- power to the 500 hp range. That is precisely the range
heavals have occurred in power technology. It is sim- now available for control by IGBTs. The result has
ply amazing to witness the entrance of power elec- been an explosion in the retrofitting of existing drives.
tronics into every facet of industrial drives. Thus. it Lower maintenance costs, higher efficiency, and
1v PREFACE

greater productivity have made such changeovers pedagogical quality. As a result. more than 20
economically attractive. Thus. de drives are being re- percent of the pages were altered.
placed by induction motor drives. which require less • The end-of-chapter problems and their solutions
maintenance while offering equal and often superior were revised and double-checked.
dynamic performance. • Chapter 7 on Active, Reactire, and Apparem
Every sector of industrial and commercial activity Power was completely revised to make this im-
is therefore being affected by this revolutionary con- portant topic easier to understand.
verter technology. Electric elevators. electric locomo- • Most importantly, I have added a new chapter
tives. electric transit vehicles. servomechanisms. heat- on harmonics. Chapter 30 reveals how harmon-
ing. ventilating and air conditioning systems, fans. ics are generated and how they affect the behav-
compressors. and innumerable industrial production ior of capacitors. inductors. cables, transformers.
lines are being modified to utilize this new technology. and the quality of electric power.
The change is also affecting the transmission and I also devised a simple method that enables
distribution of electric power-an industry that has students to calculate the harmonic content in a
been relatively stable for over 50 years. Here. we are distorted wave. Once they know how to unravel a
seeing large rotating machines. such as synchronous wave into its harmonic components. their interest
condensers and frequency changers. being replaced by in harmonics quickly rises.
solid-state converters that have no moving pai1s at all.
Important development work. carried out by the All the important changes first introduced in
Electric Power Research Institute ( EPR I) in Palo previous editions have been kept in this fifth edi-
Alto. California. in collaboration with several ekc- tion. Thus. the writing of circuit equations. the
trical manufacturers. has also resulted in the cre- discussion of higher frequency transformers, and
ation of high-power static switches, thyristor-con- the equivalent circuit diagram of the single-phase
trolled series capacitors. and converters that can fill induction motor have all been retained.
the role of phase-shift transformers.
These new methods of power flow control. known • A new section covering the writing of circuit
by the acronym E/\CTS (Flexible AC lh111s111issio11 equations was added to Chapter 2. Most students
Systems) will permit existing transmission and distri- know how to solve such equations. but many ex-
bution lines to carry more power to meet the ever-in- perience difficulty in formulating them. I Liis-
creasing demand for electricity. On account of their close an ac/dc circuit-solving methodology that
extremely fast response. the converters can also sta- is particularly easy to follow. Readers will be
bilize a network that may suddenly be menaced by an glad to refer to this section as a convenient re-
unexpected disturbance. minder of the circuit-solving procedure.
It is remarkable that these innovations all rest on • Chapter 11 on Special Transformers was ex-
a common base. In other words. the converter tech- panded to include higher frequency transform-
nology used in electric motor drives is similar to ers. The reader is guided through the reasoning
that employed to control the flow of power in elec- behind the design of such transformers. and why
tric utilities. As a result. everything falls neatly and they become smaller as the frequency increases.
coherently into place. The teaching and learning of High-frequency transformers are directly related
electric machines. drives. and power systems arc to the higher frequencies encountered in switch-
thereby made much easier. ing converters.
The following changes have been made in the • Chapter 16 on Synchronous Generators has been
fourth and fifth editions: expanded to show why an increase in size in-
evitably leads to higher efficiencies and greater
• Every page of the original work was examined outputs per kilogram.This fundamental aspect of
for clarity of expression and reviewed as to its machine design will interest many readers.
 PRER\CE v

• A new section was added to Chapter 18 to de- Finally, at a time when much effort is being de-
velop the equivalent circuit diagram of a single- voted to continuing education. this hook. with its
phase induction motor. It presents a rigorous. yet many worked-out problems. is particularly suitable
simple approach, based on the 3-phase induction for self-study.
motor. Hand-held computers c~m he programmed The exercises at the end of each chapter are di-
to solve the circuit. which permits a better under- vided into three levels of learning-practical. inter-
standing of this ubiquitous single-phase machine. mediate, and advanced. Furthermore. to encourage
• Chapter 21. F11ndame11tal Elements of'PoH·er the reader to solve the problems. answers are given at
Electronics. was revised and expanded to in- the end of the book. A Solutions Manual is also avail-
clude switching converters and pulse width able for instructors. The Industrial Application prob-
modulation (PWM) techniques. It illustrates the lems that appear at the end of most chapters will also
extraordinary versatility of TGBT converters and appeal to hands-on users. The reader is invited to con-
how they can he made to generate almost any sult the list of books. technical a11icles, and Websites
waveshape and frequency. in the Reference section toward the end of the hook.
• Chapter 23. Elfftronic Col/fro/ of'Alternating A quick glance through the book shows the impor-
/Current Motors. was greatly expanded to cover tance given to photographs. All equipment and sys-
the properties of induction motors operating at tems are illustrated by diagrams and pictures, showing
variable speeds. A special section explains the them in various stages of construction or in actual use.
basics of PW:vt drives and flux vector control. Some students may not have had the opportunity to
• Chapter 29, Transmission and Distribution. repre- visit an industrial plant or to see at close hand the
sents a major addition to Part IV dealing with equipment used in the transmission and distribution of
Electric Utility Power Systems. It explains the electrical energy. The photographs help convey the
technologies that are being developed to control '"''"""r'""''"t size of these devices and machines.
the flow of electric power electronically. It also Throughout the 31 chapters. a conscious effort was
discusses the quality of electric power a:-. regards made to establish coherence. so that the reader can see
sags. swells. harmonics. and hrmvnouts. As dereg- how the various concepts fit together. For example, the
ulation of electric power becomes a reality. these terminology and power equations for synchronous
electronic methods of controlling the quality of machines are similar to those found in transmission
electricity will become increasingly important. lines. Transmission lines. in turn, bring up the question
of re.ictive power. And reactive power is an imp011a111
The subject matter covered in this book requires aspect in electronic conve11ers. Therefore, knowledge
only a background in basic circuit theory. algebra. gained in one sector is strengthened and broadened
and -.ome trigonometry. when it is applied in another. As a result. the learning
Owing to its user-friendly treatment of even ot.· electrical machines. drives. and ~.)w;,i.:,:~y)lol;ems be-
complex topics. this book will meet the needs of a comes a challenging. thought-prov~i:flg' experience.
hroad range of readers. First. it is appropriate for In order to convey the real-wf~d aspects (it ma-
students following a two-year electrical program in chinery and power systems. part\~ul:fr attentior has
community colleges. technical institutes. and uni- heen paid to the inertia of rcvo(vjng mass<(~. the
versities. Owing to its very broad coverage, the text physical limitations of materials. ~'Uld.mti:1)1t6hlcms
can also he incorporated in a 4-year technology created hy heat. This approfi~tttt¥,~:i'\J~ny_,~i~ ftt~
program. Many universities have adopted the hook multidisciplinary programs dr
111ap~ q~lletes and
for their electric power service courses. technical institutes. t:. · ·
Instructors responsible for industrial training: will In summary. I employ a llB&B\i.OM~ ;:i~aL
find a wealth of practical information that can be di- multidisciplinary approach to a broad under-
rectly applied to that greatest laboratory of all-the standing of modern electric power. Clearly. it is no
electrical industry itself. longer the staid subject it was considered to he
vi PREFACE

some years ago. There is good reason to believe that and Bernard Oegema of Schneider Canada; Carl
this dynamic, expanding field will open career op- Tobie of Edison Electric Institute; Damiano Esposito
portunities for everyone. and Yance E. Gulliksen of Carnival Cruise Lines:
I would like to make a final remark concerning the Scott Lindsay of Daiya Control Systems; Louis
use of this book. As mentioned previously, power Belisle, and Jean Lamontagne of Lumen: Benoit
technology has made a quantum jump in the past Arsenault and Les Hal mos of Allen Bradley.
eight years, mainly on account of the availability of l extend a special note of thanks to Professor
fast-acting semiconductors. In the field of electrical Thomas Young of the Rochester Institute of
machines, drives, and power systems, there will now Technology, to Dr. Robert T. H. Alden of McMaster
be a long period of consolidation during which exist- University, to Professor Martin Peros of Seneca
ing machines and devices will be replaced by newer College, and to Jean Anderson of Lab-Volt Ltd. for
models. But the basic technology covered herein will having extensively reviewed and commented in depth
not change significantly in the foreseeable future. on various aspects of this book and for having offered
Consequently. the reader will find that this book can their valued viewpoints. I also want to acknowledge
also be used as a valuable long-term reference. the contribution of Professor Stephane Montreuil of
the CEGEP Levis-Lauzon for having gone over all the
Acknowledgments end-of-chapter problems and the solutions manual.
I want to express my appreciation to Jean-Serge
In preparing this edition and previous editions of Lamirande of Omron, Pierre Juteau of Schneider
my book, I would like to acknowledge the impor- Electric, and Giles Campagna of St. Lawrence
tant contribution of the following persons. Stevedoring for their help in providing industrial ex-
Pn~f'csson and re11iewcrs: Robe11 T. H. Alden,
perience and know-how in the application of pro-
McMaster University: Ramon E. Ariza, Delgado grammable controllers. and to photographer Hughes
Community College: Fred E. Eberlin, Educational Chicoine for his work. The imprntant contribution of
Consultant; David Krispinsky, Rochester Institute of Rene Poulin of the Centre de Robotique lndustrielle
Technology; Athula Kulatunga, Southeast Missoun-i Inc. in reviewing and describing the essential features
State University: Rick Miller, Fen-is State University; of PLCs is also hereby acknowledged.
M. H. Nehir, Montana State University: Martin M. I also want to express my appreciation to Charles
Peros, Seneca College: James E. Roach, Bob Jones E. Stewart, Jr.• Publisher: to Delia Uherec. Associate
University; Chandra Sekhar, Purdue University; Editor: and to Alexandrina B. Wolf. Senior Producti"on
Gerald Sevigny, Southern Maine Technical College; Editor, of Prentice Hall, for planning, coordinating,
Philippe Yiarouge. Laval University: Stacy Wilson, and administrating this text.
Western Kentucky University; Thomas Young, As in previous editions, my son Karl continued
Rochester Institute of Technology; Dr. P. Enjeti, Texas to provide his valuable help in preparing the line
A & M University; Ted James, Pasadena City College; art, photographs, and word processing of this latest
and Sri R. Kolla, Bowling Green State University. edition.
Commercial, industrial and institutional contrib- My thanks also go to my wife. Rachel, for hav-
uton·: Andre Dupont. Raj Kapila. G. Linhofer, ing supported me in my continuing vocation as au-
Katherine Sahapoglu of ABB; Roger Bullock, Gerry thor, consultant, and teacher.
Goyette, Jim McCormick, James Nanney, Darryl J. I also wish to voice my gratitude to the instruc-
Yan Son, and Roddy Yates of Baldor Electric tors and students, practicing engineers. and techni-
Company: Jacques Bedard. Guy GoupiL and Michel cians who asked questions and made suggestions by
Lessa!·d of Lab-Volt Ltd.; Richard B. Dube of e-mailing their messages to wildi@wildi-theo.com.
General Electric Company: Abdel-Aty Edric and You are cordially invited to do the same.
Ashock Sundaram of Electric Power Research
Institute: Neil H. Woodley of Westinghouse Electric Theodore Wih!i
Corporation: Maurice Lambie. Jean-Louis Marin,
 CONTENTS

PART I. FUNDAMENTALS 2.2 Distinction between sources and

loads 16
2.3 Sign notation 17
1. UNITS 3
2.4 Double-subscript notation for
1.0 Introduction 3 voltages 17
I. I Systems of units 3 2.5 Sign notation for voltages 17
1.2 Getting used to SI 4 2.6 Graph of an alternating voltage 18
1.3 Base and derived units of the SI 4 2.7 Positive and negative currents 19
1.4 Definitions of base units 5 2.8 Sinusoidal voltage 19
1.5 Definitions of derived units 5 2.9 Converting cosine functions into sine
1.6 Multiples and submultiples functions 20
of SI units 7 2.10 Effective value of an ac voltage 20
1.7 Commonly used units 7 2.11 Phasor representation 21
1.8 Conversion charts and their use 8 2.12 Harmonics 23
1.9 The per-unit system of 2.13 Energy in an inductor 25
measurement 9 2.14 Energy in a capacitor 25
I. I 0 Per-unit system with one base I 0 2.15 Some useful equations 26
1.11 Per-unit system with two bases 11
Questions and Problems 12 ELECTROMAGNETISM

2.16 Magnetic field intensity Hand

2. FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRICITY, ~
density B 27 fJ\CUL1AD D'i:- \'~\''!". - ·N
. 1
o1A
,-_,

MAGNETISM, AND CIRCUITS 15 2.17 B-H curve of vacuum 27 q ,~ n A

2.0 Introduction 15 2.18 B-H curve of a magnetic mater.ial' 27' .. , -cA
2.1 Conventional and electron current 2.19 Determining the relative BLB\..iO U;.
flow 15 permeability 28
viii CONTENTS

2.20 Faraday's law of electromagnetic 3.9 Kinetic energy of rotation, moment of

induction 29 inertia 54
2.21 Voltage induced in a conductor 30 3.10 Torque, inertia, and change in
2.22 Lorentz force on a conductor 31 speed 57
2.23 Direction of the force acting on a 3.11 Speed of a motor/load system 57
straight conductor 31 3.12 Power flow in a mechanically coupled
2.24 Residual flux density and coercive system 58
force 32 3.13 Motor driving a load having inertia 58
2.25 Hysteresis loop 33 3.14 Electric motors driving linear motion
2.26 Hysteresis loss 33 loads 59
2.27 Hysteresis losses caused by 3.15 Heat and temperature 60
rotation 33 3.16 Temperature scales 61
2.28 Eddy currents 34 3.17 Heat required to raise the temperature
2.29 Eddy currents in a stationary iron of a body 61
core 35 3.18 Transmission of heat 62
2.30 Eddy-current losses in a revolving 3.19 Heat transfer by conduction 62
core 35 3.20 Heat transfer by convection 63
2.31 Current in an inductor 36 3.21 Calculating the losses by
convection 63
CIRCUITS AND EQUATIONS
3.22 Heat transfer by radiation 64
2.32 Kirchhoff's voltage law 40 3.23 Calculating radiation losses 64
2.33 Kirchhoff's voltage law and double- Questions and Problems 65
subscript notation 40
2.34 Kirchhoff's current law 41
PART II. ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND
2.35 CuITents, impedances, and associated
TRANSFORMERS
voltages 41
2.36 Kirchhoff's laws and ac circuits 43
2.37 K VL and sign notation 43 4. DIRECT-CURRENT GENERATORS 71
2.38 Solving ac and de circuits with sign 4.0 Introduction 71
notation 44 4.1 Generating an ac voltage 71
2.39 Circuits and hybrid notation 45 4.2 Direct-current generator 72 I
Questions and Problems 46 4.3 Difference between ac and de
generators 73
3. FUNDAMENTALS OF MECHANICS 4.4 Improving the waveshape 73
AND HEAT 50 4.5 Induced voltage 75
3.0 Introduction 50 4.6 Neutral zones 76
3.1 Force 50 4.7 Value of the induced voltage 76
3.2 Torque 51 4.8 Generator under load: the energy
3.3 Mechanical work 51 conversion process 77
3.4 Power 52 4.9 Armature reaction 77
3.5 Power of a motor 52 4.10 Shifting the brushes to improve
3.6 Transformation of energy 53 commutation 78
3.7 Efficiency of a machine 53 4.11 Commutating poles 79
3.8 Kinetic energy of linear motion 54 4.12 Separately excited generator 79
 CONTENTS 1x

4.13 No-load operation and saturation 5.18 Dynamic braking and mechanical time
curve 79 constant 111
4.14 Shunt generator 80 5.19 Armature reaction 113
4.15 Controlling the voltage of a shunt 5.20 Flux distortion due to armature
generator 81 reaction 113
4.16 Equivalent circuit 82 5.21 Commutating poles 113
4.17 Separately excited generator under 5.22 Compensating winding 114
load 82 5.23 Basics of variable speed control 114
4.18 Shunt generator under load 83 5.24 Permanent magnet motors 117
4.19 Compound generator 83 Questions and Problems 118
4.20 Differential compound generator 84
4.21 Load characteristics 84
6. EFFICIENCY AND HEATING OF
4.22 Generator specifications 84
ELECTRICAL MACHINES 120
6.0 Introduction 120
CONSTRUCTION OF DIRECT-CURRENT GENERATORS
6.1 Mechanical losses 120
4.23 Field 84 6.2 Electrical losses 120
4.24 Armature 85 6.3 Losses as a function of load 123
4.25 Commutator and brushes 86 6.4 Efficiency curve 123
4.26 Details of a multi pole generator 88 6.5 Temperature rise 125
4.27 The ideal eommutation process 91 6.6 Life expectancy of electric
4.28 The practical commutation process 92 equipment 126
Questions and Problems 93 6.7 Thermal classification of
insulators 126
6.8 Maximum ambient temperature and
5. DIRECT-CURRENT MOTORS 96
hot-spot temperature rise 127
5.0 Introduction 96
6.9 Temperature rise by the resistance
5.1 Counter-electromotive force
method 129
(cemf) 96
6.10 Relationship between the speed and
5.2 Acceleration of the motor 97
size of a machine 130
5.3 Mechanical power and torque 98
Questions and Problems 131
5.4 Speed of rotation I 00
5.5 Armature speed control I 0 I
5.6 Field speed control 102 7. ACTIVE, REACTIVE, AND APPARENT
5.7 Shunt motor under load I03 POWER 134
5.8 Series motor I 04 7.0 Introduction 134
5.9 Series motor speed control I 05 7.1 Instantaneous power 134
5.10 Applications of the series motor I 06 7.2 Active power 136
5.11 Compound motor I 06 7.3 Reactive power 13 7
5 .12 Reversing the direction of rotation I 07 7.4 Definition of reactive load and
5 .13 Starting a shunt motor l 08 reactive source 138
5.14 Face-plate starter I 08 7.5 The capacitor and reactive
5.15 Stopping a motor I 09 power 139
5.16 Dynamic braking 109 7.6 Distinction between active and
5.17 Plugging 110 reactive power 140
x CONTENTS

7 .7 Combined active and reactive loads: 8.19 Power measurement in 3-phase.

apparent power 141 4-wire circuits 177
7.8 Relationship between P. Q. and S 141 8.20 Varmeter 177
7.9 Power factor 143 8.21 A remarkable single-phase to 3-phase
7. I0 Power triangle 144 transformation 178
7.11 Further aspects of sources and Questions and Problems 180
loads 144
7.12 Systems comprising several loads I 46 9. THE IDEAL TRANSFORMER 183
7.13 Reactive power without magnetic 9.0 Introduction 183
fields 148 9.1 Voltage induced in a coil 183
7.14 Solving AC circuits using the power 9.2 Applied voltage and induced
triangle method 148 voltage 184
7.15 Power and vector notation 15 I 9.3 Elementary transformer 185
7.16 Rules on sources and loads (sign 9.4 Polarity of a transformer 186
notation) 154 9.5 Properties of polarity marks 186
7.17 Rules on sources and loads (double 9.6 Ideal transformer at no-load: voltage
subscript notation) 154 ratio 187
Questions and Problems 155 9.7 Ideal transformer under load: current
ratio 188
8. THREE-PHASE CIRCUITS 158 9.8 Circuit symbol for an ideal
8.0 Introduction 158 transformer I 91
8.1 Polyphase systems 158 9.9 Impedance ratio 191
8.2 Single-phase generator 159 9.10 Shifting impedances from secondary
8.3 Power output of a single-phase to primary and vice versa 192
generator 160 Questions and Problems 195
8.4 Two-phase generator 160
8.5 Power output of a 2-phase 10. PRACTICAL TRANSFORMERS 197
generator 161 I 0.0 Introduction 197
8.6 Three-phase generator 162 I 0.1 Ideal transformer with an imperfect
8.7 Power output of a 3-phase core 197
generator 162 I 0.2 Ideal transformer with loose
8.8 Wye connection 164 coupling 199
8.9 Voltage relationships 165 l 0.3 Primary and secondary leakage
8.10 Delta connection 167 reactance 200
8.11 Power transmitted by a 3-phase I 0.4 Equivalent circuit of a practical
line 168 transformer 202
8.12 Active, reactive and apparent power in 10.5 Construction of a power
3-phase circuits 169 transformer 203
8.13 Solving 3-phase circuits 170 10.6 Standard terminal markings 204
8.14 Industrial loads 171 10.7 Polarity tests 204
8.15 Phase sequence 174 10.8 Transformer taps 205
8.16 Determining the phase sequence 175 10.9 Losses and transformer rating 206
8.17 Power measurement in ac circuits 176 10.10 No-load saturation curve 206
8.18 Power measurement in 3-phase. IO.I I Cooling methods 207
3-wire circuits 176 10.12 Simplifying the equivalent circuit 209
 CONTENTS xi

10.13 Voltage regulation 211 12.13 Polarity marking of 3-phase

I0.14 Measuring transformer transformers 260
impedances 212 Questions and Problems 260
I0.15 Introducing the per unit method 215
I 0.16 Impedance of a transformer 216 13. THREE-PHASE INDUCTION
I 0.17 Typical per-unit impedances 216 MOTORS 263
I0.18 Transformers in parallel 219 13.0 Introduction 263
Questions and Problems 221 13.1 Principal components 263
13.2 Principle of operation 264
11. SPECIAL TRANSFORMERS 225 13.3 The rotating field 265
11.0 Introduction 225 13.4 Direction of rotation 270
11.1 Dual-voltage distribution 13.5 Number of poles-synchronous
transformer 225 speed 271
11.2 Autotransformer 226 13.6 Starting characteristics of a squirrel-
11.3 Conventional transformer connected cage motor 273
as an autotransformer 228 13.7 Acceleration of the rotor-slip 274
11.4 Voltage t~ansformers 230 13.8 Motor under load 274
11.5 Current tr'ansformers 231 13.9 Slip and slip speed 274
11.6 Opening the secondary of a CT can be 13.10 Voltage and frequency induced in the
dangerous 233 rotor 275
11.7 Toroidal current transformers 234 13.11 Characteristics of squirrel-cage
11.8 Variable autotransformer 235 induction motors 276
11.9 High-impedance transformers 236 13.12 Estimating the currents in an induction
11. l 0 Induction heating transformers 237 motor 277
11.11 High-frequency transformers 238 13.13 Active power flow 278
Questions and Problems 241 13.14 Torque versus speed curve 281
13.15 Effect of rotor resistance 282
12. THREE-PHASE TRANSFORMERS 243 13.16 Wound-rotor motor 284
12.0 Introduction 243 13.17 Three-phase windings 285
12.1 Basic properties of 3-phase 13.18 Sector motor 288
transformer banks 243 13.19 Linear induction motor 289
12.2 Delta-delta connection 244 13.20 Traveling waves 291
12.3 Delta-wye connection 246 13.21 Properties of a linear induction
12.4 Wye-delta connection 24 7 motor 291
12.5 Wye-wye connection 248 13.22 Magnetic levitation 293
12.6 Open-delta connection 248 Questions and Problems 295
12. 7 Three-phase transformers 249
12.8 Step-up and step-down 14. SELECTION AND APPLICATION OF
autotransformer 251 THREE-PHASE INDUCTION
12.9 Phase-shift principle 253 MOTORS 299
12.10 Three-phase to 2-phase 14.0 Introduction 299
transformation 254 14.1 Standardization and classification of
12.11 Phase-shift transformer 256 induction motors 299
12.12 Calculations involving 3-phase trans- 14.2 Classification according to environ-
formers 258 ment and cooling methods 299
xii CONTENTS

14.3 Classificati:m according to electrical 16. SYNCHRONOUS GENERATORS 335

and mechanical properties 301 16.0 Introduction 335
14.4 Choice of motor speed 303 16.1 Commercial synchronous
14.) Two-speed motors 303 generators 335
14.6 Induction motor characteri:.,fa:s under 16.2 Number of poles 335
various load condition-. 30) 16.3 Main features of the stator 336
14.7 Starting an induction motor 308 16.4 Main features of the rotor 340
14.8 Plugging an induction motor 308 16.5 Field excitation and exciters 342
14.9 Braking with direct current 309 I 6.6 Brush less excitation 343
14. I 0 Abnormal conditions 3 I 0 16.7 Factors affecting the size of
14.11 Mechanical overload 310 synchronous generators 344
14.12 Line voltage changes 310 16.8 No-load saturation curve 345
14.13 Single-phasing 310 16. 9 Synchronous reactance-equivalent
14.14 Frequency variation 311 circuit of an ac generator 346
14. I) Induction motor operating as a 16.10 Determining the value of X, 348
generator 31 1 16.11 Base impedance, per-unit X, 349
14.16 Complete torque-speed characteristic 16.12 Short-circuitratio 350
of an induction machine 314 16.13 Synchronous generator under
14.17 Features of a wound-rotor induction load 350
motor 315 16.14 Regulation curves 352
14. l 8 Start-up of high-inertia loads 315 16. I 5 Synchronization of a generator 353
14.19 Variable-speed drives 315 16.16 Synchronous generator on an infinite
14.20 Frequency converter 315 bus 355
Questions and Problems 318 16.17 Infinite bus-effect of varying the
exciting current 355
15. EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF THE 16.18 Infinite bus-effect of varying the
INDUCTION MOTOR 322 mechanical ton.1ue 355
15.0 Introduction 322 16.19 Physical interpretation of alternator
15.1 The wound-rotor induction motor 322 behavior 357
15.2 Power relationships 325 16.20 Active power delivered by the
15.3 Phasor diagram of the iP' 11 1ction generator 358
motor 326 16.21 Control of active power 359
15.4 Breakdown torque and speed 327 I 6.22 Transient reactance 359
15.5 Equivalent circuit of two practical 16.23 Power transfer between two
motors 327 sources 361
15.6 Calculation of the breakdown 16.24 Efficiency, power. and size of
torque 328 electrical machines 362
15. 7 Torque-speed curve and other Questions and Problems 364
characteristics 329
15.8 Properties of an asynchronous 17. SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS 369
generator 330 17.0 Introduction 369
I 5.9 Tests to determine the equivalent 17.1 Construction 370
circuit 331 17.2 Starting a synchronous motor 372
Questions and Proh/ems 333 17.3 Pu/I-in torque 372
 CONTENTS xiii

17.4 Motor under load-general 18.19 Deducing the circuit diagram of a

description 372 single-phase motor 411
17.5 Motor under load-simple Questions and Problems 414
calculations 373
17.6 Power and torque 376 19. STEPPER MOTORS 417
17. 7 Mechanical and electrical angles 3 77 19.0 Introduction 417
17.8 Reluctance torque 378 19. I Elementary stepper motor 417
17.9 Losses and efficiency of a 19.2 Effect of inertia 418
synchronous motor 379 19.3 Effect of a mechanical load 419
17.10 Excitation and reactive power 380 19.4 Torque versus current 420
17.11 Power factor rating 381 19.5 Start-stop stepping rate 420
17.12 V-curves 382 19.6 Slew speed 421
17.13 Stopping synchronous motors 383 19.7 Ramping 422
17.14 The synchronous motor versus the 19.8 Types of stepper motors 422
induction motor 385 19.9 Motor windings and associated
17.15 Synchronous capacitor 385 drives 424
Questions and Problems 388 19.10 High-speed operation 427
19.11 Modifying the time constant 428
18. SINGLE-PHASE MOTORS 391 19.12 Bilevel drive 428
18.0 Introduction 391 19 .13 Instability and resonance 434
18.1 Construction of a single-phase 19.14 Steppermotorsandlineardrives 434
induction motor 391 Questions and Problems 434
18.2 Synchronous speed 393
18.3 Torque-speed characteristic 394 PART Ill. ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC
18.4 Principle of operation 394 DRIVES
18.5 Locked-rotor torque 396
18.6 Resistance split-phase motor 396
18.7 Capacitor-start motor 398 20. BASICS OF INDUSTRIAL MOTOR
18.8 Efficiency and power factor of single- CONTROL 439
phase induction motors 399 20.0 Introduction 439
18.9 Vibration of single-phase motors 40 I 20.1 Control devices 439
18. I 0 Capacitor-run motor 402 20.2 Normally-open and normally-closed
18.11 Reversing the direction of contacts 443
rotation 403 20.3 Relay coil exciting current 443
18.12 Shaded-pole motor 403 20.4 Control diagrams 445
18.13 Universal motor 404 20.5 Starting methods 446
18.14 Hysteresis motor 405 20.6 Manual across-the-line starters 447
18.15 Synchronous reluctance motor 407 20. 7 Magnetic across-the-line starters 448
18.16 Synchro drive 408 20.8 Inching and jogging 450
20.9 Reversing the direction of
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF A SINGLE-PHASE MOTOR
rotation 451
18.17 Magnetomotive force distribution 409 20. l 0 Plugging 453
18.18 Revolving mmfs in a single-phase 20.11 Reduced-voltage starting 454
motor 410 20.12 Primary resistance starting 454
xiv CONTENTS

20.13 Autotransformer starting 458 21.17 Power gain of a thyristor 494

20.14 Other starting methods 460 21.18 Current interruption and forced
20.15 Cam switches 461 commutation 495
20.16 Computers and controls 462 21.19 Basie thyristor power circuits 496
21.20 Controlled rectifier supplying a
ELECTRIC DRIVES
passive load (Circuit I, Table
20.17 Fundamentals of electric drives 462 21 D) 496
20.18 Typical torque-speed curves 463 21.21 Controlled rectifier supplying an ae-
20.19 Shape of the torque-speed tive load (Circuit 2, Table 21 D) 497
curve 464 21.22 Line-commutated inverter (Circuit 3,
20.20 Current-speed curves 466 Table 210) 498
20.21 Regenerative braking 467 21.23 AC static switch (Circuit 4, Table
Questions and Problems 468 2 ID) 500
21.24 Cycloconverter (Circuit 5, Table
21. FUNDAMENTAL ELEMENTS OF 2 ID) 501
POWER ELECTRONICS 472 21.25 Three-phase, 6-pulse controllable
converter (Cireuit 6, Table 21 D) 502
21.0 Introduction 472
21.26 Basic principle of operation 503
21.1 Potential level 472
21.27 Three-phase, 6-pulse rectifier feeding
21.2 Voltage across some circuit
an active load 504
elements 474
21.28 Delayed triggering-rectifier
THE DIODE AND DIODE CIRCUITS mode 505
21.29 Delayed triggering-inverter mode 507
21.3 The diode 4 7 5
21.30 Triggering range 508
21.4 Main characteristics of a diode 476
21.31 Equivalent circuit of a
21.5 Battery charger with series
converter 509
resistor 4 76
21.32 Currents in a 3-phase. 6-pulse
21.6 Battery charger with series
converter 511
inductor 478
21.33 Power factor 511
21. 7 Single-phase bridge rectifier 480
21.34 Commutation overlap 514
21.8 Filters 481
21.35 Extinction angle 514
21. 9 Three-phase. 3-pulse diode
rectifier 483
21.10 Three-phase. 6-pulse rectifier 485 DC-TO-DC SWITCHING CONVERTERS

21.11 Effective line current, fundamental 21.36 Semiconductor switches 515

line current 489 21.37 DC-to-DC switching converter 517
21.12 Distortion power factor 490 21.38 Rapid switching 519
21.13 Displacement power factor, total 21.39 Impedance transformation 522
power factor 490 21.40 Basic 2-quadrant de-to-de
21.14 Harmonic content, THO 491 converter 522
21.41 Two-quadrant electronic
THE THYRISTOR
converter 525
AND THYRISTOR CIRCUITS
21.42 Four-quadrant de-to-de
21.15 The thyristor 492 converter 526
21.16 Principles of gate firing 492 21.43 Switching losses 528
 CONTENTS xv

DC-TO-AC SWITCHING CONVERTERS 23. ELECTRONIC CONTROL OF

21.44 Dc-to-ac rectangular wave ALTERNATING CURRENT MOTORS 575
converter 529 23.0 Introduction 575
21.45 Dc-to-ac converter with pulse-width 23.1 Types of ac drives 575
modulation 530 23.2 Synchronous motor drive using
21.46 Dc-to-ac sine wave converter 532 current-source de link 577
21.47 Generating a sine wave 533 23.3 Synchronous motor and
21.48 Creating the PWM pulse train 534 cycloconverter 580
21.49 Dc-to-ac 3-phase converter 535 23.4 Cycloconverter voltage and frequency
21.50 Conclusion 537 control 580
Questions and Problems 537 23.5 Squirrel-cage induction motor with
cycloconverter 582
23.6 Squirrel-cage motor and static voltage
22. ELECTRONIC CONTROL OF DIRECT-
controller 589
CURRENT MOTORS 541
23.7 Soft-starting cage motors 590
22.0 Introduction 541
22. l First quadrant speed control 541 SELF-COMMUTATED INVERTERS
22.2 Two-quadrant control-field
reversal 544 23.8 Self-commutated inverters for cage
22.3 Two-quadrant control-armature motors 592
reversal 545 23. 9 Current-source self-commutated
22.4 Two-quadrant control-two frequency converter (rectangular
converters 545 wave) 593
22.5 Four-quadrant control-two converters 23. I 0 Voltage-source self-commutated
with circulating current 546 frequency converter (rectangular
22.6 Two-quadrant control with positive wave) 594
torque 549 23.11 Chopper speed control of a wound-
22.7 Four-quadrant drive 549 rotor induction motor 597
22.8 Six-pulse converter with freewheeling 23.12 Recovering power in a wound-rotor
diode 551 induction motor 599
22.9 Half-bridge converter 556
22.10 DC traction 558 PULSE-WIDTH MODULATION DRIVES

22.11 Motor drive using a de-to-de

23.13 Review of pulse-width
switching converter 560
modulation 602
22.12 Introduction to brushless de
23. 14 Pulse-width modulation and in
motors 565
motors 604
22.13 Commutator replaced by reversing
switches 566 TORQUE AND SPEED CONTROL
22.14 Synchronous motor as a brushless de OF INDUCTION MOTORS t'llt;l;/
machine 568
22.15 Standard synchronous motor and 23.15 De motor and flux orientation 604- "~ 'A
brushless de machine 569 23.16 Slip speed, flux orientation. c6;1B..... t.) fECA
22.16 Practical application of a brushless de torque 605
motor 569 23.17 Features of variable-speed control-
Questions and Problems 571 constant torque mode 607
xvi CONTENTS

23.18 Features of variable-speed control- 24.9 Types of hydropower stations 643

constant horsepower mode 610 24.10 Makeup of a hydropower plant 644
23.19 Features of variable-speed control- 24.11 Pumped-storage installations 646
generator mode 610
THERMAL GENERATING STATIONS
23.20 Induction motor and its equivalent
circuit 611 24.12 Makeup of a thermal generating
23.21 Equivalent circuit of a practical station 648
motor 612 24.13 Turbines 650
23.22 Volts per hertz of a practical 24. 14 Condenser 650
motor 613 24.15 Cooling towers 650
23.23 Speed and torque control of induction 24.16 Boiler-feed pump 651
motors 614 24.17 Energy flow diagram for a steam
23.24 Carrier frequencies 615 plant 651
23.25 Dynamic control of induction 24.18 Thermal stations and the
motors 615 environment 652
23.26 Principle of tlux vector control 616
23.27 Variable-speed drive and electric NUCLEAR GENERATING STATIONS
traction 618
23.28 Principal components 621 24.19 Composition of an atomic nucleus:
23.29 Operating mode of the 3-phase isotopes 655
converter 622 24.20 The source of uranium 655
23.30 Operating mode of the single-phase 24.21 Energy released by atomic fission 656
converter 624 24.22 Chain reaction 656
23.31 Conclusion 629 24.23 Types of nuclear reactors 657
Questions and Problems 629 24.24 Example of a light-water reactor 658
24.25 Example of a heavy-water reactor 659
PART IV. ELECTRIC UTILITY POWER 24.26 Principle of the fast breeder
SYSTEMS reactor 660
24.27 Nuclear fusion 661
Questions and Problems 661
24. GENERATION OF ELECTRICAL
ENERGY 635 25. TRANSMISSION OF ELECTRICAL
24.0 Introduction 635 ENERGY 664
24.I Demand of an electrical system 635 25.0 Introduction 664
24.2 Locution of the generating stution 637 25.1 Principal components of a power
24.3 Types of generating stations 637 distribution system 664
24.4 Controlling the power balance 25.2 Types of power lines 665
between generator and load 638 25.3 Standard voltages 667
24.5 Advantage of interconnected 25.4 Components of a HY transmission
systems 639 line 667
24.6 Conditions during an outage 641 25.5 Construction of a line 668
24.7 Frequency and electric clocks 642 25.6 Galloping lines 669
HYDROPOWER GENERATING STATIONS
25.7 Corona effect-radio interference 669
25.8 Pollution 669
24.8 Available hydro power 642 25.9 Lightning strokes 6 70
 CONTENTS xvii

25.10 Lightning arresters on buildings 671 26. 11 Low-voltage distribution 709

25.11 Lightning and transmission lines 671
PROTECTION OF MEDIUM-VOLTAGE
25.12 Basic impulse insulation level
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
(BIL) 672
25.13 Ground wires 673 26.12 Coordination of the protective
25.14 Tower grounding 673 devices 714
25.15 Fundamental objectives of a 26. 13 Fused cutouts 715
transmission line 675 26.14 Reclosers 7 I 6
25.16 Equivalent circuit of a line 6 76 26. l 5 Sectionalizers 716
25.17 Typical impedance values 676 26.16 Review of MY protection 717
25.18 Simplifying the equivalent circuit 6 78
25.19 Voltage regulation and power- LOW-VOLTAGE DISTRIBUTION
transmission capability of
transmission lines 680 26.17 LY distribution system 717
25.20 Resistive line 680 26.18 Grounding electrical installations 719
25.21 Inductive line 681 26.19 Electric shock 719
25.22 Compensated inductive line 683 26.20 Grounding of 120 V and 240 V/120 V
25.23 Inductive line connecting two systems 720
systems 685 26.21 Equipment grounding 721
25.24 Review of power transmission 686 26.22 Ground-fault circuit breaker 723
25.25 Choosing the line voltage 687 26.23 Rapid conductor heating:
/'2t factor 724
25.26 Methods of increasing the power
capacity 689 26.24 The role of fuses 725
25.27 Extra-high-voltage lines 689 26.25 Electrical installation in
25.28 Power exchange between power buildings 725
centers 692 26.26 Principal components of an electrical
25.29 Practical example of power installation 725
exchange 693 Questions and Problems 727
Questions and Problems 695
27. THE COST OF ELECTRICITY 729
26. DISTRIBUTION OF ELECTRICAL 27.0 Introduction 729
ENERGY 698 27.1 Tari ff based upon energy 7 30
26.0 Introduction 698 27.2 Tariff based upon demand 730
27.3 Demand meter 730
SUBSTATIONS
27.4 Tariff based upon power factor 732
26.1 Substation equipment 698 27.5 Typical rate structures 733
26.2 Circuit breakers 698 27.6 Demand controllers 733
~TAD OE "~.7
1'•• :
26.3 Air-break switches 702 Power factor correction 737
26.4 Disconnecting switches 702 Ilf'.' r ) \ 27.8 Measuring electrical energy. the
26.5 Grounding switches 702 . ~ watthourmeter 740
26.6 Surge arresters 702 ''.Bl'ii...\..J '""""" 27.9 Operation of the watthourmeter 741
26.7 Current-limiting reactors 705 27.10 Meter readout 742
26.8 Grounding transformer 706 27.11 Measuring three-phase energy and
26.9 Example of a substation 707 power 743
26.10 Medium-voltage distribution 709 Questions and Problems 743
xviii CONTENTS

28. DIRECT-CURRENT TRANSMISSION 746 29.8 Why PWM converters? 784

28.0 Introduction 746 29.9 Distribution system 785
28.1 Features of de transmission 746 29.10 Compensators and circuit
28.2 Basic de transmission system 747 analysis 787
28.3 Voltage. current, and power 29.ll The shunt compensator: principle of
relationships 748 operation 787
28.4 Power fluctuations on a de line 751 29.12 The series compensator: principle of
28.5 Typical rectifier and inverter operation 793
characteristic 752 29.13 Conclusion 796
28.6 Power control 753 Questions and Problems 797
28.7 Effect of voltage fluctuations 754
28.8 Bipolar transmission line 754 30. HARMONICS 799
28.9 Power reversal 755 30.0 Introduction 799
28.10 Components of a de transmission Harmonics and phasor diagrams 799
30.1
line 755 30.2 Effective value of a distorted
28.11 Inductors and harmonic filters on the
wave 800
de side (6-pulse converter) 756
30.3 Crest factor and total harmonic
28.12 Converter transformers 756 distortion (THO) 801
28.13 Reactive power source 757
30.4 Harmonics and circuits 802
28.14 Harmonic filters on the ac side 757
30.5 Displacement power factor and total
28.15 Communications link 757 power factor 804
28.16 Ground electrode 757
30.6 Non-linear loads 804
28.17 Example of a monopolar converter
30.7 Generating harmonics 805
station 757
30.8 Correcting the power factor 807
28.18 Thyristor converter station 758
30.9 Generation of reactive power 808
28.19 Typical installations 760
Questions and Problems 765 EFFECT OF HARMONICS

29. TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION 30.10 Harmonic current in a capacitor 809

SOLID-STATE CONTROLLERS 768 30.11 Harmonic currents in a
conductor 810
TRANSMISSION POWER FLOW CONTROLLERS
30.12 Distorted voltage and flux in a
29.0 Introduction 768 coil 810
29.1 Thyristor-controlled series capacitor 30.13 Harmonic currents in a 3-phase,
(TCSC) 769 4-wire distribution system 812
29.2 Vernier control 771 30.14 Harmonics and resonance 813
29.3 Static synchronous compensator 773 30.15 Harmonic filters 818
29.4 Eliminating the harmonics 776 30.16 Harmonics in the supply
29.5 Unified power flow controller network 819
(UPFC) 776 30.17 Transformers and the K factor 821
29.6 Static frequency changer 780
HARMONIC ANALYSIS

DISTRIBUTION CUSTOM POWER PRODUCTS

30.18 Procedure of analyzing a periodic
29.7 Disturbances on distribution wave 823
systems 782 Questions and Problems 827
 CONTENTS xix

31. PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC 31.18 Getting to know PLCs 851

CONTROLLERS 831 31. I 9 Linking the PLCs 853
31.0 Introduction 831 31.20 Programming the PLCs 853
31.1 Capacity of industrial PLCs 831 31.21 The transparent enterprise 855
31.2 Elements of a control system 832 Questions and Problems 856
3 1..3 Examples of the use of a PLC 835
31 A The central processing unit References 859
(CPU) 838
Appendixes 865
31.5 Programming unit 838
31.6 The 1/0 modules 839 AXO Conversion Charts 865
31.7 Structure of the input modules 839 AX I Properties of Insulating
31.8 Structure of the output modules 840 Materials 869
31.9 Modular construction of PLCs 841
AX2 Electrical, Mechanical and
31. l 0 Remote inputs and outputs 841
Thermal Properties of Some
31.11 Conventional control circuits and PLC
Common Conductors (and
circuits 844
Insulators) 870
31.12 Security rule 84 7
31.13 Programming the PLC 847 AX3 Properties of Round Copper
31.14 Programming languages 847 Conductors 871
31.15 Advantages of PLCs over relay
Answers to Problems 873
cabinets 848
Answers to Industrial Application
MODERNIZATION OF AN INDUSTRY
Problems 877
31.16 Industrial application of PLCs 850 Index 879
31.17 Planning the change 850
 I

To Rachel
PART ONE
Fundamentals
 CHAPTER 1
Units

1.0 Introduction example. in measuring length some people use the

inch and yard, while others use the millimeter and
nits play an important role in ou~- daily lives. In
U effect, everything we see and tee! and every-
thing we buy and sell is measured and compared by
meter. Astronomers employ the parsec. physicist'>
use the angstrom, and some surveyors still have to
deal with the rod and chain. But these units of length
means of units. Some of these units have become so can be compared with great accuracy because the
familiar that we often take them for granted, seldom standard of length is based upon the speed of light.
stopping to think how they started. or why they Such standards of reference make it possible to
were given the sizes they have. compare the units of measure in one country. or in
Centuries ago the foot was defined as the length one specialty. with the units of measure in any
of 36 barleycorns strung end to end, and the yard other. Standard units of length, mass. and time are
was the distance from the tip of King Edgar's nose the anchors that tie together the units used in the
to the end of his outstretched hand. world today.
Since then we have come a long way in defining
our units of measure more precisely. Most units are
now based upon the physical laws of nature, which 1.1 Systems of units
are both invariable and reproducible. Thus the me- Over the years systems of units have been devised to
ter and yard are measured in terms of the speed of meet the needs of commerce. industry. and science. A
light. and time by the duration of atomic vibrations. system of units may be described as one in which the
This improvement in our standards of measure has units bear a direct numerical relationship to each
<>one hand in hand with the advances in technology, other. usually expressed as a whole number. Thus in
~nd the one could not have been achieved without the Em!:Iish system of units, the inch. foot and yard
the other. are rel;ted to ~ach other by the numbers 12. 3, and 36.
Although the basic standards of reference are rec- The same correlation exists in metric systems.
ognized by all countries of the world, the units of except that the units are related to each other by
everyday measure are far from being universal. For multiples of ten. Thus the centimeter. meter. and
4 FUNDMvfENTALS

kilometer are related by the numbers I 00. I 000, and 4. It can be used by the research scientist, the
I 00 000. It is therefore easier to convert meters into technician. the practicing engineer, and by the
centimeters than to convert yards into feet, and this layman, thereby blending the theoretical and
decimal approach is one of the advantages of the the practical worlds.
metric system of units.*
Despite these advantages the SI is not the answer
Today the officially recognized metric system is
to everything. In specialized areas of atomic physics,
the International System of Units, for which the
and even in day-to-day work, other units may be
universal abbreviation is SI. The SI was formally
more convenient. Thus we will continue to measure
introduced in 1960. at the Eleventh General
plane angles in even though the SI unit is the
Conference or Weights and Measures. under the
radian. Furthermore. day and hour will still be used,
official title ··systeme international d'unites."
despite the fact that the SI unit of time is the second.

1.2 Getting used to SI 1.3 Base and derived units of the SI

The official introduction of the International System
The foundation of the International System of Units
of Units. and its adoption by most countries of the
rests upon the seven base units listed in Table I A.
world. did not however. eliminate the systems that
were previously employed. Just like well-established
habits, units become a part of ourselves, which we TABLE 1A BASE UNITS
cannot readily let go. It is not easy to switch overnight
Quantity Unit Symhol
from yards to meters and from ounces to grams. And
this is quite natural. because long familiarity with a Length meter m
unit gives us an idea of its magnitude and how it re- Mass kilogram k<rc
lates to the physical world. Time second
Nevertheless, the growing importance of SI Electric current ampere A
Temperature kelvin K
(particularly in the electrical and mechanical fields}
Luminous intensity candela cd
makes it necessary to know the essentials of this
Amount of substance mole mo I
measurement system. Consequently. one must be
able to convert from one system to another in a sim-
ple. unambiguous way. In this regard the reader will From these base units we derive other units to
discover that the conversion charts listed in the express quantities such as area, power. force, mag-
Appendix are particularly helpful. netic flux, and so on. There is really no limit to the
The SI possesses a number of remarkable fea- number of units we can derive, but some occur so
tures shared by no other system of units: frequently that they have been given special names.
Thus, instead of saying that the unit of pressure is
1. It is a decimal system.
the newton per square meter, we use a less cumber-
2. It employs many units commonly used in in- some name. the pascal. Some of the derived units
dustry and commerce: for example. volt, am- that have special names are listed in Table 1B.
pere, kilogram. and watt.
3. It is a coherent system that expresses with star-
TABLE 1 B DERIVED UNITS
tling simplicity some of the most basic relation-
ships in electricity. mechanics, and heat. Quantity Unit Symhol

Electric capacitance farad F

The metric unit of length i' spellcJ either me/er or metre. In Electric charge coulomb c
Canaua the official spelling is metre. Electric conductance siemens s
 UNITS 5

A quart::. oscillator, tuned to the resonant fre-

TABLE 18 (continued)
quency of cesium atoms, produces a highlv accu-
Quantity Unit Symbol rate and stahle.fi'equency.
Electric potential volt v The ampere (A) is that constant current which, if
Electric resistance ohm n maintained in two straight parallel conductors of in-
Energy joule finite length. of negligible circular cross-section, and
Force newton N placed I meter apart in vacuum. would produce be-
Frequency hertz Hz tween these conductors a force equal to 2 X 10-7
Illumination lux Ix newton per meter of length.
Inductance henry H The kelvin (K), unit of thermodynamic temper-
Luminous flux lumen Im ature. is the fraction 11273.16 of the thermodynamic
Magnetic flux weber Wb temperature of the triple point of water.
Magnetic flux density tesla T
Pure irnter in an evacuated cell is cooled until
Plane angle radian rad
ice begins to form. The resulting temperature where
Power watt w
Pressure pascal Pa ice, wate1; and water rapor coexist is called the
Solid angle steradian sr triple point (~l ~vater a11d is equal to 273. J6 kefrins.
hr definition. The tn/Jle point is equal to (J.01 de-
gree Celsius (°C). A temperaf/lre (f() °C is theref'ore
equal to 273. J5 kelvins, exactly.
1.4 Definitions of base units The candela (cd) is the luminous intensity. in a
The following official definitions of the SI base given direction. of a source that emits monochro-
units illustrate the extraordinary precision associ- matic radiation of frequency 540 X l 0 11 hertz and
ated with this modern system of units. The text in that has a radiant intensity in that direction of l /683
italics is explanatory and does not form part of the watt per steradian.
definition: The mole (mol) is the amount of substance of a
The meter (m) is the length of the path travelled system that contains as many elementary entities as
by light in vacuum during a time interval of 1/299 there are atoms in 0.012 kilogram of carbon 12.
792 458 of a second. Note: When the mole is used. the elementary en-
Ju I 983 the ,1peed r~f Iight was defined to be 299 tities must be specified and may be atoms, mole-
792 458 111!1 exactly. cules. ions, electrons. other particles, or specified
The kilogram (kg) is the unit of mass; it is groups of such particles.
equal to the mass of the international prototype of
the kilogram.
The international prototype of the kilogram is a
1.5 Definitions of derived units
particular cylinder r~f' platinum-iridium allo.v that
is preserved in a vault at Sevres, France, hy the Some of the more important derived units are de-
International Bureau r~f Wei{?hts and Measures. fined as follows:
Duplicates of' the prototype exist in all important The coulomb (C) is the quantity of electricity
standards laboratories in the world. The platinum- transported in I second by a current of I ampere.
iridiu111 cylinder (90 percent platinum, JO percent (Hence I coulomb = J ampere second.)
iridium) is about 4 cm high and 4 cm in diameter. The degree Celsius (°C) is equal to the kelvin
The second (s) is the duration of 9 192 63 l 770 and is used in place of the kelvin for expressing
periods of the radiation corresponding to the transi- Celsius temperature (symbol t) defined by the equa-
tion between the two hyperfine levels of the ground tion t T T0 where Tis the thermodynamic tem-
state of the cesium-133 atom. perature and T0 273.15 K, by definition.
6 Fl!NDi\1'vfENTAL'5

The farad (F) is the capacitance of a capacitor tionary ol~jects and to eve!)' application where a
between the plates of which there appears a differ- force fa involved.
ence of potential of I volt when it is charged by a The ohm (!lJ is the electric resistance between
quantity of electricity equal to I coulomb. (I farad two points of a conductor when a constant difference
= I coulomb per i·olt) of potential of I volt, applied between these two
The henry (H) is the inductance of a closed cir- points, produces in this conductor a current of 1 am-
cuit in which an electromotive force of I volt is pro- pere. this conductor not being the source of any elec-
duced when the electric current in the circuit varies tromotive force. (Hmce 1 ohm 1 volt per ampere.)
uniformly at a rate of I ampere per second. (Hence The pascal (Pa) is the unit of pressure or stress
I henry I rolt second per ampere.} equal to one newton per square meter.
The hertz (Hz) is the frequency of a periodic The radian (rad) is the unit of measure of a plane
phenomenon of which the period is I second. angle with its vertex at the center of a circle and sub-
The joule (J) is the work done when the point of tended by an arc equal in length to the radius.
application of 1 newton is displaced a distance of The siemens (SJ is the unit of electric conduc-
I meter in the direction of the force. (Hence J joule tance equal to one reciprocal ohm. (The siemens
I 11e11·tm1 111ete1:) was formerly named the mlw.)
The newton (N) is that force which gives to a The steradian (sf) is the unit of measure of a solid
mass of 1 kilogram an acceleration of I meter per angle with its vertex at the center of a sphere and en-
second per second. (Hence I nnrton I kilogram closing an area of the spherical surface equal to that
meter per second squared.) of a square with sides equal in length to the radius.
Although tlte newton is dl'.fined in terms ()la The tesla (T) is the unit of magnetic flux density
11/ltss and m1 acceleration, it also applies to sta- equal to one weber per square meter.

TABLE 1C PREFIXES TO CREATE MULTIPLES AND SUBMULTIPLES OF SI UNITS

\'1ultiplicr Exponent form Prefix SI Symbol

I 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 102 -l yotta y
l 000 000 000 000 000 ()()() 000 1021 zetta z
I 000 000 000 000 000 000 I() Ix exa E
I 000 000 000 000 000 1015 pela p
I 000 000 000 000 1012 tera T
9
I 000 000 000 10 g1ga G
I 000 000 !Ori mega M
I 000 10' kilo k
l ()() 102 hecto h
10 I() I dee a da
0.1 10- 1 deci d
2
0.01 10 centi c
(l.00 I 10-J mil Ii Ill
0.000 001 10 () micro µ
0.000 ()()() 001 10····() nano 11
0. 000 000 000 00 I I0-12 pico p
I~
0. 000 000 000 000 00 I 10 fem to f
J(}~ IX
0. 000 000 000 000 000 00 I alto a
0. 000 000 000 000 000 000 00 I zepto z
n 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 00 I yocto y
-----------------
 UN/1S 7

The volt (V) is the difference of eleclric poten- electricity. They contain notes particularly useful to
tial between two points of a conducting wire carry- the reader who is not yet familiar with the SI.
ing a constant current of I ampere, when the power
dissipated between these points is equal to I watt.
(Hence 1 volt= 1 watt per ampere.)
The watt (W) is the power that gives rise to the TABLE 10 COMMON UNITS IN MECHANICS
production of energy at the rate of I joule per sec- Quantity SI unit Symbol Note
ond. (Hence I »·att = 1 joule per second.)
The weber (Wb) is the magnetic flux that link- radian rad
Area square meter m2 2
ing a circuit of one turn, produces in it an electro-
(or work) joule
motive force of I volt as it is reduced to zero at a
Force newton N 3
uniform rate in I second. (Hence I weber = 1 volt
meter 111
second.)
Mass kilogram kg
Power watt w
1.6 Multiples and submultiples Pressure pascal Pa 4
of SI units Speed meter per second m/s
Speed of rotation radian per second rad/s 5
Multiples and submultiples of ST units are gener- Torque newton meter N·m
ated by adding appropriate prefixes to the units. Volume cubic meter m"
Thus prefixes such as kilo, mega, nano, and centi Volume liter L 6
multiply the value of the unit by factors listed in
I. Although the radian is the SI unit of angular measure. we
Table IC. For example, use the degree almost exclusively in this book (I rad 57.3°).
2. Mo;..t countries. including Canada (as well as some organi-
1 ki/oampere 1000 amperes,
zations in the United State;,). use the spelling metre in~tead uf
I nanosecond I0- 9 seconds, meter.
3. The newton is a very small force. roughly equal to the
1 megawatt 106 watts.
force needed to press a doorbell.
2
4. The pascal is a very small pressure eqmil to I N/m •
1.7 Commonly used units 5. In this book we use the revolution per minute (r/min) to
designate rotational speed (I rad/s 9.55 r/min).
Tables ID, IE, and IF list some common units 6. This unit of volume is mainly used for liquids and gases. II
encountered in mechanics, thermodynamics, and is spelled liter or litre. The official ;,pelling in Canada is litre.

TABLE 1E COMMON UNITS IN THERMODYNAMICS

Quantity SI unit Symbol Note

Heat joule
Thermal power watt w
Specific heat joule per (kilogram kelvin) J/kg·K or J/kg:·°C I
Temperature kelvin K 2
Temperature difference kelvin or Celsiu~ Kor °C
Thermal conductivity watt per (meter-kelvin) W/m·K or W/m·°C

I. A temperature difference of I K is exactly equal to a temperature difference of I "C. The °C is a recogniLed SI unit and, in practical
calculations. it is often used instead of the kelvin.
2. Thermodynamic, or absolute. temperature is expressed in kelvins. On the other hand. the temperature of objects is usually exprcs-;ed
in T. The absolute temperature Tis related to the Celsiu;, temperature t hy the equation T = t + 273.15.
8 FUNDAMENTALS

TABLE 1F COMMON UNITS IN ELECTRICITY AND

MAGNETISM

Quantity SI unit Symbol Note 1.0936

yard yd
Capacitance farad F 1000 36
Conductance siemens s inch in
Electric charge coulomb c 25.4
Electric current ampere A millimeter mm

Energy joule J
Frequency hertz Hz 2 Figure 1.1
Inductance henry H Conversion chart for units of length.
Conversion chart adapted and reproduced with per-
Potential difference volt v
mission. Copyright© 1991, 1995 by Sperika
Power watt w Enterprises Ltd. Alf rights reserved. Drawn from
Resistance ohm n "Metric Units and Conversion Charts" by Theodore
Resistivity ohm meter rl·rn
Wildi. IEEE Press, Piscataway, NJ, 08855-1331.
Magnetic field strength ampere Alm
per meter
Magnetic flux weber Wb listed in descending order of size. and the lines join-
Magnetic flux density tesla T 4 ing them hear an arrow that always points toward
Magnctomotive force ampere A 5
the smaller unit. The numbers show the relative size
I. Formerly called mho. of the connected units: the yard is 36 times larger
1. I Hz = I cycle per second. than the inch. the inch is 25.4 times larger than the
l A/m = I ampere turn per meter. millimeter. and so on. With this arrangement we can
-t I T I Wb/m.-. convert from one unit to any other by the following
5. Whal was formerly called an ampere tum is now simply
called ampere: I A I ampere turn.
simple method.
Suppose we wish to convert from yards to mil-
limeters. Starting from rard in 1.1. we have to
move downward in the direction of the two arrmvs
1.8 Conversion charts and their use (36 and until we reach mil/imetn:
Unfamiliar units can be converted to units we know Conversely, if we want to convert from millime-
well by using standard conversion tables. But this is ters to yards. we start at 111il/i111eter and move up-
strictly an arithmetic process that often leaves us ward against the direction of the arrows until we
wondering if our calculations are correct. reach yard. In making such conversions we apply
The conversion chaits in the Appendix eliminate the following rules:
this problem because they show the relative size of 1. If, in traveling from one unit to another. we
a unit hy the position it occupies on the page. The move in the direction of the arrow. we multi-
largest unit is at the top. the smallest at the bottom. ply by the associated number.
and intermediate units are ranked in between.
2. Conversely. if we move against the arrow. we
The units are connected by arrows. each of which
divide.
hears a number. The numher is the ratio of the
to the smaller of the units that are connected and. Because the arrows point downward. this means
hence. its value is always greater than unity. The ar- that when moving down the chart we multiply. and
row always points toward the smaller unit. when moving up. we divide. Note that in moving
In 1.1. for example. five units of length- from one unit to another, we can follow any path we
the mile. meter. yard. inch. and millimeter-are please: the conversion result is always the same.
 UNITS 9

The rectangles bearing SI units extend slightly ENERGY

toward the left of the chart to distinguish them
from other units. Each rectangle bears the symbol
for the unit as well as the name of the unit written
out in full.

Example/-/
Convert 2.5 yards to millimeters.
Solution
Starting from yard and moving toward milf imerer
(Fig. I. I), we move downward in the direction of
the arrows. We must therefore multiply the numbers
associated with each arrow:
2.5 yd= 2.5 ( X 36) ( X 25.4) millimeters

= 2286 mm

Example 1-2
Convert 2000 meters into miles.
Figure 1.2
Solution See Example 1-3.
Starting from meter and moving toward mile. we Conversion chart adapted and reproduced with permis-
move first with, and then against the direction of sion. Copyright© 1991, 1995 by Sperika Enterprises
the arrows. Consequently, we obtain Ltd. All rights reserved. Drawn from "Metric Units and
Conversion Charts" by Theodore Wildi. IEEE Press,
2000 meters 2000 ( X 1.0936) ( 1760) miles Piscataway, NJ, 08855-1331.

2000 x 1.0936
1760 1.9 The per-unit system
l.24mi of measurement
The SI units just described enable us to specify the
Example 1-3 magnitude of any quantity. Thus mass is expressed in
Convert 777 calories to kilowatt-hours. kilograms, power in watts. and electric potential in
Solmion volts. However. we can often get a better idea of the
Referring to the chart on ENERGY (Fig. 1.2) and size of something by comparing it to the size of some-
moving from calorie to kilowalf-how; we first thing similar. In effect, we can create our own unit and
travel downward (with the arrow 4.184) and then specify the size of similar quantities compared to this
upward (against the arrows IOOO. IOOO. and 3.6). arbitrary unit. This concept gives rise to the per-unit
Applying the conversion rule, we find method of expressing the magnitude of a quantity.
For example, suppose the average weight of
777 calories adults in New York is 130 lb. Using this arbitrary
777 ( x 4.184) ( 1000) ( !000) (+ 3.6) weight as a base. we can compare the weight of
any individual in terms of this base weight. Thus
9.03 X 10--+ kW·h a person weighing 160 lb would have a per-unit
10 FUNDAMENTALS

weight of 160 lb/130 lb = 1.23. Another person R, x,_

weighing 115 lb would have a per-unit weight of 3500 fl 4aoo n
115 lb/ 130 lb = 0.88.
The per-unit system of measurement has the ad- Xe
vantage of giving the size of a quantity in terms of R2 3000 n
450!1
a particularly convenient unit, called the per-unit
base of the system. Thus. in reference to our previ-
ous example. if a football player has a per-unit
weight of 1.7 we immediately know his weight is Figure 1.3
far above average. Furthermore. his actual weight is Conventional circuit.
J.7 X J3() c"" 221 lb.
Note that whenever per-unit values are given. they Fig. 1.3. composed of several resistors. capacitors,
are always pure numbers. Thus it would be absurd to and inductors having the impedances shown. If we
state that the football player weighs 1.7 lb. His weight decide to use an impedance of 1500 ohms as the
is 1.7 per-unit, where the selected base unit is 130 lb. base. the per-unit impedances are as follows:
To generalize. a per-unit system of measurement
consists of selecting one or more convenient mea- 35000
suring sticks and comparing similar things against R (pu)
1
2.33
1500!!
them. In this book we are particularly interested in
selecting convenient measuring sticks for voltage. 4500
R:~(pu) 0.30
current. power. torque. and impedance. 15000
4800!!
XL(pu) = 1500 D = 3.2
1.1 O Per-unit system with one base
If we select the size of only one quantity as our 3000 n
Xc(pu) = 1500 D = 2
measuring stick. the per-unit system is said to have
a single base. The base may be a power. a voltage.
a current, or a velocity. For example, suppose that The per-unit circuit (Fig. 1.4) contains the same
three motors have power ratings of 25 hp. 40 hp, elements as the real circuit, but the impedances are
and 150 hp. Let us select an arbitrary base power now expressed in per-unit values. We can solve this
PB of 50 hp. The corresponding per-unit ratings circuit as we would any other circuit. For example.
are then 25 hp/50 hp 0.5; 40 hp/50 hp 0.8 and if vector notation is used. the per-unit circuit is that
150 hp/50 hp 3. Thus. in this per-unit world shown in Fig. 1.5.
where the base is 50 hp, the three motors have
power ratings of 0.5, 0.8. and 3 pu, respectively.
We could equally well have selected a base power R, XL
of 15 hp. In this case the respective per-unit rating 2.33(pu) 3.2(pu)
would be 25 hp/15 hp 1.67. 40 hp/15 hp= 2.67,
and 150 hp/15 hp 10.
Xe
It is therefore important to know the magnitude Rz(pu)
2(pu)
0.30
of the base of the per-unit system. If we do not know
its value. the actual values of the quantities we are
dealing with cannot be calculated.
The per-unit method can also be applied to im- Figure 1.4
pedances. Consider. for example, the circuit in Per-unit circuit.
 UNITS 11

2.33 3.2j In order to understand the significance of this re-

sult, the reader should study the two following ex-
amples. The bases are the same as before, namely
-2j
0.30 Es= 4 kV /B = 125 A

PB= 500kW zB = 32 n

Figure 1.5 Example 1-4 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

Per-unit circuit with j notation.
A 400 n resistor carries a current of 60 A. Using the
above base values, calculate:
1.11 Per-unit system a. The per-unit resistance
b. The per-unit current
with two bases
c. The per-unit voltage across the resistor
In electrotechnology the per-unit system becomes d. The per-unit power dissipated in the resistor
particularly useful when two bases are used. The e. The actual E and P of the resistor
bases are usually a base voltage EB and a base
Solution
power P8 . Thus the selected base voltage may be
a. The per-unit resistance is
4 kV and the selected base power 500 kW.
The two base values can be selected quite inde- R(pu) = 400 !1/32 n = 12.5
pendently of each other.
b. The per-unit current is
One interesting feature of the voltage/power per-
unit system is that it automatically establishes a cor- /(pu) = 60 A/125 A= 0.48
responding base current and base impedance. Thus
c. The per-unit voltage across the resistor is
the base current /B is
E(pu) = /(pu) X R(pu)
Ip = base power Pn
= 0.48 x 12.5
' base voltage EH
=6
and the base impedance ZB is
d. The per-unit power is
base voltage EH
z = ... P(pu) = E(pu) X /(pu)
B base current Ill
= 6 x 0.48
For example. ifthe base voltage is 4 kV and the base = 2.88
power is 500 kW. the base current is
e. The actual voltage across the resistor is
lri = PB/EB = 500 000/4000 = 125 A
E =Es X E(pu)
.,,

~
The base impedance is = 4 kV x 6
= 24kV
~·' f'I
In effect. by selecting the voltage/power per- The actual power dissipated in the resistor i~{.{_:;;,, ,:. ;
unit system we also get a base current and a base
P = Ps x l!CULTAO OE :::: i~ -~·ft.
P(pu)
impedance. Consequently, the so-called 2-base
per-unit system really gives us a 4-base per-unit = 500 kW x 2.88 HLT'.\ r1
system. = 1440 kW 8U3i..l''lt:CA
 12 FUNDAlVIENTALS

Example 1-5 - - - - - - - - - - - - -
A 7.2 kV source delivers power to a 24 H resistor
and a 400 kW electric boiler (Fig. 1.6). Draw the
equivalent per-unit circuit diagram. Use the same
base values as in Example 1-4.
Calculate
a. The per-unit E(pu), R(pu), P(pu)
b. The per-unit current / 2 (pu)
c. The per-unit line current / 1 (pu)
d. The per-unit power absorbed by the resistor Figure 1.7
e. The actual power absorbed by the resistor Per-unit version of Figure 1.6.
f. The actual line current

'l The per-unit line current / 1 is

/i(pu) / 1(pu) + f:,(pu)
R
24 !l = 0.444 + 2.4
2.844
I'
400kW d. The per-unit power in the resistor is
P(pu) E(pu) x / 2 (pu)
Figure 1.6 = 1.8 x 2.4
See Example 1-5.
4.32

e. The actual power in the resistor is

Solution
a. The per-unit line voltage is P, P 13 X P(pu)
= 500 kW X 4.32
£ 1(pu) 7.2 kV/4 kV= 1.8
2160 kW
The per-unit resistance is
f. The actual line current is
R(pu) 24 n/32 !1 0.75
/, / 13 X / 1 (pu)
The per-unit power of the boiler is I 25 x 2.844 355.5 A
P(pu) = 400 kW/500 kW = 0.8

We can now draw the per-unit circuit (Fig. I. 7)

Questions and Problems
b. The per-unit current /.2 is
I- I Name the seven base units of the
/ 2 (pu) = E(pu)/R(pu) = 1.8 0.75 International System of Units.
2.4 1-2 Name five derived units of the SI.
1-3 Give the symbols of seven base units, paying
c. The per-unit current / 1 is
particular attention to capitalization.
/ 1(pu) P(pu)/E(pu) = 0.8/1.8 1-4 Why are some derived units given special
= 0.444 names?
 UNITS 13

1-5 What are the SI units of force, pressure, en- 1-58 revolution 1-60 oersted
ergy. power, and frequency? 1-59 degree 1-61 ampere turn
1-6 Give the appropriate prefix for the following
6 Make the following conversions using th<' com'er-
multipliers: I 00, 1000, I0 , I /I 0, I /I 00,
9 15 sion charts:
1/1000, 10-(" 10- • 10 .
1-62 I 0 square meters to square yards
Express thefollowing SJ units in srmholfonn:
1-63 250 MCM to square millimeters
1-7 megawatt 1-21 millitesla
1-64 1645 square millimeters to square inches
1-8 terajoule 1-22 millimeter
1-65 13 000 circular mils to square millimeters
1-9 millipascal 1-23 revolution
1-66 640 acres to square kilometers
1-10 kilohertz 1-24 megohm
1-67 81 000 watts to Btu per second
1-11 gigajoule 1-25 megapascal
1-68 33 000 foot pound-force per minute to kilo-
1-12 milliampere 1-26 millisecond
watts
1-13 microweber 1-27 picofarad
1-69 250 cubic feet to cubic meters
1-14 centimeter 1-28 kilovolt
1-70 I 0 foot pound-force to microjoules
1-15 liter 1-29 megampere
1-71 I 0 pound-force to kilogram-force
1-16 milligram 1-30 kiloampere
1-72 60 000 lines per square inch to teslas
1-17 microsecond 1-31 kilometer
1-73 1.2 teslas to kilogauss
1-18 millikelvin 1-32 nanometer
1-74 50 ounces to kilograms
1-19 milliradian 1-33 milliliter
1-75 76 oersteds to amperes per meter
1-20 terawatthour
1-76 5 000 meters to miles
Stotl' the SJ unit for the following quantities and
1-77 80 ampere hours to coulombs
ll'f"ifl' the symhol:
1-78 25 pound-force to newtons
1-34 rate of tlow 1-38 density
1-79 25 pounds to kilograms
1-35 frequency 1-39 power
1-80 3 tonnes to pounds
1-36 plane angle 1-40 temperature
1-81 I 00 000 lines of force to webers
1-37 magnetic tlux 1-41 mass
1-82 0.3 pounds per cubic inch to kilograms per
Girl' thl' names (f fhl' SJ units that corrl'spond to
cubic meter
th<'following units:
1-83 2 inches of mercury to millibars
1-42 Btu 1-51 bar
1-84 200 pounds per square inch to pascals
1-43 horsepower 1-52 pound-mass
1-85 70 pounds-force per square inch to newtons
1-44 line of tlux 1-53 pound-force
per square meter
1-45 inch 1-54 ki Iowan-hour
1-86 15 revolutions per minute to radians per
1-46 angstr()m 1-55 gallon per second
1-47 cycle per second minute 1-87 A temperature of 120 °C to kelvins
1-48 gauss 1-56 mho 1-88 A temperature of 200 °F to kelvins
1-49 line per square inch 1-57 pound-force per 1-89 A temperature difference of 120° Celsius to
1-50 OF square inch kelvins
14 FUNDAMENTA.LS

1-90 A resistance of 60 fl is selected as the base Industrial application

resistance in a circuit. If the circuit contains 1-94 A motor has an efficiency of 92.6%. What
three resistors having actual values of I00 !!, is the efficiency in per-unit?
3000 n. and 20 n, calculate the per-unit
1-95 A variable-speed motor having a nameplate
value of each resistor.
rating of 15 hp, 890 r/min develops a
1-91 A power of 25 kW and a voltage of 2400 V torque of 25 newton meters at 1260 r/min.
are selected as the base power and base Calculate the per-unit values of the torque,
voltage of a power system. Calculate the speed, and power.
value of the base impedance and the base
1-96 Three resistors have the following ratings:
current.
1-92 A resistor has a per-unit value of 5.3. If the resistor resistance power
base power is 250 kW and the base voltage A 1oon 24W
is 12 470 V, calculate the ohmic value of B son 75W
the resistor. c 3000 40W
1-93 A length of 4 m is selected as a base unit.
Using resistor A as a base, determine the per-unit
Cairn/ate values of tlze resistance, powe1; and voltage rating
a. the per-unit length of I mile of resistors Band C. respectively.
b. the per-unit length of I foot 1-97 A 30 hp cage motor has the following cur-
c. the magnitude of the base area (in m 2 ) rent ratings:
d. the magnitude of the base volume (in m."I)
e. the per-unit value of a volume of 6000 FLA: full-load current 36 A
mJ LRA: locked rotor current 218 A
f. the per-unit value of an area of 2 square NLA: no-load current 14 A.
miles
Calculate the per-unit rahw\· of LRA and NLA.
 CHAPTER 2
Fundamentals of Electricity,
Magnetism, and Circuits

2.0 Introduction positive • , negative

terminal (+l; ;=--=terminal(-)

T his chapter briefly reviews some of the funda-

mentals of electricity, magnetism, and circuits.
We assume the reader is already familiar with the dry cell
basics, including the solution of electric circuits.
However. a review is useful because it focuses on
those items that are particularly important in power
technology. Furthermore, it establishes the notation
used throughout this book to designate voltages and Figure 2.1
currents. Some of the topics treated here will also Dry cell.
provide the reader with a reference for subjects cov-
ered in later chapters.

2.1 Conventional and electron

current flow
Consider the dry cell shown in 2.1, having one
positive (--'-) and one negative ) terminal. The
difference of potential between them (measured in
volts) is due to an excess of electrons at the nega-
tive terminal compared to the positive terminal.
If we connect a wire across the terminals, the po-
tential difference causes an electric current to flow
in the circuit. This current is composed of a steady
stream of electrons that come out of the negative
terminal, move along the wire, and reenter the cell Figure 2.2
by the positive terminal (Fig. 2.2). Electron flow.

15
 16 FUN/JAMEN1:4LS

Before the electron theory of current flow was In order to establish a general rule. consider two
folly understood. scientists of the 17th century arbi- black boxes A and B that are connected by a pair of
trarily decided that current in a conductor flows wires carrying a variable current I that is continu-
from the positive terminal to the negative terminal ally changing in direction (Fig. 2.4 ). The voltage
(Fig. 2.3). This so-called conventional current.flow drop along the wires is assumed to be zero. Each
is still used today and is the accepted direction of box contains unknown devices and components
current flow in electric power technology. that are connected in some way to the external ter-
In tlfr., book we use the conventional current minals A 1• A:: and Bi. B2 . A variable voltage exists
flow. but it is worth recalling that the actual electron across the terminals, and its magnitude and polarity
flow is opposite to the conventional current flow. are also continually changing. Under such highly
variable conditions, how can we tell whether A or B
2.2 Distinction between sources is a source or a load?
and loads To answer the question. suppose we have appro-
priate instruments that enable us to determine the
It is sometimes important to identify the sources i11sronro11eous polarirr (+)(-)of the voltage across
and loads in an electric circuit. By definition. a the terminals and the instantaneous direc1io11 of
source de/il'ers electrical power whereas a load ab- conventional current flow. The following rule then
sorbs it. Every electrical device (motor. resistor, applies:
thermocouple. battery. capacity. generator. etc.) that
carries a current can be classified as either a source • A device is a source whenever current flows out
or a load. How can we tell the one from the other? of the positive terminal.
• A device is a load whenever current flows into a
conventional current flow positive terminal.
~.

If the instantaneous polarities and instantaneous

current flow are as shown in Fig. 2.4. it follows
from the rule that box A is a source and box B is a
load. However. if the current should reverse while
the polarity remains the same. box B would become
the source and box A the load.
The above rule for establishing whether a device
is a source or load is very simple, but it has impor-
tant applications, particularly in alternating current
circuits.
Some devices. such as resistors. can behave only
as loads. Other devices. such as photocells. can act
Figure 2.3 only as sources. However. many devices can behave
Conventional current flow.
either as sources or as loads. Thus when a battery

Figure 2.4
Distinction between a source and a load.
 FUNDA.lv!ENV\LS OF ELECTRIC/Tr'. MAGNETISM. ANIJ CIRCUITS 17

delivers electric power. it acts as a source (current The potential difference and the relative polari-
flows out of the ( +} terminal}: when it is being ties of terminals A and B can be designated by the
recharged. it ach as a load (current flows into the double-subscript notation. as follows:
( ) terminal). Similarly. electric motors usually act
• £AH + I 00 Y. which reads: The voltage be-
as loads on a system, but they can briefly behave like
tween A and B is 100 V, and A is positive with
generators if the electromechanical conditions are
respect to B.
appropriate. The same thing is true of capacitors.
When a capacitor is discharging it acts as a source • £HA I 00 V. which reads: The voltage be-
and current flows out of the ( ) terminal. On the tween A and Bis I 00 V, and Bis negative with
other hand. when the capacitor is charging up. it acts respect to A.
as a load and current flows into the ( ) terminal. As another example, if vve know that the gener-
ator voltage in Fig. 2.6 has a value 1
-100 V,
we know that the voltage between the terminals is
2.3 Sign notation I 00 V and that terminal 2 is negative with respect to
In arithmetic we use the symbols (...;_)and ( - ) to de- terminal I.
scribe addition and subtraction. In electricity and
mechanics. we broaden the meaning to indicate the 2.5 Sign notation for voltages
direction of an electric current. of a mechanical
Although we can represent the value and the polarity
force. of a rotational speed. etc .. compared to an ar-
of voltages by the double-subscript notation (£ :>·
bitrary cho.'>en direction. For example, if the speed 1

£AH· etc.), we often prefer to use the sign notation. It

of a motor changes from I 00 r/min to -400 r/min.
consists of designating the voltage by a symbol (E 1•
it means that the direction of rotation has reversed.
V, etc.) and identifying one of the terminals by a
This interpretation of ( +) and ( - ) is fre-
positive ( ) sign. For example, Fig. 2. 7 shows a
quently met in the chapters that follow.
source £ 1 in which one of the terminals is arbitrarily
marked with a positive ( ) sign. The other terminal
2.4 Double-subscript notation
for voltages
We 110\!. descrihe a system of notation that enables us
to indicate the polarity of voltages. 2.5 shows a
source G having a positive terminal A and a negative
terminal B. Terminal A is positive irith respect toter-
minal B. Similarly, terminal B is negative H'ith re-
Figure 2.6
s1wct to terminal A. Note that terminal A is not posi-
If E21 100 V, terminal 2 is negative with respect to
tive hy itself: it is only positive with respect to B. terminal 1.

Figure 2.5 Figure 2.7

Double-subscript notation to designate a voltage. Sign notation to designate a voltage.
 .
18 FUNDAMENTALS

is unmarked, but is automatically assumed to be neg- c D

ative with respect to the (+)terminal.
With this notation the following rules apply:

• If we state that £ 1 +I 0 V. this means that the

real polarity of the terminals corresponds to that
indicated in the diagram. The terminal bearing
the ( +) sign is then actually positive and the A + B
other terminal is negative. Furthermore, the
magnitude of the voltage across the terminals Figure 2.9
is 10 V. Solution of Example 2-1.
• Conversely, if £ 1 --10 V. the real polarity of
the terminals is the reverse of that shown on the inherently positive nor inherently negative. It only
diagram. The terminal bearing the ( +) sign is has a polarity with respect to jumpers B and C. re-
actually negative, and the other terminal is posi- spectively. In effect, point A is negative with respect
tive. The magnitude of the voltage across the to point B and positive with respect to point C. That
terminals is I 0 V. is why A carries both a positive and a negative sign.

Example 2-1 2.6 Graph of an alternating voltage

The circuit of Fig. 2.8 consists of three sources
V V~. and
1
• each having a terminal marked In the chapters that follow, we encounter sources
with a positive (+)sign. The sources are connected whose voltages change polarity periodically. Such
in series to a resistor R, using jumper wires A, B, C. alternating voltages may be represented by means
and D. of a graph (Fig. 2.10). The ve1tical axis indicates the
Determine the actual value and polarity of the voltage at each instant, while the horizontal axis in-
voltage across each source. knowing that V1 = dicates the corresponding time. Voltages are positive
-4 V, v, +IO V. and Vi -40 V. when they are above the horizontal axis and nega-
tive when they arc below. Figure 2.10 shows the
So/11tio11 voltage £7. 1 produced by the generator of Fig. 2.6.
Using the rules just stated. we find that the true val-
ues and polarities are as shown in Fig. 2.9. However.
in directing our attention to jumper A. it seems im-
possible that it can be both positive (+)and negative
( ). However. we must remember that A is neither

£2:50 ....

c + D

I 0
- - - - - - - - - -
---+-i1rne

A + B

Figure 2.8 Figure 2.10

Circuit of Example 2-1. Graph of an alternating voltage having a peak of 100 V.
 FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRICITY. MAGNETISM. AND CIRCUITS 19

Starting from zero. £ 21 gradually increases, at- A

taining+ 100 V after 0.5 second. It then gradually
falls to zero at the end of one second. During this
one-second interval, terminal 2 is positive with re-
spect to terminal 1 because £ 21 is positive.
During the interval from I to 2 seconds, £ 21 is
negative; therefore, terminal 2 is negative with re- B
spect to terminal 1. The instantaneous voltages and
polarities of the generator at 0.5. 1.5, and 2. I 7 sec- A
+2
onds are shown by insets I, II, and III of Fig. 2. I 0. I

2.7 Positive and negative currents

We also make use of positive and negative signs to
indicate the direction of current flow. The signs are
allocated with respect to a reference direction given -2 ------------
on the circuit diagram. For example, the current in
a resistor (Fig. 2. I 1) may flow from X to Y or from Figure 2.13
Y to X. One of these two directions is considered to Electric circuit and the corresponding graph of current.
be positive (+)and the other negative (- ). The arrow indicates the positive direction of current flow.

Solution
According to the graph, the current increases from
zero to + 2 A during the interval from 0 to I second.
Because it is positive, the current flows from B to A
Figure 2.11 in the resistor (direction of the arrow). During the
Current may flow from X to Y or from Y to X. interval from I to 2 seconds. the current decreases
from + 2 A to zero, but it still circulates from B to A
in the resistor. Between 2 and 3 seconds, the current
I
- y
increases from zero to -2 A and. because it is neg-
~ !tt/UL?::id 0
ative. it really flows in a direction opposite to that
of the arrow; that is, from A to B in the resistor.
Figure 2.12
Circuit element showing positive direction of current flow. 2.8 Sinusoidal voltage
The ac voltage generated by commercial alternators
The positive direction is shown arbitrarily by is very nearly a perfect sine wave. It may therefore
means of an arrow (Fig. 2.12). Thus. if a current of be expressed by the equation
2 A flows from X to Y, it flows in the positive direction e = Em cos (2Tr/f + 8) (2.1)
and is designated by the symbol +2 A. Conversely,
where
if cun-ent flows from Y to X (direction opposite to that
of the arrow). it is designated by the symbol -2 A. e = instantaneous voltage [VJ
Em = peak value of the sinusoidal voltage [ V]
Example 2-2
The current in a resistor R varies according to the
f = frequency lHzj

graph shown in Figure 2.13. Interpret the meaning t = time rs l

of this graph. e =a fixed angle [rad]
20 FUNDA/v1ENTALS

The expression 2TI,fi and 8 are angles, expressed The voltage at t = 27.144 sis
in radians. However. it is often more convenient to
eab = 100cos(360 x 50 x 27.144 + 30°)
express the angle in degrees. as follows:
I 00 cos 488 622°
e = £ 111 cos (360/t + 0) (2.2)
-20.8 v
or
Thus. at this moment the voltage is -20.8 V and
e = E 111 cos (¢ + 0) (2.3) terminal a is negative with respect to terminal b.
Note that an angle of 488 622° corresponds to 488
In these equations the symbols have the same sig-
622/360 = 1357 complete cycles plus 0.2833 cycle.
nificance as before. and the time-dependent angle¢
The latter corresponds to 0.2833 X 360" I 02°,
( = 360 ft) is also expressed in degrees.
and 100 cos 102° -20.8v
Example 2-3
The sine wave in Fig. 2.14 represents the voltage 2.9 Converting cosine functions
£" 11 across the terminals a and b of an ac motor that into sine functions
operates at 50 Hz. Knowing that 0 30°. and We can convert a cosine function of voltage or current
I00 V, calculate the voltage at t 0 and at t into a sine function by adding 90° to the angle 8. Thus.
27.144 s.
Em cos (360fi + 0)
Solution
The voltage at t 0 is E 111 sin (360.ft + 0 + 90°) (2.4)

eah Elll cos ( 360 ft 0) Similarly, we can conve11 a sine function into a cosine
JOO cos (360 x 50 x 0 + 30") function by subtracting 90° from the angle 0. Thus,

100 cos 30° / 111 sin (360.fi + 0)

86.6 v /Ill cos (360ft + 0 90) (2.5)

At this moment the voltage is +86.6 V and terminal

a is therefore positive with respect to terminal b.
2.1 O Effective value of an ac voltage
Although the prope1ties of an ac voltage are known
when its frequency and peak value E 111 are specified. it
is much more common to use the effective value Een·
··· .....
For a voltage that varies sinusoidally. the relationship
I I
v
-86.6V

\ \ I
I "\ between Ecff and Em is given by the expression
(2.6)
\

\ I \ The effective value of an ac voltage is some-

I 0 30
\
60 90 120 150 180 210 240 2 '0 300 330 360 390 420
I/ ' times called the RMS (root mean square) value of
e- I
I (j=
\ I degrees _ _
the voltage. It is a measure of the heating effect of
: 30 \ I the ac voltage as compared to that of an equivalent
E'ah ' I
~

de voltage. For example, an ac voltage having an ef-

\ I fective value of 135 volts produces the same heat-
' r--.... /
-E Ill ing effect in a resistor as does a de voltage of 135 V.
The same remarks apply to the effective value of
Figure 2.14 an ac current. Thus a current that varies sinusoidally
Sinusoidal voltage having a peak value of 100 V and and whose peak value is /m possesses an effective
expressed by eab = cos (360 ft 30°). value /cit given by
 FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRIC/TY, MAGNETISM. AND CIRCUITS 21

(2.7) c. Let us assume the voltage is given by

Most alternating current instruments are cali- e = Em sin 360.lf

brated to show the effective mlue of voltage or cur- = 339 sin 360 X 60 t
rent and not the peak rnlue (Fig. 2.15 ). When the 339 sin 21 600 t
value of an alternating voltage or current is given it
d. Owing to the phase Jag of 30°. the current is
is understood that it is the effective value.
given by
Furthermore, the subscript in Een and Ielf is dropped
and the effective values of voltage and current are Im sin (360ft - 30)
simply represented by the symbols E and /. 14. J sin (21 600 t - 30)
14.1 sin (<P - 30)
Example 2-4
A 60 Hz source having an effective voltage of e. The waveshapes giving the instantaneous val-
240 V delivers an effective current of I 0 A to a cir- ues of e and i are shown in Figure 2.16.
cuit. The current lags the voltage by 30°. Draw the
waveshape for E and I. 2.11 Phasor representation
Solution In most power studies the frequency is fixed, and so
a. The peak voltage is we simply take it for granted. Furthermore, we are
£ 111 E \2 240 \ 2 339 V not particularly concerned with the instantaneous
voltages and currents but more with their RMS
b. The peak current is magnitudes and phase angles. And because the volt-
/m=/12=10\2 14.IA ages are measured in terms of the effective values E

Figure 2.15
Commercial voltmeters and ammeters are graduated in effective values. This range of instruments has scales rang-
ing up to 2500 A and 9000 V.
(Courtesy of General Electric.)
 1

22 FUNDAMENTALS

(a)

{b)

E I

Figure 2.17
The current phasor I and voltage phasor E are in
phase.

Figure 2.16
Graph showing the instantaneous values of voltage and
current. The current lags 30° behind the voltage. The ef-
fective voltage is 240 V and the effective current is 10 A.
"l( I

rather than the peak values £ 111 • we are really only

Figure 2.18
interested in E and 8.
Phasor /lags behind phasor Eby an angle of H degrees.
This line of reasoning has given rise to the pha-
sor method of representing voltages and currents.
phasor /. Consequently. whether we rotate one
The basic purpose of phasor diagrams is to show
phasor or the other. we have to sweep through
the magnitudes and phase angles between voltages
the same angle to make them line up.
and currents. A phasor is similar to a vector in the
sense that it bears an arrow. and its length is propor- 3. If a phasor E has to be rotated c!ock11·ise to make
tional to the effective value of the voltage or current it point in the same direction as phasor /, then
it represents. The angle between two phasors is equal phasor Eis said to lead phasor I. Conversely. a
to the electrical phase angle between the quantities. phasor I is said to lag behind phasor E if phasor
I has to be rotated counterclockwise to make it
The following rules apply to phasors:
point in the same direction. Thus, referring to
1. Two phasors are said to be in phase when they Fig. 2.18, it is clear that phasor E leads phasor I
are parallel to each other and point in the same bye degrees. But we could equally well say that
direction (Fig. 2.17). The phase angle between /lags behind Eby 8 degrees.
them is then zero.
4. Referring now to Fig. 2.19 we could rotate
2. Two phasors are said to be out of phase when phasor I clockwise by an f3 to make it
they point in different directions. The phase an-
gle between them is the angle through which
one of the phasors has to be rotated to make it II' E
point in the same direction as the other. Thus,
referring to Fig. 2.18. phasor I has to be rotated
counterclockwise by an angle 8 to make it point
in the same direction as phasor E. Conversely, Figure 2.19
phasor E has to be rotated clockwise by an an- Phasor / leads Eby ~ degrees. But phasor I also lags
8 to make it point in the same direction as E by H degrees.
 FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRICITY, MAGNE/1SM. AND CIRCUITS 23

point in the same direction as phasor £. We

could then say that phasor /leads phasor Eby
~ But this is the same as saying that
120°
phasor /lags phasor Eby 8 degrees. In prac-
tice. we always select the smaller phase angle
~
between the two phasors to designate the lag f
or lead situation.
(a) (b)
5. Phasors do not have to have a common origin but
may be entirely separate from each other. as
shown in Fig. 2.20. By applying rule 3, we can see
that £ 1 is in phase with / 1 because they point in the
same direction. Furthennore. phasor /"!.leads pha- ~
\h
sor E 1 by 90°, and £ 2 lags behind 12 by 135°.
(c)

_____,....,, Figure 2.21

Different ways of showing the phase relationships
between three voltages that are mutually displaced
at 120°.

Solution
To draw the phasor diagram, we select any arbi-
trary direction for phasor £, making its length
Figure 2.20 equivalent to 240 V. Phasor I is then drawn so that
Phasors do not have to start from a common origin to it lags 30° behind E with a length equivalent to 10 A
show their magnitudes and phase relationships. (Fig. 2.22). Knowing that the frequency is 60 Hz.
the time interval between the positive peaks is
given by
In the same way. the three phasors and £ca 8 360.ft
in Fig. 2.21 a can be rearranged as shown in Fig. 2.21 b 30 360 x 60 f
without affecting the phase relationship between
1.39 ms
them. Note that Eah in Fig. 2.21 b still points in the
same direction as Eah in 2.21 a, and the same is t:
true for the other phasors. 240 v
Fig. 2.21 c shows still another arrangement of the
three phasors that does not in any way alter their
magnitude or phase relationship.
The angle 8 between two phasors is a measure
of the time that separates their peak positive val- Figure 2.22
ues. Knowing the frequency, we can calculate the Phasor diagram of the voltage and current given in
time. Figure 2. 16.

Example 2-5
2.12 Harmonics
Draw the phasor diagram of the voltage and current
in Fig. 2.16. Calculate the time interval between the The voltages and currents in a power circuit are fre-
positive peaks of E and /. quently not pure sine waves. The line voltages
24 FUNDAMENTALS

usually have a satisfactory waveshape but the cur- In order to understand the distorting effect of a
rents are sometimes badly distorted. as shown in harmonic. let us consider two sinusoidal sources e 1

Fig. 2.23. This distortion can be produced mag- and e 2 connected in series 2.24a). Their fre-
netic saturation in the cores of transformers or by the quencies are respectively 60 Hz and 180 Hz. The
switching action of thyristors or IGBTs in electronic corresponding peak amplitudes are l 00 V and 20 V.
drives. The fundamental (60 Hz) and the third harmonic
( 180 Hz) voltages are assumed to pass through zero
at the same time. and both are perfect sine waves.
Because the sources are in series. the terminal
voltage e 3 is equal to the sum of the instantaneous
voltages produced by each source. The resulting
terminal voltage is a flat-topped wave (Fig. 2.24bJ.
Thus. the sum of a fundamental voltage and a har-
monic voltage yields a nonsinusoidal \vaveforrn
whose degree of distortion depends upon the mag-
nitude of the harmonic (or harmonics) it contains.

180 Hz 20 v
Figure 2.23
This severely distorted 60 Hz current obtained on an
electronic drive contains the following harmonics: funda-
mental (60 Hz) 59 A; fifth harmonic (300 Hz)= 15.6 A; 60 Hz 100 v
seventh harmonic (420 Hz) = 10.3 A. Higher harmonics
are also present, but their amplitudes are small.
(Courtesy of Electro-Mecanik.)

(a)
The distortion of a voltage or current can be traced
to the harmonics it contains. A harmonic is any volt-
age or cuITent whose frequency is an integral multi-
ple of (2. 3. 4. etc .. times) the line frequency.
Consider a set of sine waves in which the lowest
frequency isf and all other frequencies are integral
multiples off By definition. the sine wave having
the lowest frequency is called thejiaula111enrol and
the other \Vaves are called hur111011ics. For example.
a set of sine waves whose frequencies are 20. 40.
l 00. and 380 Hz is said to possess the following
components:
(b)
fundamental frequency: 20 Hz (the lowest
frequency) Figure 2.24
second harmonic: 40 Hz (2 X 20 Hz) a. Two sinusoidal sources having different frequen-
cies connected in series.
fifth harmonic: l 00 Hz (5 X 20 Hz)
b. A fundamental and third harmonic voltage can to-
nineteenth harmonic: 380 Hz ( 19 X 20 Hz) gether produce a flat-topped wave.
 FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRIC/T}'. ii'IAGNETISM. AND CIRCUITS 25

We can produce a periodic voltage or current of circuits. They are also produced whenever vollages
<my conceivahle shape. All we have to do is to add to- and currents are periodically switched. such as in
gether a fundamental componenl and an arbitrary set power electronic circuits. All these circuits produce
of harmonic components. For example, we can gen- distorted waveshapes that are rich in harmonics.
erate a square wave having an amplitude of I00 V and In ac circuits the fundamental current and funda-
a frequency of 50 Hz by connecting the following mental voltage together produce fundamental
sine wave source;,, in series, as shown in Table 2A. power. This fundamental power is the useful power
that causes a motor to rotate and an arc furnace to
TABLE 2A 100 V SQUARE WAVE heat up. The product of a harmonic voltage times
the corresponding harmonic current also produces a
Harmonic Amplitude Freq. Relative
[VI [HLI amplitude
harmonic power. The latter is usually dissipated as
heat in the ac circuit and. consequently. does no
fundamental 127.3 so useful work. Harmonic currents and voltages
third 42.44 150 1/3 should therefore be kept as small as possible.
firth 25.46 250 1/5 It should he noted that the product of a funda-
mental voltage and a harmonic current yields zero
seventh 18.46 350 117
net power.
ninth 14.15 450 1/9
Harmonics are covered in greater detail in
Chapter 30.

2.13 Energy in an inductor

1.00 6350 1/117
A coil stores energy in its magnetic field when it
carries a current /. The energy i-. given by

W = 1 L/2 (2.8)
2
127.3/n 50 ll l /n where

A square wave is thus composed of a fundamen- W energy stored in the coil IJ]
tal wave and an infinite number of harmonics. The L inductance of the coil IHI
higher harmonics have smaller and smaller ampli- I current IAl
tudes. and they are consequently les-. important.
However. these high-frequency harmonics produce
If the current varies. the stored energy rises and fall-.
in step with the current. Thu-.. whenever the current
the steep sides and pointy corners of the square
increases. the coil absorbs energy and whenever the
wave. In practice. square waves are not produced by
adding sine waves, hut the example does show that current falls. energy is released.
The propertie:-. of an inductor are more fully dis-
anr waveshape can be built up from a fundamental
cussed in Section 2.31
wave and an appropriate number of harmonics.
Conversely. we can decompose a distorted peri-
odic wave into its fundamental and harmonic com- 2.14 Energy in a capacitor
ponents. The procedure for decomposing a dis- A capacitor stores energy in its electric field when-
torted wave is given in Chapter 30. ever a voltage E appears across its terminals. The
Harmonic voltages and currents are usually un- energy is given by
desirable, but in some ac circuits they are al-.o un-
avoidable. Harmonics are created by nonlinear W = I CE 2 (2.9)
')
loads, such a-. electric arcs and saturated magnetic
26 FUNDAMENTALS

where W = 1/2 Li2 1/2 x IO X 10- 3 x 4(f

W energy stored in the capacitor fJ] = 8J
C = capacitance of the capacitor fF]
The energy stored in the capacitor is
E = voltage fV]
W= 112 = 1/2 x 100 x 10-() x 8002
Example 2-6
= 32 J
A coil having an inductance of I 0 mH is connected
in series with a I00 µF capacitor. The instantaneous
current in the circuit is 40 A and the instantaneous 2.15 Some useful equations
voltage across the capacitor is 800 Y. Calculate the
We terminate this section with a list of useful equa-
energy stored in the electric and magnetic fields at
tions (Table 2B) that are frequently required when
this moment.
solving ac circuits. The equations are given without
Solution proof on the assumption that the reader already pos-
The energy stored in the coil is sesses a knowledge of ac circuits in general.

TABLE 28 IMPEDANCE OF SOME COMMON AC CIRCUITS

Circuit diagram Jmpedarn.:e Equation

(2-10)

c
o---tf---o (2-11)
2TrfC

Z= (2-12)

z (2-13)

Z= (2-14)

z (2-15)

~Xe
z (2-16)
'/R 2 + Xc2
Xe

~ (2-17)
 FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRICITY. MAGNETISM, AND CIRCUITS 27

ELECTROMAGNETISM In the SI, the magnetic constant is fixed, by def-

inition. It has a numerical value of 41T X 10- 7 or
2.16 Magnetic field intensity H approximately 1/800 000. This enables us to write
2-20 in the approximate form:
and flux density B
H = 800 000 B (2.21)
Whenever a magnetic flux <!> exists in a body or
component. it is due to the presence of a magnetic The B-H curve of vacuum is a straight line. A
field intensity H. given by vacuum never saturates. no matter how great the
H =VII 18) tlux density may be 2.25 ). The curve shows
that a magnetic field intensity of 800 A/m produces
where a flux density of I millitesla.
H =magnetic field intensity [A/m}
Nonmagnetic materials such as copper, paper.
rubber. and air have B-H curves almost identical to
U magnetomotive force acting on the that of vacuum.
component [Al (or ampere turn)
length of the component [ m I

The resulting magnetic flux density is given by

B =©IA (2.19) 1,51----1----l----1--+--------~

B
where
r 1.01---~····-~l---------...-0~-~
B = flux density [Tl
© flux in the component [Wbj
A cross section of the component [rn 2 J

There is a definite relationship between the flux 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 A/m
density (B) and the magnetic field intensity (H) of -H
any material. This relationship is usually expressed
Figure 2.25
graphically by the B-H curve of the material.
8-H curve of vacuum and of nonmagnetic materials.

2.17 B-H curve of vacuum

In vacuum, the magnetic flux density B is directly 2.18 B-H curve of a magnetic
proportional to the magnetic field intensity H. and material
is expressed by the equation
The flux density in a magnetic material also de-
(2.20) pends upon the magnetic field intensity to which it
is subjected. Its value is given by
where
(2.22)
B flux density [TJ
H magnetic field intensity [ A/m J where B, µ 0 • and H have the same significance as
before. and µ, is the relative permeability of the
µ 0 = magnetic constant l = 41T x 10~ 1*7

material.
The value ofµ, is not constant but varies with
the flux density in the material. Consequently, the
Also called the permeability of vacuum. The complete ex- relationship between B and H is not linear. and
pression for µ., is 4 TI X I0 -? henry/meter. this makes Eq. 2.22 rather impractical to use. We
28 FUNDAl'vfENTALS

prefer to show the relationship by means of a B-H sity that would be produced in vacuum, under the
saturation curve. Thus, 2.26 shows typical same magnetic field intensity H.
saturation curves of three materials commonly Given the saturation curve of a magnetic mater-
used in electrical machines: silicon iron. cast iron, ial. it is easy to calculate the relative permeability
and cast steel. The curves show that a magnetic using the approximate equation
field intensity of 2000 A/rn produces a flux den-
µ 1 = 800 000 BIH
sity of 1.4 T in cast steel but only 0.5 T in cast
iron. where

B = flux density in the magnetic material [Tl

H = corresponding magnetic field intensity [A/111]
2.19 Determining the relative
permeability Example 2-7
The relatiFe penneahility µ 1 of a material is the ra- Determine the permeability of silicon iron ( l %) at a
tio of the flux density in the material to the flux den- flux density of 1.4 T.

teslas
2.0 - ------,

1.2
B

1.0
1 I
0.8 ---1

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 Alm

--~H

Figure 2.26
8-H saturation curves of three magnetic materials.
 FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRICIT't'. MAGNETISM. AND CIRCUITS 29

Solution the magnetic materials saturate more and more and

Referring to the saturation curve (Fig. 2.26). we see eventually all the B-H curves follow the B-H curve
that a flux density of 1.4 T requires a magnetic field of vacuum.
intensity of I 000 Alm. Consequently.
µ, 800 000 Bl H 2.20 Faraday's law of
800 000 X I .4/ I 000 1120 electromagnetic induction
At this flux density. silicon iron is 1120 times In 1831, while pursuing his experiments. Michael
more permeable than vacuum (or air). Faraday made one of the most important discover-
Fig. 2.27 shows the saturation curves of a broad ies in electromagnetism. Now known as Faraday's
range~of materials from vacuum to Permallo/0 • one law of electromagnetic induction, it revealed a
of the most permeable magnetic materials known. fundamental relationship between the voltage and
Note that as the magnetic field intensity increases. flux in a circuit. Faraday's law states:

T
2.5
silectron®
2.0

1.5
I.!'.:;
/.~
I ciJ"
1.0 --#--+~---~~~----~~~~-'-~~---'~-'-~~-,-'-, ~

-t---+-~~~--r--r-~~+---+-+-~~~~l---~~~~-+-~....+---li-----l-~L__.g
/ e
0.8
,. <2J
/ §,
B +--+-~~~-t-+--~-+-~---1---r-~~~+-~~~~-HL:..---=~-i-~~f!
0.6
g
c::
1 0.4 -t--Jr--~~~-++.~---1~~+-+~--~~_,,_f--~~~1---+--~~--1~-1-~l-1-------1
§
0.3 ,......;~~~~-+-~--+-~--l-+~~----J'--~+--~~.J--~-+-~~--ll-----l--8./--~~--I
fl'

0.2

0.15

0.1 4 8 20 40 80 200400800 2 4 8 2
10 100 1000 104 A/m
H

Figure 2.27
Saturation curves of magnetic and nonmagnetic materials. Note that all curves become asymptotic to the 8-H
curve of vacuum where His high.
 •
30 FUNDAMENTALS

I. If the flux linking a loop (or turn) varies as a Because this change takes place uniformly in
function of time, a voltage is induced be- I /I 0 of a second (Lit), the induced voltage is
tween its terminals.
Li<P
2. The value of the induced voltage is propor- E=N 2000 x - -3 - -
D.t 1000 XI/IO
tional to the rate of change of flux.
= 60V
By definition, and according to the SI system of
units. when the nux inside a loop varies at the rate of The induced voltage falls to zero as soon as the flux
1 weber per second, a voltage of I V is induced be- ceases to change.
tween its terminals. Consequently, if the flux varies in-
side a coil of N turns, the voltage induced is given by
Li<l> 2.21 Voltage induced
E N -- (2.24)
in a conductor
£11
where In many motors and generators, the coils move with
E =induced voltage [VI respect to a flux that is fixed in space. The relative
N = number of turns in the coil motion produces a change in the flux linking the
coils and, consequently, a voltage is induced ac-
Li<P =change of flux inside the coil fWbl
cording to Faraday's law. However. in this special
Lil = time interval during which the flux (although common) case. it is easier to calculate the
changes f sl induced voltage with reference to the conductors,
Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction rather than with reference to the coil itself. In effect
opened the door to a host of practical applications and whenever a conductor cuts a magnetic field. a volt-
established the basis of operation of transformers, age is induced across its terminals. The value of the
generators, and alternating current motors. induced voltage is given by

E Bir (2.25)
Example 2-8
A coil of 2000 turns surrounds a flux of 5 mWb pro- where
duced by a permanent magnet 2.28). The mag-
E induced voltage IV I
net is suddenly withdrawn causing the flux inside
the coil to drop uniformly to 2 mWb in 1/10 of a B flux density fTl
second. What is the voltage induced? I active length of the conductor in the
magnetic field [ m]
Solution
The flux change is \' relative speed of the conductor f mis I

Li<P (5mWb-2mWb) 3mWb

Example 2-9
N = 2000 The stationary conductors of a large generator have
,.-----"';"! an active length of 2 m and are cut by a field of

__
f------<
Qc~ .sJ)
I
0.6 teslas. moving at a speed of I 00 m/s 2.29).
Calculate the voltage induced in each conductor.

Solution
M 1/10 s
E According to 2-25. we find

E Bfr
Figure 2.28
Voltage induced by a moving magnet. See Example 2-8. 0.6 X 2 X 100= 120V
 FUNDA1i1EN7:4LS OF ELECTRICITY, MAGNETISM, AND CIRCUITS 31

Figure 2.30
Force on a conductor.

Figure 2.29
Voltage induced in a stationary conductor. See
Example 2-9.

2.22 Lorentz force on a conductor

When a rnrrent-carrying conductor is placed in a
magnetic field, it is subjected to a force which we
call electromagnetic f(m.·e, or Lorentz force. This
force is of fundamental importance hecause it con- Figure 2.31
stitutes the basis of operation of motors, of genera- Force O.
tors. and of many electrical instruments. The mag-
nitude of the force depends upon the orientation of
the conductor with respect to the direction of the Calculate the force on the conductor if it is perpen-
field. The force is greatest when the conductor is dicular to the lines of force (Fig. 2.30).
perpendicular to the field (Fig. 2.30) and zero when Solution
it is parallel to it (Fig. 2.31 ). Between these two ex- F =Bil
tremes. the force has intermediate values.
0.5 x 3x 200 300 N
The maximum force acting on a straight conduc-
tor is given by
2.23 Direction of the force acting
F Bii (2.26) on a straight conductor
where Whenever a conductor carries a current. it is sur-
F = force acting on the conductor lNl rounded by a magnetic field. For a current flowing
into the page of this book. the circular lines of force
B flux density of the field [Tj
have the direction shown in Figure 2.32a. The same
active length of the conductor r111 l figure shows the magnetic field created between the
I = current in the conductor IA j N, S poles of a powerful permanent magnet.
The magnetic field does not. of course, have the
Example 2-10 shape shown in the figure hecause lines of force
A conductor 3 m long carrying a current of 200 A is never cross each other. What. then. is the sh:ipe of
placed in a magnetic field whose density is 0.5 T. the resulting field?
 •
FUNDi\lv!ENTALS

N
Ii - 4> I

cross-section. l
(al

N s Figure 2.33a
Method of determining the 8-H properties of a mag-
netic material.
Force

(b)
curve oa in Figure 2.33b. The flux density reaches
a value B 111 for a magnetic field intensity H, 11 •
Figure 2.32 If the current is now gradually reduced to zero.
a. Magnetic field due to magnet and conductor. the flux density B does not follow the original
b. Resulting magnetic field pushes the conductor curve, but moves along a curve ab situated above
downward.
oa. In effect. as we reduce the magnetic field inten-
sity, the magnetic domains that were lined up under
To answer the question. we observe that the lines the influence of field Hm tend to retain their origi-
of force created respectively by the conductor and nal orientation. This phenomenon is called hystere-
the permanent magnet act in the same direction sis. Consequently. when His reduced to zero, a sub-
above the conductor and in opposite directions be- stantial flux density remains. It is called residual
low it. Consequently. the number of lines above the flux density or residual induction (B,.).
conductor must be greater than the number below.
The resulting magnetic field therefore has the shape a
given in Figure 2.32b.
Recalling that lines of flux act like stretched
elastic bands. it is easy to visualize that a force acts
upon the conductor. tending to push it downward.

2.24 Residual flux density

and coercive force
Consider the coil or Figure 2.33a. which surrounds c
a magnetic material formed in the shape of a ring. A 11
_ _ magnetic field intensity If
current source. connected to the coil, produces a coercive
force
current whose value and direction can be changed
at will. Starting from zero. we gradually increase /, Figure 2.33b
so that H and B increase. This increase traces out Residual induction and coercive force.
 FUNDAMENTALS OF ELEC7R!CITY, MAGNETISM, AND CIRCUITS 33

If we wish to eliminate this residual flux, we +Bm,+Hm

have to reverse the current in the coil and gradually
increase H in the opposite direction. As we do so,
we move along curve be. The magnetic domains
gradually change their previous orientation until the
flux density becomes zero at point c. The magnetic
field intensity required to reduee the tlux to zero is
called coercfref(n-ce (H").
In reducing the flux density from Br to zero, we
also have to furnish energy. This energy is used to
owrcome the frictional resistance of the magnetic
domains as they oppose the change in orientation.
The energy supplied is dissipated as heat in the
material. A very sensitive thermometer would in- Figure 2.34
dicate a slight temperature rise as the ring is being Hysteresis loop. If B is expressed in teslas and H in
amperes per meter, the area of the loop is the energy
demagnetized.
dissipated per cycle, in joules per kilogram.

2.25 Hysteresis loop

Transformers and most electric motors operate on pressed in Jim') is equal to the area (in TA/m) of
alternating current. In such devices the flux in the the hysteresis loop.
iron change.~ continuously both in value and direc- To reduce hysteresis losses, we select magnetic
tion. The magnetic domains are therefore oriented materials that have a narrow hysteresis loop. such
fir.~t in one direction, then the other, at a rate that as the grain-oriented silicon steel used in the cores
depends upon the frequency. Thus. if the flux has a of alternating-current transformers.
frequency of 60 Hz. the domains describe a com-
plete cycle every I/60 of a second. passing succes-
sively through peak flux densities + Bm and - B 111 2.27 Hysteresis losses caused
as the peak magnetic field intensity alternates be- by rotation
tween and If we plot the flux density B Hysteresis losses are also produced when a piece of
as a function of H. we obtain a closed eurve called iron rotates in a constant magnetic field. Consider,
hysteresis loop (Fig. 2.34 ). The residual induction for example, an armature AB, made of iron. that re-
B,. and coercive force He have the same signifi- volves in a field produced by permanent magnets :'-J,
cance as before. S (Fig. 2.35). The magnetic domains in the armature
tend to line up with the magnetic field. irrespective
of the position of the armature. Consequently. as the
2.26 Hysteresis loss armature rotates, the N poles of the domains point
In describing a hysteresis loop. the flux moves first toward A and then toward B. A complete rever-
successively from +8 111 • +Br. 0. -B,w -Br. 0, sal occurs therefore every half-revolution. as can be
and +B 111 • corresponding respectively to points a, seen in 2.35a and 2.35b. Con-.cquently. the
b, c, d, c, f, and a, of Figure 2.34. The magnetic magnetic domains in the armature reverse periodi-
material absorbs energy during each cycle and cally, even though the magnetic field is constant.
this energy is dissipated as heat. We can prove Hysteresis losses are produced just as they are in an
that the amount of heat released per cycle (ex- ac magnetic field.
34 FUNDAMENTALS

(a)

~
rotation
armature
,
...........
<t>

--:t/A~ •~.rs
---=-.l\ 'L_ s n s n
Figure 2.37
Concentric conductors carry ac currents due to ac flux<!>.

currents are progressively smaller as the area of the

(b) loops surrounding the flux decreases.
Figure 2.35 In Fig. 2.38 the ac flux passes through a solid
Hysteresis losses due to rotation. metal plate. It is basically equivalent to a densely
packed set of rectangular conductors touching
each other. Currents swirl back and forth inside
2.28 Eddy currents the plate. following the paths shown in the figure.
Consider an ac tlux <I> that links a rectangular-shaped These so-called eddy currents (or Foucault ...cur-
conductor (Fig. 2.36). According to Faraday's law, rents) can be very large, due to the low resistance
an ac voltage £ 1 is induced across its terminals. of the plate. Consequently, a metal plate that is
If the conductor is short-circuited, a substantial penetrated by an ac flux can become very hot. In
alternating current / 1 will flow, causing the conduc- this regard, special care has to be taken in trans-
tor to heat up. If a second conductor is placed inside formers so that stray leakage fluxes do not cause
the first a smaller voltage is induced because it sections of the enclosing tanks to overheat.
links a smaller flux. Consequently, the short-circuit The flux ¢ in 2.37 and 2.38 is assumed to
current 12 is less than / 1 and so, too. is the power dis- be increasing. As a result. due to the Lenz's law,
sipated in this loop. Fig. 2.37 shows four such con- the eddy currents flow in such a way as to oppose
centric loops carrying currents / 1, 12 , 13 , and / 4 • The the increasing flux.

eddy currents metal plate

_ _ _ __,1 "-----

Figure 2.36 Figure 2.38

An ac flux (I> induces voltage E 1 . Large ac eddy currents are induced in a solid metal plate.
 FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRIC/TY, MAGNETISM. AND CIRCUITS 35

2.29 Eddy currents in a stationary

iron core
The eddy-current problem becomes particularly
important when iron has to carry an ac flux. This is
the case in all ac motors and transformers.
2J9a shows a coil carrying an ac current that pro-
duces an ac flux in a solid iron core. Eddy currents ..___
f..: ._ ·+:·...'...
_>_ ___._·_"'!_:;;,_;,......~............
are set up as shown and they flow throughout the ¢!? ¢12
entire length of the core. A large core could eventu-
ally become red hot (even at a frequency of 60 Hz) Figure 2.39b
due to these eddy-current losses. Eddy currents are reduced by splitting the core 1n halt
We can reduce the losses by splitting the core in
two along its length, taking care to insulate the two
sections from each other (Fig. 2.3% ). The voltage
induced in each section is one half of what it was
before, with the result that the eddy currents, and
the corresponding losses. are considerably reduced.
If we continue to subdivide the core. we find that
the losses decrease progressively. In practice, the core
is composed of stacked laminations. usually a fraction .,
..... ac flux

of a millimeter thick. Furthermore. a small amount of

silicon is alloyed with the steel to increase its resistiv-
eddy current in
one lamination
'"
ity, thereby reducing the losses still more (Fig. 2.39c).
Figure 2.39c
The cores of ac motors and generators are there-
Core built up of thin, insulated laminations.
fore always laminated. A thin coating of insulation
covers each lamination to prevent electrical contact
between them. The stacked laminations are tightly
held in place by bolts and appropriate end-pieces.
2.30 Eddy-current losses
For a given iron core. the eddy-current losses de- in a revolving core
crease in proportion to the square of the number of The stationary field in direct-current motors and gen-
laminations. erators produces a constant de flux. Thi~ constant
flux induces eddy currents in the revolving armature.
coil carrying an ac current To understand how they are induced. consider a solid
cylindrical iron core that revolves between the poles
of a magnet 2.40a). As it turns, the core cuts flux
lines and, according to Faraday\ law. ;.1 volt<1ge is in-
eddy duced along its length having the polarities shown.
currents Owing to this voltage, large eddy currents flmv in the
core because its resistance is very low (Fig. 2...J.Ob J.
These eddy currents produce large I] R losse~ which
•.,., ac flux
~ <P are immedi<1tely converted into heat. The power loss
is proportional to the square of the speed and the
square of the flux density.
Figure 2.39a To reduce the eddy-current losses. we laminate
Solid iron core carrying an ac flux. the armature using thin circular himinatioth that are
36 FUNDAMENTALS

N
N
(a)
(a)

eddy
currents

(b)

(b) Figure 2.41

a. Armature built up of thin laminations.
Figure 2.40 b. Much smaller eddy currents are induced.
a. Voltage induced in a revolving armature.
b. Large eddy currents are induced.
of current. However. it often happens that e is
known and we want to calculate the resulting cur-
insulated from each other. The laminations are rent /. We can use the same equation. but the solu-
tightly stacked with the flat side running parallel to tion requires a knowledge of advanced mathemat-
the flux lines (Fig. 2.41 ). ics. To get around this problem. we can use a
graphical solution. called the volt-second method. It
2.31 Current in an inductor yields the same results and has the advantage of en-
It is well known that in an inductive circuit the volt- abling us to visualize how the current in an induc-
age and current are related by the equation tor increases and decreases with time, in response to
a known applied voltage.
D.i Consider, for example, Fig. 2.42, in which a
e = L- (2.27)
D.t variable voltage E appears across an inductance L.
where Suppose the inductance carries a current / 1 at a time
t t 1. We want to determine the current a very short
e instantaneous voltage induced in time later, after an interval flt. From Eq. 2-27 we
the circuit IV l <:an write
L inductance of the circuit l H] I
e!lt
D.i/ D.t = rate of change of current rA/s I L
This equation enables us to calculate the instanta- which means that the change in current D.i during a
neous voltage e, when we know the rate of change short interval D.t is given by
 FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRICITY. MAGNETISM. AND CIRCUITS 37

volts ('2
volts
+

f
Q-1-~-t-"-1--~~~~-+~~~~~....-~~~
Q-1-~-'-'~ ............................L..>.\,...,..,..........,..,....,,,....,..,.......,.....~~~
seconds seconds

.l,,\
I,+-
/,
Figure 2.43
Volt-seconds are gained (and lost) when a variable
voltage is applied across an inductor.

Figure 2.42
Variable voltage applied across an inductor and re- mental changes in current ili during the long period
sulting change in current. Initial current is /1 . (f 2 t 1). As a result we find current 12 at time t].
17. = initial current / 1 + (ili 1 + !::J.i 2 + D.J, + ... )
1 (average voltage e during the interval)
.li X duration flt of the interval /, e :ylJ..t2 + e 3 !lt, ... )
L

I (e 1 + eo)
- x flt
:li
L 2

1 ( area flA under the voltage) 1 ( algebraic sum of all the little)
:li = L. eurve durino
c
the interval :1t /') /
1
+
L areas under the voltanec
curve
between t 1 and t 2

1. (net area A under the voltage)

1 (volt-seconds across the induc-) /, 11 + L curve between r 1 and t2
:':ii = tance during the interval !:1t
L

The values of e e 2 • e 3 • and so on may be posi-

1
,

Therefore, the current in the inductance after the in- tive (+)or negative (-)and. therefore. the little ar-
terval D.t is eas M 1, ilA 2 , M 1 . and so on may be (+)or(-).
I at time (f 1 + ill) initial current+ fli The sum of these ( +) and ( - ) values of the Ms
gives the net area under the voltage curve between
M t 1 and t 2 .
1, +
L Thus. in 2.44 the net area A after time inter-
val Tis equal to (A 1 A 2 ) volt-seconds. To general-
We are usually more interested in calculating the
ize, the current after an interval Tis always given by
current at a time t2 , when r2 is many ilr intervals af-
ter t 1 (Fig. 2.43 ). We then have to add the incre- I= / 1 AIL (2.28)
38 FUND/11\4f.N1/\LS

volts
/-F~~ v
+

I ~ +50

E
A1
r
o-+--~-1..~~~~~~-+-~~~~~.--~~~
r t3 (4
seconds 0
time 0 5 (I 10
1,
I I
I I
,..___________ T - - - - - - - - - J
-50
Figure 2.44
(a)
The net volt-seconds during interval Tis equal to the
algebraic sum of the areas A 1 and A2 .
A
+8
where
current at start of interval T 6

I = current after time interval Tr Al 4

A = net area under the volt-time curve dur-
2
ing time T[V·sl
/, = inductance I H l
5 10 15 20 25 30 s
-time ............
Consider. for example an inductor L. having
gihle resistance. connected to a source whose volt- (b)

age varies according to the curve of Fig. 2.45a. If

the initial current is zero. the value at instant t 1 is Figure 2.45
a. An inductor stores volt-seconds.
l A b. Current in the inductor.
As time goes by. the area under the curve in-
creases progressively and so does the current. onds during the interval from 0 to t2 • As it becomes
However. the current reaches its maximum value at clu11ged up with volt-seconds. the current increases in
tinie h because at this moment the area under the direct propo11ion to the volt-seconds received. Then
\ oltage curve ceases to increase any more. Beyond during the dischmge period from t 2 to t 4 the inductor
I 2 the voltage becomes negative and. consequently. loses volt-seconds and the current decreases accord-
the net area begins to diminish. Al instant t 3 • for ex- ingly. An inductor. therefore. behaves very much like
~1mple. the net area is equal lo (A + A~ - A 1 ) and
1
a capacitor. However, instead of storing ampere-sec-
the corresponding current is onds (coulombs). an inductor stores volt-seconds. For
example, in a capacitor having a capacitance C. it is
A 1 )/L
well known that the voltage E across its terminals is
At instant t 4 . the negative area (A, + A 1) is ex- given by
actly equal to the positive area (A 1 A::,). The net
area is zero and so the current is also zero. After in-
.-..tant r4 • the current becomes negative; in other
\vords. it chan,µ:cs direction. where £ 1 is the initial voltage and Qc is the charge
Another way of looking at the situation (Fig. 2.45). in coulombs (ampere seconds. positive or negative)
is to con.-..idcr that the inductor accumulate.> volt-sec- the capacitor received during a given interval.
 FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRIC/TY, MAGNETISM, AND CIRCUITS }9

In the same way, for an inductor having an in- Example 2-11

ductance L, the current I it carries is given by The voltage across the terminals of an inductor of 2 H
varies according to the curve in Fig. 2.46.
a. Calculate the instantaneous current I in the cir-
cuit, knowing that the initial current is zero.
where / 1 is the initial current and QL is the "charge" b. Repeat the calculations for an initial current
in volt-seconds (positive or negative) that the in- of7 A.
ductor received during a given interval.
It is interesting to note that I weber-turn is equal to Solution
I volt-second. Thus a coil of 600 turns that surrounds a. Interval from zero to 3 s: During this interval
a llux of 20 milliwebers has stored in it a total mag- the area in volt-seconds increases uniformly
netic charge of 600 turns X 20 m Wb 12 000 m Wb and progressively. Thus, after one second, the
turns= 12 volt-seconds. If the inductor has an induc- area A is 4 Y·s: after two seconds it is 8 V-s;
tance of 3 henries, it is carrying a current of Q1/L = and so forth. Using the expression I = All. the
12 V·s/3 H = 4 A. current builds up to the following respective
Fig. 2.45b shows the instantaneous current ob- values: 2 A, 4 A, and so on, attaining a final
tained when the voltage of Fig. 2.45a is applied to value of 6 A after three seconds.
an inductance of I00 H. The initial current is zero, Interval from 3 s to 5 s: The area continues to
and the current rises to a maximum of 6.9 A before increase but at a slower rate, because voltage E
again dropping to zero after a time interval of 27 s. is smaller than before. When t = 5 s, the total
Important Note: If the current at the beginning of surface starting from the beginning is 16 Y·s:
an interval Tis not zero, we simply add the initial therefore the current is 16 Y·s/2 H 8 A.
value to all the ampere values calculated by the Interval from 5 s to 7 s: The surface increases
volt-second method. by 4 squares, which is equivalent to 8 V·s.

V,A
+12~-~-~----r---~----

1Ql-+--'---l---+--~--+.L--l-''---'-·-1---4---+-~__j_~Ji---~--L~-L---L__J

8--+--<------+-

Figure 2.46
See Example 2-11.
 1

40 FUNDAlvlENTALS

Consequently. the current increases by 4 A. means that the sum of the voltage rises is equal to
thus reaching 12 A. Note that the current no the sum of the voltage drops. In our methodology it
longer follows a straight line because the volt- is not necessary to specify whether there is a "'volt-
age is not constant during this interval. age rise" or a "voltage drop."
Interval from 7 s to 8 s: The voltage sud- We have seen that voltages can be expressed in
denly changes polarity with the result that the either double-subscript or sign notation. The choice
8 Y·s during this interval subtract from the of one or the other is a matter of individual prefer-
volt-seconds that \Vere accurnulated previ- ence. We will begin with the double-subscript nota-
ously. The net area from the beginning is tion, followed later by the sign notation.
therefore 24 Y·s - 8 Y·s = 16 Y·s.
Consequently. the current at the end of this 2.33 Kirchhoff's voltage law and
interval is I 16 Y·s/2 H 8 A. double-subscript notation
Interval from 8 s to 10 s: Because the terminal
voltage is zero during this interval, the net volt- Consider 2.47 in which six circuit elements
second area does not change and neither does A, B, C, D, E, and F are connected together. The
the current (remember that we assumed zero elements may be sources or loads. and the con-
coil resistance). nections (nodes) are labeled I to .f. In going
Interval from 10 s to 14 s: The negative volt- around a circuit loop. such as the loop involving
seconds continue to accumulate and at t 14 s. elements A, E, and D, we can start \Vith any node
the negative area is equal to the positive area. and move in either a cw or ccw direction until we
and so the net current is zero. Beyond this point come back to the starting point. In so doing. we
the current changes direction. encounter the labeled nodes one after the other.
This ordered set of labels is used to establish the
b. With an initial current of +7 A. we have to add
voltage subscripts. We write the voltage sub-
7 A to each of the currents calculated previ-
scripts in sequential fashion. following the same
ously. The new current wave is simply 7 A
order as the nodes we meet.
above the curve shown in Fig. 2.46. Thus. the
For example. starting with node 2 and moving
current at t 11 s is 6 + 7 = 13 A.
cw around loop ABCD, we successively encounter
nodes 2-4-3-1-2. The resulting KVL equation is
CIRCUITS AND EQUATIONS
therefore written
When writing circuit equations. it is essential to fol-
low certain rules that are based upon the voltage + E..,, + E.i.1 + 0
and current notations covered in Sections 2.4. 2 ..5.
and 2.7. We presume the reader is familiar with the 2
solution of such equations. using linear and vector
algebra. Consequently. our method will review only
the writing of these equations. using Kirchhoff's
voltage law (KVL) and current law (KCL).
By following a few simple rules, it is possible to
solve any circuit ac ordc. no matter how complex. We
begin our explanation of the rules regarding voltages.

2.32 Kirchhoff's voltage law 3

Kirchhoff's voltage law states that the algebraic Figure 2.47

sum of the voltages around a closed loop is zero. Rule for writing KVL equations using double-subscript
Thus. in a closed circuit Kirchhoff's voltage law notation.
 FUNDMvfENTALS OF ELECTRICITY. MAGNETISA4. AND CIRCU/7S ..+I

If we select loop CEF and start with node 4 and Transposing terms.
move ccw, we successively encounter nodes 4-2-3-
E,1 = -E12
4. The resulting KYL equation is
= -E12 +
= -40 + 30
The set of voltages designated by the KYL equa- -JOY
tions may be ac or de. If they are ac, the voltages will
and so
usually be expressed as phasors, having certain
magnitudes and phase angles. In some cases the set £ 13 = JOY
of voltages can even represent instantaneous values. indicating that terminal I is positive with respect to
In order to prevent errors, it is essential to equate all terminal 3 and that the voltage between the two is
KVL equations to zero as we have done so far and 10 v.
will continue to do. We do not recommend attempts
Lo equate voltage rises to voltage drops. 2.34 Kirchhoff's current law
In finding the solution to such double-subscript
equations, it is useful to remember that a voltage ex- Kirchhoff's current law states that the algebraic
pressed as Exy can always be expressed as sum of the currents that arrive at a point is equal to
and vice versa. zero. This means that the sum of the currents that
flow into a terminal is elJual to the sum of the cur-
Example 2-12 rents that leave it.
2.48 shows two sources connected in series, Fig. 2.49 shows five currents arriving at a common
having terminab (nodes) 1, 2. and 3. The magnitude terminal (or node). The sum of the currents !lowing
and polarity of £ 12 and E-,, 2 are specified as into the node is (1 1 + 13 ), while the sum that leaves it
+40 Y and E-,, 2 = + 30 V. We wish to determine the is (12 + I~ + /5 ). Applying KCL. we can write
magnitude and polarity of the voltage between the 13 L I~ I:,
open terminals I and 3.
Solwio11
Jn writing the loop equation, let us start at terminal I
and move ccw till \Ve again come back to terminal I.
The resulting KYL e4uation is
()

Figure 2.49
Rule for writing KCL equations.

2.35 Currents, impedances,

and associated voltages
Consider an impedance Z carrying a current /,
2
connected between two terminals marked I and 2
Figure 2.48 (Fig. 2.50). A voltage £ 12 • having a magnitude /Z,
See Example 2.12. will appear across the impedance. The question of
 11

42 FUNLJAA1f::NTALS

Let us write the circuit equations for Fig. 2.51.

Loop 2312, starting with node 2 and moving cw:

Figure 2.50
E12 + IZ Voltage / 4Z4 is preceded by a ( +) sign. because in
going around the loop we are moving in the direc-
polarity now arises: Is E 12 equal to + IZ or - IZ? tion of /_.,. On the other hand, voltage / 1Z 1 is pre-
The question is resolved by the following rule: ceded by a negative sign because we are moving
When moving across an impedance Z in the against the direction of / 1 •
same direction as the cu1Tent flow /, the associated Loop 3423, starting with node 3 and moving ccw:
voltage /Z is preceded by a positive sign. Thus, in +l3Z3
Fig. 2.50. we write £ 12 = +IZ. Conversely. when
moving across an impedance at.:ainst the direction Voltages r,,z_,
and /_.,Z_., are preceded by a ( +) sign.
of current flow. the voltage /Z is preceded by a neg- because in around the loop we are moving in
ative sign. Thus. £ 21 -IZ. The current can be ac the direction of the respective currents. Voltage / 1 Z 2
or de, and the impedance can be resistive (R). in- is preceded by a negative sign because we are mov-
ductive (jX1 ). or capacitive (-jXc). ing against current
In most circuits it is impossible to predict the Loop 242, starting with node 2 and moving cw:
actual direction of current flow in the various cir-
cuit elements. Consider for example the circuit of
Fig. 2.51 in which two known voltage sources £ 13 KCL at node 2:
and are connected to four known impedances
Z 1• Z 2 • Z,, and Z+· Because the actual directions of
current flows are presently unknown, we simply KCL at node 3:
assume arbitrary directions as shown in the figure.
It is a remarkable fact that no matter what direc-
tions are assumed. the final outcome after solving Example 2-13
the equations (voltages. currents. polarities. phase Write the circuit equations and calculate the cur-
angles, power, etc.) is always correct. rents flowing in the circuit of Fig. 2.52. knowing
that £AD + 108 V and Ecn = +48 V.
Solution
We first select arbitrary directions for currents / 1, 11 ,
and /_, and write the circuit equations as follows:

48 v

Figure 2.51 Figure 2.52

Writing KVL and KCL equations. See Example 2.13.
 FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRICITY. A1AGNETISM. AND CIRCUITS 43

For the loop DA BCD composed of the two sources

n
and the 6 and 4 n
resistors, we obtain

ED;\ 611 41 2 + Ecn = 0 (cw)

-108 + 611 4L + 48 0
For the loop DCBD composed of the 48 V source
n n
and the 4 and 12 resistors:
Figure 2.53
EIJC + 4h + 1213 0 (ccw)
See Example 2.14.
-48 + 412 + 12/'< = ()
Solution
Applying KCL at node B, we get
a. To solve the circuit, we first establish an arbi-
11 + 12 (i trary direction of current flow. Thus, suppose I
flows from left to right between points a and b.
Solving these simultaneous equations, we find
To write the circuit equation, let us move cw
13 +5 A around the loop, starting from terminal c. This
yields
We conclude that the directions we assumed for I 1
and / 3 were correct because both currents carry a £ea + / (16 + j 63) + £he = 0
positive sign. However. the actual direction of / 2 is
Substituting the values of Eac and Eh.: in this equa-
opposite to that assumed because / 2 bears a nega-
tion and combining the terms in /, we get
tive sign.
-200 120° /65 L 75.8° JOO L 150° = 0
2.36 Kirchhoff's laws and ac circuits Solving this equation, we find that I = 1.9 L 20.5°.

The same basic rules of writing double-subscript b. To determine £""' we write the following equa-
equations can be applied to ac circuits, including tion, moving cw around the loop:
3-phase circuits. The only difference is that the re- £ca + £ah + £he ()
sistive elements in de circuits are replaced by re-
sistive. inductive. or capacitive elements, or a Transposing terms,
combination of all three. Furthermore, the volt-
£ah Ebe
ages and currents are expressed as phasors, having
£ae £he
magnitudes and phase angles. The solution of pha-
sor equations is more time-consuming, but the = 200 L 120° 100 L 150°
equations themselves can be written down almost Using vector algebra, we find
by inspection. Let us consider two examples.
£,, 11 123.9 L 96.2°
Example 2-14 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
In the circuit of Fig. 2.53. two sources A, B gener- 2.37 KVL and sign notation
ate the following voltages:
Voltages in ac and de circuits are frequently indi-
200 L 120° E1x = 100 L 150° cated with sign notation and designated by symbols
such as £ 1 , em. and so on. To write the equations
Citlrnlote for such circuits, we employ the following rule:
a. The value of the current I in the circuit As we cruise around a loop, we observe the po-
b. the value of Eah and its phase angle larity ( + or ~)of the first terminal of every voltage
44 FUNDAMENTALS

(E 1 • Ea• e 111 • etc.) we meet. If only the ( +) terminal 2.38 Solving ac and de circuits
of the voltage source is marked. the unmarked ter- with sign notation
minal is taken to be negative. This observed polar-
ity ( or ) precedes the respective voltages as we In circuits using sign notation. w..: treat the /Z volt-
write them down in the KVL equation. The follow- ages in the same way as in circuits using double-
ing example illustrates the application of this rule. subscript notation. In other words, the /Z voltage
across an impedance Z is preceded by a positive
Example 2-15 sign whenever we move across the impedance in
In Fig. 2.54. given the polarity marks of and E 8 , the direction of current flow. Conversely. the /Z
it is known that EA +37 V and E 8 15 Y. We voltage is preceded by a negative sign whenever we
wish to determine the value and polarity of the volt- move against the direction of current flow.
age£, across the open terminals. The following example illustrates the procedure
to be followed.
Soluri on
First. we assign an arbitrary polarity ( +) to the ter-
Example 2-16
minal voltage E,. We then proceed cw around the
The circuit of Fig. 2.55 is powered by an ac source
loop in Fig. 2.54, starting with voltage EA. This
E 1600 L 60c. The values of the respective im-
yields the following equation:
pedances are indicated in the figure.
EA+ Ee E8 0 (cw)
Colrnlate
.+. "··c a. The current flowing in each element
b. The voltage across the 72 ohm capacitive
T1 -" T2
reactance.

+ Soluri on
a. To solve this problem. the currents are assumed
to flow in the arbitrary directions shown. We
+ then write the following equations.
Moving cw around the loop BDAB, we obtain

Figure 2.54
Rule for writing KVL equations using sign notations.

Note that the sign preceding each voltage corre- 30

sponds to the polarity of the terminal that was first
c
encountered in going cw around the loop.
Transposing terms. +
Ee EA+ EB
-j 37
+37 15
= +22 v
Thus, the magnitude of is 22 V, and the polarity B
of terminal TI is indeed positive with respect toter-
minal T2. The polarity we assumed at the outset Figure 2.55
happens to have been the correct one. See Example 2.15.
 FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRICITY, MAGNETISM. AND CIRCUITS 45

Then. moving ccw around the second loop ABCA,

we obtain

f,_c - j 3 7) L, ( j 72) - 21 !\ = 0 (ccw)

Finally. applying KCL at node A, we have 2

3
Upon solving these equations, we obtain the fol-
lowing results:
Figure 2.56
f1 44.9 215° fo 30.3 40° See Example 2.16.
I, = 14.9 L 24°

b. We can think of as being a voltmeter

connected across the capacitor. As a result,
Solution
the ··voltmeter" and capacitor together
To meet this requirement we write the follow-
form a closed loop for which we can write
ing KVL equations. which the reader should
a circuit equation. as for any other loop.
verify:
Thus, in traveling cw around the loop
we write £ 12 ..L Eh - E" 0
-!,( j 72) Ex= 0 +EC = ()
£31 + EC=()
Thus
Transposing terms, we obtain
r, c - j 72>
= 14.9 24° ( j 721 Ea - 26 0° 26 120° =
45 30°
and so EC= 26 120° 26 L 240°
45 L 90°
Ex 1073 -66°
= 26 L 240° - 26 00 =
45 210°
2.39 Circuits and hybrid notation We can even express the sign notation in terms of
In some circuits it is useful to employ both sign no- double-subscript notation. For example, in follow-
tation and double-subscript notation as shown in the ing the loop created by E" and terminals N and I. we
following example. can write the KVL equation

Example 2-17
Fig. 2.56 shows a 3-phase system in which Ea = Therefore EN 1 which can be expressed as
26 0°. Eh= 26 I :20°. and Ee= 26 240° (sign £IN E".
notation). We wish to determine the values of This completes our review on the writing of de
and £ 3 1 (double-subscript notation). and ac circuit equations.
 11

46 FUNDAMENTALS

Questions and Problems 2-6 What is the SI unit of

a. Magnetic flux
2-1 Three de sources G 1• G~, and G 3 (Fig. 2.57) b. Magnetic flux density
generate voltages as follows: c. Magnetic field intensity
d. Magnetomotive force
E 11_ = 100 Y
2-7 Referring to Figure 2.26, calculate the rela-
E 14 -40 V
tive permeability of cast iron at 0.2 T, 0.6 T,
£ 56 = +60 V and 0.7 T.
Show the actual polarity ( +) ( - ) of the ter- 2-8 We want to produce a flux density of 0.6 T
minals in each case. in an air gap having a length of 8 mm.
2-2 In Problem 2-1, if the three sources are Calculate the mmf required.
connected in series, determine the voltage 2-9 Conductor AB in Figure 2.29 carries a cur-
and polarity across the open terminals if the rent of 800 A flowing from B to A.
following terminals are connected together. a. Calculate the force on the conductor.
a. Terminals 2-3 and 4-5 b. Calculate the force on the moving N pole.
b. Terminals 1-4 and 3-6 c. Does the force on the N pole act in the
c. Terminals 1-3 and 4-6 same direction as the direction of rotation'?
2-3 Referring to Figure 2.58, show the voltage 2-10 a. Draw the waveshape of a sinusoidal
and the actual polarity of the generator ter- voltage having a peak value of 200 V
minals at instants I, 2, 3, and 4. and a frequency of 5 Hz.
b. If the voltage is zero at t 0, what is the
2-4 A conductor 2 m long moves at a speed of
voltage at t = 5 ms? 75 ms? 150 ms?
60 km/h through a magnetic field having a
flux density of 0.6 T. Calculate the induced 2-11 A sinusoidal current has an effective value
voltage. of 50 A. Calculate the peak value of current.
2-5 A coil having 200 turns links a flux of 2-12 A sinusoidal voltage of 120 V is applied to
3 mWb, produced by a permanent magnet. a resistor of 10 fl.
The magnet is moved, and the flux linking Calculate
the coil falls to 1.2 mWb in 0.2 s. Calculate a. the effective current in the resistor
the average voltage induced. b. the peak voltage across the resistor

Figure 2.57
See Problems 2-1 and 2-2.
volts
+30
20~------~'-=~~------------~:----·-"""'

j':-1£-~~.L______J__:i.<-.:--=.c~.+-
10 seconds
20 -

Figure 2.58
See Problem 2-3.
 FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRIC/TY, MAGNETISM, AND CIRCUITS 47

c. the power dissipated by the resistor 2-18 In Figure 2.4. if terminal A 1 is ( ) and cur-
d. the peak power dissipated by the resistor rent flows from to which box is the
111 source?
2-13 A distorted voltage contains an 11 har-
monic of 20 V, 253 Hz. Calculate the fre- 2-19 The resistance of the conductors joining the
quency of the fundamental. two boxes in 2.4 is zero. If A 1 is ( +)
2-14 The current in a 60 Hz single-phase motor with respect to can B1 be ( ) with re-
lags 36 behind the voltage. spect to B 2 ?
Calculate the time interval between the 2-20 The alternating voltage e2 in Fig. 2.24a is
positive peaks of voltage and current. given by the expression
2-15 Referring to 2.59, determine the phase
e2 20 cos (360.ft Bl
between the following phasors and, in
each case. indicate which phasor is lagging. If 0 150° andf 180 Hz. calculate the
a. 11 and 13 value of e 2 at t O. and at t = 262.37 s.
b. hand 11
c. E and / 1 industrial Application
2-21 In 2.60 write the KVL circuit equa-
tions for parts (a). (b). (c). and (d). (Go cw
around the loops.)

~
~
---'-2•
GA
_is~o (a) (b)

u
Figure 2.59
See Problem 2-15.

2-16 The voltage applied to an ac magnet is (c)

given by the expression E = 160 sin <P and
the current is I = 20 sin (di - 60° ). all an- Figure 2.60
gles being expressed in degrees. See Problem 2.21.
a. Draw the phasor diagram for E and /, us-
ing effective values. 2-22 In 2.61 write the KCL circuit equations
b. Draw the waveshape of E and I as a for parts (a). (b), and (c), and determine the
function of di. true direction of current flow.
c. Calculate the peak positive power and
the peak negative power in the circuit. 2-23 In Fig. 2.62 write the KVL and KCL circuit
equations for parts (a), (b), (c). and (d). (Go
2-17 a. Referring to Fig. draw the wave-
cw around the loops.)
shape of the distorted sine wave. if the
leads of the third harmonic source are 2-24 An electronic generator produces the out-
reversed. put voltage pulses shown in Fig. 2.63. If
h. Calculate the peak voltage of the result- n
this voltage is applied across a I 0 resis-
ing waveshape. tor, calculate
48 FUNDAMENTALS

a. the fundamental frequency of the 2-25 Repeat the calculations of Problem 2-24 for
current the waveshape shown in Fig. 2.64.
b. the peak power. in watts
2-26 In Fig. 2.65 write the KVL and KCL circuit
c. the energy dissipated per cycle. in
equations for the ac circuits shown in parts
joules
d. the average power per cycle (a) to (g). (Go cw around the loops.)
e. the value of the de voltage that would
produce the same average power in the
resistor
f. the effective value of the voltage in the
+100V n n n
figure 0 .... J.0 .....2LJ4......6LJ8. . . .L
s
g. the average voltage

Figure 2.63

9y4A 4A
See Problem 2.24.

11 .,.__

'
(al (bl (cl

Figure 2.61 seconds

See Problem 2.22.

Figure 2.64
See Problem 2.25.

5.il

(a) (b)

2
(c)

(d)

Figure 2.62
See Problem 2.23.
 FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRIC/T}~ /vlAGNETISM, AND CIRCUITS .:1-9

EA 120 30° E12 120[-60°

-!3 !3 ,..

/.,

50 !.:! 20!."l i
I1
30 !.l
•
/.,
20 !.l ~
I1
30 !.l

(a) (b) (c)

E12 30 i-30r

Eab 10 i::30° EB 50_50_"

EA= 20/§~ Eba 100 lQ° c, 10010°

14
---->
...
7 !l I
I·
-'
20 !.l .
24 l.l 40 l.l
a 2 2 30U
I '1 !

(d) (e)
' (f) (g)
'
Figure 2.65
See Problem 2.26.
 CHAPTER 3
Fundamentals of Mechanics
and Heat

3.0 Introduction 3.1 Force

n order to get a thorough grasp of electrical power
I technology, it is essential to know something about
mechanics and heat. For example, the starting of
The most familiar force we know is the force of
gravity. For example, whenever we lift a stone. we
exert a muscular effort to overcome the gravita-
large motors is determined not only by the magnitude tional force that continually pulls it downward.
of the torque. but also by the inertia of the revolving There are other kinds of forces, such as the force
parts. And the overload capacity of an alternator is exerted by a stretched spring or the forces created
determined not only by the size of its conductors, but by exploding dynamite. All these forces are ex-
also by the temperature that its windings can safely pressed in terms of the newton (N). which is the SI
withstand. And the stringing of a transmission line is unit of force.
determined as much by the ice-loading and mechan- The magnitude of the force of gravity depends
ical strength of the conductors as by the currents they upon the mass of a body, and is given by the ap-
carry. And we could mention many more cases where proximate equation
the comprehensive approach the electrical/me-
chanical/thermal approach - is essential to a thor- F 9.8m (3.1)
ough understanding of power technology.
For this reason, this introductory chapter covers where
certain fundamentals of mechanics and heat. The top-
ics are not immediately essential to an understanding F =force of gravity acting on the body [N]
of the chapters which follow. but they constitute a m mass of the body [kg]
valuable reference source, which the reader may wish 9.8 an approximate constant that
to consult from time to time. Consequently, we rec- applies when objects are relatively
ommend a quick first reading, followed by a closer close to the surface of the earth
study of each section. as the need arises. (within 30 km).

50
 FUNDAMENTALS OF MECHANICS AND HEAT 51

Example 3-1 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ F
Calculate the approximate value of the force of
gravity that acts on a mass of 12 kg.

Solution
The force of gravity is

F = 9.8 m = 9.8 X 12 = 117.6 newtons Figure 3.1

Torque T = Fr.
= 117.6 N
T =Fr (3.2)
When using the English system ofunits, we have
to make a distinction between the pound (lb) and where
the pound-force (lbf). A pound is a unit of mass
T =torque [N·ml
equal to 0.453 592 37 kg, exactly. On the other
F =force [NI
hand, a pound-force is equal to (9.806 65 X 0.453
r = radius [m]
592 37) newtons exactly, or about 4.448 N.
If the pulley is free to move. it will begin to rotate
Example 3-2 around its axis.
Calculate the approximate value of the force of
gravity that acts on a mass of 140 lb. Express the re- Example 3-3
sult in newtons and in pounds-force. A motor develops a starting torque of 150 N ·m. If a
pulley on the shaft has a diameter of I m, calculate
Solution
the braking force needed to prevent the motor from
Using the conversion charts in Appendix AXO, a
turning.
mass of 140 lb= 140 (-7- 2.205) = 63.5 kg. Using
Eq. 3.1 the force of gravity is Solution
The radius is 0.5 m; consequently. a braking force
F = 9.8 111 = 9.8 X 63.5 = 622.3 N
F = Tlr = 150/0.5 = 300 N is required. If the ra-
Again using the conversion charts, a force of 622.3 N dius were 2 m, a braking force of 75 N would be
= 622.3 (-7- 4.448) = 139.9 pound-force= 139.9 lbf. sufficient to prevent rotation.
Note that the force of gravity of 139.9 lbf is almost
exactly equal to the mass of 140 lb. However, al-
though the numbers are nearly the same, a force of
3.3 Mechanical work
140 lbf is entirely different from a mass of 140 lb. Mechanical work is done whenever a force F moves
a distance d in the direction of the force. The work
is given by
3.2 Torque
W= Fd (3.3)
Torque is produced when a force exerts a twisting
where
action on a body, tending to make it rotate. Torque is
equal to the product of the force times the perpen- W =work [Jj
dicular distance between the axis of rotation and the F =force [NJ
point of application of the force. For example, sup- d = distance the force moves Im]
pose a string is wrapped around a pulley having a ra-
dius r (Fig. 3.1 ). If we pull on the string with a force Example 3-4
F. the pulley will tend to rotate. The torque exerted A mass of 50 kg is lifted to a height of 10 m (Fig.
on the pulley by the tangential force is given by 3.2). Calculate the work done.
52 FUNDAMENTALS

F~50 x9.8 N

.··. 50kg 1=12s~O·.·.·.·.· T

r .
. ··.···.··.

··.· ..
500 kg

I .
30 m
II
Figure 3.2
Work W Fd.

Figure 3.3
Power P Wit.
Solution
The force of gravity acting on the 50 kg mass is
F = 9.8 /11 = 9.8 x 50 = 490 N F 9.8 m = 9.8 x 500 4900 N

The work done is The work done is

W = Fd 490 x 10 = 49001 W Fd 4900 x 30 147 000 J

The power is
3.4 Power P Wit
Power is the rate of doing work. It is given by the = 147 000112 12 250 W 12.25 kW
equation:
Expressed in horsepower,
P Wit (3.4)
P I 2 2501746 16.4 hp
where
P power [Wj 3.5 Power of a motor
W =work done [JI The mechanical power output of a motor depends
time taken to do the work [sl upon its rotational speed and the torque it develops.
The power is given by
The unit of power is the watt (W). We often use the
kilowatt (kW). which is equal to 1000 W. The nT
p = -- (3.5)
power output of motors is sometimes expressed in 9.))
horsepower (hp) units. One horsepower is equal to
where
746 W. It corresponds to the average power output
of a dray horse. P mechanical power [W J
T = torque [N·m I
Example 3-5 n speed of rotation [rlmin]
An electric motor lifts a mass of 500 kg through a 9.55 a constant to take care of units
height of 30 m in 12 s (Fig. 3.3). Calculate the (exact value 30hr)
power developed by the motor. in kilowatts and in
We can measure the power output of a motor by
horsepower.
means of a prony brake. It consists of a stationary
Solution flat belt that presses against a pulley mounted on the
The tension in the cable is equal to the force of grav- motor shaft. The ends of the belt are connected to
ity acting on the mass that is being lifted: two spring scales, and the belt pressure is adjusted
 FUNDAMENTALS OF MECHANICS AND HEAT 53

by tightening screw V (Fig. 3.4 ). As the motor turns, 3.6 Transformation of energy
we can increase or decrease the power output by ad-
justing the tension of the belt. The mechanical can exist in one of the following forms:
power developed by the motor is entirely converted I. Mechanical energy (potential energy stored in
into heat by the belt rubbing against the pulley. a coiled spring or the kinetic energy of a mov-
When the motor is not running, the spring scales ing car)
register equal pulls and so the resulting torque is
2. Thermal energy (heat released by a stove, by
zero. However, when the motor turns clockwise (as
friction. by the sun)
it does in Fig. 3 .4 ), pull P 1 exceeds pull P2 • The re-
sultant force acting on the circumference of the pul- 3. Chemical energy (energy contained in dyna-
ley is therefore (P 1 - P 2 ) newtons. If the pulley has mite, in coaL or in an electric storage battery)
a radius 1; the net torque T = (P 1 P 2 )r newton me- 4. Electrical energy (energy produced by a gen-
ters. Knowing the speed of rotation, we can calcu- erator, or by lightning)
late the power, using Eq. 3.5. 5. Atomic energy (energy released when the nu-
cleus of an atom is modified)

Although energy can be neither created nor de-

stroyed, it can be converted from one form to an-
other by means of appropriate devices or machines.
For example, the chemical energy contained in coal
can be transformed into thermal energy by burning
the coal in a furnace. The thermal energy contained
in steam can then be transformed into mechanical
energy by using a turbine. Finally, the mechanical
energy can be transformed into electrical energy by
means of a generator.
In the above example, the furnace. the turbine,
Figure 3.4 and the generator are the machines that do the en-
Prony brake. ergy transformation.
Unfo11unately, whenever energy is transformed,
the output is always less than the input because all ma-
Example 3-6
chines have losses. These losses appear in the form of
During a prony brake test on an electric motor, the
heat, causing the temperature of the machine to rise.
spring scales indicate 25 N and 5 N, respectively
Thus, the electrical energy supplied to a motor is
(Fig. 3.4). Calculate the power output if the motor
partly dissipated as heat in the windings. Furthermore,
turns at 1700 r/min and the radius of the pulley is
some of its mechanical energy is also lost. due to bear-
0.1 m.
ing friction and air turbulence created by the cooling
Solution fan. The mechanical losses are also transformed into
The torque is heat. Consequently, the useful mechanical power out-
put of a motor is less than the electrical input.
T Fr
(25 - 5) x 0.1 2N·m
3.7 Efficiency of a machine
The power is
The efficiency of a machine is given by the equation
P nT/9.55 = 1700 x 2/9.55 = 356 W
(3.6)
The motor develops 356 W, or about 0.5 hp.
54 FUNDAMENTALS

where Kinetic energy is a form of mechanical energy

given by the equation
TJ =efficiency [percent!
P0 output power of the machine fW] (3.7)
Pi = input power to the machine [W] where
The efficiency is particularly low when thermal Ei... kinetic energy [JJ
energy is converted into mechanical energy. Thus, m = mass of the body fkg[
the efficiency of steam turbines ranges from 25 to v speed of the body [mis I
40 percent. while that of internal combustion en-
gines (automobile engines. diesel motors) lies be- Example 3-8
tween 15 and 30 percent. To realize how low these A bus having a mass of 6000 kg moves at a speed of
efficiencies are. we must remember that a machine 100 km/h. If it carries 40 passengers having a total
having an efficiency of 20 percent loses. in the form mass of 2400 kg, calculate the total kinetic energy
of heat 80 percent of the energy it receives. of the loaded vehicle. What happens to this energy
Electric motors transform electrical energy into when the bus is braked to a stop?
mechanical energy much more efficiently. Their ef-
ficiency ranges between 75 and 98 percent. de- Solution
pending on the size of the motor. Total mass of the loaded bus is

m 6000 2400 8400 kg

Example 3-7
A 150 kW electric motor has an efficiency of 92 The speed is
percent when it operates at full-load. Calculate the 100 X 1000 m
losses in the machine. l' = 100 km/h =
3600 s
Solution 27.8 m/s
The 150 kW rating always refers to the mechanical
power olllput of the motor. The kinetic energy is
The input power is
Ek = I/21111· 2 I/2 X 8400 x 27 .8 2
Pi PJr1 150/0. 92 163 kW 3 245 928 J 3.25 MJ

The mechanical output power is To stop the bus, the brakes are applied and the re-
sulting frictional heat is entirely produced at the ex-
P0 150 kW
pense of the kinetic energy. The bus will finally
The losses are come to rest when all the kinetic energy (3.25 MJ)
has been dissipated as heat.
P1 P 0 =163-150=13kW
Considering the high efficiency of the motor,
the losses are quite moderate, but they would still 3.9 Kinetic energy of rotation,
be enough to heat a large home in the middle of moment of inertia
winter.
A revolving body also possesses kinetic energy.
Its magnitude depends upon the speed of rotation
3.8 Kinetic energy of linear motion
and upon the mass and shape of the body. The ki-
A falling stone or a swiftly moving automobile pos- netic energy of rotation is given by the equation
sess kinetic energy, which is energy due to motion. on page 56.
 FUNDAMENTALS OF MECHANICS ANO HEAT 55

TABLE 3A MOMENT OF INERTIA J AROUND AN AXIS OF ROTATION 0

Figure 3.5
Mass m revolving at a distance r around axis 0.
~

\,,,.,,
i
J = mr2 (3.9)
\
\
0
rotation

Figure 3.6
Solid disc of mass m and radius r.

I J~m: I (3. 10)

Figure 3.7
Annular ring of mass m having a rectangular cross-section.

111 , ,
R ~ + R ~)
J 2( I 2
(3.11)

Figure 3.8
Straight bar of mass m pivoted on its center.

I ~ ";~' I
1 (3.12)

Figure 3.9
Rectangular bar of mass m revolving around axis 0.

J (3.13)
56 FUNDAMENTALS

(3.8) b. The kinetic energy is

where E1-- = 5.48 X 10- 3Jn:: (3.8)

3
5.48 x 10· x 175 x 1800::
E1-- kinetic energy IJ I
J moment of ine11ia lkg·rn::>] 3.1 MJ
11 = rotational speed Ir/min J Note that this relatively small flywheel possesses
5.48 X I = constant to take care of units as much kinetic energy as the loaded bus men-
lexact value 7T::>/1800] tioned in Example 3-8.
The moment of ine11ia J (sometimes simply called
inertia) depends upon the mass and shape of the body. Example 3-10 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
Its value may be calculated for a number of simple A flywheel having the shape given in Fig. 3.11 is
shapes by using Eqs. 3.9 to 3.13 given in Table 3A. If composed of a ring supported by a rectangular hub.
the body has a complex shape. it can always be bro- The ring and hub respectively have a mass of 80
ken up into two or more of the simpler shapes given and 20 Calculate the moment of inertia of the
in the table. The individual Js of these simple shapes flywheel.
are then added to give the total J of the body.
Inertia plays a very impo11ant part in rotating
machines: consequently. it is worth our while to
solve a few problems.
Example 3-9
A solid 1400 kg steel flywheel has a diameter of
I m and a thickness of 225 mm (Fig. 3.10).

-@~~':::
600mm
BOO mm

Figure 3.11
Flywheel in Example 3. 10.
Figure 3.10
Flywheel in Example 3.9.

Calculate
Solution
a. Its moment of inertia
For the
b. The kinetic energy when the flywheel revolves
at 1800 r/min JI 111 (RI:: T R2 (3.11)

Solution = 80 (0.4 2
+ 0.3::)/2 I 0 kg·m::
a. Referring to Table 3A. we find the moment of For the hub,
inertia is
J2 mL::-112 (3.12)
2 2
J (3.10) = 20 x (0.6) /12 0.6 kg·m
2
1400 x OS' The total moment of inertia of the flywheel is
175 kg·m'
2 J = J 1 + J2 10.6 kg·m::
 FUNDAlvfENTALS OF MECHANICS AND HEAT 57

3.10 Torque, inertia, and change 3.11 Speed of a motor/load system

in speed In electric pmver technology. it often happens that
There is only one way to change the speed of a re- an electric motor drives a mechanical load. In such
volving body. and that is to subject it to a torque for a system there are three main factors to consider:
a given period of time. The rate of change of speed the torque developed by the motor. the torque ex-
depends upon the inertia. as well as on the torque. A erted by the load, and the speed. We now explain
simple equation relates these factors: how they interreact.
Consider a load coupled to a motor by means of
!111 9.55 Tdt/J (3.14)
<.1 shaft (Fig. 3.12). The load exerts a constant torque

where Ti. that always acts in a counterclockwise direction.

On the other hand, the torque T'v1 developed by the
-3.n = change in speed [r/min] motor acts clockwise. and it can be varied by in-
T = torque !N·m] creasing or decreasing the electric current I.
J..t interval of time during which the Suppose the system is initially at rest and that TM
torque is applied lsJ Because the torques are equal and opposite. the
J moment of inertia fkg·m 2 ] net torque acting on the shaft is zero. and so it has
no tendency to rotate.
9.55 = constant to take care of units
Load
lexact value = 30hr]

If the torque acts in the direction of rotation, the

speed rises. Conversely. if it acts against the direc-
tion of rotation, the speed falls. The term .:l11 may
therefore represent either an increase or a decrease
in speed.

Example 3-11
The flywheel of Fig. 3.11 turns at 60 r/min. We wish Motor
to increase its speed to 600 r/min by applying a
torque of 20 N·m. For how long must the torque be
Figure 3.12
applied'?
Shaft is stationary TM = TL.
Solltfion
The change in speed is As a result of the opposing torques. the shaft
twists and becomes slightly deformed. but other-
!111 = (600 60) = 540 r/min
wise nothing happens.
The moment of inertia is Suppose we want the load to turn clockwise at a
speed n 1. To do so, we increase the motor current so
J 10.6
that T'v1 exceeds TL. The net torque on the shaft acts
Substituting these values in Eq. 3.14 clockwise, and so it begins to rotate clockwise. The
speed increases progressively with time but as soon
d11 = 9.55 Tdt/J (3.14)
as the desired speed 11 1 is reached, let us reduce the
540 9 .55 x 20 j.r/f 0.6 motor current so that TM is again exactly equal to
TL. The net torque acting on the system is now zero
yielding
and the speed 11 1 will neither increase or decrease
dt 30 s any more 3.13).
58 FUNDAMENTALS

Load Load

-
I

Motor Motor

Figure 3.13 Figure 3.14

Shaft turns cw TM = h. Shaft turns ccw TM = TL.

This brings us to a very important conclusion. Whenever the motor torque TM and load torque
The speed of a mechanical load remains constant are not exactly equal and opposite. the speed will
when the torque TM developed by the motor is change. The rate of change depends upon the iner-
equal and 01)1wsite to the torque TL exerted by the tia of the rotating parts. and this aspect is covered in
load. At first this conclusion is rather difficult to more detail in Section 3.13.
accept. because we are inclined to believe that
when TM TL, the system should simply stop. But 3.12 Power flow in a mechanically
this is not so, as our reasoning (and reality) shows.
coupled system
We repeat: The speed of a motor remains constant
whenever the motor torque is exactly equal and Returning again to Fig. 3.13, we see that motor
opposite to the load torque. In effect, the torque TM acts in the same direction (clockwise) as
motor/load system is then in a state of dynamic speed 11 1• This means that the motor delii·ers me-
equilibrium. chanical power to the shaft. On the other hand, load
With the load now running clockwise at a speed torque Ti acts opposite to speed n 1• Consequently,
n suppose we reduce TM so that it is less than TL.
1
, the load recei1·es mechanical power from the shaft.
The net torque on the shaft now acts counterclock- We can therefore state the following general rule:
wise. Consequently, the speed decreases and will When the torque developed by a motor acts in
continue to decrease as long as T1, exceeds TM. If the same direction as the speed, the motor deliv-
the imbalance between T1 and TM lasts long ers power to the load. For all other conditions,
enough, the speed will eventually become zero and the motor receives power from the load.
then reverse. If we control the motor torque so that In Fig. 3.14, for example, the motor receives
TM TL when the reverse speed reaches a value n~, power from the load because TM acts opposite to 11 2 .
the system will continue to run indefinitely at this Although this is an unusual condition. it occurs for
new speed (Fig. 3.14). brief periods in electric trains and electric hoists.
Jn conclusion. torques TM and Ti. are idt:'ntical in The behavior of the motor under these conditions
Figs. 3 .12, 3 .13, and 3 .14. and yet the shaft may be will be examined in later chapters.
turning clockwise. counterclockwise. or not at all.
The actual steady-state speed depends upon 3.13 Motor driving a load
whether TM was greater or less than Tr. for a certain
having inertia
period of time before the actual steady-state condi-
tion was reached. The reader should ponder a few When a motor drives a mechanical load. the speed is
moments over this statement. usually constant. In this state of dynamic equilibrium.
 FUNDAMENTALS OF MECHANICS AND HEAT 59

the torque TM developed by the motor is exactly equal b. As the speed increases from 120 r/min to 160
and opposite to the torque TL imposed by the load. r/min, the load torque (5400 N ·rn) stays con-
The inenia of the revolving pans does not come into stant because the tension in the paper remains
play under these conditions. However. if the motor unchanged. Let the required motor torque be
torque is raised so that it exceeds the load torque. the TM· It must be greater than the load torque in
speed will increase. as we have already seen. order for the speed to increase.
Conversely, when the motor torque is less than that of
We have
the load. the speed drops. The increase or decrease in
speed (Lln) is still given by the Eq. 3.14. except that ~n 160 120 40 r/min
torque Tis now replaced by the net torque (TM TL): J = 4500 kg·m='
(3.15) 1.t 5s

where

111 change in speed [r/minJ

TM motor torque [N·m] 9.55 5400)5
40
TL = load torque [N·m] 4500
1.t time interval during which Thus.
TM and TL are acting [s[
5400 = 3770
J moment of inertia of all
revolving parts [kg·nY"J TM 9170
The motor must therefore develop a constant
Example 3-12 torque of 9170 N ·m during the acceleration
A large reel of paper installed at the end of a paper period.
machine has a diameter of 1.8 m, a length of 5.6 m. The mechanical power of the accelerating
2
and a moment of inertia of 4500 kg·m . It is driven reel motor at 160 r/min is
by a directly coupled variable-speed de motor turn-
ing at 120 r/min. The paper is kept under a constant nT 160 x 9170
P=
tension of 6000 N. 9.55 9.55
= 153.6 kW (equivalent to 206 hp)
a. Calculate the power of the motor when the reel
turns at a constant speed of 120 r/min. c. As soon as the desired speed ( 160 r/min) is
b. If the speed has to be raised from 120 r/min to reached, the motor only has to develop a torque
160 r/min in 5 seconds. calculate the torque that equal to the load torque (5400 N·m). The power
the motor must develop during this interval. of the motor is therefore reduced to
c. Calculate the power of the motor after it has
nT 160 x 5400
reached the desired speed of 160 r/min. p
9.55 9.55
Solution = 90.5 kW (equivalent to 121 hp)
a. The torque exerted on the reel is

T Fr= 6000 X 1.8/2 5400 N·m 3.14 Electric motors driving linear
The power developed by the reel motor is motion loads
nT 120 x 5400 Rotating loads such as fans. pumps. and machine
p (3.5) tools are well suited for direct mechanical coupling
9.55 9.55
to electric motors. On the other hand, loads that
67.85 kW (about 91 hp) move in a straight line. such as hoists. trains. wire-
60 FUNDAMENTALS

drawing machines, etc., must be equipped with a where

motion converter before they can be connected to a
11 rotational speed [r/min]
rotating machine. The motion converter may be a
T torque [N·m I
rope-pulley arrangement, a rack and pinion mecha-
F =force [NJ
nism, or simply a wheel moving over a track. These
1· =linear speed [m/sl
converters are so utterly simple that we seldom
9.55 =a constant [exact value 30hrl
think of the impo11ant part they play.
Straight-line motion involves a linear speed v
Example 3.13
and a force F. while rotary motion involves a rota-
A force of 25 kN is needed to pull an electric train
tional speed n and a torque T. How are these quan-
at a speed of 90 km/h. The motor on board the loco-
tities related when a motion converter is used?
motive turns at 1200 r/min. Calculate the torque de-
Consider a jack driven by a motor that rotates at
veloped by the motor.
a speed /1 while exerting a torque T (Fig. 3.15). This
causes a vertical ram to exert a powerful force F Solution
while moving at a linear speed l'. The power sup- nT = 9.55Fr (3.16)
plied in raising the load is by
1200 T 9.55 x 25 000 X (90 000/360())
po= Fl' T 4974 N·m 5 kN·m
On the other hand, the power input to the jack is
given by

p =
nT
(3.5)
3.15 Heat and temperature
l 9.55
Whenever heat is applied to a body. it receives ther-
Assuming there are no losses in the motion con- mal energy. Heat is therefore a form of energy and
verter. we have the SI unit is the joule.
What happens when a body receives this type of
energy? First, the atoms of the body vibrate more
Consequently, intensely. Second. its temperature increases. a fact
we can verify by touching it or by observing the
nT 9.55Fv (3.16)
reading of a thermometer.
For a given amount of heat. the increase in tem-
perature depends upon the mass of the body and the
material of which it is made. For example. if we add
100 kJ of heat to I kg of water. the temperature rises
by 24 °C. The same amount of heat supplied to I kg
of copper raises its temperature by 263°C. It is
therefore obvious that heat and temperature are two
quite different things.
If we remove heat from a body. its temperature
drops. However. the temperature cannot fall be-
low a lower limit. This limit is called absolute
;:,ero. It corresponds to a temperature of 0 kelvin
or -273. I 5°C. At absolute zero all atomic vibra-
Figure 3.15 tions cease and the only motion that subsists is
Converting rotary motion into linear motion. that of the orbiting electrons.
 FUNDAMENTALS OF MECHANICSANIJ HE4T 61

iron melts T1806 T,533 T2791

450 K 450°C 810°F

copper melts J_1356 _11083 _J_ 1981

aluminum melts 933 660 1220

lead melts 600 327 621

water boils 373 100 212

water freezes 273 0 32

0 -273.15 -459.67

Kelvin scale Celsius scale Fahrenheit scale

Figure 3.16
Temperature scales.

3.16 Temperature scales The specific heat capacity of several materials is

given in Table AX2 in the Appendix.
The kelvin and the Celsius are the SJ units of
temperature. Fig. 3.16 shows some interesting rela- Example 3-14
tionships between the Kelvin, Celsius, and Calculate the heat required to raise the temperature
Fahrenheit temperature scales. For example. iron of 200 L of water from I0°C to 70°C. assuming the
melts at 1806 Kor I 533°C or 2791 "F. tank is perfectly insulated (Fig. 3.1 The specific
heat capacity of water is 4180 J/kg· 0 C, and one liter
3.17 Heat required to raise weighs l kg.
the temperature of a body
The temperature rise of a body depends upon the
heat it receives. its mass. and the nature of the ma-
terial. The relationship between these quantities is
given by the equation
Q mc!l.t (3.17)
where
Q = quantity of heat added to
200 L
(or removed from) a body lJ J
m mass of the body !kg]
c specific heat capacity of the
material making up the body
fJ/(kg-°C)J Figure 3.17
!it change in temperature I0 c1 Electric water heater.
 11

62 FUNDAMENTALS

Solution convection convection

1
The mass of water is 200 kg. and so the heat re- / warm air
quired is
warm air~
Q = mc.1.t
: __ J t
----
......
200 x 4180 x (70 10) radiation ) \I radiation

50.2 MJ .. - ---\l'f -

-- __ lJu
Referring to the conversion table for Energy (see
)!J1:
Appendix). we find that 50.2 MJ is equal to 13.9
kW·h.
/;:JJ
cool air

3.18 Transmission of heat

Figure 3.18
Many problems in electric power technology are re-
Heat transmission by convection, conduction, and ra-
lated to the adequate cooling of devices and ma- diation.
chines. This. in turn. requires a knowledge of the
mechanism by which heat is transferred from one
body to another. In the sections that follow. we Referring to 3.19. we can calculate the ther-
briefly review the elementary physics of heat trans- mal power transmitted through a body by using the
mission. We also include some simple but useful equation
equations, enabling us to determine, with reason-
able accuracy, the heat loss, temperature rise, and so (3.18)
on of electrical equipment. where
P = power (heat) transmitted [WI
3.19 Heat transfer by conduction A. thermal conductivity of the body
lW/(m-°C)J
If we bring a hot flame near one end of an iron bar,
A surface area of the body [m 2 I
its temperature rises due to the increased vibration
(t 1 - t2) difference of temperature between
of its atoms (Fig. 3.18). This atomic vibration is
opposite faces [°C I
transmitted from one atom to the next, to the other
d = thickness of the body [ml
end of the bar. Consequently. the end opposite the
flame also warms up, an observation we have all
made at one time or another. In effect, heat is trans-
ferred along the bar by a process called conduction.
The rate of heat transfer depends upon the ther-
mal conductfrity of the material. Thus. copper is a
better thermal conductor than steel is, and plastics
and other nonmetallic materials are especially poor
conductors of heat.
The SI unit of thermal conductivity is the watt
per meter degree Celsius IW/(m·°C)J. The thermal
conductivity of several common materials is given Figure 3.19
in Tables AX I and AX2 in the Appendix. Heat transmission by conduction.
 FUNDAMENTALS OF AffCHANlCS AND HEAT 63

Example 3-15
The temperature difference between two sides of a f)
sheet of mica is 50°C (fig. 3.20). If its area is 200 \( ........------~
cm:! and thickness is 3 mm. calculate the heat flow- \4
((
ing through the sheet in watts.
Sol11tio11
According to Table AX I. the thermal conductivity
of mica is 0.36 W/m· 0 C. The thermal power con-
ducted is, therefore.
p = i\A(f 1 - ':y_)
(3.18)
d Figure 3.21
0.36 x 0.02 ( 120 70) Convection currents in oil.
120W
0.003
The warm oil comes in contact with the cooler tank,
it chills, becomes heavier, sinks to the bottom. and
moves upward again to replace the warmer oil now
moving away. The heat dissipated by the body is.
therefore, carried away by convection to the exter-
nal tank. The tank, in turn, loses its heat by natural
convection to the surrounding air.

i...--; 3.21 Calculating the losses

3mm
by convection
Figure 3.20
Mica sheet. Example 3-15.
The heat loss by natural convection in air is given
by the approximate equation
1.2."i
(3.19)
3.20 Heat transfer by convection
where
In Fig. 3.18 the air in contact with the hot steel bar
warms up and. becoming lighter. rises like smoke in P heat loss by natural convection [WI
a chimney. As the hot air moves upward. it is re- A = surface of the body [ m I
placed by cooler air which. in turn. also warms up. t1 = surface temperature of the body l"CI
A continual current of air is therefore set up around f, ambient temperature of the surrounding
the bar, removing its heat by a process called nat- air !°CJ
11rol cmll'ection.
In the case of f(Jrced convection, such as that
The convection process can be accelerated by
produced by a blower, the heat carried away 1s
employing a fan to create a rapid circulation of
given approximately by
fresh air. Heat transfer by forced co111·ectio11 is used
in most electric motors to obtain efficient cooling. (3.20)
Natural convection also takes place when a hot
where
body is immersed in a liquid. sm:h as oil. The oil in
contact with the body heats up. creating convection P = heat Joss by forced convection IWI
currents which follow the path shown in Fig. 3.21. V11 = volume of cooling air I m3 /s I
 l

64 FUNIJAMEN7ALS

11 temperature of the incoming (cool) air 3.22 Heat transfer by radiation

[°Cl
t 2 =temperature of the outgoing (warm) We have all basked in the warmth produced by the
air [°CJ sun's rays. This radiant heat energy possesses the
same properties as light. and it readily passes
Surprisingly. Eq ..l20 also applies when hydrogen. through the empty space between the sun and the
a much lighter gas. is used as the cooling medium. earth. Solar energy is only converted to heat when
the sun's rays meet a solid body, such as the physi-
Example 3-16 cal objects and living things on the surface of the
A totally enclosed motor has an external surface earth. Scientists have discovered that all bodies ra-
area of 1.2 tff2• When it operates at full-load. the diate heat. even those that are very cold. The
surface temperature rises to 60°C in an ambient of amount of energy given off depends upon the tem-
20''C (Fig. 3.22). Calculate the heat loss by natural
perature of the body.
convection.
On the other hand, al I bodies absorb radiant en-
Solu Ii 011 ergy from the objects that surround them. The en-
P = 3A(f 1
1:_,)1.::::; ergy absorbed depends upon the temperature of
3 x 1.2 (60 20) 1"25 362 w the surrounding objects. There is, therefore. a con-
tinual exchange of radiant energy between mater-
ial bodies, as if each were a miniature sun.
362W Equilibrium sets in when the temperature of a
I \ \ 1 \I I convection
body is the same as that of its surroundings. The

radiation
296W
l
20°c
body then radiates as much energy as it receives
and the net radiation is zero. On the other hand. if
a body is hotter than its environment, it will con-
tinually lose heat by radiation. even if it is located
in vacuum.

Figure 3.22 3.23 Calculating radiation losses

Convection and radiation losses in a totally enclosed The heat that a body loses by radiation is given by
motor.
the equation
-') (3.21)
Example 3-17 --~----~--------­
3
A fan rated at 3.75 kW blows 240 m /min of air where
through a 750 kW motor to carry away the heat. If
the inlet temperature is 22°C and the outlet temper- P heat radiated lWI
ature is 31°C. estimate the losses in the motor. A = surface area of the body Im 2 l
T, absolute temperature of the body I KI
So/11tio11 T, absolute temperature of the surround-
The losses arc carried away by the circulating air. ing objects [Kl
Consequently. the losses are k a constant, which depends upon the na-
P 1280 V)t~ -- t )
ture of the body surface
1

1280 x 240/60 (31 - 22) = 46 kW Table 38 gives the values of k for surfaces com-
(approximate) monly encountered in electrical equipment.
 FUNDAMENTALS OF MECHANICS ANn Hl:'AT 65

3-3 Give the SI unit and the corresponding SI

TABLE 38 RADIATION CONSTANTS
symbol for the following quantities:
Type of surface Constant/.:. W/(m 2 ·K-1)
force work
polished silver x
0.2 10- 8 pressure area
bright copper x I 10-8 mass temperature
oxidized copper 3 x 10-8
thermal energy thermal power
8
aluminum paint 3 x 10 mechanical energy mechanical power
oxidized Nichrome 2x 10-8
electrical energy electrical power
8
tungsten 2 x 10
oxidized iron 4 x IO 8 3-4 In tightening a bolt, a mechanic exerts a
insulating materials 5 x 10-8 force of 200 N at the end of a wrench hav-
paint or nonmetallic enamel 5 x 10 ing a length of 0.3 m. Calculate the torque
perfect emitter (blackbody) 5.669 x 10 8 he exerts.
3-5 An automobile engine develops a torque of
Example 3-18 600 N·m at a speed of 4000 r/min. Calculate
The motor in Example 3-16 is coated with a non- the power output in watts and in horse-
metallic enamel. Calculate the heat lost by radia- power.
tion. knowing that all surrounding objects are at an 3-6 A crane lifts a mass of 600 lb to a height of
ambient temperature of 20°C. 200 ft in 15 s. Calculate the power in watts
and in horsepower.
Solution
3-7 An electric motor draws 120 kW from the
T 1 = surface temperature = 60°C line and has losses equal to 20 kW.
or(273.15 + 60) = 333 K Calculate
T2 = surrounding temperature = 20°C a. The power output of the motor [kW I and [hp I
or (273.15 + 20) = 293 K b. The efficiency of the motor
c. The amount of heat released I Btu/h I
From Table 3B. k = 5 x 10- 8 W/(m 2 ·K+).
The power lost by radiation is. therefore. 3-8 A large flywheel has a moment of inertia of
2
500 lb·ft • Calculate its kinetic energy when
P=kA(T 14 -T/) (3.21) it rotates at 60 r/min.
= 5 x 10- 8 x 1.2 (333 4 - 293 4 ) 3-9 The rotor of an induction motor has a mo-
= 296 W (approximate) ment of inertia of 5 kg·m 2 . Calculate the
energy needed to bring the speed
It is interesting to note that the motor dissipates
a. from zero to 200 r/min
almost as much heat by radiation (296 W) as it does b. from 200 r/min to 400 r/min
hy convection (362 W). c. from 3000 r/min to 400 r/min
3-10 Name the three ways whereby heat is car-
Questions and Problems ried from one body to another.
3-11 A motor develops a cw torque of 60 N·m.
Pmcticol /n·c/
and the load develops a ccw torque of
3-1 A cement block has a mass of 40 kg. What
50N·m.
is the force of gravity acting on it? What
a. If this situation persists for some time, will the
force is needed to lift it?
direction of rotation eventually be cw or ccw')
3-2 How much energy is needed to lift a sack b. What value of motor torque is needed to keep
of flour weighing 75 kg to a height of 4 m? the speed constant'?
66 FUNDAMENTALS

3-12 A motor drives a load at cw speed of I 000 3-19 The electric motor in a trolley bus develops
r/min. The motor develops a cw torque of a power output of 80 hp at 1200 r/min as the
12 N ·111, and the load exerts a ccw torque bus moves up a hill at a speed of 30 miles
of 15 N-m. per hour. Assuming that the gear losses are
a. Will the speed increase or decrease? negligible, calculate the following:
b. If this situation persists for some time. in what a. The torque developed by the motor IN·m]
direction \viii the shaft eventually rotate') b. The force opposing the motion of the bus IN]
3-13 Referring to Fig. 3.12. if T~1 40 N ·m, 3-20 Calculate the heat lMJJ required to raise the
what is the power delivered by the motor? temperature of 100 kg of copper from 20°C
3-14 Referring to Fig. 3.13, if7~1 40 N·m and to I00°C.
= 50 r/min. calculate the power deliv-
11 1 3-21 Repeat Problem 3-20 for I 00 kg of alu-
ered by the motor. minum.
3-15 ReferringtoFig.3.14,ifTM 40N·mand 3-22 The motor in Fig. 3.23 drives a hoist, rais-
= 50 r/min. calculate the power received
11 2 ing a mass m of 800 kg at a uniform rate of
by the motor. 5 mis. The winch has a radius of 20 cm.
Calculate the torque [N·ml and speed
Intermediate /ere/
lr/min] of the motor.
3-16 During a prony brake test on a motor (see
Fig. 3.4 ). the following scale and speed
readings were noted:

P2 5 lbf P 1 =28 lbf

n 1160 r/min

If the diameter of the pulley is 12 inches.

calculate the power output of the motor in
kilowatts and in horsepower.
3-17 A motor drives a flywheel having a moment
of inertia of 5 kg·m 2 • The speed increases
from 1600 r/min to 1800 r/min in 8 s.
Calculate
a. The torque developed by the motor IN·ml Figure 3.23
b. The energy in the flywheel at 1800 r/min I kJ I Electric hoist, Problem 3-22.
c. The motor power [W] at 1600 r/min
d. The power input \WI to the flywheel at \750
r/min 3-23 If the hoisting rate in Problem 3-22 is re-
3-18 A de motor coupled to a large grinder de- duced to 1 m/s, calculate the new
velops 120 hp at a constant speed of 700 Ir/min] and torque [ft·lbfl of the motor.
r/min. The moment of inertia of the revolv- Industrial application
ing parts is 2500 lb·fr='.
3-24 How many Btus are required to raise the
a. Calculate the torque IN·m] developed by the
temperature of a 50 gallon (U.S.) reservoir
motor.
b. Calculate tht:> motor torque l '.'-:·m I needed so of water from 55°F to I 80°E assuming that
that the speed will increase to 750 r/min in 5 s. the tank is perfectly insulated. How long
(Nore: The torque exerted by the grinder re- will it take if the tank is heated by a 2 kW
mains the same.) electric heater?
 FUNDAMENTALS OF MECHANICS Ii.ND HL·\T 67

3-25 A large indoor transformer is painted a non- 3-27 The cable and other electrical components
metallic black. It is proposed to refurbish it inside a sheet metal panel dissipate a total
using an aluminum paint. Will this affect of 2 kW. A blower inside the panel keeps
the temperature of the transformer? If so, the inside temperature at a uniform level
will it run hotter or cooler? throughout. The panel is -1- ft wide. 8 ft
3-26 An electrically heated cement floor covers high. and 2 ft deep. and totally closed.
an area of I 00 m X 30 m. The surface tem- Assuming that heat is radiated by convec-
perature is 25 °C and the ambient tempera- tion and radiation from all siues except the
ture is 23 °C. Approximately how much bottom, estimate the temperature inside the
heat is given off, in kilowatts? Note: from panel if the ambient temperature is 30 °C.
the point of view of heat radiation, cement The panel is painted with a nonmetallic
is considered to be an insulator. enamel.
 PART Two
Electrical Machines and
Transformers
 CHAPTER 4
Direct-Current Generators

4.0 Introduction This is followed by a study of the behavior of the

generator under load. Mechanical torque, direction of

W e begin our study of rotating machinery with

the direct-current generator. Direct-current
generators are not as common as they used to be,
current flow. and the importance of armature reaction
are discussed. The need for commutating poles and
the problem of pole-tip saturation are covered next.
because direct current, when required. is mainly We then discuss the major types of de generators
produced by electronic rectifiers. These rectifiers and their voltage-regulation characteristics.
can convert the current of an ac system into direct The chapter ends with a description of the actual
current without using any moving parts. physical construction of direct-current machines.
Nevertheless. an understanding of de generators is including multipole de..,igns.
important because it represents a logical introduc-
tion to the behavior of de motors. Indeed. many de
4.1 Generating an ac voltage
motors in industry actually operate as generators for
brief periods. Irrelevant as it may seem. the study of a direct-
Commercial de generators and motors are built current (de) generator has to begin with a knowl-
the same way; consequently, any de generator can edge of the alternating-current (ac) generator. The
operate as a motor and vice versa. Owing to their reason is that the voltage generated in any de gen-
similar construction. the fundamental properties of erator is inherently alternating and only becomes de
generators and motors are identical. Consequently. after it has been rectified by the commutator.
anything we learn about a de generator can be di- 4.1 shows an elementary ac generator
rectly applied to a de motor. composed of a coil that revolves at 60 r/min be-
In this chapter we begin with the basic principles tween the N. S poles of a permanent magnet. The
of a 2-pole generator when it operates at no-load. rotation is due to an external driving force, such
We "how the importance of brush position and de- as a motor (not shown). The coil is connected to
fine what is meant by the neutral point. We show two slip rings mounted on the shaft. The slip rings
how the induced voltage is generated and what de- are connected to an external load by means of two
termines its magnitude. stationary brushes x and y.

71
72 ELHTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORlvfERS

rotation (Fig. 4.2). The waveshape depends upon the

shape of the N. S poles. We assume the poles were
designed to generate the sinusoidal wave shown.
The coil in our example revolves at uniform
speed, therefore each angle of rotation corresponds
to a specific interval of time. Because the coil makes
one turn per second. the angle of 360° in Fig. 4.2 cor-
responds to an interval of one second. Consequently.
we can also represent the induced voltage as a func-
tion of time (Fig. 4.3 ).

Figure 4.1 E,,

Schematic diagram of an elementary ac generator E.,n 10
turning at 1 revolution per second. •

As the coil rotates. a voltage is induced (Eq. 2-25)

between its terminals A and D. This voltage appears
between the brushes and, therefore. across the load.
The voltage is generated because the conductors of
the coil cut across the flux produced by the N. S
poles. The induced voltage is therefore maximum Figure 4.3
(20 Y. say) when the coil is momentarily in the hori- Voltage induced as a function of time.
zontal position. as shown. No flux is cut when the
coil is momentarily in the vertical position; conse-
quently the voltage at these instants is zero. Another 4.2 Direct-current generator
feature of the voltage is that its polarity changes If the brushes in Fig. 4.1 could be switched from
every time the coil makes half a turn. The voltage can one slip ring to the other every time the polarity was
therefore be represented as a function of the angle of about to change. we would obtain a voltage of con-
stant polarity across the load. Brush x would always
v
be positive and brushy negative. We can obtain this
result by using a co111111utator (Fig. 4.4). A commu-
tator in its simplest form is composed or a slip ring
that is cut in half. with each segment insulated from
the other as well as from the shaft. One segment is
connected to coil-end A and the other to coil-end D.
The commutator revolves with the coil and the volt-
age between the segments is picked up by two sta-
tionary brushes x and y.
The voltage between brushes x and y pulsates
but never changes polarity (Fig. 4.5 ). The alter-
Figure 4.2 nating voltage in the coil is rectified by the com-
Voltage induced in the ac generator as a function of mutator. which acts as a mechanical reversing
the angle of rotation. switch.
 DIRECTCURRENT GENERA'/ORS n

60 r•min Due to the constant polarity between the brushes.

the current in the external load always flows in the
same direction. The machine represented in Fig. 4.4
is called a direct-current gcnemt01; or drnamo.

4.3 Difference between ac

and de generators
The elementary ac and de generators in Figs. 4.1
and 4.4 are essentially built the same way. In each
case. a coil rotates between the poles of a magnet
and an ac voltage is induced in the coil. The ma-
chines only differ in the way the coils are connected
to the external circuit (Fig. 4.6): ac generators carry
slip rings 4.6h) while de generators require a
Figure 4.4 commutator (Fig. 4.6a). We sometimes build small
Elementary de generator is simply an ac generator machines which carry both slip rings and a commu-
equipped with a mechanical rectifier called a commu- tator 4.6c). Such machines can function si-
tator. multaneously as ac and de generators.

4.4 Improving the waveshape

Returning to the de generator. we can improve the
pulsating de voltage by using four coils and four
segments, as shown in Fig. 4. 7. The resulting wave-
shape is given in Fig. 4.8. The voltage still pulsates
hut it never falls to zero: it is much closer to a steady
de voltage.
By increasing the number of coils and segments.
90 180 270 360 degrees we can obtain a de voltage that is very smooth.
-angleO \1odern de generators produce voltages having a
ripple of less than 5 percent. The coils are lodged in
Figure 4.5 the slots of a laminated iron cylinder. The coils and
The elementary de generator produces a pulsating de the cylinder constitute the ltr1110t1m' of the machine.
voltage.
The percent ripple is the ratio of the RMS value of
the ac component of voltage to the de component.
expressed in percent.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 4.6
The three armatures (a), (b), and (c) have identical windings. Depending upon how they are connected (to slip
rings or a commutator), an ac or de voltage is obtained.
74 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS

rotation rotation
~ ~

A slot 1~t 1

s N

c
Figure 4.7 Figure 4.9
Schematic diagram of a de generator having 4 coils The actual physical construction of the generator
and 4 commutator bars. See Fig. 4.9. shown in Fig. 4.7. The armature has 4 slots, 4 coils,
and 4 commutator bars.
v
+20 A schematic diagram such as Fig. 4.7 tells us
where the coil sides of the individual coils are lo-
cated: between the poles, under the poles. near the
pole tips, and so on. But we must remember that the
coil sides (a 1, a 2 : b 1• b 2 ; etc.) of each coil are actu-
ally located at 180° to each other and not side by
side as Figure 4.7 seems to indicate.
The actual construction of this amwr11re is
o......~_._~~---~__..__~_._~~..._~__..~ shown in Fig. 4.9. The four coils are placed in four
0 90 180 270 360 degrees slots. Each coil has two coil sides, and so there are
-o two coil sides per slot. Thus. each slot contains the
conductors of two coils.
Figure 4.8
The voltage between the brushes is more uniform
For reasons of symmetry, the coils are wound so
than in Fig. 4.5. that one coil side is at the bottom of a slot and the
other is at the top. For example. in Fig. 4.7 coil side
a 1 is in the top of slot I. while coil side a2 is in the
It is important to understand the physical meaning bottom of slot 3. The coil connections to the com-
of Fig. 4.7. because we will be using similar drawings mutator segments are easy to follmv in this simple
to explain the behavior of de machines. The four coils armature. The reader should compare these connec-
in the figure are identical to the coil shown in Fig. 4.1. tions with those in Fig. 4.9 to verify that they are the
At the instant shown, coil A is not cutting any flux same. Note also the actual position and schematic
and neither is coil C. The reason is that the coil sides position of the brushes with respect to the poles.
of these two coils are midway between the poles. On 4.10 shows the position of the coils when
the other hand. coils B and D are cutting flux coming the armature has moved through 45°. The sides a 1
•

from the center of the N and S poles. Consequently, a 2 of coil A are now sweeping past pole tip I and
the voltage induced in these coils is at its maximum pole tip 4. The sides of coil Care experiencing the
possible value (20 V. say). That is also the voltage same flux because they are in the same slots as coil
across the brushes at this particular instant. A. Consequently. the voltage c" induced in coil A is
 DIRECT-CURRENT GENERATORS 75

---rotation
-rotation

Figure 4.10
Position of the coils when the armature of Fig. 4.9 has coil B A
rotated through 45°.
Figure 4.11 a
Physical construction of a de generator having 12
exactly the same as the voltage ec induced in coil C. coils, 12 slots, and 12 commutator bars.
Note. however. that coil A is moving downward.
rotation
while coil C is moving upward. The polarities of e"
and ec are. therefore. opposite as shown.
The same reasoning leads us to conclude that eh
anded are equal and opposite in polarity. This means
that e.. eh+ ec + e<l 0 at all times. Consequently,
no current will flow in the closed loop formed by the
four coils. This is most fo11unate. because any such
circulating current would produce PR losses.
The voltage between the brushes is equal to eh -r
l\ (ore" ed) at the instant shown. It corresponds
to the minimum voltage shown in Fig. 4.8.
The armature winding we have just discussed is
called a lap winding. It is the most common type of
winding used in direct-current generators and motors.
Figure 4.11 b
4.5 Induced voltage Schematic diagram of the armature and the voltages
induced in the 12 coils.
Figures 4.11 a and 4.11 b show a more realistic ar-
mature having 12 coils and 12 slots instead of only Consider. for example. the voltages induced in the
.+.When the armature rotates. the voltage E induced armature when it occupies the position shown in
in each conductor depends upon the flux density Fig. 4.11. The conductors in slots I and 7 are ex-
which it cuts. This fact is based upon the equation actly between the poles. where the llux density is
zero. The voltage induced in the two coils lodged in
E Bfv (2.25)
slots I and 7 is, therefore, zero. On the other hand,
Because the density in the air gap varies from the conductors in slots 4 and 10 are directly under
point to point, the value of the induced voltage per the center of the poles, where the flux density is
coil depends upon its instantaneous position. greatest. The voltage induced in the two coils
76 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS

lodged in these slots is. therefore. maximum.

Finally. due to magnetic symmetry. the voltage in-
duced in the coils lodged in slots 3 and 9 is the same
---
rotation

as that induced in the coils lodged in slots 5 and 11.

Figure 4.11 b shows the instantaneous voltage in-
duced in each of the 12 coi Is of the armature. They
are 0, 7. 18. and 20 V. respectively. Note that the
brushes short-circuit the coils in which the voltage
is momentarily zero.
Taking polarities into account. we can see that
the voltage between the brushes is (7 +- 18 + 20
18 + 7) 70 V. and brush xis positive with respect
to brush y. This voltage remains essentially con-
stant as the armature rotates, because the number of
coils between the brushes is always the same. irre-
spective of armature position. Figure 4.12
'.'iote that brush x in Fig. 4.11 b straddles two Moving the brushes off the neutral point reduces the
output voltage and produces sparking.
commutator segments that are connected to coil A.
Consequently, the brush short-circuits coil A.
However. since the induced voltage in this coil is duced in a coil that cuts through the neutral zone. We
mornentari ly zero. no current wi II flow through the always try to set the brushes so they are in contact
brush. The same remarks apply to brush y, which with coils that are momentarily in a neutral zone.
momentarily short-circuits coil B. The brushes are
said to be in the neutral position when they are po-
sitioned on the commutator so as to short-circuit 4. 7 Value of the induced voltage
those coils in which the induced voltage is momen- The voltage induced in a de generator having a lap
tarily zero. That is the case in Figs. 4.11aand4.11 b. winding is given by the equation
If we were to shift the brush yoke by 30° (Fig.
£0 = Zn(I>/60 (4.lJ
4.12). the voltage between the brushes would be-
come (0 + 7 +- 18 + 20 + 18) 63 V. where
Thus. by shifting the brushes the output voltage
£0 voltage between the brushes IV I
decreases. Furthermore. in this position. the brushes
Z = total number of conductors on the armature
continually short-circuit coils that generate 7 V.
n speed of rotation [r/min I
Large currents will flow in the short-circuited coi Is
<P =flux per pole [Wbl
and brushes. and sparking will result. Thus. shifting
the brushes off the neutral position reduces the volt- This important equation shows that for a given gen-
age he tween the brushes and at the same ti me erator the voltage is directly proportional to the flux
causes sparking. When sparking occurs. there is per pole and to the speed of rotation. The equation
said to be poor commutation. only holds true if the brushes are on the neutral posi-
tion. If the brushes are shifted off neutral, the effect
is equivalent to reducing the number of conductors Z.
4.6 Neutral zones
Neutral zones are those places on the surface of the Example 4-1
armature where the flux density is zero. When the The armature of a 6-pole. 600 r/min generator. has 90
generator operates at no-load. the neutral zones are slots. Each coil has 4 turns and the flux per pole is
located exactly between the poles. No voltage is in- 0.04 Wb. Calculate the value of the induced voltage.
 DIRECT-CURRENT GENl:RATORS 77

Solution The current delivered by the generator also

Each turn corresponds to two conductors on the ar- flows through all the armature conductors. If we
mature. and 90 coib arc required to fill the 90 slots. could look inside the machine, we would discover
The total number of armature conductors is that current always flows in the same direction in
those conductors that are momentarily under a N
Z 90 coils X 4 turns/coil X 2 conductors/turn
pole. The same is true for conductors that are mo-
720 mentarily under a S pole. However. the currents un-
The speed is /1 = 600 r/min der the N pole flow in the opposite direction to
Consequently. those under a S pole. Referring to Fig. 4.13. the ar-
mature conductors under the S pole carry currents
= Zn<P/60 720 X 600 X 0.04/60
that llow illfo the page. mrny .fim11 the reader.
288 v Conversely. the armature currents under the N pole
The voltage between the brushes at no-load is there- llow out of the page. tmrnrd the reader.
fore 288 V. provided the brushes are on neutral. Because the conductors lie in a magnetic field.
they are subjected to a force, according to Lorentz's
law (sections 2.22 and 2.23 ). If we examine the di-
4.8 Generator under load: the energy
rection of current flow and the direction of flux. we
conversion process
find that the individual forces Fon the conductors
When a direct-current generator is under load. some all act clockwise. In effect, they produce a torque
fundamental flux and current relationships take place that acts opposite to the direction in which the gen-
that are directly related to the mechanical-electrical erator is being driven. To keep the generator going.
energy conversion process. Consider for example. a we must exert a torque on the shaft to overcome this
2-pole generator that is driven counterclockwise opposing electromagnetic torque. The resulting me-
while delivering cuJTent I to a load (Fig. 4.13). chanical power is converted into electrical power.
which is delivered to the generator load. That 1s

--
rotation

torque due to F
how the energy conversion process takes place.

4.9 Armature reaction

Until now. we have assumed that the only magncto-
motive force (mmf) acting in a de generator is that due
to the field. However. the current flowing in the arma-
ture coils also creates a powe1fol magnetomotive force
that distorts and weakens the tlux coming from the
poles. This dist011ion and field weakening takes place
in both motors and generators. The effect produced by
the armature mmf is called armoturc reaction.
To understand the impact of the armature mmf.
we return to the generator under load (Fig. 4.13). If
we consider the armature alone. it will produce a
magnetic field as :-.hown in Fig. 4.14. This field acts
load at right angles to the field produced by the N. S poles.
Figure 4.13 The intensity of the armature flux depends upon its
The energy conversion process. The electromagnetic mmf. which in turn depends upon the current carried
torque due to F must be balanced by the applied me- by the armature. Thus, contrary to the field flux. the
chanical torque. nrmature flux is not constant hut varies with the load.
78 ELECTRICAL ,ll,1ACHINES AND TRANSFOR1WERS

rotation

neutral

Figure 4.14
zone
Magnetic field produced by the current flowing in the
armature conductors.
Figure 4.15
We can immediately foresee a problem which the Armature reaction distorts the field produced by the N,
armature flux will produce. Fig. 4.14 shows that the S poles.
flux in the neutral zone is no longer zero and, con-
sequently, a voltage will be induced in the coils that It is important to note that the orientation of the
are short-circuited by the brushes. As a result, severe armature flux remains fixed in space: it does not ro-
sparking may occur. The intensity of the sparking tate with the armature.
will depend upon the armature flux and hence upon
the load current delivered by the generator. 4.1 O Shifting the brushes
The second problem created by the armature
to improve commutation
mmf is that it distorts the flux produced by the
poles. In effect the combination of the armature Due to the shift in the neutral zone when the gener-
mmf and field mrnf produces a magnetic field ator is under load. we could move the brushes to re-
whose shape is illustrated in Fig. 4. I5. The neutral duce the sparking.
zones have shifted in the direction of rotation of the For generators, the brushes are shifted to the new
armature. This occurs in all de generators. neutral zone by moving them in the direction of ro-
The flux distortion produces still another effect: tation. For motors, the brushes are shifted against
the higher flux density in pole tips 2. 3 causes satu- the direction of rotation.
ration to set in. Consequently, the increase in flux As soon as the brushes are moved. the commuta-
under pole tips 2. 3 is less than the decrease in flux tion improves, meaning there is less sparking.
under pole tips I. 4. As a result. the total flux pro- However. if the load fluctuates. the armature mmf
duced by the N. S poles is less than it was when the rises and falls and so the neutral zone shifts back and
generator was running at no-load. This causes a cor- forth between the no-load and full-load positions.
responding reduction in the induced voltage given We would therefore have to move the brushes hack
by Eq. 4.1. For lurge machines. the decrease in flux and forth to obtain sparkless commutation. This pro-
may be as much as I 0 percent. cedure is not practical and other means are used to
 DIRECT-CURRENT GENERATORS 79

resolve the problem. For small de machines, how- the mmf of the commutating poles is made slightly
ever, the brushes are set in an intermediate position greater than the armature mmf. This creates a small
to ensure reasonably good commutation at all loads. flux in the neutral zone, which aids the commuta-
tion process (see Section 4.28).
4.11 Commutating poles Fig. 4.16 shows how the commutating poles of
a 2-pole machine are connected. Clearly, the direc-
To counter the effect of armature reaction in tion of the current flowing through the windings in-
medium- and large-power de machines, we always dicates that the mmf of the commutating poles acts
place a set of com11wtu ting poles* between the main opposite to the mmf of the armature and, therefore,
poles (Fig. 4.16 ). These narrow poles carry wind- neutralizes its effect. However, the neutralization
ings that are connected in series with the armature. is restricted to the narrow brush zone where com-
The number of turns on the windings is designed so mutation takes place. The distorted flux distribu-
that the poles develop a magnetomotive force mm(, tion under the main poles, unfortunately, remains
equal and opposite to the magnetomotive force the same.
111111fa of the armature. As the load current varies,
the two magnetomotive forces rise and fall together,
4.12 Separately excited generator
exactly bucking each other at all times. By nullify-
ing the armature mmf in this way, the flux in the Now that we have learned some basic facts about
space between the main poles is always zero and so de generators, we can study the various types and
we no longer have to shift the brushes. In practice. their properties. Thus, instead of using permanent
magnets to create the magnetic field, we can use a
pair of electromagnets, called.field poles, as shown
in Fig. 4.17. When the de field current in such a
generator is supplied by an independent source
(such as a storage battery or another generator,
called an exciter), the generator is said to be se1H1-
rately excited. Thus, in Fig. 4.17 the de source con-
nected to terminals a and b causes an exciting cur-
rent Ix to flow. If the armature is driven by a motor
or a diesel engine, a voltage £ 0 appears between
N s brush terminals x and y.

commutating
pole

Figure 4.16
Commutating poles produce an mmfc that opposes
the mmfa of the armature. Figure 4.17
Separately excited 2-pole generator. The N, S field
poles are created by the current flowing in the field
Commutating poles are sometimes called i111e1l10/es. windings.
80 ELECTRICAL MACH!Nl:S AND TRANSFORMERS

4.13 No-load operation How does the saturation curve relate to the induced
and saturation curve voltage E""! If we drive the generator at constant speed,
is directly propottional to the tlux (I>. Consequently.
When a separately excited de generator runs at no- by plotting as a function of/,. we obtain a curve
load (armature circuit open). a change in the excit- whose shape is identical to the saturation curve of Fig.
ing current causes a corresponding change in the in- 4. I 8a. The result is shown in Fig. 4. I 8b: it is called the
duced voltage. We now examine the relationship 110-lood saturation curl'c of the generator.
between the two. The rated voltage of a de generator is usually a
Field flux vs exciting current. Let us gradually little above the knee of the curve. In Fig. 4. I 8b. for
raise the exciting current Ix, so that the mmf of the example. the rated (or nominal) voltage is 120 V. By
field increases. which increases the flux (P per pole. varying the exciting current we can vary the in-
If we plot (I> as a function of l,. we obtain the sallt- duced voltage as we please. Furthermore. by re-
ratiou Clfl"l'l' of 4. I 8a. This curve is obtained versing the current. the flux will reverse and so, too.
whether or not the generator is turning. will the polarity of the induced voltage.
Induced voltage vs speed. For a given exciting
:i rated flux current. the induced voltage increases in direct pro-
.S: 1.25 !--·--,-·--+··--·····-,.-- --~·---,···--=......,c.-­ prntion to the speed. a result that follows from Eq. 4.1.
><
~ 1.00 l---···-+----'-~1--=-.-+--___,___,_ If we reverse the direction of rotation. the polar-
I 0.75
0.50 1---1---r-----·+---··-+----+-··---i-----1
ity of the induced voltage also reverses. However, if
we reverse both the exciting current and the direc-
tion of rotation. the polarity of the induced voltage
0.25 l-+-··--+--··---+-···--+----;---·----1------j
remains the same.
2 3 A

V rated voltage
Figure 4.18a 150
Flux per pole versus exciting current.
£0 120
• 90 t--~-k----l-~-t---+--+----1
When the exciting current is relatively small. i 60t--+-+-~+-~-+-~-t-~-t-~~
the flux is small and the iron in the machine is un-
30 1-#'--+-~--l~--t---+---+--~
saturated. Very little mmf is needed to establish
the flux through the iron. with the result that the 2 3 A
rnmf developed by the field coils is almost entirely ----1.
available to drive the flux through the air gap.
Figure 4.18b
Because the permeability of air is constant. the Saturation curve of a de generator.
flux increases in direct proportion to the exciting
crnTetH. as shown by the linear portion Oa of the
4.14 Shunt generator
saturation curve.
However. as we continue to raise the exciting A shunt-excited generator is a machine whose
current. the iron in the field and the armature begins shunt~fie/d winding is connected in parallel with the
to saturate. A large increase in the mmf is now re- armature terminals. so that the generator can be
quired to produce a small increase in flux. as shown self-excited (Fig. 4.19). The principal advantage of
by portion he of the curve. The machine is now said this connection is that it eliminates the need for an
to be saturated. Saturation of the iron begins to be external source of excitation.
important when we reach the so-called "knee" ab of How is self-excitation achieved'? When a shunt
the saturation curve. generator is started up. a small voltage is induced in
 f)fRECT-CURRENT GENERATORS 81

//
---------- " ........
\
n

p
field rheostat

\ Ix _ ___.,,....,._-o x R
'-::::::::-- +

E0

Figure 4.20
Controlling the generator voltage with a field rheostat. A
(a) rheostat is a resistor with an adjustable sliding contact.

To understand how the output voltage varies.

suppose that £ 0 is 120 V when the movable contact
p is in the center of the rheostat. If we move the con-
tact toward extremity m. the resistance R 1 between
points p and b diminishes. which causes the excit-
ing current to increase. This increases the flux and.
consequently. the induced voltage £.,. On the other
(b)
hand, if we move the contact toward extremity n, Rt
increases, the exciting current diminishes. the tlux
Figure 4.19 diminishes. and so will fall.
a. Self-excited shunt generator.
We can determine the no-load value of if we
b. Schematic diagram of a shunt generator. A shunt
field is one designed to be connected in shunt (alter- know the saturation curve of the generator and the
nate term for parallel) with the armature winding. total resistance Rt of the shunt field circuit between
points p and b. We draw a straight line correspond-
the armature. due to the remanent flux in the poles. ing to the slope of Rt and superimpose it on the sat-
This voltage produces a small exciting current/, in uration curve 4.21 ). This dotted line passes
the shunt field. The resulting small mmf acts in the through the origin, and the point where it intersects
same direction as the rcmanent flux. causing the flux the curve yields the induced voltage.
per pole to increase. The increased flux increases For example. if the shunt field has a resistance of
which increases /,. which increases the flux still 50 n and the rheostat is set at extremity m, then
more. which increases even more. and so forth. RI = 50 n. The line corresponding lo RI must pass
This progressive buildup continues until£" reaches through the coordinate point E = 50 V. I J A.

a maximum value determined by the field resistance This line intersects the saturation curve where the
and the degree of saturation. See next section. voltage is 150 V (Fig. 4.21 ). That is the maximum
voltage the shunt generator can produce.
By changing the setting of the rheostat the total
4.15 Controlling the voltage
resistance of the field circuit increases, causing £ 0
of a shunt generator to decrease progressively. For example. if Rt is in-
It is easy to control the induced voltage of a shunt- creased to 120 H. the resistance line cuts the satu-
excited generator. We simply vary the exciting cur- ration curve at a voltage £"of 120 Y.
rent hy means of a rheostat connected in series with If we continue to raise R1• a critical value will be
the shunt field I Fig. 4.~0). reached vvhere the slope or
the resistance line is
 82 ELECTRICAL lv!ACHINESANfJ TRANSFORMERS

v
160

140

120

100
Eo
Figure 4.22
A. 80
Equivalent circuit of a de generator.
60
revolving conductors. Terminals I. 2 are the external
40
armature terminals of the machine, and F 1 • F2 are the
20 field winding terminals. Using this circuit. we will
now study the more common types of direct-current
generators and their behavior under load.
2 3 A
--•Ix
4.17 Separately excited generator
Figure 4.21 under load
The no-load voltage depends upon the resistance of
the shunt-field circuit. Let us consider a separately excited generator that is
driven at constant speed and whose field is excited by
equal to that of the saturation curve in its unsaturated a battery (Fig. 4.23 ). The exciting current is constant
region. When this resistance is attained. the induced and so is the resultant flux. The induced voltage E0 is
voltage suddenly drops to zero and will remain so therefore fixed. When the machine operates at no-
for any R1 greater than this critical value. In Fig. 4.21 load. terminal voltage is equal to the induced
the critical resistance corresponds to 200 n. voltage £ 0 because the voltage drop in the armature
resistance is zero. However, if we connect a load
4.16 Equivalent circuit across the armature (Fig. 4.23 ), the resulting load
current I produces a voltage drop across resistance
We have seen that the armature winding contains a R0 • Terminal voltage is now less than the induced
set of identical coils, all of which possess a ce1tain re- voltage £ 0 • As we increase the load, the terminal
sistance. The total armature resistance R0 is that voltage diminishes progressively, as shown in
which exists between the armature terminals when 4.24. The graph of terminal voltage as a function of
the machine is stationary. It is measured on the com- load current is called the load cwTe of the generator.
mutator surface between those segments that lie un-
der the ( +) and ( ) brushes. The resistance is usu-
ally very smalL often less than one-hundredth of an
ohm. Its value depends mainly upon the power and
voltage of the generator. To simplify the generator
circuit. we can represent R,, as if it were in series with
one of the brushes. If the machine has interpoles, the
resistance of these windings is included in R0 •
2
The equivalent circuit of a generator is thus com-
posed of a resistance R 0 in series with a voltage £ 0 Figure 4.23
(Fig. 4.22). The latter is the voltage induced in the Separately excited generator under load.
 DIRECT-CURRENT GENERATORS 83

v tions produce corresponding changes in the genera-

100 tor terminal voltage. causing the lights to flicker.
95
90 I Compound generators eliminate this problem.
I A compound generator (Fig. 4.25a) is similar
I to a shunt generator. except that it has additional
50 I
I field coils connected in series with the armature.
I These seriesfield coils are composed of a few turns

.I 0
-1
I
I
5 10 A
of heavy wire. big enough to carry the armature cur-
rent. The total resistance of the series coils is. there-
fore, small. Figure 4.25b is a schematic diagram
showing the shunt and series field connections.
Figure 4.24 When the generator runs at no-load, the current
Load characteristic of a separately excited generator.
in the series coils is zero. The shunt coils. however,
carry exciting current 1, which produces the field
In practice, the induced voltage also decreases flux, just as in a standard self-excited shunt gener-
slightly with increasing load, because pole-tip satu- ator. As the generator is loaded. the terminal volt-
ration tends to decrease the field flux. Consequently, age tends to drop, but load current ( now flows
the terminal voltage falls off more rapidly than through the series field coils. The mmf developed
can he attributed to armature resistance alone. by these coils acts in the same direction as the mmf
of the shunt field. Consequently. the field flux un-
4.18 Shunt generator under load der load rises above its original no-load value,
which raises the value of E 0 • If the series coils are
The terminal voltage of a self-excited shunt generator properly designed. the terminal voltage remains
falls off more sharply with increasing load than that of practically constant from no-load to full-load. The
a separately excited generator. The reason is that the
field current in a separately excited machine remains
constant, whereas in a self-excited generator the ex-
citing cuITent falls as the terminal voltage drops. For a
self-excited generator. the drop in voltage from no-
load to full-load is about 15 percent of the full-load
voltage. whereas for a separately excited generator it
is usually less than I 0 percent. The l'O!tage regulation
is said to be 15% and I 0%. respectively.
2
(al

4.19 Compound generator

The compound generator was developed to prevent
the terminal voltage of a de generator from de-
creasing with increasing load. Thus. although we
can usually tolerate a reasonable drop in terminal
voltage as the load increases. this has a serious ef-
fect on lighting circuits. For example. the distribu-
tion system ora ship supplies power to both de ma- 2

chinery and incandescent lamps. The current Figure 4.25

delivered the generator fluctuates continually, in a. Compound generator under load.
response to the varying loads. These current varia- b. Schematic diagram.
84 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS

rise in the induced voltage compensates for the ar- 4.21 Load characteristics
mature JR drop.
In some cases we have to compensate not only for The load characteristics of some shunt and com-
the armature voltage drop. but also for the JR drop in pound generators are given in Fig. 4.26. The volt-
the feeder line between the generator and the load. age of an over-compound generator increases by 10
The generator manufacturer then adds one or two ex- percent when full-load is applied, whereas that of a
tra turns on the series winding so that the terminal flat-compound generator remains constant. On the
voltage incremes as the load current rises. Such ma- other hand, the full-load voltage of a shunt genera-
chines are called ol'er-compound generators. If the tor is 15 percent below its no-load value, while that
compounding is too strong. a low resistance can be of a differential-compound generator is 30 percent
placed in parallel with the series field. This reduces lower.
the current in the series field and has the same effect
as reducing the number of turns. For example. if the 4.22 Generator specifications
value of the dfrerter resistance is equal to that of the The nameplate of a generator indicates the power,
series field. the current in the latter is reduced by half. voltage, speed. and other details about the machine.
These ratings, or nominal characteristics. are the
4.20 Differential compound values guaranteed by the manufacturer. For exam-
generator ple, the following information is punched on the
nameplate of a I 00 kW generator:
In a d(ffere11tiol compound generator the mrnf of the
series field acts opposite to the shunt field. As a re- Power 100 kW Speed 1200 r/min
sult the terminal voltage falls drastically with in- Voltage 250 v Type Compound
creasing load. We can make such a generator by Exciting current 20 A Class B
simply reversing the series field of a standard com- Temperature rise 50°C
pound generator. Differential compound generators
These specifications tell us that the machine can
were formerly used in de arc welders, because they
deliver, continuously, a power of 100 kW at a volt-
tended to limit the short-circuit current and to stabi-
age of 250 V, without exceeding a temperature rise
lize the arc during the welding process.
of 50°C. It can therefore supply a load current of
The voltage regulation of the differential com-
I 00 000/250 = 400 A. It possesses a series winding.
pound generator in Fig. 4.26 is (no-load - full-
and the current in the shunt field is 20 A. In practice,
load)/full-load = ( 100 ~70)/70 42.9%.
the terminal voltage is adjusted to a value close to
its rating of 250 V. We may draw any amount of
%
overcompound power from the generator. as long as it does not ex-
100 compound ceed I 00 kW and the current is less than 400 A. The
Ill
Cl
separate excitation class B designation refers to the class of insulation
.':l 80 shunt
0 I
>
used in the machine.
n; 60 differential compound
,'.::
§ t 40
I CONSTRUCTION OF
j!l
20 DIRECT-CURRENT GENERATORS
We have described the basic features and properties
of direct-current generators. We now look at the
- Load current
mechanical construction of these machines. direct-
Figure 4.26 ing our attention to the field, the armature, the com-
Typical load characteristics of de generators. mutator, and the brushes.
 DIRECT-CURRENT Gl:NFRATORS 85

4.23 Field
The field produces the magnetic flux in the ma-
chine. It is basically a stationary electromagnet
composed of a set of salient poles bolted to the in-
side of a circular frame 4.27 and 4.28). Field
coils. mounted on the poles, carry the de exciting
current. The frame is usually made of solid cast
steel, whereas the pole pieces are composed of
stacked iron laminations. In some generators the
flux is created by permanent magnets.
In our discussions so far we have considered only Figure 4.29
2-pole generators. However, in practice a de gener- Adjacent poles of multipole generators have opposite
ator or motor may have 2, 4, 6, or as many as 24 magnetic polarities.
poles. The number of poles depends upon the phys-
ical size of the machine: the it is. the more
flux frame

pole piece

coil
l field
poles it will have. By using a multipole design. we
can reduce the dimensions and cost of large ma-
chines. and also improve their performance.
The field coils of a multipole machine are con-
nected together so that adjacent poles have oppo-
site magnetic polarities (Fig. 4.29). The shunt field
coils are composed of several hundred turns of
armature wire carrying a relatively small current. The coi!s
are insulated from the pole pieces to prevent short-
circuits.
Figure 4.27 The mmf developed by the coils produces a
Cross section of a 2-pole generator.
magnetic flux that passes through the pole pieces.
the frame, the armature, and the air gap. The air gap
. field is the short space between the armature and the pole
pole piece .
iron frame
I COi 1 pieces. It ranges from about 1.5 to 5 mm as the gen-
. /
\ // erator rating increases from I kW to 100 kW.
brush Because the armature and field are composed of
magnetic materials having excellent permeability.
most of the mmf produced by the field is used to

~I
drive the flux across the air gap. Consequently, by
reducing its length, we can diminish the size of the
shunt field coils. However, the air gap cannot be
made too short otherwise the armature reaction ef-
fect becomes too great.
armature If the generator has a series field. the coils are
commutator
wound on top of the shunt-field coils. The conduc-
Figure 4.28 tor size must be enough so that the winding
Cutaway view of a 4-pole shunt generator. It has 3 does not overheat when it carries the foll-load cur-
brushes per brush set. rent of the generator.
86 ELECTRICAL MACHJNES AND TRANSFORMERS

4.24 Armature
The armature is the rotating part of a de generator. It
consists of a commutator. an iron core. and a set of
coils <Fig. 4.30). The armature is keyed to a shaft and
revolves between the field poles. The iron core is
composed of slotted. iron laminations that are stacked
to form a solid cylindrical core. The laminations are
individually coated with an insulating film so that
they do not come in electrical contact with each other.
As a result, eddy-current losses are reduced. The slots
are lined up to provide the space needed to insert the
armature conductors.
The armature conductors carry the load current
delivered by the generator. They are insulated from
the iron core by several layers of paper or mica and Figure 4.31
are firmly held in place by fiber slot sticks. If the ar- Armature lamination with tapered slots.
mature current is below I0 A. round wire is used:
but for currents exceeding 20 A. rectangular con- iron teeth fiber slot stick
ductors are preferred because they make better use
of the available slot space. The lamination of a
small armature is shov.m in 4.31. A cross sec-
tion view of the slot of a large armature is shown in
4.32.

Figure 4.32
Cross-section of a slot containing 4 conductors.

4.25 Commutator and brushes

The commutator is composed of an assembly of ta-
pered copper segments insulated from each other by
mica sheets, and mounted on the shaft of the ma-
chine (Fig. 4.33). The armature conductors are con-
nected to the commutator in a manner we will ex-
plain in Section 4.26.
Great care is taken in building the commutator
because any eccentricity will cause the brushes to
Figure 4.30
Armature of a de generator showing the commutator, bounce, producing unacceptable sparking. The
stacked laminations, slots, and shaft. sparks burn the brushes and overheat and carbonize
(Courtesy of General Electric Company, USA) the commutator.
 DIRECT-CURRENT GENERATORS 87

yoke that permits the entire brush assembly to be ro-

tated through an angle and then locked in the neutral
position. In going around the commutator. the suc-
cessive brush sets have positive and negative polari-
ties. Brushes having the same polarity are connected
together and the leads are brought out to one positive
and one negative terminal (Fig. 4.34b).
The brushes are made of carbon because it has
good electrical conductivity and its softness docs
not score the commutator. To improve the conduc-
tivity. a small amount of copper is sometimes mixed
segment with the carbon. The brush pressure is set by means
of adjustable springs. If the pressure is too great the
friction produces excessive heating of the commu-
tator and brushes: on the other hand, if it is too
Figure 4.33 weak. the imperfect contact may produce sparking.
Commutator of a de machine.

A 2-pole generator has two brushes fixed dia-

metrically opposite to each other (Fig. 4.34a). They (a)
slide on the commutator and ensure good electrical
contact between the revolving armature and the sta-
tionary external load.
Multi pole machines possess as many brush sets as
they have poles. The brush sets, in turn, are composed
(b)~. spnng

of one or more brushes. depending upon the current

that has to be cmTied. In Fig. 4.35c. for example, two
brushes mounted side-by-side make up the brush set.
The brush sets are spaced at equal intervals around the
commutator. They are supported by a movable brush

Figure 4.35
(al (bl a. Carbon brush and ultraflexible copper lead.
b. Brush holder and spring to exert pressure.
Figure 4.34 c. Brush set composed of two brushes, mounted on
a. Brushes of a 2-pole generator. rocker arm.
b. Brushes and connections of a 6-pole generator. (Courtesy of General Electric Company, USA)
88 ELECTRIC!\L l\4ACHINES AND TRANSFORA1ERS

The pressure is usually about 15 kPa ( 2 lb/irr\ 4.26 Details of a multipole generator
and the permissible current density is approxi-
In order to get a better understanding of multipole
mately I 0 A/cm 2 ("'"' 65 A/i1h. Thus. a typical brush
generators. let us examine the construction of a 12-
having a cross section of 3 cm X I cm 1.2 in X
pole machine. Fig. 4.38a is the schematic diagram
0.4 in) exerts a pressure of 4.5 N ( I lb) and can
of such a machine having T2 slots on the armature.
carrv a current of about 30 A.
72 segments on the commutator. and 72 coils. The
Fi£. 4.36 shows the construction of a modern
armat~ire has a lap winding. and the reader should
4-pol~ de generator. In order to appreciate the
note how similar it is to the schematic uiagram of a
progress that has been mat.le. Fig. 4.37 shows a gen-
2-pole machine (Fig. 4.11 b). Coils A and Care mo-
erator that was built in 1889.

Figure 4.36
Sectional view of a 100 kW, 250 V, 1750 r/min 4-pole de generator.
(Courtesy of General Electric Company, USA)
 The voltage generated between brushes x and y is
equal to the sum of the voltages generated by the five
coils connected to commutator segments 1-2. 2-3.
3-4, 4-5. and 5-6. The voltages between the other
brush sets are similarly generated five coil'>.
The (-:..) brush sets are connected together to
form the ( +) terminal. The ( - ) brush sets are simi-
larly connected to form the ( - ) terminal. These
connections are not shown on the diagram. For sim-
ilar reasons of clarity. we do not show the interpoles
that are placed between the N. S poles.
4.38h gives a detailed view of the armature
coils lying between brushes x and y. Only the three
coils A. B. and Care shown so as not to complicate the
diagram. Coil A has its coil sides in slots I and 7, while
those of coil Bare in slots 4 and I0. Fuithermore. coil
A is connected to commutator segments 72 and I,
while coil B is connected to segments 3 and 4.
In the position shown. the coil-sides of coil A are
in the neutral zone between the poles. Consequently.
Figure 4.37 no voltage is induced in coil A. On the other hand.
This direct-current Thompson generator was first in- the coil sides of B are directly under the N and S
stalled in 1889 to light the streets of Montreal. It deliv- poles. The voltage in coil Bis maximum at this mo-
ered a current of 250 A at a voltage of 110 V Other prop- ment. Consequently. the voltage between adjacent
erties of this pioneering machine include the following: commutator segments 3 and 4 is maximum.
Speed 1300 r/min The voltage in coil C is also zero because its coil
2390 kg
sides are sweeping across the neutral zone. Note
Total weight
that the positive and negative brushes each short-
Armature diameter 292 mm
circuit coils having zero induced voltage.
Stator internal diameter 330 111111
Number of commutator bars 76
Armature conductor size #4 Example 4-2
Shunt field conductor size # 14 The generator in Fig. 4.38 generates 240 Y between
adjacent brushes and delivers a current of 2400 A
A modern generator having the same power and to the load.
speed weighs 7 times less and occupies only 1/3 the
floor space. Calcu/({tC
a. The current delivered per brush set
h. The current flowing in each coil
111e11tarily in the neutral zone. while coil Bis cutting c. The average voltage induced per coil
the flux coming from the center of the poles.
Solution
The coil width (known as coil pitch) is such that
a. A current of 2400 A flows out of the ( ) terminal
the coil sides cut the flux coming from adjacent N.
and hack into the ( - ) terminal of the generator.
S poles. Thus. the coil sides of coil B lie under the
There are 12 brush sets. 6 positive and 6 negative.
center of pole 2 and the center of pole 3. Similarly,
The current per brush set is
the coil sides of coil A are in the neutral zones be-
tween poles I. 2 and poles 2. 3. I = 2400/6 = 400 A
90 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORlvlERS

Figure 4.38a
Schematic diagram of a 12-pole, 72-coil de generator.

Figure 4.38b
Closeup view of the armature coils between adjacent brushes.
 DIRECT-CURRENT GENERATORS 91

b. Each positive brush set gathers current from the

coils to the right and to the left of the brush.
Consequently. the current in each coil is
I 40012 200 A 71 4

c. There are six coils between adjacent brush sets. (a)

The average voltage per coil is

240/6 40 v
- - -
=

-40 40 20 40 40

4.27 The ideal commutation

process 71 4

When a generator is under load. the individual coils (b)

on the annature carry one-half the load current carried
by one brush. The currents flowing in the armature
wincJings next to a positive brush are shown in Fig.
40 40 0 40 40
4J9a. Note that the currents in the coils flow toward
the brush. coming both from the right and the left. 1f
the load current is 80 A, the coils all carry 40 A.
71 4
If the commutator segments are moving from
right to left. the coils on the right-hand side or the
Cc)
brush will soon be on the left-hand side. This means
that the current in these coils must reverse. The re-
versal takes place during the millisecond interval that
40 40 20 40 40
a coil takes to move from one end of the brush to the
other. The process whereby the current changes di-
rection in this brief interval is called comnutf(tfion.
To understand how commutation takes place. we 71 4

refer to Figs. 4.39a to 4.39e.

(d)
In Fig. 4.39a the brush is in the middle of seg-
ment l. and the 40 A from the coils on the right and
the left of the brush unite to give the 80 A output.
The contact resistance between the segment and
brush produces a voltage drop of about I V.
In 4.39b the commutator has moved a
short distance, and 25 percent of the brush surface 71 4

is now in contact with segment 2. while 75 per-

(e)
cent is in contact with segment I. Owing to the
contact resistance. the conductiFity between the
brush and commutator is proportional to the con- Figure 4.39
tact area. The area in contact with segment 2 is Commutation of the current in coil 1. Inductive effects
only one-fourth of the total contact area. and so are neglected and current reversal is caused by the
the current from segment 2 is only one-fourth of brush contact resistance.
the total current. namely 0.25 X 80 = 20 A. By
92 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS

the same token. the current from segment 1 to the commutator bars sweep past the brush. Thus, the
brush is 0.75 X 80 60 A. time available to reverse the current in coil I i:-. only
If we now apply Kirchhoff\, current law. we dis- 1/10 X 1/72 = 1/720 s or 1.39 ms!
cover that the current flowing in coil I must be 20 A. The voltage induced by self-induction is given by
Thus. by coming in contact with the brush. the cur-
e U:.l/J.t (4.2)
rent in this coil has dropped from 40 A to 20 A.
In Fig. 4.39c the commutator has moved a little in which
fu1ther. and the brush area in contact with segments I
e = induced [VJ
and 2 is now the same. Consequently. the conductiv-
L = inductance of the coil IHI
ities are the same and so the CUITents are equal. This
:!.// .3.t = rate of change of current f A/s I
means that the current in coil l is zero at this instant.
In Fig. 4.39d the commutator has moved still far- If coil I has an inductance of. say. I 00 µH. the in-
ther to the left. Segment 2 is now in contact with 75 duced voltage is
percent of the brush, and so the currents divide ac-
e LjJ/1.t
cordingly: 60 A from segment 2 and 20 A from seg-
ment I. Applying Kirchhoff\ current law. we find
I()() x I0 6
x I + 40 40) I
that the current in coi I I is 20 A. but it flows 1.39 x 10
in the opposite direction to what it did before! We 5.75 v
can now understand how the brush contact resis- It is the presence of this induced voltage (attribut-
tance forces a progressive reversal of the current as able to L). that opposes the change in current.
the segments slide over the brush. 4.40a to 4.40e illustrate the new currents
In Fig. 4.39e the current reversal in coil I i:-. com- that flow in coil I when the self-inductance of the
plete and the current in coil 2 is about to be reversed. coil is considered. We have assumed plausible val-
Jn this ideal commutation process. it is important ues for these currents in order to determine the re-
to note that the current density (amperes per square sulting current flows in the brush. The currents
centimeter) remains the same at every point across should he compared with those in Fig. 4.39.
the brush face. Thus, the heat produced by the con- In 4.40a the brush is in the middle of seg-
tact resistance is spread uniformally across the ment I. and the currents in the coils are neither in-
brush surface. Unfortunately. such ideal commuta- creasing or decreasing. As a result, the coil induc-
tion is not possible in practical machines. and we tance does not come into play.
now investigate the reason why. In 4.40h the current in coil l is changing due
to the contact resistance effect. However. the in-
4.28 The practical commutation duced voltage e prevents the current from dropping
to its ideal value of 20 A. Suppose the coil current
process
is 35 A. From Kirchhoff's current law. the currents
The problem with commutation is that it takes place flowing from segments I and 2 into the brush are
in a very short time: consequently. the current can- then respectively 75 A and SA. instead of 60 A and
not reverse as quickly as it should. The reason is 20 A. Note that the current density is no longer uni-
that the armature coils have inductance and it form over the brush face. The density is low where
strongly opposes a rapid change in current. the brush touches segment 2. and high where it
Suppose, for example. that the commutator in touches segment 1.
Fig. 4.39 has 72 bars and that the armature turns at In Fig. 4.40c the brush is momentarily symmetri-
600 r/min. One revolution i:-.. therefore. completed cally placed a:-. segments I and 2. But the cur-
in 1/10 of a second and during this sh01t period 72 rent in coil I ha:-. not fallen to zero. and is still. say.
 f>IRECT-CURRENTGENERATORS 93

30 A. As a result. the current in segmcnl l is 70 A

while that in segment 2 is only I 0 A. The current den-
sity on the lefl-hand side of the brush is. therefore. 7
times greater than on the right-hand side. The left-
hand side of the brush will tend to overheat.
In Fig. 4.40d segment I has moved beyond the
(a) midpoint of the brush and the current in coil 1 has
still not reversed. Assuming it has a value of 20 A.
the current flowing from segment 1 to the brush is
now 60 A. despite the fact that the contact area is
getting very small. The resulting high current den-
sity causes the brush to overheat at the tip. Because
720 coils are being commutated every second, this
overheating raises the brush tip to the incandescent
(b) point and serious sparking will result.
In designing de motors and generators. every
effort is made to reduce the self-inductance of the
coils. One of the most effective ways is to reduce
the number of turns per coil. But for a given out-
put voltage. this means that the number of coils
must be increased. And more coils implies more
71 4
commutator bars. Thus. in practice. direct-current
(c) generators have a large number of coils and com-
mutator bars not so much to reduce the ripple in
the output voltage but to overcome the problem of
commutation.
Another important factor in aiding commutation
is that the mmf of the commutating poles is always
made slightly greater than the armature mmf.
Therefore, a small flux is created in the neutral
(d) zone. As the coil side undergoing commutation
sweeps through this flux. a voltage is induced in the
coil which opposes the voltage due to the self-
inductance of the coil.
In addition to these measures. the composition of
the brush is carefully chosen. It affects the brush
71 4 voltage drop. which can vary from 0.2 V to as much
as 1.5 V. This drop occurs between the surface of
(e) the brush and the commutator surface. A large brush
drop helps commutation. but unfortunately it in-
creases the losses. As a result. the commutator and
Figure 4.40
brushes become hotter and the efficiency of the
Commutation of the current in coil 1. The coil induc-
tance opposes the reversal of current. generator is slightly reduced.
94 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS

Questions and Problems resistance is 100 !L calculate the mmf when

the machine operates at rated voltage
Proctico/ /el'('/ a. At no-load
4-1 Sketch the main components of a de gener- b. At full-load
ator. 4-12 Fig. 4. l 8b shows the no-load -.aturation
4-2 Why are the brushes of a de machine al- curve of a separately excited de generator
ways placed at the neutral points? when it revolves at 1500 r/min. Calculate
4-3 Describe the construction of a commutator. the exciting current needed to generate
4-4 How is the induced voltage of a separately 120 V at 1330 r/min.
excited de generator affected if 4-13 Referring to Fig. 4.10. the induced voltage
a. the speed increases'? in coil Dis momentarily 18 V. in the posi-
b. the exciting current is reduced'? tion shown. Calculate the voltages induced
4-5 How do we adjust the voltage of a shunt in coils A, B, and Cat the same instant.
generator?
4-14 Referring to Fig. 4.11 b. calculate the volt-
4-6 The terminal voltage of a shunt generator age induced in coil A when the armature
decreases with increasing load. Explain. has rotated by 90°; by 120°.
4-7 Explain why the output voltage of an over- 4-15 Brush x is positive with respect to brush y
compound generator increases as the load in Fig. 4.11 b. Show the polarity of each of
increases. the 12 coils. Does the polarity reverse when
4-8 Explain the difference between shunt compound. a coil turns through 180°?
and differential compound generators 4-16 The generator of Fig. 4.38 revolves at 960
a. as to construction r/min and the flux per pole is 20 mWb.
b. as to electrical properties
Calculate the no-load armature \'Oltage if
lntennediote lei·e/ each armature coil has 6 turns.
4-9 A separate excited de generator turning at 4-17 a. How many brush sets are needed for the gen-
1400 r/min produces an induced voltage of erator in Fig. 4.38'?
127 V. The armature resistance is 2 H and b. If the machine delivers a total load current of
the machine delivers a current of 12 A. 1800 A. calculate the current flowing in each
armature coil.
Colculote
a. The terminal voltage IV] Ad\'(mced /ei·e/
b. The heat dissipated in the armature [W] 4-18 The voltage between brushes x and y is
c. The braking torque exerted by the armature 240 V in the generator shown in Fig. 4.38.
IN·ml Why can we say that the voltage between
4-10 A separately excited de generator pro- segments 3 and 4 11111st be greater than
duces a no-load voltage of 115 V. What 40 V?
happens if 4-19 Referring to Fig. 4.10. determine the polar-
a. The speed is increased by 20 percent'? ity of E . . y when the armature turns counter-
h. The direction of rotation is reversed'.' clockwise.
c. The exciting current is increased by I 0 percent'?
4-20 a. In Fig. 4.38 determine the polarity of E,_, be-
d. The polarity of the field is reversed?
tween commutator segments 3 and -1-. know-
4-11 Each pole of a 100 kW. 250 V flat-compound ing that the armature is turning clockwise.
generator has a shunt field of 2000 turns and b. At the same instant, what is the polarity of
a series field of 7 turns. If the total shunt-field segment 35 with respect to segment 34''
 DIRECT-CURRENT GENERATORS 95

4-21 The armature shown in Fig. 5.4 (Chapter 5) Industrial Application

has 81 slots, and the commutator has 243 4-24 A 240 kW, 500 V 1750 r/min separately
segments. It will be wound to give a 6-pole excited de generator has an overall effi-
lap winding having 1 turn per coil. If the ciency of 94%. The shunt field resistance
flux per field pole is 30 mWb, calculate the is 60 ohms and the rated current is 5 A.
following: The PR loss in the armature is 0.023 pu.
a. The induced voltage at a speed of
1200 r/min Calculate
b. The average flux density per pole a. The rated armature current
c. The time needed to reverse the current in b. The total losses in the machine
each armature coil. knowing that the brushes c. The PR losses in the armature
are 15 mm wide and that the diameter of the
4-25 The generator in Problem 4-24 weighs
commutator is 450 mm.
2600 lb. Calculate the output in watts per
4-22 A 200 W, 120 V, 1800 r/min de generator kilogram.
has 75 commutator bars. The brush width is
4-26 In Problem 4-24 calculate the torque re-
such as to cover 3 commutator segments.
quired to drive the generator at 1750 r/min.
Show that the duration of the commutation
(The shunt field is powered by a separate
process is equal to 1.33 ms.
source.)
4-23 A 4-pole 250 kW, 750V de generator has a
4-27 A 4-pole de generator delivers a current of
lap winding on the armature.
218 A. The average brush voltage drop on
Cairn/ate each of the four brush sets is found to be
a. The full-load current of the generator 0.6 V. Calculate the total brush loss in the
b. The current carried by the armature coils machine, neglecting friction loss.
 CHAPTER 5
Direct-Current Motors

5.0 Introduction Today. this general statement can be challenged

because the availability of sophisticated electronic

N ow lhal we have a good understanding of de gen-

erators. we can begin our study of de motors.
Direct-current motors transform electrical energy
drives has made it possible to use alternating current
motors for variable speed applications. Nevertheless.
there are millions of de motors still in service and
into mechanical energy. They drive devices such as
thousands more are being produced every year.
hoists. fans. pumps. calendars. punch-presses. and
car:-.. These devices may have a definite torque-speed
characteristic (such as a pump or fan) or a highly vari-
able one (:-.uch as a hoist or automobile). The torque-
5.1 Counter-electromotive
speed characteristic of the motor must be adapted to force (cemf)
the type of the load it has to drive. and this require- Direct-current motors are built the same way as
ment has given rise to three basic types of motors: generators are; consequently. a de machine can op-
I. Shunt motors erate either as a motor or as a generator. To illus-
trate. consider a de generator in which the armature.
1 Series motors
initially at rest. is connected to a de source by
3. Compound motors means of a switch (Fig. 5.1 ). The armature has a re-
Direct-current motors are seldom used in ordinary sistance R. and the magnetic field is created by a set
industrial applications because all electric utility sys- of permanent magnets.
tems furnish alternating current. However. for spe- As soon as the switch is closed. a large current
cial applications such as in steel mills. mines. and flows in the armature because its resistance is very
electric trains. it is sometimes advantageous to trans- low. The individual armature conductors are imme-
form the alternating current into direct current in or- diately subjected to a force because they are im-
der to use de motors. The reason is that the torque- mersed in the magnetic field created by the perma-
speed characteristics of de motors can be varied over nent magnets. These forces add up to produce a
a wide range while retaining high efficiency. powerful torque. causing: the armature to rotate.

96
 DIRECT-CURRl:NT MOTORS 97

5.2 Acceleration of the motor

The net voltage acting in the armature circuit in Fig.
5.2 is(£, - E.J volts. The resulting armature current
I is limited only hy the armature resistance R. and so
(5.1)

When the motor is at rest, the induced voltage

£ 0 = 0, and so the starting current is
Figure 5.1 I= EJR
Starting a de motor across the line.
The starting current may he 20 to 30 times
On the other hand. as soon as the armature be- greater than the nominal fol !-load current of the mo-
gins to turn. a second phenomenon takes place: the tor. In practice. this would cause the fuses to blow
generator effect. We know that a voltage £ 0 is in- or the circuit-breakers to trip. However. if they arc
duced in the armature conductors as soon as they absent. the large forces acting on the armature con-
cul a magnetic field (Fig. 5.2). This is always true, ductors produce a powerful starting torque and a
110 motter whot cw1ses the rotation. The value and consequent rapid acceleration of the armature.
polarity or the induced voltage are the same as those As the speed increases. the counter-emf £ 0 in-
obtained when the machine operates as a generator. creases. with the result that the value of (E, - £ 0 )
The induced voltage £ 0 is therefore proportional to diminishes. It follows from Eq. 5.1 that the armature
the speed of rotation n of the motor and to the flux current I drops progressively as the speed increases.
lf) per pole, as previously given hy Eq. 4.1: Although the armature current decreases. the
motor continues to accelerate until it reaches a def-
£ 0 = Zncl>f 60 (4.1)
inite. maximum speed. At no-load this speed pro-
As in the case of a generator. Z is a constant that de- duces a counter-emf £ 0 slightly less than the source
pends upon the number of turns on the armature and voltage £,. In effect, if £ 0 11·ere equal to£,. the net
the type of winding. For lap windings Z is equal to voltage (£, - E) would become zero and so. too.
the number of armature conductors. would the current/. The driving forces would cease
In the case of a motor. the induced voltage £ 0 is to act on the armature conductors. and the mechan-
called co1111ter-electromoti1·e force (cemf) because ical drag imposed by the fan and the hearings would
its polarity always acts ogoinst the source voltage immediately cause the motor to slow down. As the
E,. It acts against the voltage in the sense that the speed decreases the net voltage(£, - £ 0 ) increases
net voltage acting in the series circuit of Fig. 5.2 is and so does the current /. The speed will cease to
equal to(£, - £ 0 ) volts and not(£, + £ 0 ) volts. fall as soon as the torque developed by the armature
current is equal to the load torque. Thus. when a
motor runs at no-load, the counter-emf must be
slightly less than£,. so as to enable a small current
+ to flow, sufficient to produce the required torque.

Example 5-1
The armature of a permanent-magnet de generator has
a resistance of I n and generates a voltage of 50 Y
when the speed is 500 r/min. If the armature is con-
Figure 5.2 nected to a source of I 50 V. calculate the following:
Counter-electromotive force (cemf) in a de motor. a. The starting current
98 UJ:ClRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORJ'v!ERS

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 5.3
See Example 5.1

b. The counter-emf when the motor runs at I 000 5.3 Mechanical power and torque
r/min. At 1460 r/min.
c. The armature current at I 000 r/min. At 1460 The power and torque of a de motor are two of its
r/min. most important properties. We now derive two sim-
ple equations that enable us to calculate them.
Solutio11
a. At the moment of start-up. the armature is sta- I. According to 4.1 the cemf induced in a lap-
tionary. so £ 0 = 0 V <Fig. 5.3a). The starting cur- wound armature is given by
rent is limited only by the armature resistance: £ 0 Zn<l>/60 (4.1)
I=EJR ISOV/10 150A Referring to 5.2. the electrical power Pa sup-
b. Because the generator voltage is 50 V at 500 plied to the armature is equal to the supply voltage
r/min, the cemf of the motor will be I 00 V at £, multiplied by the armature current I:
IOOO r/min and 146 Vat 1460 r/min. (5.2)
c. The net voltage in the armature circuit at I 000
r/min is However. is equal to the sum of £ 0 plus the IR
drop in the armature:
- £0 = 150 I 00 = 50 V
= £ 0 +IR (5.3)
The corresponding armature current is
It follows that
I = (£, E,JIR
Pa EJ
= 50/1 50 A (Fig. 5.3b)
(£0+ IR)I
When the motor speed reaches 1460 r/min. the EJ + {'R (5.4)
cemf will be 146 V. almost equal to the source volt-
age. Under these conditions. the armature current The PR term represents heat dissipated in the ar-
is only mature, but the very important term EJ is the
electrical power that is converted into mechanical
I ( E, - E)I R ( 150 - 146 )/I power. The mechanical power of the motor is
=4A therefore exactly equal to the product of the cemf
multiplied by the armature current
and the corresponding motor torque 1s much
P= EJ (5.5)
smaller than before (Fig. 5.3c).
 DIRECTCURRENT MOTOR.\' 99

where where
P= mechanical power developed by the T torque [N·m]
motor [W) Z number of conductors on the armature
£ 0 = induced voltage in the armature (cernf) cp =effective flux per pole IWbl*
IV] I armature current l A I
6.28 constant, to take care of units
I = total current supplied to the armature [A I
lexact value 211' l
' Turning our attention to torque T, we know
that the mechanical power P is given by the 5.6 shows that we can raise the torque of a
expression motor either by raising the armature current or by
raising the flux created by the poks.
P nT/9.55 (3.5)

where n is the speed of rotation. Example 5-2

The following details are given on a 225 kW(= 300
Combining 3.5, 4.1. and we obtain hp). 250 Y. 1200 r/min de motor (see Figs. 5.4 and
nT/9.55 EJ 5.5):
Zn(D//60 armature coils 243
turns per coil
and so
type of winding lap
T Z(l)//6.28 armature slots 81
The torque developed by a lap-wound motor is
commutator segments 2-U
field poles 6
therefore given by the expression
diameter of armature 559 111111
T Z~//6.28 (5.6) axial length of armature 235 111111

The effective flu;. i~ gi\Cll hy (I> 60 tjZ11.

Figure 5.4
Bare armature and commutator of a de motor rated 225 kW, 250 V, 1200 r/min. The armature core has a diameter
of 559 mm and an axial length of 235 mm. It is composed of 400 stacked laminations 0.56 mm thick. The armature
has 81 slots and the commutator has 243 bars. (H. Roberge)
100 ELECTRICAi, 1\4ACfl/NESAND TRANSFORMERS

Figure 5.5
a. Armature of Fig. 5.4 in the process of being wound; coil-forming machine gives the coils the desired shape.
b. One of the 81 coils ready to be placed in the slots.
c. Connecting the coil ends to the commutator bars.
d. Commutator connections ready for brazing. (H. Roberge)

Co/cu/ate T 9.55 Pin

a. The rated armature current = 9 .55 x 225 000/1200
b. The number of conductors per slot
1791 N·m
c. The flux per pole
The flux per pole is
Solllfion
a. We can assume that the induced voltage 1s <I> = 6.28 TIZI
nearly equal to the applied voltage (250 V). (6.28 x 1790)1(486 x 900)
The rated armature current is = 25.7 rnWb
I = Pl £ 0 225 000/250
5.4 Speed of rotation
900A
When a de motor drives a load between no-load and
b. Each coil is made up of 2 conductors, so alto- full-load. the IR drop due to armature resistance i.;;
gether there are 243 X 2 486 conductors on always small compared to the supply voltage E,.
the armature. This means that the counter-emf E0 is very nearly
equal to E,.
Conductors per slot 486181 6
On the other hand. we have already seen that £ 0
Coil sides per slot 6 may be expressed by the equation
c. The motor torque is Zn<Pl60 (4.1)
 DIRECT-CURRENT MOTORS 101

i
ix (variable) <l>G <f>M ix

~ EJ
- tI
generator
motor armature
field

I
motor field
(fixed)

Figure 5.6
Ward-Leonard speed control system.

Replacing £ 0 by E,, we obtain 3-phase line. This method of speed control, known
as the Ward-Leonard system, is found in steel
~:A mills, high-rise elevators, mines, and paper mills.
That is, In modern installations the generator is often re-
:R.E1R A
•:--1t£:~c:A
60£, (approx) ·iD.n•. placed by a high-power electronic converter that
n ·~\\UN.,..
zcD changes the ac power of the electrical utility to de,
where by electronic means.
The Ward-Leonard system is more than just a
11 =speed of rotation [r/min] simple way of applying a variable de voltage to the
E, =armature voltage lYJ armature of a de motor. It can actually force the mo-
Z = total number of armature conductors tor to develop the torque and speed required by the
This important equation shows that the speed of the load. For example, suppose £, is adjusted to be
motor is directly proportional to the armature supply slightly higher than the cemf £ 0 of the motor.
voltage and inversely proportional to the flux per Current will then flow in the direction shown in Fig.
pole. We will now study how this equation is applied. 5.6, and the motor develops a positive torque. The
armature of the motor absorbs power because I
flows into the positive terminal.
5.5 Armature speed control Now, suppose we reduce E, by reducing the gen-
According to Eq. 5.7, if the flux per pole Cf) is kept erator excitation Cf\;. As soon as E, becomes less than
constant (permanent magnet field or field with £ 0
, current I reverses. As a result, ( I) the motor torque
fixed excitation), the speed depends only upon the reverses and (2) the armature of the motor delil·ers
armature voltage£,. By raising or lowering£,, the power to generator G. In effect, the de motor suddenly
motor speed will rise and fall in proportion. becomes a generator and generator G suddenly be-
In practice, we can vary £, by connecting the comes a motor. The electric power that the de motor
motor armature M to a separately excited variable- now delivers to G is derived at the expense of the ki-
voltage de generator G (Fig. 5.6). The field excita- netic energy of the rapidly decelerating armature and
tion of the motor is kept constant, but the generator its connected mechanical load. Thus, by reducing l',,
excitation Ix can be varied from zero to maximum the motor is suddenly forced to slow down.
and even reversed. The generator output voltage What happens to the de power received by gen-
E, can therefore be varied from zero to maxi- erator G? When G receives electric power, it oper-
mum, with either positive or negative polarity. ates as a motor, driving its own ac motor as an asyn-
Consequently, the motor speed can be varied from chronous generator!* As a result, ac power is fed
zero to maximum in either direction. Note that the
generator is driven by an ac motor connected to a The asynchronous generator is explained in Chapter 14.
102 l~Ll:'CTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS

back into the line that normally feeds the ac motor. P EJ 380 X 3000 1140 kW
The fact that pO\ver can he recovered this way
Braking torque developed by the motor:
makes the Ward-Leonard system very efficient, and
constilule.s another of its advantages. T 9.55Pln
(9.55 x I 140 000)/228
Example 5-3
A 2000 kW. 500 V. variable-speed motor is driven
= 47.8 kN·m
by a 2500 kW generator, using a Ward-Leonard The speed of the motor and its connected me-
control system shown in Fig. 5.6. The total resis- chanical load will rapidly drop under the influence
tance of the motor and generator armature circuit is of this electromechanical braking torque.
I0 mH. The motor turns at a nominal speed of 300 Rheostat Speed Control Another way to control
r/min, when is 500 Y. the speed of a de motor is to place a rheostat in se-
Calrn/ote ries with the armature (Fig. 5.7). The current in the
a. The motor torque and speed when rheostat produces a voltage drop which subtracts
from the fixed source voltage yielding a smaller
E, 400 V and E0 380 V supply voltage across the armature. This method en-
b. The motor torque and speed when ables us to reduce the speed below its nominal
speed. It is only recommended for small motors be-
E, = 350 V and = 380Y
cause a lot of power and heat is wasted in the rheo-
Solution stat. and the overall efficiency is low. Furthermore.
a. The armature current is the speed regulation is poor. even for a fixed setting
of the rheostat. In effect. the IR drop across the rheo-
I ( £, - E0 ) /R (400 - 380)/0.0 I
stat increases as the armature current increases. This
:woo A produces a substantial drop in speed with increasing
The power to the motor armature is mechanical load.

P = EJ 380 X 2000 = 760 kW __!_

+
The motor speed is
1
/x
lla
n = (380 V/500 V) X 300 = 228 r/min R
armature I
The motor torque is I
i
rheostat I
£,
T = 9.55Pln I
shunt
= (9.55 x 760 000)/228 field

31.8 kN·m
b. Because £(1 380 V, the motor speed is still Figure 5.7
228 r/111i11. Armature speed control using a rheostat.
The armature current is

I (E, £ 0 )/R (350 380)/0.01 5.6 Field speed control

= - 3000 A
According to Ey. 5.7 we can also vary the speed of
!'he current is negative and so it flows in re- a de motor by varying the field flux <I>. Let us now
ver-;e; consequently. the motor torque also reverses. keep the armature voltage constant so that the
Power returned by the motor to the generator numerator in Eq. 5.7 is constant. Consequently, the
and th.: I0 rnH resistance: motor speed now changes in inverse proportion to
 f)fRECT-CURRENT MOTORS 10'.1

the flux cp: if we increase the flux the speed will changes dramatically because its value depends
drop. and vice versa. upon the very small difference between and
This method of speed control is frequently used Despite the weaker field. the motor develops a
when the motor has to run above its rated greater torque than before. It will accelerate until
called base speed. To control the flux (and hence, is again almost equal to E~.
the speed), we connect a rheostat R1 in series with Clearly. to develop the same with a weaker
the field (Fig. 5.8a). flux. the motor must turn faster. We can therefore
To understand this method of speed control, sup- raise the motor speed above its nominal value by in-
pose that the motor in Fig. 5.8a is initially running troducing a resistance in series with the field. For
at constant speed. The counter-emf £ 0 is slightly shunt-wound motors. this method of speed control
less than the armature supply voltage £,, due to the enables higlH.peed/base-speed ratios as high as 3 to
JR drop in the armature. If we suddenly increase the I. Broader speed ranges tend to produce instability
resistance of the rheostat both the exciting current and poor commutation.
I, and the flux <I> will diminish. This immediately Under certain abnormal conditions, the flux may
reduces the cemf £ 0 • causing the armature current I drop to dangerously low values. For example, if the
to jump to a much higher value. The current exciting current of a shunt motor is inte1rnpted acci-
dentally, the only flux remaining is that due to the re-
- I
manent magnetism in the poles.* This flux is so small
that the motor has to rotate at a dangerously high
field
rheostat speed to induce the required cemf. Safety devices are
1/ introduced to prevent such runaway conditions.
(a) Ix 1 Es
5.7 Shunt motor under load
shunt
field·- ---; Consider a de motor running at no-load. If a me-
chanical load is suddenly applied to the shaft. the
small no-load current does not produce enough
torque to carry the load and the motor begins to
slow down. This causes the cemf to diminish, re-
p.u l /
sulting in a higher current and a corresponding
2
Tvs n I/ higher torque. When the torque developed by the
/
// T vs I motor is exactly equal to the torque imposed by the
/' i mechanical load, then. and only then. will the speed
T l/ remain constant (see Section 3.11 ). To sum up, as
(b)
i /'
I/
./' i
I/ """ rated load
the mechanical load increases, the armature current
rises and the speed drops.
The speed of a shunt motor stays relatively con-
/ I stant from no-load to full-load. In small motors, it
/' I
only drops by I 0 to IS percent when full-load is
2 p. u.
speed n
armature current I
The term residual magnetism is also useJ. However. the
Figure 5.8 IEEE Stmrdwd Dic1io11urr of Flcctrirnl wul Ueuro11in
a. Schematic diagram of a shunt motor including the Terms states, " ... If there arc no air gap-. ... in the mag-
field rheostat. netic circuit, the rcmancnt inJuction will equal the resiJual
b. Torque-speed and torque-current characteristic of inJuction: if there are air gaps ... the rcmanent inJuetion
a shunt motor. will he lcs~ than the resiJual inJuction."
JO-+ EU:XTRICAL MACHINES AN[) TRANSFORMERS

applied. In big machines. the drop is even less, due

in part to the very low armature resistance. By ad-
I
justing the field rheostat. the speed can. of course, I
(a) 120 n 120 v
be kept absolutely constant as the load changes.
Typical torque-speed and torque-current charac-
teristics or a shunt motor are shown in 5.8b.
The speed. torque and current are given in per-unit
values. The torque is directly proportional to the ar- 1A 51 A
mature current. Furthermore. the speed changes
only from I. I pu to 0.9 pu as the torque increases
from 0 pu to 2 pu. (b)

Example 5-4
A shunt motor rotating at l 500 r/min is fed by a
120 V source (Fig. 5.9a). The line current is 51 A Figure 5.9
and the shunt-field resistance is 120 n. If the ar- See Example 5.4.
mature resistance is 0.1 n. calculate the following:
a. The current in the armature Mechanical power developed by the armature is
b. The counter-emf p = 6000 250 5750 w
c. The mechanical power developed by the motor (equivalent to 5750/746 = 7.7 hp)
So/11tio11: The actual mechanical output is slightly less than
a. The field current (Fig. 5.9b) is 5750 W because some of the mechanical power is
I, 120 VI 120 .0 = I A dissipated in hearing friction losses, in windage
losses. and in armature iron losses.
The armature current is
I 5l SOA 5.8 Series motor
b. The voltage across the armature is A series motor is identical in construction to a
E 120V shunt motor except for the field. The field is con-
nected in series with the armature and must, there-
Voltage drop due to armature resistance is
fore. carry the full armature current (Fig. 5.1 Oa).
IR 50 X 0.1 5V This series.field is composed of a few turns of wire
having a cross section sufficiently large to carry
The cemf generated by the armature is
the current.
£0 120 5 115 v Although the construction b similar, the proper-
ties of a series motor are completely different from
c. The total power supplied to the motor is
those of a shunt motor. In a shunt motor. the flux F
P; El 120 X 51 6120\V per pole is constant at all loads because the shunt
field is connected to the line. But in a series motor
Power absorbed by the armature is
the flux per pole depends upon the armature current
P,. El = 120 x 50 6000 W and. hence. upon the load. \Vhen the current is
large, the flux is large and vice versa. Despite these
Power dissipated in the armature is
differences. the same basic principles and equations
P m2 so=' x 0.1 250\V apply to both machines.
 DIRECT-CURRENT MOTORS 105

(a) I I

+ u - - - - - E, ----o
T
t
(b)

Figure 5.10 ,_ _____,---t-1-/M--~--j---j~-~- -l ! i

a. Series motor connection diagram. -+-·~,<---t----t--t--~-t-
b. Schematic diagram of a series motor. ---l-~.~/--+--+-+-r~~ r-r---L-l--J--t-.i.::~
o2~-L~-
When a series motor operates at full-load, the o 1 2 3 p.u.
flux per pole is the same as that of a shunt motor of ,.. speed /1
identical power and speed. However. when the ,.. armature current I
series motor starts up. the armature current is higher
Figure 5.11
than normal. with the result that the flux per pole is
Typical speed-torque and current-torque characteristic
also greater than normal. It follows that the starting of a series motor.
torque of a series motor is considerably greater than
that of a shunt motor. This can be seen by compar- Conversely. the speed may be lowered by con-
ing the T versus I curves of Figs. 5.8 and 5.11. necting an external resistor in series with the arma-
On the other hand, if the motor operates at less ture and the field. The total IR drop across the re-
than full-load. the armature current and the flux per sistor and field reduces the armature supply
pole are smaller than normal. The weaker field voltage. and so the speed must fall.
causes the speed to rise in the same way as it would Typical torque-speed and torque-current charac-
for a shunt motor with a weak shunt field. For ex- teristics are shown in Fig. 5.11. They are quite dif-
ample. if the load current of a series motor drops to ferent from the shunt motor characteristics given in
half its normal value. the flux diminishes by half and Fig. 5.Sb.
so the speed doubles. Obviously. if the load is small.
the speed may rise to dangerously high values. For Example 5-5
this reason we never permit a series motor to oper- A 15 hp. 240 V. 1780 r/min de series motor has a
ate at no-load. It tends to run away. and the resulting full-load rated current of 54 A. Its operating charac-
centrifugal forces could tear the windings out of the teristics are given by the per-unit curves of Fig. 5.11.
armature and destroy the machine.
Cairn/ate
5.9 Series motor speed control a. The current and speed when the load torque is
24 N·m
When a series motor carries a load. its speed may
b. The efficiency under these conditions
have to be adjusted slightly. Thus. the speed can be
increased by placing a low resistance in parallel Solution
with the series field. The field current is then a. We first establish the base power. base speed.
smaller than before. which produces a drop in flux and base current of the motor. They correspond
and an increase in speed. to the full-load ratings as follows:
 106 ELECTR/C4L MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS

PB= 15 hp= 15 x 746 11 190 w are also used in electric cranes and hoists: light loads
nB 1780 r/min are lifted quickly and heavy loads more slowly.

/B 54 A
5.11 Compound motor
The base torque is. therefore,
A compound de motor carries both a series field and
9.55 Pp a shunt field. In a cumulative cmnJHJllllll mot01; the
T 11 = ' = 9.55 X 11 190/1 780
lln mmf of the two fields add. The shunt field is always
stronger than the series field.
60N·m
5.12 shows the connection and schematic
A load torque of 24 N·rn corresponds to a per- diagrams of a compound motor. When the motor
unit torque of runs at no-load. the armature current I in the series
T(pu) = 24/60 0.4 winding is low and the rnmf of the series field is
negligible. However. the shunt field is fully excited
Referring to Fig. 5.11. a torque of 0.4 pu is at- by current /x and so the motor behaves like a shunt
tained at a speed of 1.4 pu. Thus. the speed is machine: it does not tend to run away at no-load.
n = n(pu) X n 13 1.4 X 1780 As the load increases, the mmf of the series field
increases but the mmf of the shunt field remains
= 2492 r/min
constant. The total mrnf (and the resulting flux per
From the T vs I curve. a torque of 0.4 pu re- pole) is therefore greater under load than at no-load.
quires a current of 0.6 pu. Consequently, the load The motor speed falls with increasing load and the
current is speed drop from no-load to full-load is generally
between 10 percent and 30 percent.
I /(pu) X /B = 0.6 X 54 32.4 A

b. To cakulate the efficiency. we have to know P0

and P;.
P, El = 240 X 32.4 7776 W
P0 = nT/9.55 2492 X 24/9.55
= 6263 w
l) PjP; 626317776 = 0.805 or 80.5ck

5.1 O Applications of the series (a)

motor

I
Series motors are used on equipment requiring a high
starting torque. They are also used to drive devices
which must run at high speed at light loads. The
series motor is particularly well adapted for traction shunt
field
purposes, such as in electric trains. Acceleration is
rapid because the torque is high at low speeds.
Fu11hermore, the series motor automatically slows
down as the train goes up a grade yet turns at top
(b)
I
speed on flat ground. The power of a series motor
tends to be constant, because high torque is accom-
panied by low speed and vice versa. Series motors
Figure 5.12
a. Connection diagram of a de compound motor.
b. Schematic diagram of the motor. '
f
 l>IRECT-CURRENT .MOTORS 107

If the series field is connected so that it opposes

the shunt field. we obtain a differential cm111unmd
morm: In such a motor. the total mmf decreases with
increasing load. The speed rises as the load in-
creases. and this may lead to instability. The differ-
ential compound motor has very few applications.
Fig. 5.13 shows the typical torque-speed curves
of shunt. compound and series motors on a per-unit
basis. Fig. 5.14 shows a typical application of de
motors in a steel mill.

5.12 Reversing the direction

of rotation
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.0 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 To reverse the direction of rotation of a de motor. we
Torque (per-unit) must reverse either ( I ) the armature connections or
Figure 5.13 (2) both the shunt and series field connections. The in-
Typical speed versus torque characteristics of various terpoles are considered to form pai1 of the armature.
de motors. The change in connections is shown in Fig. 5.15.

Figure 5.14
Hot strip finishing mill composed of 6 stands, each driven by a 2500 kW de motor. The wide steel strip is delivered
to the runout table (left foreground) driven by 161 de motors, each rated 3 kW.
(Courtesy of General Electric)
 108 l:LUTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORi'v!ERS

(+) (-) (-) ( +) (-1

shunt field

series
series field series field
field

{a) {b) {c)

Figure 5.15
a. Original connections of a compound motor.
b. Reversing the armature connections to reverse the direction of rotation.
c. Reversing the field connections to reverse the direction of rotation.

5.13 Starting a shunt motor 5.14 Face-plate starter

If we apply full voltage to a stationary shunt motor. 5 .16 shows the schematic diagram of a manual
the starting current in the armature will be very high face-plate starter for a shunt motor. Bare copper
and we run the risk of contacts are connected to current-limiting resistors
R 1 , R 2 • R3 • and R4 . Conducting arm 1 sweeps across
a. Burning out the armature: the contacts when it is pulled to the right by means
b. Damaging the commutator and brushes. due to of insulated handle 2. In the position shown. the
heavy sparking; arm touches dead copper contact M and the motor
c. Overloading the feeder: circuit is open. As we draw the handle to the right.
d. Snapping off the shaft due to mechanical shock: the conducting arm first touches fixed contact N.
e. Damaging the driven equipment because of the The su, y voltage immediately causes full
sudden mechanical hammerblow. field current /, to flow, but the armature current I is
limited by the four resistors in the starter box. The
All de motors must. therefore. be provided with
motor begins to turn and, as the cemf £ 0 builds up.
a means to limit the starting current to reasonable
the armature current gradually falls. When the motor
values. usually between 1.5 and twice full-load cur- speed ceases to rise any more. the arm is pulled to the
rent. One solution is to connect a rheostat in series next contact, thereby removing resistor R 1 from the
with the armature. The resistance is gradually re- armature circuit. The current immediately jumps to a
duced as the motor accelerates and is eventually higher value and the motor quickly accelerates to the
eliminated entirely. when the machine has attained next higher speed. When the speed again levels off.
full speed. we move to the next contact and so forth. until the
Today. electronic methods arc often used to arm finally touches the last contact. The arm is mag-
limit the starting current and to provide speed netically held in this position by a small electromag-
control. net 4, which is in series with the shunt field.
 DIRECT-CURRENT MOTORS I 09

Figure 5.16
Manual face-plate starter for a shunt motor.

If the supply voltage is suddenly intem1pted, or if When the motor is running normally. the direc-
the field excitation should accidentally be cut. the tion of the armature current 11 and the polarity of the
electromagnet releases the arm. allowing it to return cemf £ 0 are as shown in 5. I 7a. Neglecting the
to its dead position. under the pull of spring 3. This armature IR drop, E0 is equal to
safety feature prevents the motor from restarting un- If we suddenly open the switch (Fig. 5. I 7b ), the
expectedly when the supply voltage is reestablished. motor continues to turn, but its speed will gradually
drop due to friction and windage losses. On the
5.15 Stopping a motor other hand, because the shunt field is still excited,
induced voltage continues to exist, falling at the
One is inclined to believe that stopping a de motor is
same rate as the speed. ln essence, the motor is now
a simple. almost trivial, operation. Unfmtunately. this
a generator whose armature is on open-circuit.
is not always true. When a large de motor is coupled
Let us close the switch on the second set of con-
to a heavy inertia load, it may take an hour or more for
tacts so that the armature is suddenly connected to
the system to come to a halt. For many reasons such
the external resistor (Fig. 5. I 7c ). Voltage will im-
a lengthy deceleration time is often unacceptable and,
mediately produce an armature current However,
under these circumstances. we must apply a braking
this current flows in the opposite direction to the
torque to ensure a rapid stop. One way to brake the
original current 11• lt follows that a reverse torque is
motor is by simple mechanical friction, in the same
developed whose magnitude depends upon 12 . The
way we stop a car. A more elegant method consists of
reverse torque brings the machine to a rapid. but
circulating a reverse current in the armature. so as to
very smooth stop.
brake the motor electrically. Two methods are em-
ployed to create such an electromechanical brake: ( 1)
dynamic braking and (2) plugging.

5.16 Dynamic braking

Consider a shunt motor whose field is directly con-
nected to a source and whose armature is con-
nected to the same source by means of a double-
throw switch. The switch connects the armature to Figure 5.17a
either the line or to an external resistor R (Fig. 5.17). Armature connected to a de source
 110 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS

%
100

rr •
I
+

R
75

Li
Figure 5.17b seconds
T0 2T0 ·',,. 3T0
Armature on open circuit generating a voltage E0 . -Time .

Figure 5.18
Speed versus time curves tor various braking methods.

reversing the armature current by reversing the ter-

minals of the source (Fig. 5. l 9a).
Under normal motor conditions. armature cur-
rent 11 is given by

Figure 5.17c 11 (E, - E 0 )/R0

Dynamic braking.
where R0 is the armature resistance. If we suddenly
reverse the terminals of the source, the net voltage
In practice. resistor R is chosen so that the initial
acting on the armature circuit becomes (£0 + £,).
braking current is about twice the rated motor cur-
The so-called counter-emf £ 0 of the armature is no
rem. The initial braking torque is then twice the nor-
longer counter to anything but actually adds to the
mal torque of the motor.
supply voltage E,. This net voltage would produce
As the motor slows down. the gradual decrease
an enormous reverse current, perhaps 50 ti mes
in produces a corresponding decrease in 12 .
greater than the full-load armature current. This
Consequently. the braking torque becomes smaller
current would initiate an arc around the commuta-
and smaller. finally becoming zero when the arma-
tor. destroying segments, brushes, and supports,
ture ceases to turn. The speed drops quickly at first
even before the line circuit breakers could open.
and then more slowly. as the armature comes to a
halt. The speed decreases exponentially. somewhat
like the voltage across a discharging capacitor.
Consequently, the speed decreases by half in equal
intervals of time T0 • To illustrate the usefulness of
dynamic braking, Fig. 5.18 compares the speed-
time curves for a motor equipped with dynamic
braking and one that simply coasts to a stop.

5.17 Plugging
We can stop the motor even more rapidly by using Figure 5.19a
a method called plugging. It consists of suddenly Armature connected to de source
 DIRECT-CURRENT MOTORS 111

value. However. it is much easier to draw the

speed-time curves by defining a new time con-
stant T0 which is the time for the speed to de-
crease to 50 percent of its original value. There is
R
a direct mathematical relationship between the
conventional time constant T and the half-time
constant T0 . It is given by
T0 0.693T (5.8)
We can prove that this mechanical time constant
Figure 5.19b
Plugging. is given by

(5.9)

To prevent such a catastrophe, we must limit the where

reverse current by introducing a resistor R in series T0 =time for the motor speed to fall to
with the reversing circuit 5. I 9b ). As in dynamic one-half its previous value !sJ
braking, the resistor is designed to limit the initial J = moment of inertia of the rotating
braking current 1'2 to about twice full-load current. parts, referred to the motor shaft
With this plugging circuit, a reverse torque is devel- lkg·m J
2
oped even when the armature has come to a stop. In n 1 = initial speed of the motor when
effect. at zero speed, 0, but 12 = EJR. which is braking starts [r/minl
about one-half its initial value. As soon as the motor P1 initial power delivered by the
stops. vve must immediately open the armature cir- motor to the braking resistor !WI
cuit otherwise it will begin to run in reverse. Circuit 131.5 a constant [exact value
interruption is usually controlled by an automatic (3011r)211og,) I
null-speed device mounted on the motor shaft. 0.693 a constant Iexact value log,21
The curves of 5.18 enable us to compare
plugging and dynamic braking for the same initial This equation is based upon the assumption that the
braking current. Note that plugging stops the motor braking effect is entirely due to the energy dissi-
completely after an interval 2T0 • On the other hand, pated in the braking resistor. In general, the motor
if dynamic braking is used, the speed is still 25 per- is subjected to an extra braking torque due to
cent of its original value at this time. Nevertheless, windage and friction, and so the braking time will
the comparative simplicity of dynamic braking ren- be less than that given by Eq. 5.9.
ders it more popular in most applications.
Example 5-6
A 225 kW 300 hp), 250 V. 1280 r/min de motor
5.18 Dynamic braking and has windage, friction. and iron losses of 8 kW. It
mechanical time constant drives a large flywheel and the total moment of in-
ertia of the flywheel and armature is 177 kg·m 2 . The
We mentioned that the speed decreases exponentially
motor is connected to a 210 V de source, and its
with time when a de motor is stopped by dynamic
speed is 1280 r/min just before the armature 1s
braking. We can therefore speak of a mechanical
switched across a braking resistor of 0.2 U.
time constant Tin much the same way we speak of
the electrical time constant of a capacitor that dis- Cairn/ate
charges into a resistor. a. The mechanical time constant T0 of the braking
In essence, Tis the time it takes for the speed system
of the motor to fall to 36.8 percent of its initial b. The time for the motor speed to drop to 20 r/min
J 12 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS

c. The time for the speed to drop to 20 r/min if the The stopping time increases in proportion to the
only braking force is that due to the windage. time constant. Consequently. the time to reach
friction, and iron losses 20 r/min is approximately

Solution (276/10) x 60 1656 s

a. We note that the armature voltage is 210 V and 28 min
the speed is 1280 r/rnin.
This braking time is 28 times longer than when
When the armature is switched to the brak-
dynamic braking is used.
ing resistor. the induced voltage is still very
close to 210 V. The initial power delivered to Theoretically. a motor which 1s dynamically
the resistor is braked never comes to a complete :-.top. In practice.
however. we can assume that the machine stops af-
ter an interval equal to 5 T0 seconds.
The time constant T0 is If the motor is plugged. the stopping time has a
T0 Jn 1 131.5 P 1) (5.9) definite value given by
2
177 x 1280 (5.10)
131.5 x 220 500 where
IO s
r, stopping time using plugging Is]
b. The motor speed drops by 50 percent every I 0 s.
7~, =time constant as given in Eq. 5.9 [s]
The speed versus time curve follows these-
quence given below:
Example 5-7
speed (r/min) time (s)
The motor in Example 5-6 is plugged, and the brak-
1280 0 ing resistor is increased to 0.4 ft so that the initial
640 10 braking current is the same as before.
320 20
160 30 Calculate
80 40 a. The initial braking current and braking power
40 50 b. The stopping time
20 60 Solution
The speed of the motor drops to 20 r/rnin after The net voltage acting across the resistor is
an interval of 60 s.
c. The initial windage. friction. and iron losses are
8 kW. These losses do not vary with speed in The initial braking current is
exactly the same way as do the losses in a brak- / 1 = EIR 420/0.4 1050A
ing resistor. However. the behavior is compara-
The initial braking power is
ble. which enables us to make a rough estimate
of the braking time. We have P 1 = Ej 1 210 X 1050 220.5 kW
JI I 128() P 1 = 8000 According to Eq. 5.9. T0 has the same value as
The new time constant is before:
T0 =IO s
T0 = .111 1 131.5 Pi)
( 177 x 1280 2 )/( 131.5 x 8000) The time to come to a complete stop is

= 276 s = 4.6 min t, 2T0 20s

 DIRECT-CURRENT 1WOTORS 113

5.19 Armature reaction

Until now \Ve have assumed that the only mmf act-
in a de motor is that due to the field. However, the
current flowing in the armature conductors also cre-
ates a magnetomotive force that distorts and weakens
the flux corning from the poles. This disto11ion and
field weakening takes place in motors as well as in
generators. We recall that the magnetic action of the Figure 5.20
armature mmf is called an1wn1re reaction. Flux distribution in a motor running at no-load.

5.20 Flux distortion due

to armature reaction I_.. _I
.~ ...... ~-
When a motor runs at no-load, the small current
flowing in the armature does not appreciably affect
the flux <P 1 corning from the poles (Fig. 5.20). But ~-'.(.).).)
"·. ..................
when the armature carries its normal current. it pro- ...··..:
duces a strong magnetomotive force which, if it
acted alone, would create a flux <1> 2 5.21 ). By Figure 5.21
Flux created by the full-load armature current.
superimposing <1) 1 and <1) 2 , we obtain the resulting
flux <1) 3 (Fig. 5.22). In our example the flux density

~
increases under the left half of the pole and it de-
ceases under the right half. This unequal distribution
produces two important effects. First the neutral
zone shifts toward the left (against the direction of
rotation). The result is poor commutation with
sparking at the brushes. Second, due to the higher zone
flux density in pole tip A, saturation sets in.
Consequently, the increase of flux under the left- Figure 5.22
hand side of the pole is less than the decrease under Resulting flux distribution in a motor running at full-
the right-hand side. Flux <P, at full-load is therefore load.
slightly less than flux <I) 1 at no-load. For large ma-
in the case of a de generator. these narrow poles de-
chines the decrease in flux may be as much as I0
velop a magnetomotive force equal and opposite to
percent and it causes the speed to increase with load.
the mmf of the armature so that the respective mag-
Such a condition tends to be unstable: to eliminate
netomotive forces rise and fall together as the load
the problem. we sometimes add a series field of one
current varies. Jn practice, the mmf of the commu-
or two turns to increase the flux under load. Such
tating poles is made slightly greater than that of the
motors are said to have a stabili:::.ed-slmnt winding.
armature. Consequently. a small flux subsists in the
region of the commutating poles. The flux is de-
5.21 Commutating poles signed to induce in the coil undergoing commuta-
To counter the effect of armature reaction and tion a voltage that is equal and opposite to the self-
thereby improve commutation. we always place a induction voltage mentioned in Section 4.28. As a
set of co11111111tati11g poles between the main poles of result, commutation is greatly improved and takes
medium- and large-power de motors (Fig. 5.23). As place roughly as described in Section 4.27.
 114 f.LECTRICALMACHINESAND TRANSFORMERS

For such motors the commutating poles and series

stabilizing windings do not adequately neutralize the
armature mmf. Torque and speed control is difficult
under such transient conditions and flash-overs may
occur across the commutator. To eliminate this prob-
lem, special compensating windings are connected in
series with the armature. They are distributed in slots.
cut into the pole faces of the main field poles (Fig.
5.24). Like commutating poles, these windings pro-
duce a mmf equal and opposite to the mmf of the ar-
mature. However, because the windings are distrib-
uted across the pole faces, the armature mmf is
bucked from point to point, which eliminates the
field distortion shown in Fig. 5.22. With compensat-
ing windings, the field distribution remains essen-
tially undisturbed from no-load to full-load, retaining
the general shape shown in Fig. 5.20.
The addition of compensating windings has a
profound effect on the design and performance of a
de motor:
I. A shorter air gap can be used because we no
longer have to worry about the demagnetizing
effect of the armature. A shorter gap means that
Figure 5.23
the shunt field strength can be reduced and
The narrow commutating poles are placed between
the main poles of this 6-pole motor. hence the coils are smaller.
2. The inductance of the armature circuit is re-
duced by a factor of 4 or 5; consequently, the
The neutralization of the armature mmf is re- armature current can change more quickly and
stricted to the narrow zone covered by the commu- the motor gives a much better response. This is
tating poles, where commutation takes place. The particularly true in big machines.
flux distribution under the main poles unfortunately 3. A motor equipped with compensating windings
remains distorted. This creates no problem for mo- can briefly develop 3 to 4 times its rated torque.
tors driving ordinary loads. But in special cases it is The peak torque of an uncompensated motor is
necessary to add a compensating winding, a feature much lower when the armature current is large.
we will now describe. The reason is that the effective flux in the air
gap falls off rapidly with increasing current be-
cause of armature reaction.
5.22 Compensating winding
We conclude that compensating windings are essen-
Some de motors in the 100 kW to 10 MW(= 134 tial in large motors subjected to severe duty cycles.
hp to 13 400 hp) range employed in steel mills per-
form a series of rapid, heavy-duty operations. They 5.23 Basics of variable
accelerate. decelerate. stop, and reverse. all in a
speed control
matter of seconds. The corresponding armature
current increases. decreases, reverses in stepwise The most important outputs of a de motor are its
fashion. producing very sudden changes in arma- speed and torque. It is useful to determine the limits
ture reaction. of each as the speed is increased from zero to above
 DIRECT-CURRENT MOTORS 115

Figure 5.24
Six-pole de motor having a compensating winding distributed in slots in the main poles. The machine also has 6
commutating poles.
(Courtesy of General Electric Company)

base speed. In so doing, the rated values of armature value of I. The advantage of the per-unit approach is
cmTent, armature voltage, and field flux must not be that it renders the torque-speed curve universal.
exceeded, although lesser values may be used. Thus, the per-unit torque T is given by the per-
In making our analysis, we assume an ideal sepa- unit flux Q) 1 times the per-unit armature current(,
rately excited shunt motor in which the armature re- T = cp 1 (, (5.11)
sistance is negligible (Fig. 5.25). The armature volt-
By the same reasoning. the per-unit armature
age E". the armature cutTent /a, the flux <l>f. the
voltage is equal to the per-unit speed /1 times the
exciting Cll!Tent Ir, and the speed n are all expressed
per-unit tlux ¢ 1
in per-unit values. Thus, if the rated armature voltage
Ea happens to be 240 V and the rated armature cwTent = /1 <IJ r ( 5. 12)
Ia is 600 A. they are both given a per-unit value of I. The logical starting point of the torque-speed
Similarly, the rated shunt field flux <1) 1 has a per-unit curve 5.26), is the condition where the motor
116 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS

la develops rated torque (T = I) at rated speed (n I).

~~------~----->

The rated speed is often called base speed.

+
In order to reduce the speed below base speed,
we gradually reduce the armature voltage to zero,
while keeping the rated values of /"and Q)rconstant
+. Ir
I at their per-unit value of I. Applying (5.1 l ). the
corresponding per-unit torque T = I X I = l.
Furthermore, according to Eq. (5.12), the per-unit
Figure 5.25
voltage E" = n X I n. Figures 5.27 and 5.28 show
Per-unit circuit diagram
the state of Ea, la and <1> 1 during this phase of motor
Ea n </> r operation, known as the constant torque mode.
la= 1 ip r = 1 Next, to raise the speed above base speed. we re-
1.0
{
1----'------i
alize that the armature voltage cannot be increased
II anymore because it is already at its rated level of I.
T The only solution is to keep at its rated level of 1
t 0.5
and reduce the flux. Referring to Eq.
means that n<D 1 I. and so <Pr
12). this
l/n. Thus. above
base speed, the per-unit flux is equal to the recipro-
O+-~~~~~~~~~~~~-'--~~ cal of the per-unit speed. During this operating
0 1.0 2.0 mode, the armature current can be kept at its rated
speed 11 level of I. Recalling Eq. (5.11 ), it follows that
T= <Dr/a (l/n) X 1 =1 /n. Consequently. above base
Figure 5.26 speed, the per-unit torque decreases as the recipro-
cal of the per-unit speed. It is clear that since the per-
unit armature current and armature voltage are both
equal to 1 during this phase, the power input to the
motor is equal to 1. Having assumed an ideal ma-
chine. the per-unit mechanical power output is also
equal to 1, which corresponds to rated power. That
is why the region above base speed is named the
constant honepmver mode.
We conclude that the ideal de shunt motor can
- - - speed 11
operate anywhere within the limits of the torque-
speed curve depicted in Fig. 5.26.
Figure 5.27 In practice, the actual torque-speed curve may dif-
fer considerably from that shown in Fig. 5.26. The
1.0 curve indicates an upper speed limit of 2 but some
(/)I 0.8 machines can be pushed to limits of 3 and even 4, by
reducing the flux accordingly. However, when the
~ 0.5
speed is raised above base speed, commutation prob-
lems develop and centrifugal forces may become
O+-~~~~~_...~-'-~~~~-'-~~
dangerous. When the motor runs below base speed.
0 1.0 1.25 2.0 the ventilation becomes poorer and the temperature
~-• speed11 tends to rise above its rated value. Consequently, the
armature current must be reduced. which reduces the
Figure 5.28 torque. Eventually, when the speed is zero, all forced
 DIRECT-CURRENT MOTORS 117

ventilation ceases and even the field current must be 5.24 Permanent magnet motors
reduced to prevent overheating of the shunt field
coils. As a result, the permissible st~lled torque may We have seen that shunt-field motors require coils
only have a per-unit value of0.25. The resulting prac- and a field current to produce the flux. The energy
tical torque-speed curve is shown in 5.29. consumed, the heat produced. and the relatively
The drastic fall-off in torque as the speed dimin- space taken up by the field poles are disad-
ishes can be largely overcome by using an external vantages of a de motor. By using permanent mag-
blower to cool the motor. It delivers a constant stream nets instead of field coils. these disadvantages are
of air. no matter what the speed of the motor happens overcome. The result is a smaller motor having a
to be. Under these conditions, the torque-speed curve higher efficiency with the added benefit of never
approaches that shown in 5.26. risking run-away due to field failure.
A further advantage of using permanent magnets
is that the effective air gap is increased many times.
(J)
E The reason is that the magnets have a permeability
~
.0 that is nearly equal to that of air. As a result, the ar-
1.0 CJ
e
a.. mature mmf cannot create the intense field that is pos-
cQ)
0.75 m~ sible when soft-iron pole pieces are employed.
c 0
o-
I
T
0.5
-~ ~
::J ::J
E :C
Consequently. the field created by the magnets does
not become distorted, as shown in 5.22. Thus, the
0.25 Ee
0 Q)
armature reaction is reduced and commutation is im-
0+-_.__.,.~----,..--,..-~~~~~~-,..-~-"--
(.) (.) proved. as well as the overload capacity of the motor.
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 2.0 A further advantage is that the long air gap reduces the
inductance of the armature and hence it responds
- speedn
much more quickly to changes in armature current.
Figure 5.29 Permanent magnet motors are particularly advan-
Torque-speed curve of a typical de motor. tageous in capacities below about 5 hp. The magnets

~,• I
~
Figure 5.30
Permanent magnet motor rated 1.5 hp, 90 V, 2900 r/min, 14.5 A. Armature diameter: 73 mm; armature length: 115 mm;
slots 20; commutator bars: 40; turns per coil: 5; conductor size: No. 17 AWG, lap winding. Armature resistance at 20°C:
0.340.
(Courtesy of Baldor Electric Company)
118 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS

are ceramic or rare-earth/cobalt alloys. Fig. 5.30 the series winding. per pole. The shunt field
shows the construction of a 1.5 hp, 90 V, 2900 r/min has a total resistance of 115 n. and the
PM motor. Its elongated armature ensures low iner- nominal armature current is 23 A. If the
tia and fast response when used in servo applications. motor is connected to a 230 V line, calcu-
The only drawback of PM motors is the rela- late the following:
tively high cost of the magnets and the inability to a. The mmf per pole at full-load
obtain higher speeds by field weakening. b. The mmf at no-load
5-12 A separately excited de motor turns at 1200
Questions and Problems r/min when the armature is connected to a
Practirnl L<:'l'<:'/ 115 V source. Calculate the armature volt-
age required so that the motor runs at 1500
5-1 Name three types of de motors and make a
r/min. At I00 r/min.
sketch of the connections.
5-13 The following details are known about a
5-2 Explain what is meant by the generator ef-
250 hp. 230 V. 435 r/min de shunt motor:
fect in a motor.
5-3 What determines the magnitude and polar- nominal full-load current: 862 A
ity of the counter-emf in a de motor'? insulation class: H
weight: 3400 kg
5-4 The counter-emf of a motor is always
external diameter of the frame: 915 mm
slightly less than the applied armature volt-
length of frame: 1260 mm
age. Explain.
a. Calculate the total losses and efficiency at
5-5 Name two methods that are used to vary full-load.
the speed of a de motor. b. Calculate the approximate shunt field excit-
5-6 Explain why the armature current of a shunt ing current if the shunt field causes 20 per-
motor decreases as the motor accelerates. cent of the total losses.
c. Calculate the value of the armature resistance
5-7 Why is a starting resistor needed to bring a
as well as the counter-emf. knowing that 50
motor up to speed'! percent of the total losses at full-load are due
5-8 Show one way to reverse the direction of to armature resistance.
rotation of a compound motor. d. If we wish to attain a speed of 1100 r/rni n.
what should be the approximate exciting
5-9 A 230 V shunt motor has a nominal arma-
current?
ture current of 60 A. lf the armature resis-
tance is 0.15 n. calculate the following: 5-14 We wish to stop a 120 hp. 240 V, 400
a. The counter-emf [VI r/min motor by using the dynamic brak-
b. The power supplied lo the armature [W] ing circuit shown in 5.17. If the nom-
c. The mechanical power developed by the mo- inal armature current is 400 A. calculate
tor. [kW[ and [hpJ the following:
5-10 a. In Problem 5-9 calculate the initial starting a. The value of the braking resistor R if we
want to limit the maximum braking current to
current if the motor is directly connected
125 percent of its nominal value
acros'> the 230 V line.
b. The braking power [kW[ when the motor has
b. Calculate the value of the starting resistor
decelerated to 200 r/min. 50 r/min. 0 r/min.
needed to limit the initial current to 115 A.
5-15 a. The motor in Problem 5-14 is now stopped
Imermediat<:' ln·d by using: the plugging circuit of 5.19.
5-11 The compound motor of Fig. 5 .12 has 1200 Calculate the new braking resistor R so that
turns on the shunt winding and 25 turns on the maximum braking current is 500 A.
 DIRECTCURRENT MOTORS 119

b. Calculate the braking power !kW] when the 5-20 Referring to Fig. 5.30, calculate the follow-
motor has decelerated to 200 r/min. 50 r/min, ing:
0 r/rnin. a. The number of conductors on the armature
c. Compare the braking power developed at 200 b. The value of the counter-emf at full load
r/min to the instantaneous power dissipated c. The flux per pole. in milliwebers lmWbl
in resistor R.
5-21 A standard 20 hp. 240 V. 1500 r/min self-
Adrnnced level cooled de motor has an efficiency of 88<1().
5-16 The armature of a 225 kW, 1200 r/min mo- A requirement has arisen whereby the mo-
tor has a diameter of 559 mm and an axial tor should run at speeds ranging from
length of 235 mm. Calculate the following: 200 r/min to 1500 r/min without overheat-
a. The approximate moment of inertia, knowing ing. ft is decided to cool the machine by in-
that iron has a density of 7900 kg/m:i stalling an external blower and channeling
b. The kinetic energy of the armature alone the air by means of an air duct. The highest
when it turns at 1200 r/min expected ambient temperature is 30°C and
c. The total kinetic energy of the revolving parts the temperature of the air that exits the mo-
at a speed of 600 r/min, if the J of the wind- tor should not exceed 35°C. Calculate the
ings and commutator is equal to the J calcu-
capacity of the blower required. in cubic
lated in (a)
feet per minute. (Hint: see Section 3.21.)
5-17 If we reduce the normal exciting current of
5-22 A 250 hp, 500 V de shunt motor draws a
a practical shunt motor by 50 percent, the
nominal field current of 5 A under rated
speed increases, but it never doubles.
load. The field resistance is 90 n. Calculate
Explain why. bearing in mind the saturation
the ohmic value and power of the series re-
of the iron under normal excitation.
sistor needed so that the field current drops
5-18 The speed of a series motor drops with ris- to 4.5 A when the shunt field and resistor
ing temperature, while that of a shunt mo- are connected to the 500 V source.
tor increases. Explain.
5-23 A 5 hp de motor draws a field current of
Industrial Applirntion 0.68 A when the field is connected to a
5-19 A permanent magnet motor equipped with I 50 V source. On the other hand. a 500 hp
cobalt-samarium magnets loses 3% of its motor draws a field current of 4.3 A when
magnetism per 100°C increase in tempera- the field is connected to a 300 V de source.
ture. The motor runs at a no-load speed of In each case. calculate the power required for the
2500 r/min when connected to a 150 V field as a percentage of the rated power of the motor.
source in an ambient temperature of 22°C. What conclusions can you draw from these results?
Estimate the speed if the motor is placed in a
room where the ambient temperature is 40°C.
 CHAPTER 6
Efficiency and Heating
of Electrical Machines

6.0 Introduction 6.1 Mechanical losses

henever a machine transforms energy from Mechanical losses are due to bearing friction.
W one form to another, there is always a certain
loss. The loss takes place in the machine itself,
brush friction. and windage. The friction losses
depend upon the speed of the machine and upon
causing (I) an increase in temperature and (2) a re- the design of the bearings, brushes, commutator.
duction in efficiency. and slip rings. Windage losses depend on the
From the standpoint of losses. electrical ma- speed and design of the cooling fan and on the tur-
chines may be divided into two groups: those that bulence produced by the revolving parts. In the ab-
have revolving parts (motors, generators, etc.) and sence of prior information, we usually conduct
those that do not (transformers, reactors. etc.). tests on the machine itself to determine the value
Electrical and mechanical losses are produced in ro- of these mechanical losses.
tating machines, while only electrical losses are Rotating machines are usually cooled by an
produced in stationary machines. internal fan mounted on the motor shaft. It draws
In this chapter we analyze the losses in de ma- in cool air from the surroundings. blows it over
chines, but the same losses are also found in most the windings. and expels it again through suitable
machines operating on allernating current. The vents. In hostile environments. special cooling
study of power losses is important because it gives methods are sometimes used. as illustrated in
us a clue as to how they may be reduced. Fig. 6.1.

I
We also cover the import<mt topics of tempera-
ture rise and the service life of electrical equipment.
We show that both are related to the class of insula-
tion used and that these insulation classes have been
6.2 Electrical losses

Il
standardized. Electrical losses are composed of the following:

120
 EFFICIENCYAND HEATING OF ELECTRICAL MACHINES 121

1. Conductor / 2R losses (sometimes called copper L

losses) R=p (6.1)
A
, Brush losses
p p0 ( I at) (6.2)
3. Iron losses
in which
1. Conductor Losses The losses in a conductor de-
pend upon its resistance and the square of the cur- R = resistance of conductor In I
rent it carries. The resistance, in turn. depends upon L = length of conductor Im I
2
the length. cross section. resistivity. and tempera- A = cross section of conductor [111 1
ture of the conductor. The following equations en- p = resistivity of conductor at temperature t
able us to determine the resistance at any tempera- f!l·ml
ture and for any material:
Po= resistivity of conductor at 0°C 10-m]
a = temperature coefficient of resistance at
0°C [ l/°C]
t = temperature of conductor I 0
C]

The values of p and a for different materials are

listed in Appendix AX2. In de motors and genera-
tors. copper losses occur in the armature, the series
field, the shunt field. the commutating poles, and
the compensating winding. These f· R losses show
up as heat, causing the conductor temperatures to
rise above ambient temperature.
Instead of using the PR equation, we sometimes
prefer to express the losses in terms of the number
of \Vatts per kilogram of conductor material. The
losses are then given by the equation

(6.3)

where

Pc = specific conductor power loss I W /kg I

Figure 6.1 J = current density IA/mm
2
]
Totally enclosed, water-cooled, 450 kW, 3600 r/min mo-
tor for use in a hostile environment. Warm air inside the
p =resistivity of the conductor lnfl.ml
machine is blown upward and through a water-cooled ~ density of the conductor I kg/m 'I
heat exchanger, situated immediately above the I 000 constant, to take care of unib
Westinghouse nameplate. After releasing its heat to a
set of water-cooled pipes, the cool air reenters the ma- According to this equation. the loss per unit
chine by way of two rectangular pipes leading into the mass is proportional to the square of the current
end bells. The cooling air therefore moves in a closed
density. For copper conductors. we use densities be-
circuit, and the surrounding contaminated atmosphere
t\veen 1.5 A/mnr' and 6 A/mm~. The corresponding
never reaches the motor windings. The circular capped
pipes located diagonally on the heat exchanger serve losses vary from 5 W/kg to 90 W/kg (Fig. 6.2). The
as cooling-water inlet and outlet respectively. higher densities require an efficient cooling system
(Courtesy of Westinghouse) to prevent an excessive temperature rise.
l 22 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORlv!ERS

9.6 W/kg

copper conductor

Figure 6.2
Copper losses may be expressed in watts per kilo- Figure 6.3
gram. Brush contact voltage drop occurs between the brush
face and commutator.

2. Brush Losses The i 2R losses in

the brushes are and eddy currents. as previously explained in
negligible because the current density is only about Sections 2.27 and 2.30. Iron losses depend upon the
0.1 A/mm:>, which is far less than that used in cop- magnetic flux density, the speed of rotation, the
per. However, the contact voltage drop between the quality of the steel, and the size of the armature.
brushes and commutator may produce significant They typically range from 0.5 W /kg to 20 W /kg.
losses. The drop varies from 0.8 V to 1.3 V, de- The higher values occur in the armature teeth,
pending on the type of brush. the applied pressure, where the flux density may be as high as 1.7 T. The
and the brush current (Fig. 6.3 ). losses in the armature core are usually much lower.
3. Iron Losses Iron losses are produced in the ar- The losses can be minimized by annealing the steel
mature of a de machine. They are due to hysteresis (Fig. 6.4).

Figure 6.4
This 150 kW electric oven is used to anneal punched steel laminations. This industrial process, carried out in a con-
trolled atmosphere of 800°C, significantly reduces the iron losses. The laminations are seen as they leave the oven.
(Courtesy of General Electric)
 EFFICIENCY AND HEATING OF ELECTRICAL MACHINES 123

Some iron losses are also produced in the pole the line to continue to rotate. This no-load power
faces. They are due to flux pulsations created as suc- overcomes the friction. windage. and iron losses.
cessive armature teeth and slots sweep across the and provides for the copper losses in the shunt field.
pole face. The PR losses in the armature, series field. and
Strange as it may seem, iron losses impose a me- commutating field are negligible because the no-
chanical drag on the armature, producing the same load current is seldom more than 5 percent of the
effect as mechanical friction. nominal full-load current.
As we load the machine the current increases in
Example 6- 1 the armature circuit. Consequently. the / 2 R losses in
A de machine turning at 875 r/min carries an arma- the armature circuit (consisting of the armature and
ture winding whose total weight is 40 kg. The cur- all the other windings in series with it) will rise. On
rent density is 5 A/mm 2 and the operating tempera- the other hand. the no-load losses mentioned above
ture is 80°C. The total iron losses in the armature remain essentially constant as the load increases,
amount to 1100 W. unless the speed of the machine changes apprecia-
bly. It follows that the total losses increase with
Calculote
load. Because they are converted into heat the tem-
a. The copper losses
perature of the machine rises progressively as the
b. The mechanical drag lN·mJ due to the iron losses
load increases.
Solution However, the temperature must not exceed the
a. Referring to Table AX2 in the Appendix. the re- maximum allowable temperature of the insulation
sistivity of copper at 80°C is used in the machine. Consequently. there is a limit to
the power that the machine can deliver. This temper-
p = Po (I +at)
ature-limited power enables us to establish the 110111-
= 15.88 (I + 0.004 27 x 80) inol or roted power of the machine. A machine
= 21.3 nfl·m loaded beyond its nominal rating will usually over-
The density of copper is 8890 kg/m' heat. The insulation deteriorates more rapidly. which
The specific power loss is inevitably shortens the service life of the machine.
ff a machine runs interlllittently. it can carry heavy
Pc = IOOOJ 2 p/~ (6.1) overloads without overheating. provided that the op-
2
= 1000 x 5 x 21.3/8890 erating time is short. Thus, a motor having a nominal
= 60 W/kg rating of I 0 kW can readily carry a load of 12 kW for
short periods. However, for higher loads the capacity
Total copper loss is is limited by other factors. usually electrical. For in-
p = 60 x 40 = 2400 w stance. it is physically impossible for a generator
rated at IO kW to deliver an output of 100 kW. even
b. The braking torque due to iron losses can be
for one millisecond.
calculated from
P = nT/9.55 (3.5) 6.4 Efficiency curve
1100 = 875 T/9.55 The efficiency of a machine is the ratio of the use-
T = 12 N·m or approximately 8.85 ft·lbf ful output power P0 to the input power P; (Section
3.7). Furthermore, input power is equal to useful
6.3 Losses as a function of load power plus the losses p. We can therefore write

A de motor running at no-load develops no useful 11 = !" I00 = p" x I00

X (6.4)
power. However, it must absorb some power from P; p" +p
 124 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS

where The efficiency is zero at no-load because no use-

ful power is developed by the motor.
T) = efficiency l % ]
25 percent load When the motor is loaded to
P0 = output power l WI
25 percent of its nominal rating. the armature cur-
P; input power IWI rent is approximately 25 percent (or 1/4) of its full-
p = losses IW] load value. Because the copper losses vary as the
square of the current, we have the following:
The following example shows how to calculate the
efficiency of a de machine. copper losses in the armature circuit
= ( l/4r~ x 595 = 37 W
Example 6-2 no-load losses
A de compound motor having a rating of 10 kW. 830 w
1150 r/min, 230 V. 50 A. has the following losses at
total losses
.fiill Ioad:
= 37 + 830 86 7 w
bearing friction loss 40W
Useful power developed by the motor at 25 percent
brush friction loss sow load is
windage loss 200W
(I) total mechanical losses 290W P0
IO kW X ( 1/4) 2500 W (= 3.35 hp)
iron losses 420W
(3) copper loss in the shunt field 120W power supplied lo the motor is
copper losses at full load: P, 2500 + 867 3367 W
a. in the armature 500W
b. in the series field 25W and the efficiency is
c. in the commutating winding 70W
(4) TJ (PjPi) X 100 (6.2)
total copper loss in the
armature circuit at full load 595 w (2500/3367) x I 00 = 74%

Calculate the losses and efficiency at no-load In the same way, we find the losses at 50. 75.
and at 25, 50, 75, I 00, and 150 percent of the nom- I 00, and 150 percent of the nominal load:
inal rating of the machine. Draw a graph showing
At 50 percent load the losses are
efficiency as a function of mechanical load (neglect
(I /2)
2
x 595 + 830 979 w
the losses due to brush contact drop).
At 75 percent load the losses are
Soltttim1
No-load The copper losses in the armature circuit
(3/4)
2
x 595 + 830 = 1165 w
are negligible at no-load. Consequently. the no- At 100 percent load the losses are
load losses are equal to the sum of the mechanical 595 + 830 = 1425 w
losses (I). the iron losses (2), and the shunt-field
losses (3 ): At 150 percent load the losses are
2
(1.5) x 595 + 830 = 2169 w
no-load losses 290 + 420 + 120 = 830 W
The efficiency calculations for the various loads
These losses remain essentially constant as the load are listed in Table 6A and the results are shown
varies. graphically in 6.5.
 EFFICIENCY AND HEATING OF ELECTRICAL MACHINES 125

%
100
efficiency

80
>
'-'
c:
full load kW
·~ 60 >-----+--+--~-+~--+--~--t----"'r--+----+-----t---< 3
;;:
w
t 40
I
20

0
0 2 4 6
- - mechanical power

Figure 6.5
Losses and efficiency as a function of mechanical power. See Example 6.2.

It is important to remember that al light loads the

TABLE 6A LOSSES AND EFFICIENCY OF A DC
MOTOR
efficiency of any motor is poor. Consequently.
when selecting a motor to do a particular job. we
Total Output Input should always choose one having a power rating
LoaJ lo,,c, power P., power l'; Efficiency
roughly equal to the load it has to drive.
l'rl JW] IWJ IWJ l'K I
We can prove that the efficiency of any de ma-
() 830 0 830 0 chine reaches a maximum at that load where the ar-
25 867 2 500 3 367 74 mature circuit copper losses are equal to the no-load
50 979 5 000 5 980 83.6 losses. In our example this corresponds to a total
75 1 165 7 500 8 665 86.5 loss of (830 -r 830) 1660 W. an output of 11 811
100 I 425 10000 11 425 87.5
W ( 15.8 hp) and an efficiency of 87.68 percent. The
150 2 169 15 000 17 170 87.4
reader may wish to check these results.
The efficiency curve rises sharply as the load in-
creases. flattens off over a broad range of power.
6.5 Temperature rise
and then slowly begins to fall. This is typical of the The temperature rise of a machine or device is the
efficiency curves of all electric motors. both ac and difference between the temperature of its warmest
de. Electric motor designers usually try to attain the accessible part and the ambient temperature. It may
peak efficiency at full-load. be measured by simply using two thermometers.
In the above calculation of efficiency we could However. due to the practical difficulty of placing a
have included the los-;es due to brush voltage drop. thermometer close to the really warmest spot inside
Assuming a constant drop. say. of 0.8 V per brush. the the machine. this method is seldom used. We usu-
hrush loss at full-load amounts to 0.8 V X 50 A X 2 ally rely upon more sophisticated methods. de-
hrushes = 80 W. At 50 percent load. the brush loss scribed in the following sections.
would he 40 W. These losses. when added to the other Temperature rise has a direct hearing on the
losses. modify the efficiency curve only slightly. power rating of a machine or device. It also has a di-
126 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS

rect bearing on its useful service life. Consequently. In crystallizing, organic insulators become hard
temperature rise is a very important quantity. and brittle. Eventually, the slightest shock or mechan-
ical vibration will cause them to break. Under normal
6.6 Life expectancy of electric conditions of operation, most organic insulators have
equipment a life expectancy of eight to ten years provided that
their temperature does not exceed I 00°C. On the other
Apart from accidental electrical and mechanical hand, some synthetic polymers can withstand temper-
failures, the life expectancy of electrical apparatus atures as high as 200°C for the same length of time.
is limited by the temperature of its insulation: The Low temperatures are just as harmful as high
higher the temperature. the shorter its life. Tests temperatures are. because the insulation tends to
made on many insulating materials have shown that freeze and crack. Special synthetic organic insula-
the service life of electrical apparatus diminishes tors have been developed, however. which retain
approximately by half every time the temperature their flexibility at temperatures as low as -60°C.
increases by I OOC. This means that if a motor has a
normal life expectancy of eight years at a tempera- 6. 7 Thermal classification
ture of I 05°C. it will have a service life of only four
of insulators
years at a temperature of 11 of two years at
I 25°C. and of only one year at l 35°C ! Committees and organizations that set standards*
The factors that contribute most to the deteriora- have grouped insulators into five classes, depending
tion of insulators are (I) heat, (2) humidity. (3) vi- upon their ability to withstand heat. These classes
bration, (4) acidity. (5) oxidation, and (6) time (Fig. correspond to the maximum temperature levels of:
6.6 ). Because of these factors. the state of the insu- 105cC. 130°C. I 55°C. I 80°C. and 220°C (formerly
lation changes gradually; it slowly begins to crys-
tallize and the transformation takes place more Such a~ IEEE. Underwriter~ Laborntorie~. Canadian
rapidly as the temperature rises. Standard~ A~soeiation.

time high temperature

no humidity chemicals fungus

dust rodents ozone noxious gases vibration

Figure 6.6
Factors that may shorten the service life of an insulator.
 EFFICIENCY AND HEATING OF ELECTRIC4L 1t1ACHINES 127

represented by the letters A, B, F, H, and R). This 40"C. This standardized temperature was estab-
thermal classification (Table 68) is a cornerstone in lished for the following reasons:
the design and manufacture of electrical apparatus.
I. It enables electrical manufacturers to foresee
6.8 Maximum ambient temperature the worst ambient temperature conditions that
their machines are likely to encounter.
and hot-spot temperature rise
Standards organizations have also established a 2. It enables them to standardize the size of their
maximum amhient temperature, which is usually machines and to give performance guarantees.

TABLE 68 CLASSES OF INSULATION SYSTEMS

Class lllu~tnlliYe examples and definitions

I 05°C Materials or combinations of materials such as cotton. silk. and paper when ~uitably impregnated or
A coated or when immersed in a dielectric liquid such as oil. Other materials or combinations of materials
may be included in this class if by experience or accepted tests they can be shown to have comparable
thermal life at I05°C.
130°C Materials or combinations of materials such as mica. glass fiber. asbestos, etc .. with suitable bonding
B substances. Other materials or combinations of materials may be included in this class if by experience
or accepted tests they can be shown to have comparable thermal life at I 30°C.
155'C Materials or combinations of materials such as mica. glass fiber, asbestos. etc .. with suitable bonding
F substances. Other materials or combinations of materials may be included in this class if by experience
or accepted tests they can be shown to have comparable life at I 55"C.
180°C Materials or combinations of materials such as silicone elastomer. mica. fiber. asbestos, etc ..
H with suitable bonding substance" such as appropriate silicone resins. Other materials or combinations of
materials may be included in this class if by experience or accepted tests they can be shown to have
comparable life at l 80°C.
200°C Materials or combinations of materials which by experience or accepted tests can be shown to have
N the required thermal life at 200°C.
220°C Materials or combinations of materials which by experience or accepted tests can be shown to have
R the required thermal life at 220°C.
24D°C Materials or combinations of materials which by experience or accepted tests can be shown to have
s the required thermal life at 240°C.
above Materials consisting entirely of mica. porcelain, glass. quartz. and similar inorganic materials. Other
240°C materials or combinations of materials may be included in this class if by experience or accepted tests
c they can be shown to have the required thermal life at temperatures above 240''C.

The above insulation classes indicate a normal life expectancy of 20 000 h to 40 000 hat the stated temperature. This
implies that electrical equipment insulated with a class A insulation system would probably last for 2 to 5 years if oper-
ated continuously at I 05°C. Note that this classification assumes that the insulation system is not in contact with corro-
sive. humid. or dusty atmospheres.

For a complete explanation of insulation classes. insulation systems. and temperature indices. sec IEEE Std 1-1969 and
the companion IEEE Standards Publications Nos. 96. 97. 98, 99. and I 0 I. See abo IEEE Std l l 7-1974 and
Untlerwritcrs Laboratories publication on in~ulation system~ UL 1446, 1978.
128 EUTTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS

The temperature of a machine varies from point to motor, relay, and so forth. he intends to put on the
point. but there are places where the temperature is market. Thus, for class B insulation, the maximum
warmer than anywhere else. This hottest-spot tem- allowable temperature rise is ( 130 40) = 90°C.
perature must not exceed the maximum allowable To show how the temperature rise affects the size
temperature of the particular class of insulation used. of a machine. suppose a manufacturer has designed
and built a l 0 kW motor using class B insulation. To
Figure 6.7 shows the hot-spot temperature limits
test the motor he places it in a constant ambient
for class A, B. F. and H insulation (curve 1). They
temperature of 40°C and loads it up until it delivers
are the temperature limits previously mentioned in
I0 kW of mechanical power. Special temperature
Section 6.7. The maximum ambient temperature of
detectors. located at strategic points inside the ma-
40''C is also shown (eurve 3 ). The temperature dif-
chine, record the temperature of the windings. After
ference between curve I and curve 3 gives the max-
the temperatures have stabilized (which may take
i11111111 pen11issih!e temperature rise for each insula-
several hours). the hottest temperature is noted. and
tion class. This limiting temperature rise enables the
this is called the hot-spot temperature. If the hot-
manufacturer to establish the physical size of the
spot temperature so recorded is, say 147°C the

Class H

180°C

Class F

155°C I
I
I

/
I

165°C
r
I
I I
Class B
I
II;~
I 1140-1,;
130°C
I I

I
I
Class A I hot-spot
I I 120°c temperature rise
105°C I; by
<D I embedded
thermocouple
0 100°c
average
temperature rise
by the I
resistance method

I
40°C 40°C
@
limitinp ambient temperature

Figure 6.7
Typical limits of some de and ac industrial machines, according to the insulation class:
(1) Shows the maximum permisslble temperature of the insulation to obtain a reasonable service life
(2) Shows the maximum permissible temperature using the resistance method
(3) Shows the limiting ambient temperature
 l'FFICIENCY AND HEA71NG OF ELECTRICAL MACH/NL'» 129

manufacturer would not be permitted to sell his standards. The manufacturer could reduce the size
product. The reason is that the temperature rise of the motor and thereby market a more competitive
( 147'' 40') = 107°C exceeds the maximum per- product.
missible rise of 90cC for class B insulation.
On the other hand. if the hottest-spot tempera- 6.9 Temperature rise
ture is only I 00°C. the temperature rise is ( 100° by the resistance method
40°) 60"C. The manufacturer immediately per-
ceives that he can make a more economical design The hot-spot temperature rise is rather difficult to
and still remain within the permissible temperature measure because it has to be taken at the very inside
rise limits. For instance. he can reduce the conduc- of a winding. This can be done by embedding a
tor size until the hot-spot temperature rise is very small temperature detector, such as a thermocouple
dose to 9WC. Obviously. this reduces the weight or thermistor. However. this direct method of mea-
an<l cost of the windings. But the manufacturer also suring hot-spot temperature is costly. and is only
realizes that the reduced conductor size nmv en- justified for larger machines.
To simplify matters. accepted standards permit a
ables him to reduce the size of the slots. This. in
second method of determining ternperalllre rise. It is
turn. reduces the amount of iron. By thus redesign-
based upon the arcrage winding temperature. mea-
ing the motor. the manufacturer ultimately ends up
sured by resistance, rather than the hot-spot temper-
with a machine that operates within the permissible
ature. The maximum allowable average winding
temperature rise limits and has the smallest possible
temperatures for the various insulation classes are
physical size. as well as lowest cost.
shown in curve 2, 6.7. For example. in the case
In practice. it is not convenient to carry out per-
of class B insulation, an al'erage winding tempera-
formance rests in a controlled ambient temperature
ture of l 20°C is assumed to correspond to a hot-spot
of .:J.O'C. The motor is usually loaded to its rated ca-
temperature of l 30°C. Consequently. an average
pacity in much lower (and more comfortable) am-
temperature rise of ( 120° 40°) = 80°C is assumed
bient temperatures. Toward this end. it has been es-
to correspond to a hot-spor temperature rise of ( 130°
tablished by stamlanJs-setti ng bodies that. for - 40°) = 90°C.
testing purposes, the ambient temperature may lie The average temperature of a \vinding is found
anywhere between I0°C and 4(YC. The hottest-spot by the resistance method. It consists of measuring
temperature is recorded as before. Ir the tempera- the winding resistance at a known winding tem-
ture rise under these conditions is equal to or less perature. an<l measuring it again when the ma-
than 90°C (for class B insulation). the manufacturer chine is hot. For example. if the winding is made
is allowed to sell his product. of copper. we can use the following equation (de-
rived from Eqs. 6.1 and 6.2) to determine its av-
Example 6-3 erage temperature:
A 75 kW motor. insulated class F. operates at full-
load in an ambient temperature of 32°C. If the hot- R" (6.5)
spot temperature is I 25"C. does the motor meet the RI
temperature standards'? where

Solution !-:!. average temperature of the winding

The hot-spot temperature rise is when hot f0C J
234 a constant equal to l/<ic = I /0.004 27
(125° - 32°) = 93°C
R,., hot resistance of the winding In I
AceonJing to 6.7. the permissible hot-spot tem- R1 cold re.-;istance of the winding Ii! I
perature rise for class F insulation is ( 155° 40°) 11 temperature of the winding when cold
= I l5°C. The motor easily meets the temperature [cC]
 ....

130 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS

Knowing the hot winding temperature by the re- Alternatively, it may be rewound using class F
sistance method. we can immediately calculate the insulation. As a very last resort, its size may
corresponding temperature rise by subtracting the have to be increased.
ambient temperature. If this temperature rise falls
A final word of caution: temperature rise stan-
within the permissible limit (80°C for class B insu-
dards depend not only on the class of insulation, but
lation). the product is acceptable from a standards
also on the type of apparatus (motor, transformer.
point of view. Note that when performance tests are relay, etc.), the type of construction (drip-proof, to-
carried out using the resistance method, the ambient tally enclosed, etc.), and the field of application of
temperature must again lie between I 0°C and 40°C. the apparatus (commercial, industrial, naval. etc.).
If the winding happens to be made of aluminum Consequently, the pertinent standards must always
wire, Eq. 6.3 can still be used, but the number 234 be consulted before conducting a heat-run test on a
must be changed to 228. specific machine or device (Fig. 6.10).

Example 6-4
6.1 O Relationship between the speed
A de motor that has been idle for several days in an
ambient temperature of l 9°C. is found to have a
and size of a machine
shunt-field resistance of 22 0. The motor then op- Although maximum allowable temperature rise es-
erates at full-load and, when temperatures have sta- tablishes the nominal power rating of a machine, its
bilized. the field resistance is found to be 30 0. The basic physical size depends upon the power and
corresponding ambient temperature is 24°C. If the speed of rotation.
motor is built with class B insulation, calculate the Consider the JOO kW. 250 V, 2000 r/min gener-
following: ator shown in Fig. 6.8. Suppose we have to build
another generator having the same power and volt-
a. The average temperature of the winding, at full-
age, but running at half the speed.
load
To generate the same voltage at half the speed,
b. The full-load temperature rise by the resistance
we either have to double the number of conductors
method
on the armature or double the flux from the poles.
c. Whether the motor meets the temperature stan-
Consequently, we must either increase the size of
dards
the armature, or increase the size of the poles. In
Solution practice, we increase both. We conclude that for a
a. The average temperature of the shunt field at given power output, a low-speed machine is always
full-load is bigger than a high-speed machine (Fig. 6.9). This is
true for both ac and de machines.
f-, (R-:i_IR I) (234 + f1) - 234
Basically, the size of a machine depends uniquely
(30/22) (234 + 19) 234 upon its torque. Thus, a 100 kW, 2000 r/min motor
= I I J C.
0

b. The average temperature rise at full-load is

111° 24° = 87°C.
c. The maximum allowable temperature rise by
resistance for class B insulation is (120° 40°)
= 80°C. Consequently, the motor does not
meet the standards. Either its rating will have to
be reduced, or the cooling system improved, Figure 6.8
before it can be put on the market. 100 kW, 2000 r/min motor; mass: 300 kg.
 EFF/Cli:NCY AND HEATING OF ELECTRICAL MACHINES 131

Intermediate level
6-9 A de motor connected to a 240 V line pro-
duces a mechanical output of 160 hp.
Knowing that the losses are 12 kW. calcu-
late the input power and the line current
6-10 A 115 V de generator delivers 120 A to a
load. If the generator has an efficiency of
81 percent, calculate the mechanical power
needed to drive it !hp].
Figure 6.9 6-11 Calculate the full-load current of a 250 hp.
100 kW, 1000 r/min motor; mass: 500 kg. 230 V de motor having an efficiency of 92
percent.
6- I 2 A machine having class B insulation attains
has about the same physical size as a I 0 kW motor a temperature of 208°C (by resistance) in a
running at 200 r/min because they develop the same torrid ambient temperature of I 80"C.
torque. a. What is the temperature rise'!
Low-speed motors are therefore much more costly b. Is the machine running too hot and, if so. by
than high-speed motors of equal power. Consequently, how much?
for low-speed drives, it is often cheaper to use a small 6-13 The efficiency of a motor is always low
high-speed motor with a gear box than to use a large when it operates at I 0 percent of its nomi-
low-speed motor directly coupled to its load. nal power rating. Explain.
6-14 Calculate the efficiency of the motor in
Questions and Problems Example 6-2 when it delivers an output of
I hp.
Practical level
6-15 An electric motor driving a skip hoist with-
6-1 Name the losses in a de motor. draws 1.5 metric tons of minerals from a
6-2 What causes iron losses and how can they trench 20 m deep every 30 seconds. If the
be reduced? hoist has an overall efficiency of 94 per-
6-3 Explain why the temperature of a machine cent. calculate the power ourpur of the mo-
increases as the load increases. tor in horsepower and in kilowatts.
6-4 What determines the power rating of a ma- 6-16 Thermocouples are used to measure the inter-
chine? nal hot-spot winding temperature of a 1200
6-5 If we cover up the vents in a motor. its out- kW ac motor, insulated class F. If the motor
put power must be reduced. Explain. runs at full-load, what is the maximum tem-
perature these detectors should indicate in an
6-6 If a motor operates in a cold environment
ambient temperature of 40°C'? JOT? 14°C!
may we load it above its rated power?
Why? 6-17 A 60 hp ac motor with class F insulation
has a cold winding resistance of 12 n at
6-7 Name some of the factors that contribute to
23°C. When it runs at rated load in an am-
the deterioration of organic insulators.
bient temperature of 31°C. the hot winding
6-8 A motor is built with class H insulation. resistance is found to be 17.4 n.
What maximum hot-spot temperature can it a. Calculate the hot winding temperature.
withstand? b. Calculate the temperature ri;,e of the motor.
132 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS

c. Could the manufacturer increase the name- Industrial application

plate rating of the motor? Explain. 6-24 A reel of No. 2/0 single copper conductor
6-18 An electric motor has a normal life of has a resistance of 0.135 ohms at a temper-
eight years when the ambient temperature ature of 25°C. Calculate the approximate
is 30°C. If it is installed in a location weight of the conductor in pounds.
where the ambient temperature is 60°C. 6-25 The Table in Appendix AX3 lists the prop-
what is the new probable service life of the erties of commercially available copper
motor? conductors. In an electrical installation. it is
6-19 A No. I 0 round copper wire 210 m long proposed to use a No. 4 AWG conductor in
carries a current of 12 A. Knowing that the an area where the operating temperature of
temperature of the conductor is I 05°C. cal- the conductor may be as high as 70°C.
culate the following: Using Eq. 6.2, calculate the resistance un-
a. The current densit~ IA/mm 2 1 der these conditions of a 2-conductor cable
h. The specific copper losses [W/kgl No. 4 AWG that is 27 meters long.
Advanced level 6-26 The shunt field of a 4-pole de motor has a
6-20 An aluminum conductor operates at a cur- total resistance of 56 ohms at 25"C. By
rent density of 2 A/mm 2 scraping off the insulation. it is found that
a. If the conductor temperature is I 200C. calcu- the bare copper wire has a diameter of 0.04
late the specific losses [W /kg]. inches. Determine the AWG wire size, and
b. Express the current density in circular mils calculate the weight of the wire per pole, in
per ampere. kilograms.
6-21 The temperature rise of a motor is 6-27 The National Electrical Code allows a max-
roughly proportional to its losses. On the imum current of 65 A in a No. 6 gauge cop-
other hand, its efficiency is reasonably per conductor, type RW 75. A 420 ft cable
constant in the range between 50 percent is being used on a 240 V de circuit to carry
and 150 percent of its nominal rating a current of 48 A. Assuming a maximum
(see, for example, Fig. 6.5). Based on operating temperature of 70°C. calculate
these facts. if a 20 kW motor has a full- the following:
load temperature rise of 80°C. what a. The power loss. in watts. in the 2-conductor
power can it deliver at a temperature rise cable
of I 05°C? h. The approximate voltage at the load end if
6-22 An electromagnet (insulated class A) situ- the voltage at the service panel is 243 V.
ated in a particularly hot location has a ser- 6-28 In Problem 6-27. if the voltage drop in the
vice life of two years. What is its expected cable must not exceed I 0 V when it is car-
life span if it is rewound using class F insu- rying a current of 60 A, what minimum
lation? conductor size would you recommend?
6-23 An I I kW ac motor having class B insula- Assume a maximum operating temperature
tion would normally have a service life of of 70°C.
20 000 h, provided the winding tempera- 6-29 A de busbar 4 inches wide, 1/4 inch thick.
ture by resistance does not exceed I 20°C. and 30 feet long cmTies a current of
By how many hours is the service life re- 2500 A. Calculate the voltage drop if the
duced if the motor runs for 3 h at a temper- temperature of the busbar is I05°C. What is
ature (by resistance) of 200°C? the power loss per meter?
 EFFICIENCY AND HEATING OF ELECTRICAL MACHINES 133

6-30 Equation 6.3 gives the resistance/tempera- brush pressure: 1.5 lbf
ture relationship of copper conductors, brush contact drop: 1.2 V
namely,
coefficient of friction: 0.2
t 2 = R 21R 1 (234 + t 1) - 234
Calculate the.following:
Using the information given in Appendix a. The resistance of the brush body in ohms
AX2, deduce a similar equation for alu- b. The voltage drop in the brush body
minum conductors. c. The total voltage drop in one brush, including
6-31 The commutator of a 1.5 hp, 2-pole, 3000 the contact voltage drop
r/min de motor has a diameter of 63 mm. d. The total electrical power loss (in watts) due to
Calculate the peripheral speed in feet per the two brushes
minute and in miles per hour. e. The frictional force of one brush rubbing
6-32 The following information is given on the against the commutator surface (in lbf and in
brushes used in the motor of Problem 6-31: newtons)
f. The frictional energy expended by the two
number of brushes: 2 brushes when the commutator makes one revo-
current per brush: 15 A lution (in joules)
brush dimensions: 5/8 in wide, 5/16 in thick, g. The power loss due to friction, given the speed
314 in long. (The 5/16 in X 5/8 in area is in of 3000 r/min
contact with the commutator) h. The total brush loss as a percent of the 1.5 hp
motor rating
resistivity of brush: 0.0016 n.in

'\

Figure 6.10
This VARMECA® induction motor, including its variable-speed controller and gear reducer, is housed under a trans-
parent plastic cover. The entire unit is being water-sprayed to demonstrate its ability to operate continuously under
harsh environmental conditions. (Courtesy of Leroy Somer, a division of Emerson Electric)
 CHAPTER 7
Active, Reactive,
and Apparent Power

7.0 Introduction 7 .1 Instantaneous power

T he concept of active, reactive. and apparent

power plays a major role in electric power tech-
nology. Jn effect, the transmission of electrical energy
The instantaneous power supplied to a device is
simply the product of the instantaneous voltage
across its terminals times the instantaneous current
and the behavior of ac machines are often easier to that flows through it.
understand by working with power, rather than deal- Instantaneous power is always expressed in
ing with voltages and currents. The reader is therefore watts, irrespective of the type of circuit used. The
encouraged to pay patticular attention to this chapter. instantaneous power may be positive or negative. A
The terms octi1•e. reactii'e, and apparent power positive value means that power flows into the de-
apply to :-.teady-state alternating current circuits in vice. Conversely, a negative value indicates that
which the voltages and currents are sinusoidal. power is flowing out of the device.
They cannot he used to describe transient-state be-
havior. nor can we apply them to de circuits.
Example 7-1
Our study begins with an analysis of the instan-
A sinusoidal voltage having a peak value of 162 V
taneous power in an ac circuit. We then go on to de-
and a frequency of 60 Hz is applied to the terminals
fine the meaning of active and reactive power and
of an ac motor. The resulting current has a peak
how to identify sources and loads. This is followed
value of 7.5 A and lags 50° behind the voltage.
by a definition of apparent power, powerfactot: and
the power triangle. We then show how ac circuits a. Express the voltage and current in terms of the
can be solved using these power concepts. In con- electrical angle <P.
clusion, vector notation is used to determine the b. Calculate the value of the instantaneous voltage
active and reactive power in an ac circuit. and current at an angle of 120°.

134
 ACTIVE, REA.CT/VE. AND APPARENT POWER 135

c. Calculate the value of the instantaneous power p = ei = 140.3 X 7.05 = + 989 W

at 120°.
Because the power is positive, it tlows at this
d. Plot the curve of the instantaneous power deliv-
instant into the motor.
ered to the motor.
d. In order to plot the curve of instantaneous
Solution power, we repeat procedures (b) and (c) above
a. Let us assume that the voltage starts at zero and for angles ranging from <f> = 0 to <f> 360°.
increases positively with time. We can therefore Table 7 A lists part of the data used.
write
TABLE 7A VALUES OF e, i, AND p USED TO PLOT
e sin <f> = 162 sin <f>
FIG. 7.1
The current behind the voltage by an angle Voltage Current Power
Angle
0 = 50°, consequently. we can write d> 162 sin (I) 7.5 sin ((I) 50') I'
degree~ volts amperes watts
i = / 111 sin(<!> 8) = 7.5 sin($ 50°)
() () 5.75 ()
b. At¢= 120° we have
25 68.5 3.17 -218
e = 162 sin 120° = 162 X 0.866 50 124.J () ()

140.3 v 75 156.5 3. 17 497

115 146.8 6.8 1000
7.5 sin (120° - 50°) 7.5 sin 70°
155 68.5 7.25 497
= 7.5 x 0.94 180 () 5.75 ()

= 7.05 A 205 -68.5 3.17 -218

230 124.1 () 0
c. The instantaneous power at 120° is

Figure 7.1
Instantaneous voltage, current and power in an ac circuit. (See Example 7-1.)
136 ELECTRIC4L lvfACHINESAND TRANSFORMERS

The voltage. current. anJ instantaneous power are power. Again. this phenomenon is quite normal: the
plotted in Fig. 7.1. The power attains a positive peak frequency of ac pmver flow is alway;, twice the line
of+ I000 Wand a negative peak of~ 218 W. The neg- frequency.
ative power means that power is actually flowing from
the load (motor) to the source. This occurs during the 7 .2 Active power*
intervals () 50°. 180''-230°. and 360° 410°.
The simple ac circuit of Fig. 7.2a consists of a re-
Although a power flow from a Jevice considered to be
sistor connected to an ac generator. The effective
a loaJ to a device considered to he a source may seem
voltage and current are designated E and /. respec-
to he impossible. it happens often in ac circuits. The
tively, and as we would expect in a resistive circuit.
reason is given in the sections that follow.
phasors E and I are in phase 7.2h). If we con-
We also note that the positive peaks occur at in-
nect a wattmeter (Fig. 7.?i) into the line. it will give
tervals of I/ 120 s. This means that the frequency of
a reading P = El watt;, 7.2cl.
the power cycle is 120 Hz. which is twice the fre-
To get a better picture of what goes on in such a
quency of the voltage and current that produce the
circuit. we have drawn the sinusoidal curves of E
and I (Fig. 7.2d). The peak value;, are respectively
·-··>- ~2£ volts and
+ I I+ amperes because, as slated previ-
ously. E and I are effcctil'c values. By multiplying
(a) L R
the in;,tantaneous value;, of voltage and current as
I
we did in Section 7.1. we obtain the i11stm1taw:o11s
' power in watts.

l\fony person' refer tn acti\·e power ~h fful 110111'1" or 1rue

11m1·ei: co11'idering it to he more <le-,niptive. In thic. hook
(b) we uc.e the term uni re /)(11ra hecmhe ii conforms to the
IEEE de;,ignation.

wattmeter

(c)
D t------1 R

load

Figure 7.2
a. An ac voltage L produces an ac current I in this re-
sistive circuit. Figure 7.3
b. Phasors I: and I are in phase. Example of a high-precision wattmeter rated 50 V, 100
c. A wattmeter indicates U watts. V, 200 V; 1 A, 5 A. The scale ranges from 0-50 W to 0-
d. The active power is composed of a series of posi- 1000 W
tive power pulses. (Courtesy of Weston Instruments)
 ACTIVE, REACTIVE. AND APPARENT POWER 137

The power wave consists of a series of positive ...

pulses that vary from zero to a maximum value of i+ I+
) X ('121) = 2EI = 2P watts. The fact that (a) E r:· iX1
power is always positive reveals that it always
flows from the generator to the resistor. This is one t
of the basic properties of what is called acr;ve
power: although it pulsates between zero and max-
/:'
imum. it 11erer changes direction. The direction of
(b)
power flow is shown by an arrow P 7.2c).
The average power is clearly midway between
2P and zero. and so its value is P 2EJ/2 = El
watts. That is precisely the power indicated by the
watt meter.
The two conductors leading to the resistor in Fig.
7.2a carry the active power. However. unlike cur-
rent flow. power does not !low down one conductor
and return by the other. Power flows over hotlz con- (c)
ductors and. consequently. as far as power is con-
cerned. we can replace the conductors by a single Figure 7.4
a. An ac voltage E produces an ac current I in this in-
line. as shown in Fig. 7.2c.
ductive circuit.
Jn general. the line represents any transmission b. Phasor ! lags 90° behind E
line connecting two devices. irrespective of the c. Reactive power consists of a series of positive and
number of conductors it may have. negative power pulses.
The generator is an actii·e source and the resistor
is an actii·e load. The symbol for active power is P frequency of the power wave 1s therefore agam
and the unit is the watt (W). The kilowatt (kW) and twice the line frequency.
megawatt (MW) are frequently used multiples of Power that surges back and forth in this manner is
the watt. called reactire pmver (symbol Q). to distinguish it
from the unidirectional active power mentioned be-
fore. The reactive power in 7.4 is also given by
7.3 Reactive power
the product El. However. to distinguish this power
The circuit of Fig. 7.4a is identical to the resistive from active power. another unit is used-the var. Its
circuit (Fig. 7.2a) except that the resistor is now re- multiples are the kilovar (kvar) and megavar (Mvar).
placed by a reactor XL. As a result, current/ lags 90° Special instruments. called 1·wmerers. are avail-
behind the voltage E (Fig. 7.4b). able to measure the reactive power in a circuit (Fig.
To see what really goes on in such a circuit. we 7 .5 ). A varmeter registers the product of the effective
have drawn the waveforms for E and I and. by line voltage E times the effective line current I times
multiplying their instantaneous values, we obtain sin 0 (where f:l is the phase angle between E and/). A
the curve of instantaneous power (Fig. 7.4c). This reading is only obtained when E and I arc out of phase:
power p consists of a series of identical positive and if they are exactly in phase (or exactly 180" out of
negative pulses. The positive waves correspond to phase), the varmeter reads zero.
instantaneous power delivered by the generator to Returning to 7.4. the dotted area under each
the reactor and the negative waves represent instan- pulse is the energy. in joules. transported in one
taneous power delivered from the reactor to the direction or the other. Clearly. the energy is deliv-
generator. The duration of each wave corresponds ered in a continuous series of pulses of very short
to one quarter of a cycle of the line frequency. The duration, every positive pulse being followed by a
13X ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMER5.,·

By definition*, a reactor is considered to be a re-

active load that absorbs reactive power.

Example 7-2
A reactor having an inductive reactance of 4 n is
connected to the terminals of a 120 V ac generator
(Fig. 7.6a).
a. Calculate the value of the current in the reactor
b. Calculate the power associated with the reactor
c. Calculate the power associated with the ac
generator
d. Draw the phasor diagram for the circuit

Figure 7.5
..
i +
Varmeter with a zero-center scale. It indicates positive
or negative reactive power flow up to 100 Mvars. 120 v /Lt JX1
4Q

(a) i 30A

negative pulse. The energy flows back. and forth

between the generator and the inductor without
ever being used up.
What is the reason for these positive and nega-
tive energy surges? The energy flows back and forth
because magnetic energy is alternately being stored 3.6 kvar
up and released by the reactor. Thus. when the (b)
power is positive. the magnetic field is building up
inside the coil. A moment later when the power is
negative. the energy in the magnetic field is de- .. E
120 v
creasing and flowing back to the source.
We now have an explanation for the brief nega-
tive power pulses in Fig. 7. I. In effect. they repre-
sent magnetic energy, previously stored up in the
(c) LA
motor windings. that is being returned to the source. Figure 7.6
See Example 7.2.
7.4 Definition of a reactive load and
reactive source Solution
a. Current in the circuit:
Reactive power involves real power that oscillates
back and forth between two devices over a trans- E 120 V
I
L
= X = 40 = 30 A
mission line. Consequently, it is impossible to say 1
whether the power originates at one end of the line
b. Power associated with the reactor:
or the other. Nevertheless. it is useful to assume that
some devices generate reactive power while others Q El= 120 X 30 3600 var= 3.6 kvar
absorb it. In other words, some devices behave like
reactin' sources and others like reactive loads. Thi~ definition is in agreement with IEEE and IEC eonvcntiom..
 ACTIVE. RE.."'ACTIVE. AND APPARENT POWER 139

This reactive power is absorbed by the reactor. source of reactive power. The reactive power deliv-
ered by the capacitor is equal to the current it car-
c. Because the reactor absorbs 3.6 kvar of reactance
ries times the voltage across its terminals, namely
power. the ac generator must be supplying it.
Consequently. the generator is a source of reactive Q Ef..: = 120 V X 30 A 3600 var= 3.6 kvar
power: it delivers 3.6 kvar. The reactive power Q
The reactive power delivered by the capacitor is ex-
flows therefore in the direction shown (Fig. 7.6b).
pressed in vars or kilovars. Reactive power Q now
<l. The phasor diagram is shown in 7.6c.
flows from the capacitor to the reactor.
Current h lags 90° behind voltage E.
We have arrived at a very important conclusion:
This phasor diagram applies to the reactive load a C(lp(lcitor is a source of' reactit·e power. It acts as
(the reactor) and the reactive source (the ac genera- a reactive power source whenever it is part of a
tor) as well as the line connecting them. sine-wave-based, steady-state circuit.
Let us take another step and remove the reactor
7.5 The capacitor and reactive power from the circuit in Fig. 7.7a, yielding the circuit of
7.8a. The capacitor is now alone. connected to
Suppose now that we add a capacitor having a reac- the terminals of the ac generator. It still carries a cur-
tance of 4 fl to the circuit of Fig. 7 .6. This yields the rent of 30 leading the voltage E by 90° (Fig.
circuit of 7.7a. The current f..: drawn by the ca- 7.8b). Consequently, the capacitor still acts as a
pacitor is f..: = 120 V/4 n = 30 A and. as we would source ofreactive power. delivering 3.6 kvar. Where
expect. it leads the voltage by 90° (Fig. 7.7b). does this power go? The answer is that the capacitor
The vector sum of/Land /" is zero and so the ac delivers reactive power to the very generator to
generator is no longer supplying any power at all to
the circuit. However. the current in the reactor has
not changed: consequently. it continues to absorb +
Q
30 AX 120 V 3.6 kvar of reactive power. lei -4j
Where is this reactive power coming from? It
3.6 kvar
t
can only come from the capacitor. which acts as a 30A
(a)

lc
+ I= 0 A
:
30 A
120 v -4j
(b) 1'--~~~~~~~~~~·~12ov

' varmeter
le rJ_--1
I I
30 A (c) 1----,T:I1... __ I,

capacitor
(b)
Q = Elc

11 Figure 7.8
30A a. Capacitor connected to an ac source.
b. Phasor le leads E by 90°.
Figure 7.7 c. Reactive power flows from the capacitor to the
See Example 7.3. generator.
140 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS

which it is connected! For most people, this takes a The 3.5 n capacitor generates reactive power:
little time to accept. How. we may ask, can a passive Qc Pxc 2
20 X 3.5 1400 var
device like a capacitor possibly produce any power? The R. L. C circuit generates a net reactive power
The answer is that reactive power really represents of 1400 588 = 812 var
energy that, like a pendulum, swings back and forth This reactive power must be absorbed by the
without ever doing any useful work. The capacitor generator; hence, as far as reactive power is con-
acts as a temporary energy-storing device repeatedly cerned the generator acts as a load.
accepting energy for brief periods and releasing it The active power absorbed by the resistors must
again. However, instead of storing magnetic energy be supplied by the generator: hence it is a source of
as a reactor does, a capacitor stores electrostatic en- active power 1304 W.
ergy (see Section 2.14). In conclusion, the ac generator is a source of ac-
If we connect a varmeter into the circuit (Fig. tive power ( 1304 W) and a receiver of reactive
7.8c). it will give a negative reading of El - 3600 power (812 var).
var, showing that reactive power is indeed flowing
from the capacitor to the generator. The generator is
now behaving like reactive load. but we sometimes 7.6 Distinction between active
prefer to call it a receiver of reactive power. which, of
and reactive power
course, amounts to the same thing. In summary, a ca-
pacitive reactance a/wars generates reactive power. There is a basic difference between active and re-
active power, and perhaps the most important thing
Example 7-3 to remember is that the one cannot be converted
An ac generator G is connected to a group of R. L. C into the other. Active and reactive powers function
circuit elements (Fig. 7.9). The respective elements independently of each other and, consequently,
carry the currents shown. Calculate the active and they can be treated as separate quantities in electric
reactive power associated with the generator. circuits.
Both place a burden on the transmission line that
carries them, but, whereas active power eventually
2U 3 .I
produces a tangible result (heat. mechanical power.
light etc.). reactive power only represents power
that oscillates back and forth.
4Q All ac inductive devices such as magnets, trans-
-3.5j
•
20 A
formers, ballasts, and induction motors. absorb re-
active power because one component of the current
they draw lags 90° behind the voltage. The reactive
power plays a very important role because it pro-
Figure 7.9 duces the ac magnetic field in these devices.
See Example 7.3.
A building, shopping center. or city may be con-
sidered to be a huge active/reactive load connected
Solution to an electric utility system. Such load centers con-
The two resistors absorb active power given by tain thousands of induction motors and other elec-
tromagnetic devices that draw both reactive power
P=fR (I X4)+(16.12 2 X2) (to sustain their magnetic fields) and active power
784 + 520 1304 w (to do the useful work).
The 3 n reactor absorbs reactive power: This leads us to the study of loads that absorb
2
QL = PxL 14 x 3 = 588 var both active and reactive power.
 ACTIVE. REACTIVE. AND APPARENT POWER 141

7.7 Combined active and reactive The active and reactive power components P
loads: apparent power and Q both flow in the same direction. as shown by
the arrows in 7.1 Oc. If we connect a wattmeter
Loads that absorb both active power P and reactive and a varmeter into the circuit, the readings will
power Q may be considered to be made up of a resis- both be positive, indicating P E/ 11 watts and Q =
tance and an inductive reactance. Consider, for exam- E/4 vars, respectively.
ple, the circuit of Fig. 7. IOa in which a resistor and re- Furthermore. if we connect an ammeter into the
actor are connected to a source G. The resistor draws line, it will indicate a current of I amperes. As a re-
a current / 11 , while the reactor draws a current / 4 • sult, we are inclined to believe that the power sup-
According to our definitions. the resistor is an plied to the load is equal to El watts. But this is ob-
active load while the reactor is a reactive load. viously incorrect because the power is composed of
Consequently, / 11 is in phase with E while /q lags 90° an active component (watts) and a reactive compo-
behind. The phasor diagram (Fig. 7.1 Ob) shows that nent (vars). For this reason the product El is called
the resultant line current / lags behind Eby an an- apparent powa The symbol for apparent power is S.
0. Furthermore. the magnitude of I is given by Apparent power is expressed neither in watts nor
in vars, but in voltamperes. Multiples are the kilo-
I voltampere (kVA) and megavoltampere (MVA).

__!_...
7.8 Relationship between P, Q,
and S
r+ Consider the single-phase circuit of 7.11 a com-
(a) 1:·
posed of a source, a load, and appropriate meters.
! Ip lq Let us assume that

• the voltmeter indicates E volts

• the ammeter indicates I amperes
• the wattmeter indicates + P watts
(b) • the varmeter indicates + Q vars
Knowing that P and Qare positive. we know that
the load absorbs both active and reactive power.
Consequently, the line current / lags behind Eah by
an angle 0.

(c)
0 Current I can be decomposed into two compo-
nents /rand fw respectively in phase. and in quad-

lL
rature, with phasor E (Fig. 7. I I b ). The numerical
values of/rand /q can be found directly from the in-
strument readings
(7.1)
(7.2)
Figure 7.10
a. Circuit consisting of a source feeding an active and Furthermore. the apparent power S transmitted over
reactive load. the line is given by S El, from which
b. Phasor diagram of the voltage and currents.
c. Active and reactive power flow from source to load. I S/E (7.3)
142 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS

var meter
a

/p
• E
l' BJ
,,~,
E load

b
(a) (bl

Figure7.11
a. Instruments used to measure E. I. P. and Q in a circuit.
b. The phasor diagram can be deduced from the instrument readings.

Referring to the phasor diagram (Fig. 7.1 lb), it is Example 7-5

obvious that A wattmeter and varmeter are connected into a 120 V
single-phase line that feeds an ac motor. They re-
spectively indicate 1800 Wand 960 var.
Consequently,
Calculate
a. The in-phase and quadrature components /r
and /q
b. The line current I
That is.
c. The apparent power supplied by the source
S2= +Q2 (7.4) d. The phase angle between the line voltage and
line current
in which
Solution
S apparent power [VA I
Referring to Fig. 7.11, where the load is now a mo-
P =active power [W]
tor, we have
Q reactive power [var]
We can also calculate the value of the angle 0 be- a. /r =PIE= 18001120 15 A (7.1)

cause the tangent of 0 is obviously equal to (//r. /q QIE 960/120 = 8A (7.2)

Thus. we have
b. From the phasor diagram we have
tJ arctan l//r arctan QIP (7.5)
/=
Example 7-4
An alternating-current motor absorbs 40 kW of ac- 17 A
tive power and 30 kvar of reactive power. Calculate c. The apparent power is
the apparent power supplied to the motor.
S =El= 120 X 17 2040 VA
Solution
s \p2 + Q2 d. The phase angle 0 between E and I is
(7.4)
=\ 0 arctan QI P arc tan 960/ l 800
50kVA = 28.I
 ACTIVE. REACTIVE. AND APPARENT POWER 143

Example 7-6 The power factor of a resistor is I 00 percent be-

A voltmeter and ammeter connected into the induc- cause the apparent power it draws is equal to the ac-
tive circuit of Fig. 7.4a give readings of 140 V and tive power. On the other hand, the power factor of
20 A, respectively. an ideal coil having no resistance is zero, because it
does not consume any active power.
Calculate
To sum up, the power factor of a circuit or device
a. The apparent power of the load
is simply a way of stating what fraction of its ap-
b. The reactive power of the load
parent power is real, or active, power.
c. The active power of the load
In a single-phase circuit the power factor is also
Solution a measure of the phase angle fl between the voltage
a. The apparent power is and current. Thus, referring to Fig. 7.11,

S =EI 140 X 20 power factor = PIS

= 2800 VA 2.8 kVA = El /El
1

b. The reactive power is lrll

Q =El 140 X 20 cos fl
= 2800 var 2.8 k var Consequently,
If a vanneter were connected into the circuit it power factor= cos fl = PIS (7.7)
would give a reading of 2800 var.
where
c. The active power is zero.
power factor power factor of a single-phase
If a wattmeter were connected into the circuit, it circuit or device
would read zero. 0 phase angle between the
To recapitulate, the apparent power is 2800 VA, voltage and current
but because the current is 90° out of phase with the
voltage, it is also equal to 2800 var. If we know the power factor, we automatically
know the cosine of the angle between E and land,
7.9 Power factor hence, we can calculate the angle. The power factor
is said to be lagging if the current lags behind the
The power factor of an alternating-current device or voltage. Conversely, the power factor is said to be
circuit is the ratio of the active power P to the ap- leading if the current leads the voltage.
parent power S. It is given by the equation
Example 7-7
power factor PIS (7.6)
Calculate the power factor of the motor in Example
where 7-5 and the phase angle between the line voltage
and line current.
P =active power delivered or absorbed by the
circuit or device [W] Solution
S =apparent power of the circuit or device fVA] power factor = PIS
= !800/2040
Power factor is expressed as a simple number, or as
= 0.882 or 88.2%
a percentage.
(lagging)
Because the active power P can never exceed the
apparent power S. it follows that the power factor cos fl = 0.882
can never be greater than unity (or 100 percent). therefore, 8 28.1 u
144 ELECTRICAL lvlACH!NES AND TRANSFORMERS

Example 7-8
A single-phase motor draws a current of 5 A from a
120 V. 60 Hz line. The power factor of the motor is
(J5 percent.

Cairn/ate
Q(456 var)
a. The active power absorbed by the motor
b. The reactive power supplied by the line

Solution
a. The apparent power drawn by the motor is

S, 11 El 120 X 5 600 VA
P(390 W)
The active power absorbed by the motor is
Figure 7.12
(7.7) Power triangle of a motor. See Example 7-8.
= 600 x 0.65 390 w
b. The reactive power absorbed by the motor is 4. Reactive power Q that is delivered by a circuit
or device is considered to be negative and is
(7.4) drawn vertically downwards

The power triangle for Example 7-8 is shown in

\600 2 - 390 2
Fig. 7.12 in accordance with these rules. The power
= 456 var components S, P. and Q look like phasors, but they
Note that the motor draws even more reactive are not. However. we can think of them as conve-
power from the line than active power. This burdens nient vectors. The concept of the power triangle is
the line with a relatively large amount of nonpro- useful when solving ac circuits that comprise sev-
ductive power. eral active and reactive power components.

7.1 O Power triangle 7.11 Further aspects of sources

and loads
The 52 P2 + Q2 relationship expressed by Eq. 7.4.
brings to mind a right-angle triangle. Thus. we can Let us consider Fig. 7. l 3a in which a resistor and
show the relationship between S. P. and Q graphi- capacitor are connected to a source. The circuit is
cally by means of a power triangle. According to similar to Fig. 7.10 except that the capacitor is a re-
convention. the following rules apply: active source. As a result. reactive power flows
from the capacitor to the source G while active
I. Active power P absorbed by a circuit or device
power flows from the source G to the resistor. The
is considered to be positive and is drawn hori-
active and reactive power components therefore
zontally to the right
flow in opposite directions over the transmission
2. Active power P that is delivered by a circuit or line. A wattmeter connected into the circuit will
device is considered to be negative and is give a positive reading P = EIP watts, but a varme-
drawn horizontally to the left ter will give a negative reading Q = Elq. The source
3. Reactive power Q absorbed by a circuit or de- G clelirers active power P but recei1·es reactive
vice is considered to be positive and is drawn power Q. Thus. G is simultaneously an active
ve1tically upwards source and a reactive load.
 ACTIVE. REACTIVE. AND APPARENT POWER 145

+
- I device (or devices) connected to the receptacle. If
the device absorbs active power, the receptacle
will provide it; if the device delivers active power.
(a) G the receptacle will receive it. In other words, a
simple receptacle outlet is at all times ready to de-
liver-or accept-either active power P or reac-
tive power Qin accordance with the devices con-
nected to it.
The same remarks apply to any 3-phase 480 V
service entrance to a factory or the terminals of a
(b)
high-power 345 kV transmission line.

• E Example 7-9
A 50 µF paper capacitor is placed across the motor
terminals in Example 7-8.
P = Elp f2 = Elq
Calculate
(c) a. The reactive power generated by the capacitor
b. The active power absorbed by the motor
c. The reactive power absorbed from the line
f:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·pP
d. The new line current
Q<l·:·:·:·:·:-:-:·:·:·l
Solution
Figure 7.13 a. The impedance of the capacitor is
a. Source feeding an active and reactive (capacitive) Xe = 1/(2 TrfC) (2.11)
load.
b. Phasor diagram of the circuit. = l/(2Tr x 60 x 50 x 10-(>)
c. The active and reactive powers flow in opposite di- = 53 n
rections.
The current in the capacitor is

It may seem unusual to have two powers flowing I = E!Xc = 120/53

in opposite directions over the same transmission = 2.26A
line. but we must again remember that active power
The reactive power generated by the capacitor is
P is not the same as a reactive power Q and that
each flows independently of the other. Qc = Elq = 120 X 2.26
Speaking of sources and loads, a deceptively = 271 var
simple electrical outlet, such as the 120 V recep-
b. The motor continues to draw the same active
tacle in a home, also deserves our attention. All
power because it is still fully loaded.
such outlets are ultimately connected to the huge
Consequently.
alternators that power the electrical transmission
and distribution systems. Odd as it may seem. an ? 111 = 390W
electrical outlet can act not only as an active or re-
The motor also draws the same reactive power
active source (as we would expect), but it may
as before, because nothing has taken place to
also behave as an active or reactive load. What
change its magnetic field. Consequently,
factors determine whether it will behave in one
way or the other? It all depends upon the type of Q 111 = 456 var
146 ELECTRICAL 1WACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS

c. The motor draws 456 var from the line, but the
capacitor furnishes 27 l var to the same line.
The net reactive power drawn from the line is,
Qc
therefore. (271 var)

QL = Q111 - Qc Q,,.
456 271 S,,,(600 VA) (456 var)

= 185 var
The active power drawn from the line is Qi
(185 var)
PL Pm 390W
d. The apparent power drawn from the line is f',,,(390W)

Figure 7.14
Power triangle of a motor and capacitor connected to
= V390 2 + 185 2
an ac line. See Example 7-9.
432 VA

The new line current is

nected in a very unusual way to a 380 V source (Fig.
/L = S1JE 432/120 7.15a). We wish to calculate the apparent power ab-
3.6A sorbed by the system as well as the current supplied
Thus, the line current drops from 5 A to 3.6 A by by the source.
placing the capacitor in parallel with the motor. Using the power approach. we do not have to
This represents a big improvement because the line worry about the way the loads are interconnected.
current is smaller and the operation of the motor has We simply draw a block diagram of the individual
not been changed in the least. loads. indicating the direction (as far as the source
The new power factor of the line is is concerned) of active and reactive power flow
(Fig. 7. I 5b ). Thus, because load A is inductive, it
cos <f>L = Pi.ISL 390/432 absorbs reactive power; consequently, the 5 kvar ar-
0.903 or 90.3% row flows from the source to the load. On the other
hand, because load C represents a capacitor, it
(~L = arcos 0.903 25.5°
delivers reactive power to the system. The 16 kvar
The power triangle is shown in Fig. 7.14. The re- arrow is directed therefore toward the source.
active power Qc generated by the capacitor is The distinct (and independent) nature of the
drawn vertically downward. By comparing this active and reactive powers enables us to add all the
power triangle with that in Fig. 7 .12, we can visu- active powers in a circuit to obtain the total active
ally observe the effect of the capacitor on the ap- power P. In the same way, we can add the reactive
parent power supplied by the line. powers to obtain the total reactive power Q. The re-
sulting total apparent power Sis then found by
7.12 Systems comprising s \' (7.4)
several loads We recall that when adding reactive powers, we
The concept of active and reactive power enables us assign a positive value to those that are absorbed by
to simplify the solution of some rather complex cir- the system and a negative value to those that are
cuits. Consider. for example, a group of loads con- generated (such as by a capacitor). In the same way.
 ACTIVE, REACTIVE. AND APPARENT POWER 147

source 2. Reactive power absorbed by the system:

Q 1 = (5 + 7 + 8) = +20 kvar
3. Reactive power supplied by the capacitors:
B 2kW
Q 2 = (-9 - 16) = -25 kvar
D 14kW
8 kvar M
4. Net reactive power Q absorbed by the system:
(a) Q = (+20 - 25) = -5 kvar
c
5. Apparent power of the system:
F
s= 'yp2 + Q2 = \· 242 + ( - 5)2
7 kvar
= 24.5 kVA

source 6. Because the 380 V source furnishes the appar-

ent power, the line current is

I= S/E = 24 500/380 = 64.5 A

5 kvar
<-.. . . . . . . .J <·. . . . . ..
9 kvar

7. The power factor of the system is

,. . . . . . .>
SkW cos ¢L = PIS= 24/24.5 = 0.979 (leading)
(b) The 380 V source delivers 24 kW of active

<· 2kW
.·!
7 kvar
ttzt$
power, but it receives 5 kvar of reactive power. This
reactive power flows into the local distribution sys-
tem of the electrical utility company, where it be-
16 kvar
k:::::=<> comes available to create magnetic fields. The mag-
netic fields may be associated with distribution
!:':':':;:,:>
8 kvar transformers, transmission lines, or even the elec-
tromagnetic relays of customers connected to the
Figure 7.15 same distribution system.
a. Example of active and reactive loads connected to The power triangle for the system is shown in Fig.
a 380 V source.
7.15c. It is the graphical solution to our problem.
b. All loads are assumed to be directly connected to
the 380 V receptacle.
Thus, starting with the 5 kvar load. we progressively
move from one device to the next around the system.
While so doing. we draw the magnitude and direc-
we assign a positive value to active powers that are tion (up, down. left. right) of each power vector, tail
absorbed and a negative value to those that are gen- to head. in accordance with the power of each device
erated (such as by an alternator). we meet. When the selection is complete. we can
Note that usually we cannot add the apparent draw a power vector from the starting point to the end
powers in various parts of a circuit to obtain the point, which yields the inclined vector having a value
total apparent power S. We can only add them if of 24.5 kYA. The horizontal component of this vec-
their power factors are identical. tor has a value of 24 kW and. because it is directed to
Let us now solve the circuit of Fig. 7.15: the right, we know that it represents power o/Jsor/Jed
by the system. The ve11ical component of 5 kvar is
I. Active power absorbed by the system:
directed downward: consequently. it represents reac-
p = (2 + 8 + 14) = + 24 kw tive power genemted by the system.
148 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS

2kW

- - - - - - - _,..,
24kW
I

5 kvar :
I

16 kvar 'end
point

8 kvar

14kW
9 kvar
7 kvar

8kW

Figure 7.15c
Power triangle of the system.

7 .13 Reactive power without with the rapidly operating switch rather than with
the resistor itself. Nevertheless, reactive power is
magnetic fields
consumed just as surely as if a reactor were present
We sometimes encounter situations where loads in the circuit. This switching circuit will be dis-
absorb reactive power without creating any mag- cussed in detail in Chapter 30.
netic field at all. This can happen in electronic
power circuits when the current flow is delayed 7 .14 Solving AC circuits using
by means of a rapid switching device, such as a
the power triangle method
thyristor.
Consider. for example, the circuit of Fig. 7.16 in We have seen that active and reactive powers can be
which a I 00 V, 60 Hz source is connected to a re- added algebraically. This enables us to solve some
sistive load of 10 fl by means of a synchronous me- rather complex ac circuits without ever having to
chanical switch. The switch opens and closes its draw a phasor diagram or resorting to vector U) no-
contacts so that current only flows during the latter tation. We calculate the active and reactive powers
part of each half cycle. We can see, almost by intu- associated with each circuit element and deduce the
ition, that this forced delay causes the current to lag corresponding voltages and currents. The following
behind the voltage. Indeed, if we connected a example demonstrates the usefulness of this power
wattmeter and varmeter between the source and the triangle approach.
switch. they would respectively read +500 Wand
+318 var. This corresponds to a lagging power fac- Example 7-10 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
tor (sometimes called displacement power factor) In Fig. 7.17a, the voltage between terminals I and 3
of 84.4 percent. The reactive power is associated is 60 V.
 ACTIVE, REACTIVE, AND APPARENT POWER 149

7.07 A (eff.)

(a)

100 V (eff.) R 10 n

© CD
(a)

s 700VA S = 780 VA
r--- r---
@
- @
XL
14.1 A··
13 A

(b) 0 5S1 12 n
le
53.B V R

i
12 A
x,

Figure 7.16 (b)

a. Active and reactive power flow in a switched resis-
tive load. Figure 7.17
b. The delayed current flow is the cause of the reac- a. Solving ac circuits by the power triangle method.
tive power absorbed by the system. b. Voltages and currents in the circuit. See Example
7-10.

Calculate from which the active power absorbed is

a. The current in each circuit element
p = 5 x 60 300 w
h. The voltage between terminals I and 2
c. The impedance between terminals I and 2 The apparent power a"lsociated with te1minals 1-3:

Solution s
We know the impedances of the elements and that 780 VA
60 V exists between terminals 3 and I (Fig. 7. I 7b).
We now proceed in logical steps, as follows: The current IL must, therefore. be

a. The current in the capacitor is

IL S/£31 780/60 13A
The voltage across the inductive reactance is
IC= 6015 12 A
IXL= 13x8=104V
from which the reactive power generated is
The reactive power absorbed by the inductive
Qc = 12 X 60 -720 var reactance is
The current in the resistor is QL = E23 x IL I 04 x 13
IR 60/12 = 5 A + 1352 var
150 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS

The total reactive power absorbed by the circuit is 1.25 Mvar 0.2MW

Q = Q, Qc 1352 - 720
= +632 var
substation load C
The total active power absorbed by the circuit is 15 Q
2,4 Q
______.,.
P = 300W 12.47 kV 289 A 10.03 kV
3MW 2.8MW
The apparent power absorbed by the circuit is 2 Mvar 0.75 Mvar

s \ = \
700 VA
b. The voltage of the line is therefore 10.03 kV

I = Sf11. 700/13
c. The impedance between terminals 2-1 is
53.9 v
289A
~ 289 A

z= ,111. = 53.9113 = 4.15 n Figure 7.18

Voltages, currents and power. See Example 7-11.
Example 7-11 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
A single-phase 12.47 kV transmission line several Phase angle between the voltage and current at the
kilometers long feeds a load C from a substation substation:
(Fig. 7.18). The line has a resistance of2.4 and a n e= arccos 0.833 33.6°
reactance of I 5 n. Instruments at the substation in-
dicate that the active and reactive power inputs to b) Active power dissipated in the line:
the line are 3 MW and 2 Mvar, respectively.
PL RP 2.4 x 289 2
Cairn/ate 0.2 x 106 0.2 MW
a) the line current and its phase angle with respect
Active power absorbed by the load:
to the line voltage at the substation
b) the active power absorbed by the load Pc = Psub - PL 3 MW 0.2 MW
c) the reactive power absorbed by the load 2.8MW
d) the line voltage at the load
e) the phase angle between the voltage at the load c) Reactive power absorbed by the line:
and that at the substation 15 x 289 2 1.25 X 106 = 1.25 Mvar
Solution Reactive power absorbed by the load:
a) Apparent power delivered to the line:
Qc Q,ub - QL = 2 Mvar - 1.25 Mvar
s = yp2 + Q2
= 0.75 Mvar
3.60 MVA
d) Apparent power at the load:
Line current:
s 3600000VA
v P{ Qz v2.8 2 -c).75 2
I= = 289A 2.90MVA
E 12 470 v
Power factor at the substation Voltage at the load end of the line:
p 3MW 2.90 MVA
FP 0.833 = 10.03 kV
s 3.6 MVA 289A
 ACTIVE. REACTIVE. AND APPARENT POWER 151

Power factor at the load end of the line:

--· I

:.LJ.~..
2.8MW
0.965 OU 96.5%
2.90MVA

Phase angle bet ween the voltage and current at the '
; rest of circuit l
load: \.-- ----- -- ----- ----- _ ... J (a)

ec = arccos 0.965 15.2°

It follows that the phase angle between the voltage

at the substation and that at the load is (33.6° _ I.........
15.2°) 18.4°.
Fig. 7.18 summarizes the results of this analy-
~
L+ -Ei-->••
.. - 1 S=+E1l*
y•
sis. We could have found the same values using
vector algebra. However. on account of its sim-
,__ L_ ______________ L
:' rest of circuit i'
plicity. the power method of solving this problem L---------------------J (b)
is very appealing.

7.15 Power and vector notation

.-
If vector notation is used to solve an ac circuit. we
can readily determine the active and reactive power B s E,r
.-J~----~~ ____ ] __,'
associated with any component, including the
sources. We simply multiply the phasor voltage E
across the component by the conjugate (/*) of the ;' rest of circuit i
L---------------------J (C)
current that flows through it.' The vector product
El* gives the apparent power S in terms of P jQ. Figure 7.19
where P is the active power and Q the reactive Method of writing power equations.
power absorbed (or delivered) by the component. same sequence ab (not ba). The apparent power S
A positive value for P or Q means that the com- associated with Z is therefore written
ponent absorbs active or reactive power. Negative
values mean that the component delivers active or s= £,,,/*
reactive power. It would be incorrect to write S E 1xl*
When calculating the £/* vector product, it is In 7. I 9b, sign notation is used, and it is seen
very impmtant to follow a standard procedure in or- that current I enters Z by the ( +) terminal.
der to obtain the correct result. The procedure ap- Consequently. the apparent power is given by
plies to circuits that use the double subscript nota-
S = +£ 1 /'~
tion or the sign notation (see Sections 2.4 and 2.5).
Consider Figure 7. l 9a in which a circuit element The product is preceded by a ( ) sign because
Z is part of a larger "rest of circuit." We want to cal- current I is shown as entering by the ( ) terminal of
culate the active and reactive power associated with element Z.
element Z. We note that current I flows from termi- In the case of Fig. 7.19c, we write S -£4 /* be-
nal a to terminal b. i.e. in the sequence ab. cause the current enters Z by the ( ) terminal.
Consequently, when calculating the product £/*. If we want to, we can determine the apparent
the subscripts of E must be written in the power associated with the "rest of circuit" (roe).
Thus, in 7. l 9a, because the current circulates
lfacurTent has a \alue /L..0, its conjugate/"'= IL·-0. from b to a in the roe, we would write:
152 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS

Similarly, in Fig. 7. I 9c. we would write

Let us illustrate the procedure by a few examples.

Example 7-12 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
2
In the circuit of Fig. 7. l 9c, the following values are
given Figure 7.20
See Example 7-13.
I= 4 L-40()

Calculate the active and reactive power associated

with element Z. The voltage across the capacitor is given by
Solution E, 2 +I ( I 0 j) 0
We have I 4 L40°: therefore /* = 4 -40°
=lOj/
Since the current flows into the ( - ) terminal. the
power equation must bear a ( - ) sign: I Oj 2.46 -47°
= 24.6 L(-47° + 90°)
s
24.6 L43°
= - 70 L25n X 4 -40°
-280 -15° Current in the capacitor flows from terminal 2 to
terminal 3. Consequently. the power associated
= -280(cos(-I +jsin( 15°))
with the capacitor is
-270.5 + .i 72.5
S = £ 23 1*
= p + jQ
= -24.6 L43° X 2.46 L47°
Thus P -270.5 Wand Q + 72.5 var
· 60.5 L 90°
We conclude that element Z delii·ers 270.4 W of -60.5 (cos 90° j sin 90°)
active power and absorbs 72.5 var of reactive
0 - 60.5.i
power.
= p + jQ
Example 7-13 - - - - - - - - - - - - - Hence P = 0 and Q -60.5; Consequently, the ac-
Given the circuit of Fig. 7.20 in which = 30 L78°, tive power associated with the capacitor is zero, and
determine the power associated with the capacitor it de!il'crs 60.5 var of reactive power.
whose reactance is I 0 n.
Example 7-14 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
Solution
Going cw around the circuit, we can write (see The circuit in Fig. 7.21 is composed of a 45 !! re-
Sections 2.32 to 2.39) sistor connected in series with a 28 !! inductive re-
actance. The source generates a voltage described
I (7 I Oj) 0 by the phasor £ah 159L65°.
- 30 78°
I
7- 10) 12.5 L 55° Calculate
-2.46L 133° 2.46 -47° a. The magnitude and phase of the current I
 ACTIVE. REACTIVE. AND APPARENT POWER 153

45 ~2 Voltage across the reactance is

a c
j28 I
j28 X 3L33. I I

15916~)
= 84d33. I I 0 + 90°)
28rl
= 84Ll23.l I
c. The conjugate/* of the current I is
/*= 3L-33.IJ 0
b
The apparent power associated with the resistor is
Figure 7.21
Solving an ac circuit using vector notation. 5,'r =
= (135L33.Jl")(3L-33.ll 0
)

= 405L0°
b. The magnitude and phase of the voltage across 405 (COS 0° j sin 0°)
the resistor and across the reactance 405 (I jO)
c. The active and reactive power associated with
= 405
the resistor. the reactance. and the source
So/Wion Thus. the resistor absorbs only real power (405 W)
a. Applying Kirchhoff's voltage law (see Section because there is no j component in Sr.
2.32), we obtain The apparent power associated with the reac-
tance is

T 45/ + j28/ = 0
(84!123.ll 0 )(3L 33.11°)
159L65° -r /(45 j28) 0
252L 90°
159165°
I = 252 (cos 90" + j sin 90°)
45 + j28
Transforming the denominator into polar coor- 252 (0 + j I)
dinates. we obtain j252
amplitude \ 45" 28:i 53 Thus. the reactance absorbs only reactive power
phase angle = arctan 28/45 = 31.89° (252 var).
hence 45 + j28 53 L 31.89° The apparent power associated with the source is

159 65° S, =Eh)*

and so/= - = 3 L (65° - 31.89°)
53 L 31.89° = -(l59L65°)(3L 33.11°)
= 3L:3.3. I I 0
-477 L(65° 33.11°)
b. Voltage across the resistor is -477 L3 I .89°
= 45 / = -477 (cos 31.89° + j sin 31.89°)
45X3L33.ll 0
-477 (0.849 T j 0.528)
135L33.l l 0
-405 j 252
154 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS

The active and reactive powers are both negative.

which proves that the source delivt'rs an active
power of 405 Wand a reactive power of 252 var. electrical
device A

7.16 Rules on sources and loads

(sign notation)
We are often interested in determining whether a de-
vice is an active/reactive source or an active/reactive
load without making a complete mathematical analy-
sis. such as we performed in Section 7.15. To enable
Figure 7.22
us to positively identify the nature of the source or
Device A may be an active/reactive source or
load, consider Fig. 7.22 in which a device A carries a active/reactive load depending upon the phasor rela-
line current I. The device is part of a circuit. tionship between E and /.
The voltage between the terminals is£, and one
of the terminals bears a ( ) sign. The phase angle 7.17 Rules on sources and loads
between £and I can have any value. As a result, I
(double subscript notation)
can be decomposed into two components, /rand /q
that are respectively parallel to, and at right angles We can also tell whether a device is an active source
to £. Let / 11 be the component of I that is parallel to or active load when double subscript notation is
£. It will therefore be either in phase with. or 180° used. Consider Figure 7 .23 in which a device A car-
out of phase with E. Similarly, /q can be either 90° ries a current I flowing in the direction shown. The
behind or 90° ahead of£. voltage between terminals a and b is Eah· The fol-
The circuit diagram, together with the phasor re- lowing rule applies:
lationships between E and /. enable us to state
3. A device is an active load when:
whether a device is an active load or an active
a. voltage £ah and component /P are in phase and
source. The following rule applies*:
b. line current I is shown as entering terminal a.
I. A device is an active load when
Otherwise. the device is an active source.
a. voltage £and component /P are in phase and
b. the line current I is shown as entering the The following rule also applies:
(+}terminal.
4. A device is a reactive load when
Otherwise. the device is an active source. a. current / 4 lags 90° behind voltage £ah mu!
The following rule also applies:
2. A device is a reactive load when
a. component /q lags 90° behind voltage E and electrical
b. line current I is shown as entering the ( +) device A
terminal.
Otherwise, the device is a reactive source.
Based on these rules, and observing the phasor rela-
tionships in Fig. we deduce that device A is an
active load because / 11 is in phase with£. Also, device
A is a reactive source because /q is 90° ahead of E.
Figure 7.23
Same circuit as in Fig. 7.22 except that double-
Thc;,c rules arc in agreement with IEEE and IEC conventions. subscript notation is used.
 ACTIVE. REACTIVE. AND APPARENT POWER 155

b. line current I is shown as entering by termi- a. The reactive power absorbed by the reactor
nal a. b. The apparent power absorbed by the reactor
c. The peak power input to the reactor
Otherwise, the device is a reactive source.
d. The peak power output of the reactor
Based on these rules, and observing the phasor rela- e. The duration of each positive power pulse
tionships in Fig. 7.23, we deduce that device A is an 7-1 I Using the rules given in Sections 7.16 and
active source because IP is I 80° out of phase with Eah· 7.17, determine which of the devices in Fig.
Also, device A is a reactive load because / 4 lags 7.24a through 7.24f acts as an active (or re-
90° behind Eah· active) power source.
7-12 A single-phase motor draws a current of
Questions and Problems 12 A at a power factor of 60 percent.
Calculate the in-phase and quadrature com-
Practical level
ponents of current JP and /q with respect to
7-1 What is the unit of active power? reactive the line voltage.
power? apparent power?
7-13 A single-phase motor draws a current of 16
7-2 A capacitor of 500 kvar is placed in parallel A from a 240 V, 60 Hz line. A wattmeter
with an inductor of 400 kvar. Calculate the connected into the line gives a reading of
apparent power of the group. 2765 W. Calculate the power factor of the
7-3 Name a static device that can generate reac- motor and the reactive power it absorbs.
tive power. 7-14 If a capacitor having a reactance of 30 n is
7-4 Name a static device that absorbs reactive connected in parallel with the motor of
power. Problem 7-13, calculate:
7-5 What is the approximate power factor, in a. The active power reading of the watt meter
b. The total reactive power absorbed by the ca-
percent. of a capacitor? of a coil? of an in-
pacitor and motor
candescent lamp?
c. The apparent power of the ac line
7-6 The current in a single-phase motor d. The line current
50° behind the voltage. What is the power e. The power factor of the motor/capacitor
factor of the motor? combination

Intermediate level 7-15 Using only power triangle concepts

(Section 7.14) and without drawing any
7- 7 A large motor absorbs 600 kW at a power
phasor diagrams, find the impedance of the
factor of 90 percent. Calculate the apparent
circuits in 7.25.
power and reactive power absorbed by the
machine. 7-16 An induction motor absorbs an apparent
power of 400 kVA at a power factor of 80
7-8 A 200 µF capacitor is connected to a 240 V,
percent. Calculate:
60 Hz source. Calculate the reactive power
a. The active power absorbed by the motor
it generates. b. The reactive power absorbed by the motor
7-9 A I0 f! resistor is connected across a 120 V, c. What purpose does the reactive power serve
60 Hz source. Calculate: 7-17 A circuit composed of a 12 fl resistor in
a. The active power absorbed by the resistor
series with an inductive reactance of 5 n
b. The apparent power absorbed by the resistor
carries an ac current of I0 A. Calculate:
c. The peak power absorbed by the resistor
a. The active power absorbed by the resistor
d. The duration of each positive power pulse
b. The reactive power absorbed by the inductor
7-10 n
A I0 reactance is connected to a 120 V, c. The apparent power of the circuit
60 Hz line. Calculate: d. The power factor of the circuit
 1- 1-

----'•E ----•E
1-

E
(a) (b) (c)

1-

I
c;? f+ ~
II
E
""£I I

(d) (e) (f)

Figure 7.24
See Problem 7-11.

2n

4D 1on 6D 4D

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 7.25
See Problem 7-15.

7-18 A coil having a resistance of 5 n and an in- 7-21 A coil having a reactance of 10 !! and a re-
ductance of 2 H carries a direct current of sistance of 2 n is connected in parallel with
20 A. Calculate: a capacitive reactance of I0 n. If the sup-
a. The active power absorbed ply voltage is 200 V. calculate:
b. The reactive power absorbed a. The reactive power absorbed by the coil
b. The reactive power generated by
Advanced level the capacitor
7-19 A motor having a power factor of 0.8 ab- c. The active power dissipated by the coil
sorbs an active power of 1200 W. Calculate d. The apparent power of the circuit
the reactive power drawn from the line. 7-22 The power factor at the terminals of a
7-20 In Problem 7-13, if we place a capacitor of 120 V source is 0.6 lagging (Fig. 7.26).
500 var in parallel with the motor, calculate: Without using phasor diagrams.
a. The total active power absorbed by the system calculate:
b. The apparent power of the system a. The value of E
c. The power factor of the system b. The impedance of the load Z
156
 ACTIVE. REACTIVE. AND APPARENT POWER 157

1- 1-

E = 120 V

- - - - - - - - • E = 120 V
Figure 7.26 ~oo
I= 5 A
See Problem 7-22.

7-23 In Figs. 7.27a and 7.27b. indicate the mag- (a) (b) 150°

nitude and direction of the active and reac-

I= 5 A
tive power flow. (Hint: Decompose I into /P
and /q. and treat them independently.) Figure 7.27
lndustri o I opp! irn ti on See Problem 7-23.

7-24 A single-phase capacitor has a rating of

30 kvar, 480 V. 60 Hz. Calculate its capaci-
b. The active and reactive power consumed by
tance in microfarads.
the line
7-25 In Problem 7-24 calculate: c. The active, reactive and apparent power ab-
a. The peak voltage across the capacitor when sorbed by the load
it is connected to a 460 V source d. The voltage across the load
b. The resulting energy stored in the capacitor
7-28 A 2 hp. 230 V. 1725 r/min 60 Hz single-
at that instant in joules
phase washdown duty motor. manufactured
7-26 Safety rules state that one minute after a ca- by Baldor Electric Company. has the fol-
pacitor is disconnected from an ac line, the lowing characteristics:
voltage across it must be 50 V or less. The
discharge is done by means of a resistor Full load current: 11.6 A
that is permanently connected across the efficiency: 75.5%
capacitor terminals. Based on the discharge power factor: 74%
curve of a capacitor. calculate the discharge
weight: 80 lb
resistance required, in ohms. for the capaci-
tor in Problem 7-24. Knowing the resis- a. Calculate the active and reactive power ab-
tance is subjected to the service voltage sorbed by this machine when it operates at
full load.
when the capacitor is in operation. calculate
b. If a 40 microfarad capacitor is connected
its wattage rating.
across the motor terminals. calculate the line
7-27 A 13.2 kV. 60 Hz single-phase line con- current feeding the motor.
nects a substation to an industrial load. The c. Will the presence of the capacitor affect the
line has a resistance of 2.4 n and a reac- temperature of the motor?
tance of 12 n. The metering equipment at 7-29 A single-phase heater absorbs 4 kW on a 240
the substation indicates that the line voltage V line. A capacitor connected in parallel with
is 12.5 kV and that the line is drawing 3 MW the resistor delivers 3 kvar to the line.
of active power and 2 Mvar of reactive a. Calculate the value of the line current.
power. Calculate: b. If the capacitor is removed. calculate the
a. The current flowing in the line new line current.
 CHAPTER 8
Three-Phase Circuits

8.0 Introduction 8.1 Polyphase systems

lectric power is generated, transmitted, and dis- We can gain an immediate preliminary understand-
E tributed in the form of 3-phase power. Homes
and small establishments are wired for single-phase
ing of polyphase systems by referring to the common
gasoline engine. A single-cylinder engine having one
power. but this merely represents a tap-off from the piston is comparable to a single-phase machine. On
basic 3-phase system. Three-phase power is pre- the other hand, a 2-cylinder engine is comparable to
ferred over single-phase power for several impor- a 2-phase machine. The more common 6-cylinder
tant reasons: engine could be called a 6-phase machine. In a
6-cylinder engine identical pistons move up and
a. Three-phase motors, generators, and transform-
down inside identical cylinders. but they do not
ers are simpler. cheaper, and more efficient
move in unison. They are staggered in such a way as
b. Three-phase transmission lines can deliver
to deliver power to the shaft in successive pulses
more power for a given weight and cost
rather than at the same time. As the reader may know
c. The voltage regulation of 3-phase transmission
from personal experience, this produces a smoother
lines is inherently better
running engine and a much smoother output torque.
A knowledge of 3-phase power and 3-phase cir- Similarly, in a 3-phase electrical system, the
cuits is, therefore, essential to an understanding of three phases are identical, but they deliver power at
power technology. Fortunately, the basic circuit different times. As a result, the total power flow is
techniques used to solve single-phase circuits can be very smooth. Furthermore, because the phases are
directly applied to 3-phase circuits. Furthermore, we identical, one phase may be used to represent the
will see that most 3-phase circuits can be reduced to behavior of all three.
elementary single-phase diagrams. In this regard, Although we must beware of carrying analogies
we assume the reader is familiar with the previous too far, the above description reveals that a 3-phase
chapters dealing with ac circuits and power. system is basically composed of three single-phase

158
 THREE-PHASE CIRCUITS 159

systems that operate in sequence. Once this basic stator winding A

fact is realized. much of the mystery surrounding
3-phase systems disappears.

8.2 Single-phase generator

Consider a permanent magnet NS revolving at con-
stant speed inside a stationary iron ring (Fig. 8.1 ).
The magnet is driven by an external mechanical
Figure 8.2
source. such as a turbine. The ring (or stator) re-
At this instant E81 0 because the flux does not cut
duces the reluctance of the magnetic circuit: conse- the conductors of winding A.
quently. the tlux density in the air gap is greater than
if the ring were absent. A multiturn rectangular coil
voltage Ea 1 is maximum when the poles are in the
having terminals a, l is mounted inside the ring but
position of 8.1 because the flux density is
in!-.ulated from it. Each turn correspond!-. to two con-
greatest at the center of the pole. On the other hand.
ductor!-.. one in each slot.
the voltage is zero when the poles are in the position
of Fig. 8.2 because flux does not cut the conductors
stator winding A
at this moment.
If we plot Ea 1 as a function of the angle of rota-
tion, and provided the N, S poles are properly
shaped, we obtain the sinusoidal voltage shown in
Fig. 8.3.* Suppose the alternating voltage has a peak
value of 20 Y. Machines that produce such voltages
are called a/temming-current generators or srn-
chronous generators. The particular machine shown
Figure 8.1 in 8.1 is called a single-phase gencrotot:
Asingle-phase generator with a multiturn coil embed-
ded in two slots. At this instant Ea 1 is maximum ( + ). v
+ 20
"
\\ l,i
I
/
/
"\\
vi I \
As the magnet turns, it sweeps across the con- \ I \
10
ductor!-., inducing a voltage in them according to the \
\ I
I \
\
\ I \
equation: \ I \
0 90 180 270 360 degrees 450
= Bfr (2.25) I I

LI
\'\--angle
I I \
I \
wherein 10
I \
\
\
/
£" 1 instantaneous voltage induced in the coil IV I \ I
I
\ /
B instantaneous flux density cutting across the - 20 " /

conductors in the slots [Tl

Figure 8.3
I = length of conductors lying in the magnetic Voltage induced in winding A.
field [m]
peripheral speed of the revolving poles [m/s]
The pole' shown in Fig. 8.1 would generate an alternating
The sum of the voltages induced in all the con- voltage composed of rather hrief flat-toppped po~itive and
ductors appears across the terminals. The terminal negative pulse,.
160 l:LECTR/C;\L MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS

v
8.3 Power output of a single-phase + 20 r - : - - - - - ; - - - - - --,--~------.-------~...,...,...~--------,

generator
If a resistor is connected across terminals a, 1 a cur- /_, 10
rent will flow and the resistor will heat up (Fig. 8.4). r.,1
t
The current /" is in phase with the voltage and. con-
sequently. the instantaneous power is composed of a
series of positive pulses. as shown in Fig. 8.5. The
average power is one-half the peak power. This elec- 10

trical power is derived from the mechanical power

provided hy the turbine driving the generator. As a - 20
result. the turbine must deliver its mechanical en-
peak power E, 13 Pm
ergy in pulses, to match the pulsed electrical output.
This sets up mechanical vihrations whose frequency
is twice the electrical frequency. Consequently, the
generator will vibrate and tend to be noisy.
instantaneous power of phase A

8.4 Two-phase generator Figure 8.5

Graph of the voltage, current, and power when the
Using the same single-phase generator. let us mount
generator is under load.
a second winding (B) on the stator, identical to

voltage £" 1 becomes zero and voltage Eh-:>. attains its

maximum positive value. The two voltages are
therefore out of phase by 90°. They are represented
by curves in 8.6b and by phasors in 8.6c.
Note that leads Eh 2 because it reaches its peak
H load on phase A
positive value before Eh 2 docs.
This machine is called a fH'o-f>hase ge11erat01:
and the stator windings are respectively called
phase A and phase B.

Figure 8.4 Example 8-1

Single-phase generator delivering power to a resistor. The generator shown in 8.6a rotates at 6000
r/min and generates an effective sinusoidal voltage
winding A. hut displaced from it by a mechanical of 170 V per winding.
angle or 90° 8.6a).
As the magnet rotates. sinusoidal voltages are in- Co/cu/ate
duced in each winding. They obviously have the a. The peak voltage across each phase
same magnitude and frequency but do not reach h. The output frequency
their maximum value at the same time. In effect, at c. The time interval corresponding to a phase an-
the moment when the magnet occupies the position gle of 90°
shmvn in Fig. 8.6a. voltage E,i1 passes through its Solution
maximum positive value. whereas voltage is a. The peak voltage per phase is
zero. This is because the flux only cuts across the
conductors in slots 1 and a at this instant. However, ='12£= 1.414 x 170 (2.6)
after the rotor has made one quarter-turn (or 90° ). 240 v
 THREE-PHASE CIRCU!7S 161

b. One cycle is completed every time the magnet 8.5 Power output of a 2-phase
makes one turn. The period of one cycle is generator
T = 1/6000 min Let us now connect two identical res1st1ve loads
= 60/6000 s = 0.01 s across phases A and B (Fig. 8.7a). CuJTents (,and l1i
=IO ms will flow in each resistor. They are respectively in
phase with Ea 1 and Eh 2 . The currents are. therefore.
The frequency is 90° out of phase with each other (Fig. 8.7b). This
f = 1/T = 1/0.01 = JOO Hz means that(, reaches its maximum value one quarter-
period before / 11 docs. Furthermore. the generator
c. A phase angle of 90° corresponds to a time in-
now produces a 2-phase power output.
terval of one quarter-revolution, or 10 ms/4 =
The instantaneous power supplied to each resis-
2.S ms. Consequently, phasor Eh 2 lags 2.5 ms
tor is equal to the instantaneous voltage times the
behind phasor Ea 1 •
instantaneous current. This yields the two power
waves shown in Fig. 8.8. Note that when the power
stator winding A
of phase A is maximum. that of phase B is zero. and
vice versa. If we add the instantaneous powers of
both phases. we discover that the resultant power is
(a) constant and equal to the peak power Prn of one

_I I
-i/Ea1 -
" / -,
/Eb2
, " (a) R load on
IX \ J x phase A
!\ I I\
(b) ' " '
o_ ~ 90\ ~ 180 _ 270~360_ 450_
..'.. _I.] angle of rotation e
1\ x / I\
/

load on phase B

c:
n Ea,

L
(c)
2 b (b)

Figure 8.6
a. Schematic diagram of a 2-phase generator. Figure 8.7
b. Voltages induced in a 2-phase generator. a. Two-phase generator under load.
c. Phasor diagram of the induced voltages. b. Phasor diagram of the voltages and currents.
162 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS

phase.* In other words, the total power output of the

2-phase generator is the same at every instant. As a
result, the mechanical power needed to drive the
generator is also constant. A 2-phase generator does
not vibrate and so it is less noisy. As an important
instantaneous power of phase A
added benefit, it produces twice the power output
without any increase in size, except for the addition
i I
I I
of an extra winding. I
I
I
8.6 Three-phase generator I
A 3-phase generator is similar to a 2-phase generator.
except that the stator has three identical windings in-
stead of two. The three windings a-1. b-2. and c-3 are
placed at 120° to each other, as shown in Fig. 8.9a.
When the magnet is rotated at constant speed,
the voltages induced in the three windings have the
same effective values, but the peaks occur at differ-
ent times. At the moment when the magnet is in the - angle of rotation
position shown in 8.9a, only voltage Ea 1 is at its Total instantaneous power output
maximum positive value.
Voltage will reach its positive peak after Figure 8.8
Power produced by a 2-phase generator.
the rotor has turned through an angle of 120" (or

The term plwse i..; used to designate different things. one-third of a turn). Similarly, voltage El.:, will at-
Consequently. it has to be read in context to be understood. tain its positive peak after the rotor has turned
The following examples show some of the war in which
through 240° (or two-thirds of a turn) from its ini-
the word phuse is used.
I. The current is om 11f'p/111se with the voltage (refers to pha- tial position.
sor diagram) Consequently, the three stator voltages-£" 1,
1 The three plwses of a transmission line (the three conduc- Eh 2 , and respectively out of phase by
tors of the line) 120°. They are shown as sine waves in Fig. 8.9b.
3. The plw.1e-t11-p/111se 1·0/t11ge (the line voltage)
and as phasors in Fig. 8.9c.
4. The phase .1eq11mce (the order in \\hich the phasors follow
each oth<:r)
5. The humed-11111 phase (the burned-out winding of a .I-phase 8. 7 Power output of a 3-phase
machine)
6. Th<: 3-tilwsc 1·0/tug<' (the line voltage of a 3-phase system)
generator
7. The J-plwsc' rnrrrnt.1 arc unbalan<:ed (the current;, in a :I-phase Let us connect the three windings of the generator to
line or machine are unequal and not displaced at 12(}°)
three identical resistors. This arrangement requires
8. Th<: plw.1c-shifi 11w1.:/i1m1er (a device that can change the
phase angle or the outplll \'Oltage with respect lo the input six wires to deliver power to the individual single-
voltag<:) phase loads 8.1 Oa). The resulting currents la, 11:,.
9. The filwsc-to-11lto.1e /!111/1 (a short-circuit between two line and (.are respectively in phase with voltages Eal•
conductors) and Because the resistors are identical, the
10. Pha.1e-111-gm1111d/(111/1 (a :,hort-circuit between a line or
currents have the same effective values, but they are
winding and ground)
11. The phasc.1 ore 1111/10/onced (the line voltages. or the line mutually out of phase by 120° (fig. 8. IOb). The fact
currents. arc unequal or not displaced at 120' to each that they are out of phase simply means that they
other) reach their positive peaks at different times.
 THREE-PHASE CIRCUITS 163

The instantaneous power supplied to each resi:-.-

tor is again composed of a power wave that surges
between zero and a maximum value Pm. However.
(a)
the power peaks in the three-resistors do not occur
at the same time. due to the phase angle between the
voltages. If we add the instantaneous powers of all
three resistors, we discover that the resulting power
is constant, as in the case of a 2-phase generator.

m- However. the total output of a 3-phase generator has

I
I I
-I- Ec3 -~ I

;\
Ea1 - Eb2
+ . v .- '•I a magnitude of 1.5 P 111 • Because the electrical out-
E " I
. -
\ \ I / \ . '

put is con:-.tant, the mechanical power required to

(b)
l
0
I\
\
I \ ! \ :
l

i
drive the rotor is also constant and so a 3-phase
generator does not vibrate. Furthermore. the power
I\ -- ',, -- ",,'/ ~-
o_ -~
'120 240 360 ~80
:
flow over the transmission line. connecting the gen-
I\ :/ \ / \ .·· \ erator to the load. is constant.
/ '- I
'
i
] Example 8-2
The 3-phase generator shown in 8. I Oa is con-
nected to three 20 H load resistors. If the effective
voltage induced in each phase is 120 V. calculate
(c) 120° 120° the following:
a. The power dissipated in each resistor
b. The power dissipated in the 3-phase load
c. The peak power Pill dissipated in each resistor
Figure 8.9 d. The toral 3-phase power compared to Pill
a. Three-phase generator.
b. Voltages induced in a 3-phase generator.
Sol mi on
c. Phasor diagram of the induced voltages.
a. Each resistor behaves as a single-phase load
connected to an effective voltage of 120 V. The
power dissipated in each resistor is, therefore.

(a) (b)

Figure 8.10
a. Three-phase, 6-wire system.
b. Corresponding phasor diagram.
164 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS

+I max
r;:-=.-If-r- 'C
l
y I ,,,,..,
i '
I
!
' df
!\

I\ I I
II
i
~-

, ;I\ '
i

i
I
--- -

''
0 l· \I
o_ k-- {20 -- 240 '----J360~ . 480
\'I
tf, \'
't
I\ J \ /I" i\i
I
' - -t-1 ''!-..

u I

(a) (b)

Figure 8.11
a. Three-phase, 4-wire system.
b. Line currents in a 3-phase, 4-wire system.

P = £ 2/R 120~/20 The peak power in each resistor is

= 720W 169.7 x 8.485
b. The total power dissipated in the 3-phase load 1440W
(all three resistors) is
d. The ratio of PT to P111 is
PT 3P = 3 x 720
PT/Pm 2160/144()
2160W
1.5
This power is absolutely constant from instant
to instant. Thus, whereas the power in each resistor pul-
c. The peak voltage across one resistor is sates between 0 and a maximum of 1440 W, the to-
tal power for all three resistors is unvarying an<l
Em= '12£ ~2 x 120 equal to 2160 W.
= 169.7 v
The peak current in each resistor is 8.8 Wye connection
/111 = £ 11/R = 169.7/20 The three single-phase circuits of Fig. 8.10 are
electrically independent. Consequently, we can
= 8.485 A connect the three return conductors together lO
form a single return conductor (Fig. 8.11 a). This
a
reduces the number of transmission line conduc-
tors from 6 to 4. The return conductor, called neu-
R tral conductor (or simply neutral), carries the sum
of the three currents Ua + /h + I,J. At first it seems
that the cross section of this conductor should be
three times that of lines a, b, and c. However, the
diagram of Fig. 8.11 b clearly shows that the sum
<f the three return curre11ts is ;,em at e1 ery in- 1

stant. For example, at the instant corresponding to

Figure 8.12 240°, le = /max and /h = Ia = -0.5 /lllaX' making
Three-phase, 3-wire system showing source and load. Ia + /h +le 0. We arrive at the same result (an<l
 THREE-PHASE CIRCUITS 165

much more simply) by taking the sum of the pha- Ean

sors Ua /h I.) in Fig. 8.1 Ob. The sum is clearly
zero.
We can, therefore, remove the neutral wire al-
together without in any way affecting the voltages
or currents in the circuit (Fig. 8.1 In one stroke
we accomplish a great saving because the number
of line conductors drops from six to three! c b
However, the loads in Fig. 8.11 a must be identical
in order to remove the neutral wire. If the loads are (a) (b)
not identical, the absence of the neutral conductor
produces unequal voltages across the three loads.
The circuit of Fig. 8.12-composed of the
generator. transmission line. and load-is called
a 3-plwse. 3-ivire s_vstem. The generator, as well
as the load, are said to be connected in wye, be-
cause the three branches resemble the letter Y. (c)

For equally obvious reasons. some people prefer

to use the term connected in stw:
The circuit of 8.11 a is called a 3-phase,
.+-wire system. The neutral conductor in such a
system is usually the same size or slightly smaller
than the line conductors. Three-phase, 4-wire sys-
tems are widely used to supply electric power to
commercial and industrial users. The line conduc-
tors are often called phases, which is the same
term applied to the generator windings.

8.9 Voltage relationships

Consider the wye-connected armature windings of a
3-phase generator (Fig. 8. I 3a). The induced voltage
in each winding has an effective value EL:-J repre- / / -Ecn
/
sented by the length of each phasor in the diagram in /

Fig. 8. I 3b. Knowing that the line-to-neutral voltages

are represented by phasors Eh,"' and Ecn the ques-
(d)
tion is, what are the line-to-line voltages Eah• and
£ca? Referring to Fig. 8.1 we can write the fol-
lowing equations. based on Kirchhoff's voltage law:

+ Enh (8.1)
Figure 8.13
£1111 (8.1) a. Wye-connected stator windings of a 3-phase gen-
£he= Ehn Enc (8.2) erator.
b. Line-to-neutral voltages of the generator.
=Ehn (8.2)
c. Method to determine line voltage Eab·
£ca= Ec·n + (8.3) d. Line voltages Eab• Ebe• and Eca are equal and dis-
placed at 120°.
(8.3)
166 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS

Referring first to Eq. 8.1. we draw phasor ex-

actly as the equation indicates:

The resulting phasor diagram shows that line

voltage £ah leads by 30° (Fig. 8.13c ). Using
simple trigonometry. and based upon the fact that
the length of the line-to-neutral phasors is ELN• we
have the following:
length of phasor Eab 2 x E1N cos 30° Figure 8.14
Ei. 2 x "1312 Voltages induced in a wye-connected generator.

Calculate
The line-to-line voltage (called tine voltage) ts a. The line-to-neutral voltage
therefore '13 times the line-to-neutral voltage: b. The voltage induced in the individual windings
(8.4) c. The time interval between the positive peak
voltage of phase A and the positive peak of
where phase B
= effective value of the line voltage rv1 d. The peak value of the line voltage
ELN = effective value of the line-to-neutral Solution
voltage [VI a. The line-to-neutral voltage is
'13 a constant Iapproximate value = I. 731 ELN = Ei/'13 = 23 900/'13
Due to the symmetry of a 3-phase system. we con- 13 800 v
clude that the line voltage across any two generator
b. The windings are connected in wye: conse-
terminals is equal to Eu-.;· The truth of this can quently, the voltage induced in each winding is
be seen by referring to Fig. 8. l 3d. which shows all 13 800 v.
three phasors: Enh• Ebe· and £,a- The phasors are c. One complete cycle (360°) cotTesponds to 1/60 s.
drawn according to Eqs. 8.1. 8.2. and 8.3, respec- Consequently. a phase angle of 120° corresponds
tively. The line voltages are equal in magnitude and to an interval of
mutually displaced by 120°.
120
To further clarify these results. Fig. 8.14 shows T x 1/180 s
the voltages between the terminals of a 3-phase 360 60
generator whose line-to-neutral voltage is I 00 V. 5.55 ms
l
The line voltages are all equal to 00 -J 3, or The positive voltage peaks are, therefore, sepa-
1n V. The voltages between lines a, b. c. consti- rated by intervals of 5.55 ms.
tute a 3-phase system. but the voltage between d. The peak line voltage is
any two lines (a and b. h and c, b and n. etc.) is
£Ill '12 EL
nevertheless an ordinary single-phase voltage.
= 1.414 x 23 900 (2.6)

Fxample 8-3 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ = 33 800

A 3-phasc 60 Hz generator. connected in wye. gen- The same voltage relationships exist in a wye-
cratl's a line (line-to-line) voltage of 23 900 V. connected load, such as that shown in 8.11
 THREE-PHASI:' CIRCUITS 167

and 8.12. In other words. the line voltage is '13 a

times the line-to-neutral voltage.

Example 8-4 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
The generator in Fig. 8.12 generates a line voltage
of 865 V. and each load resistor has an impedance
of 50 n. b

Calculate
f2
a. The voltage across each resistor
fc
b. The current in each resistor c
c. The total power output of the generator
(a)
Solution
a. The voltage across each resistor is Fab

Eu..i EJ.J3 = 865/-./ 3 (8.4)

500 v la

b. The current in each resistor is

I= ELNIR = 500/50
JOA
All the line currents are, therefore. equal to I 0 A.
c. Power absorbed by each resistor is {b)

p = ELN/ 500 x I0
5000W
The power delivered by the generator to all
three resistors is

p = 3 x 5000 = 15 kw
Figure 8.15
a. Impedances connected in delta.
8.10 Delta connection b. Phasor relationships with a resistive load.

A 3-phase load is said to be balanced when the line the line; consequently. resistor currents/ 1. f.:2• and / 3
voltages are equal and the line currents are equal. are in phase with the respective line voltages Eah·
This corresponds to three identical impedances Ebe· and Furthermore, according to Kirchhoff\
connected across the 3-phase line. a condition that law. the line currents are given by
is usually encountered in 3-phase circuits.
The three impedances may be connected in wye (,=Ii /_, (8.5)
(as we already have seen) or in delta (Fig. 8.15a). /h r2 - 11 (8.6)
The line voltages are produced by an external gen- ( /_, - /")_ (8.7)
erator (not shown).
Let us determine the voltage and current rela-
tionships in such a delta connection, assuming a The connection is ~o named because it re~emhles the Greek
resistive load. The resistors are connected across letter .:i.
168 l~LECTRICAL MM7IINES AND TRANSFORMERS

Let the current in each branch of the delta-connected a

load have an effective value / 1 , which corresponds to
the length of phasors / 1. I~· 1.-. Furthermore, let the
line currents have an effective value 11,. which cor-
550V
responds to the length of phasors /a. lb./" Referring
first to E4. 8.5. we draw phasor (, exactly as the
b
e4uation indicates. The resulting phasor diagram
shows that(, leads/ 1 by 30° (Fig. 8. J 5b ). Using sim-
ple trigonometry, we can now write
10A
/L 2 x II cos 30° c -
2 x !1'1312
Figure 8.15c
= "'13 II See Example 8.5.
The line current is therefore -V 3 times greater than
the current in each branch of a delta-connected load: II= IOf\/3 = 5.77 A
(8.8) b. The voltage across each impedance is 550 Y.
where Consequently,

11, ~==
effective value of the line current lAJ z = Ell/ 550/5.77
/
1
= effective value of the current in one 95 n
branch of a delta-connected load I A]
,/3 =a constant [approximate value= 1.73] 8.11 Power transmitted
The reader can readily determine the magnitude and by a 3-phase line
position of phasors '"and(, and thereby observe that The apparent power supplied by a single-phase line
the three line currents are e4ual and displaced by 120°. is equal to the product of the line voltage E times the
Table 8A summarizes the basic relationships be- line current/. The question now arises: What is the
tween the voltages and currents in wye-connected apparent power supplied by a 3-phase line having a
and delta-connected loads. The relationships are line voltage E and a line current/'!
valid for any type of circuit element (resistor, ca- If we refer to the wye-connected load of Fig.
pacitor, inductor, motor winding, generator wind- 8. l 6a. the apparent power supplied to each branch is
ing. etc.) as long as the elements in the three phases E
arc identical. In other words. the relationships in S =- XI
I \3
Table 8A apply to any balanced 3-phase load.
The apparent power supplied to all three branches
is obvious! y three times as great.* Consequently. the
Example 8-5 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - total apparent power is
Three identical impedances are connected in delta
across a 3-phase 550 V line (Fig. 8.15c). If the line E ·-
S .. x Ix 3 = \ 3 El
current is I 0 A. calculate the following: \3
a. The current in each impedance
b. The value of each impedance IHI In .I-phase balanced circuih. we can add the apparent po\\·
ersor the three phases hccau~e they have identical power
Solution factors. If the power factor~ an~ not identical. the apparent
a. The current in each impedance is powers cannot be added.
 THREE-PHASE CJRCU/1'."i 169

TABLE BA VOLTAGE AND CURRENT RELATIONSHIPS IN 3-PHASE CIRCUITS

Wye connection Delta connection

A A

/:'
E
I
E

E
- I

Figure 8.16a Figure 8.16b

Impedances connected in wye. Impedances connected in delta

• The current in each element is equal to the line • The current in each element is equal to the line
current/. current I divided by '13.
• The voltage across each element is equal to the • The voltage across each element is equal to the
line voltage E divided by"\/ 3. line voltage£.
• The voltages across the elements are 120° out of • The voltages across the elements are 1.20° out or
phase. phase.
• The currents in the elements are 120° out of • The currents in the elements are 120° out of
phase. phase.

In the case of a delta-connected load (Fig. 8. I 6b ), 8.12 Active, reactive, and apparent
the apparent power supplied to each branch is power in 3-phase circuits
I The relationship between active power P. reactive
S =Ex
I \'3 power Q. and apparent power Sis the same for bal-
which is the same as for a wye-connected load. anced 3-phase circuits as for single-phase circuits.
Consequently, the total apparent power is also the We therefore have
same. s \ (8.10)
We therefore have and
S '13 El (8.9) cos e PIS (8.11)

where where

S total apparent power delivered by a S total 3-phase arrarcnt power [VA I

3-phase line [VA! P total 3-phase active power IWI
Q total 3-phase reactive power I var!
E =effective line voltage !YI
cos fl = power factor of the 3-phase load
I= effective line current IA] () = phase angle between the line current
-i 3 a constant [approximate value = 1.73 J and the line-to-neutr<il voltage 1°]
170 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS

Example 8-6 E
A 3-phase motor, connected to a 440V line, draws
a line current of 5 A. If the power factor of the
motor is 80 percent, calculate the following: 550V
a. The total apparent power 3-phase
60 Hz line
b. The total active power
c. The total reactive power absorbed by the machine R

Solution Figure 8.17

a. The total apparent power is See Example 8-7.

S El = '.f 3 X 440 X 5
The current in each resistor is
3811 VA
/=PIE= IOOOW/318V 3.15A
= 3.81 kVA
b. The total active power is The current in each line is also 3.15 A.
b. The resistance of each element is
p = s cos (-1 3.81 x 0.80
R = El I 3 18/3. 15 = I 01 H
= 3.05 kW
c. The total reactive power is Example 8-8 ______________
In the circuit of Fig. 8.18, calculate the following:
Q = \ 3.81 a. The current in each line
= 2.28 kvar b. The voltage across the inductor terminals

Solution
8.13 Solving 3-phase circuits a. Each branch is composed of an inductive reactance
Xi. 4 !1 in series with a resistance R 3 !l.
A balanced 3-phase load may be considered to be
Consequently, the impedance of each branch is
composed of three identical single-phase loads.
Consequently. the easiest way to solve such a cir- z =5!2 (2.12)
cuit is to consider only one phase. The following
The voltage across each branch is
examples illustrate the method to be employed.
E1.l--J 3 = 440 V/v 3 254 V
Example 8-7 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
The current in each circuit element is
Three identical resistors dissipating a total power of
3000 W are connected in wye across a 3-phase I = E1.NIZ 254/5 = 50.8 A
550 V line (Fig. 8.17). (50.8 A is also the line current.)
Calculote
a. The current in each line
b. The value of each resistor

Solution 440V
a. The power dissipated by each resistor is 3-phase line

P = 3000 W/3 1000 W an

The voltage across the terminals of each resistor is
Figure 8.18
E = 550 V N 3 = 318 V See Example 8-8.
 THREE-PHASE CIRCUITS 171

b. The voltage across each inductor is In a wye connection the impedance per phase is
understood to be the line-to-neutral impedance. The
E = /XL = 50.8 X 4
voltage per phase is simply the line voltage divided
= 203.2 v by ..J 3. Finally, the current per phase is equal to the
line current.
Example 8-9 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
The assumption of a wye connection can be
A 3-phase 550 V, 60 Hz line is connected to three
made not only for individual loads. but for entire
identical capacitors connected in delta (Fig. 8.19).
load centers such as a factory containing motors,
If the line current is 22 A, calculate the capacitance
lamps, heaters, furnaces. and so forth. We simply
of each capacitor.
assume that the load center is connected in wye and
Solution proceed with the usual calculations.
The current in each capacitor is
Example 8-10
I= lif.J3 = 22 A/'13 = 12.7 A
A manufacturing plant draws a total of 415 kVA
Voltage across each capacitor = 550 V from a 2400 V (line-to-line) 3-phase line (Fig.
Capacitive reactance Xe of each capacitor is 8.20a). If the plant power factor is 87.5 percent lag-
ging, calculate the following:
Xe= Ei,11 = 550/12.7 = 43.3 n
a. The impedance of the plant, per phase
The capacitance of each capacitor is
b. The phase angle between the line-to-neutral
C = 112TrfXe voltage and the line current
= l/(2Tr x 60 x 43.3) (2.11) c. The complete phasor diagram for the plant
=61.3µF Solution
a. We assume a wye connection composed of
three identical impedances Z (Fig. 8.20b).

~
The voltage per branch is

550 v E = 2400/'13
3 phase
60 Hz
= 1386 v

~~
The current per branch is

I= Sl(E..J 3) (8.9)
Figure 8.19
See Example 8-9. = 415 000/(2400 '13)

= IOOA
8.14 Industrial loads The impedance per branch is
In most cases, we do not know whether a particular
3-phase load is connected in delta or in wye. For ex-
z =Ell= 1386/100
ample. 3-phase motors. generators. transformers, = 13.9 n

capacitors. and so on. often have only three external b. The phase angle fl between the line-to-neutral
terminals, and there is no way to tell how the inter- voltage ( 1386 V) and the corresponding line
nal connections are made. Under these circum- current (I 00 A) is given by
stances. we simply asswne that the connection is in
wye. (A wye connection is slightly easier to handle cos e= power factor = 0.875 (8.11)
than a delta connection.) e= 29°
 11
I 72 ELECTRICAL MAC/JINES AND TRAN5'FORMERS

a 415 kva

:>~~·~ ~"' lc:-----1

4000V
3-phase

3594 HP
1) 93%
Fp=87.5% --------

(a)
-ff- F0 = 90%

1800 kvar
Ean
1386V
la=100 A Figure 8.21
z Industrial motor and capacitor. See Example 8-11

be----- z A delta-connected capacitor bank rated at 1800 kvar

is also connected to the line. If the motor produces an
cc.------1 z output of 3594 hp at an efficiency of 93 percent and
a power factor of 90 percent (lagging), calculate the
(b)
following:
a. The active power absorbed by the motor
b. The reactive power absorbed by the motor
c. The reactive power supplied by the transmis-
sion line
d. The apparent power supplied by the transmis-
sion line
e. The transmission line current
f. The motor line current
g. Draw the complete phasor diagram for one
phase

(c) Solution
a. Power output of 3594 hp is equivalent to
Figure 8.20
P2 = 3594 X 0.746 2681 kW
a. Power input to a factory. See Example 8-10.
b. Equivalent wye connection of the factory load. Active power input to motor:
c. Phasor diagram of the voltages and currents.
Pm P2 /'fJ 2681/0.93 (3.6)
2883 kW
The current in each phase lags 29° behind the
b. Apparent power absorbed by the motor:
line-to-neutral voltage.
Sm P,,/cos 8 = 2883/0.90
c. The complete phasor diagram is shown in Fig.
= 3203 kVA
8.20c. In practice, we would show only one
phase; for example. Ea 1,, la, and the phase angle Reactive power absorbed by the motor:
between them. Qlll = v ~ 2883_:>
I 395 kvar
Example 8-11
A 5000 hp wye-connected motor is connected to a c. Reactive power supplied by the capacitor bank
4(X)() V (line-to-line), 3-phase, 60 Hz line (Fig. 8.21 ). (see section 7.5):
 TllREE-PlfASE CIRCUITS 173

Qc = 1800 kvar cause the capacitors are connected in delta, and we

assumed a wye connection for the motor. This can
Total reactive power absorbed by the load:
create unnecessary phase-angle complications if
QL = Q.: + Qm = 1800 + J395 we try to follow the actual currents inside the ca-
= -405 kvar pacitor bank. The solution is to recognize that ~l
the capacitors were connected in wye (while gen-
This is an unusual situation because reactive
erating the same reactive power). the line current
power is being returned to the line. In most cases
of 260 A would lead ELN by 90°. Consequently.
the capacitor bank furnishes no more than Q111
we draw f.: 90° ahead of ELN· That is the correct
kilovars of reactive power.
position for phasor f.: no matter how the capacitor
d. Active power supplied by the line is
bank is connected internally.
PL =Pm 2883 kW Phase angle eL between the transmission line
current and ELN is:
Apparent power supplied by the line is
cos 01. Pi,151. 2883/2911
sL
0.99
= 2911 kVA
e. Transmission line current is

/L = SL/(£1, '13) (8.9)

= 2 911 000/(~3 x 4000) le
420A 260A
go
f. Motor line current is
Eu,
/rn = 5 11 /(EL'.f 3) .....=--....-------- 2309V
3 203 000/(\i 3 x 4000)
(a) Im
462A
462 A
g. The line-to-neutral voltage is

ELN 4000/~ 3 = 2309 v 420A A

Phase angle 0 between the motor current and
420A 462 A
the line-to-neutral voltage is:
4000 vi
cos e
0
power factor = 0. 9
25.8°
3-phase
420A
-
462 A

2:01 2!0! 2:01

(The motor current lags 25.8° behind the volt-
age. as shown in 8.22a.)
Line current drawn by the capacitor bank is (b) -H-
1800 kvar
IC= QJ(Ei. '13)
I 800 000/(\i 3 x 4000) Figure 8.22
260A a. Phasor relationships for one phase. See Example
8-11.
Where should phasor current /c be located on b. Line currents. Note that the motor currents exceed
the phasor diagram? The question is important be- the currents of the source.
174 ELEClRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS

The line current (420 A) leads ELN by 8° be-

cause the kvars supplied by the capacitor bank ex-
ceed the kvars absorbed by the motor.
---- rotating
disc

The phasor diagram for one phase is shown in

Fig. 8.22a.
The circuit diagram and current flows are
shown in Fig. 8.22b.
We want to emphasize the importance of assum-
ing a wye connection, irrespective of what the ac-
tual connection may be. By assuming a wye con-
Figure 8.23
nection for all circuit elements, we simplify the The letters are observed in the sequence a-b-c.
calculations and eliminate confusion.
As a final remark. the reader has no doubt no- ---.. rotating
(disc
ticed that the solution of a 3-phase problem in-
volves active. reactive, and apparent power. The
impedance value of devices such as resistors, mo-
tors, and capacitors seldom appears on a nameplate.
This is to be expected because most industrial loads
involve electric motors. furnaces, lights. and so on,
which are seldom described in terms of resistance
and reactance. They are usually represented as de-
vices that draw a given amount of power at a given Figure 8.24
power factor. The letters are observed in the sequence a-c-b.
The situation is somewhat different in the case of
3-phase transmission lines. Here we can define re- --- rotating
(disc
sistances and reactances because the parameters are
fixed. The same remarks apply to equivalent circuits
describing the behavior of individual machines such
as induction motors and synchronous machines.
In conclusion. the solution of 3-phase circuits
may involve either active and reactive power or R,
L, C elements-and sometimes both.

8.15 Phase sequence Figure 8.25

The letters are observed in the sequence a-c-b.
In addition to line voltage and frequency, a 3-phase
system has an important property called phase se-
quence. Phase sequence is important because it de- We can get a quick intuitive understanding of phase
termines the direction of rotation of 3-phase motors sequence by considering the following analogy.
and whether one 3-phase system can be connected Suppose the letters a, b, c are printed at 120° in-
in parallel with another. Consequently, in 3-phase tervals on a slowly revolving disc (Fig. 8.23 ). If the
systems, phase sequence is as important as the fre- disc turns counterclockwise, the letters appear in
quency and voltage are. the sequence a-b-c-a-b-c. Let us call this the posi-
Phase sequence means the order in which the tive sequence. It can be described in any one of
three line voltages become successively positive. three ways: abc, bca, or cab.
 THREE-PHASE CIRCUI7S 175

If the same disc turns clockwise, the sequence rule: When using the double-subscript notation, the
becomes a-c-b-a-c-b ... (Fig. 8.24). We call this sequence of the first subscripts corresponds to the
the negative sequence, and it can be described by phase sequence of the source.
any one of three forms: acb, cha, or bac. Clearly,
there is a difference between a positive sequence Example 8-12
and a negative sequence. In 8.17, the phase sequence of the source is
Suppose we interchange any two letters on the disc known to be A-C-B. Draw the phasor diagram of
in Fig. 8.23. while retaining the same counterclock- the line voltages.
wise rotation. If the letters a and c are interchanged,
Solution
the result is as shown in 8.25. The sequence now
The voltages follow the sequence A-C-B. which is
becomes c-b-a-c-b-a ... , which is the same as the
the same as the sequence AC-CB-BA-AC ....
negative sequence generated by the disc in Fig. 8.24.
Consequently, the line voltage sequence is
We conclude that for a given direction of rota-
and the corresponding phasor diagram is
tion a positive sequence can be converted into a
shown in 8.27. We can reverse the phase se-
negative sequence by simply interchanging two let-
quence of a 3-phase line by interchanging any two
ters. Similarly. a negative sequence can be con-
conductors. Although this may appear to be a trivial
verted into a positive sequence by interchanging
change, it can become a major problem when large
any two letters.
busbars or high-voltage transmission lines have to
Let us now consider a 3-phase source having ter-
be interchanged. In practice, measures are taken so
minals a, b, c (Fig. 8.26a). Suppose the line volt-
that such drastic mechanical changes do not have to
ages £ab· £he, Eca are correctly represented by the
be made at the last minute. The phase sequence of al I
revolving phasors shown in 8.26b. As they
major distribution systems is known in advance, and
sweep past the horizontal axis in the conventional
any future connections are planned accordingly.
counterclockwise direction, they follow the se-
quence Eab-Ebc-Eca-Eab-Ebc ...
If we direct our attention to the jint letter in each 8.16 Determining the phase
subscript, we find that the sequence is a-b-c-a-b-c ... sequence
The source shown in Fig. 8.26a is said to possess the Special instruments are available to indicate the
sequence a-b-c. We can, therefore, state the following phase sequence, but we can also determine it by us-
ing two incandescent lamps and a capacitor. The
Eca three devices are connected in wye. If we connect
/ the circuit to a 3-phase line (without connecting the
neutral), one lamp will always burn brighter than
b horizontal
3-phase the other. The phase sequence is in the following or-
axis
source
__\__ der: hright lamp-dim !amp-capacitot:
c

Ebe Eab

(a) (b)

Figure 8.26
a. Determining the phase sequence of a 3-phase
source.
b. Phase sequence depends upon the order in which Figure 8.27
the line voltages reach their positive peaks. See Example 8-12.
176 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS

3-phase 8
(a)
line

c
2

Figure 8.29
Method of connecting a single-phase wattmeter.

In single-phase circuits the pointer moves up-

(b)
scale when the connections between source and load
are made as shown in Fig. 8.29. Note that the cur-
rent terminal is connected to the :±: potential termi-
nal. When the wattmetcr is connected this way. an
Figure 8.28 upscale reading means that power is flowing from
a. Determining phase sequence using two lamps and
supply terminals I, 2 to load terminals 3. 4.
a capacitor.
b. Resulting phasor diagram.
8.18 Power measurement
Suppose. for example. that a capacitor/lamp cir-
cuit is connected to a 3-phase line. as shown in Fig.
in 3-phase, 3-wire circuits
8.28a. If the lamp connected to phase C burns more In a 3-phase. 3-wire system, the active power sup-
brightly. the phase sequence is C-B-A. The line volt- plied to a 3-phase load may be measured by two
ages follow each other in the sequence CB-BA-AC single-phase wattmeters connected as shown in
which is to say in the sequence Em. E8 A- EAc- The 8.30. The total power is equal to the sum of the t\vo
cotTesponding phasor diagram is shown in 8.28b. wattmeter readings. For balanced loads. if the power
factor is less than I 00 percent, the instruments will
8.17 Power measurement give different readings. Indeed. if the power factor is

in ac circuits
Wattrneters are used to measure active power 111
single-phase and 3-phase circuits.
Owing to its external connections and the way it
is built. a wattmeter may be considered to be a volt-
a
meter and ammeter combined in the same box.
b
Consequently. it has 2 potential terminals and 2 cur-
rent terminals. One of the potential terminals and c
one of the current terminals bears a :±: sign. The :±:
signs are polarity marks that determine the positive
or negative reading of the wattmeter. Thus, when
the voltage terminal is positive at the same time
as current is entering the _ current terminal. then
the wattmeter will give a positive (upscale) reading. Figure 8.30
The maximum voltage and current the instru- Measuring power in a 3-phase, 3-wire circuit using the
ment can tolerate are shown on the nameplate. two-wattmeter method.
 THREE-PHASE C/RCU/1S 177

less than 50 percent, one of the wattmeters will give 8.19 Power measurement
a negative reading. We must then reverse the con- in 3-phase, 4-wire circuits
nections of the potential coiL so as to obtain a read-
ing of this negative quantity. In this case. the power In 3-phase. 4-wire circuits. three single-phase
of the 3-phase circuit is equal to the difference be- wattmeters are needed to measure the total power.
tween the two wattmeter readings. The connections are made as shown in Fig. 8.31. Note
The two-wattrneter method gives the active that the cuffent terminal is again connected to the
power absorbed whether the load is balanced or un- potential terminal. When the wattmeters are con-
balanced. nected this way. an upscale reading means that active
power is flowing from source A. B. C N to the load.
Example 8-13 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ The total power supplied to the load is equal to
A full-load test on a I 0 hp, 3-phase motor yields the the sum of the three wattmeter readings. The three-
following results: P = +5950 W: P-_y_ = 2380 W: wattmeter method gives the active power for both
1

the current in each of the three lines is 10 A: and the balanced and unbalanced loads.
line voltage is 600 V. Calculate the power factor of Some wattmeters. such as those used on switch-
the motor. boards, are specially designed to a direct read-
out of the 3-phase power. Figure 8.32 shows a
Solution megawatt-range wattmeter circuit that measures the
Apparent power supplied to the motor is power in a generating station. The current trans-
formers (CT) and potential transformers (PT) step
S "\/ 3 El '13 X 600 x 10
down the line currents and voltages to values com-
10 390 VA patible with the instrument rating.
Active power supplied to the motor is

p = 5950 + 2380
= 8330 w
cos 0 PIS 8330/ I 0 390
0.80. or 80 percent

Example 8-14 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
When the motor in Example 8-13 runs at no-load,
the line current drops to 3.6 A and the wattmeter
readings are Pi + 1295 W: P-_y_ -845 W.
Calculate the no-load losses and power factor.

So/Wion
Apparent power supplied to motor

s = "\/3 El V3 x 600 x 3.6

3741 VA Figure 8.31
Measuring power in a 3-phase, 4-wire circuit.
No-load losses are
8.20 Varmeter
p =Pi p., 1295 845
450W A rnrmeter indicates the reactive power in a circuit.
It is built the same way as a wattmeter is. but an in-
Power factor PlS' 450/3741=0.12 = 12<;1 ternal circuit shirts the line voltage by 90° before it
 178 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS

A
CT

Figure 8.32
Measuring active power in a high-power circuit.

is applied to the potential coil. Varmeters are mainly impedances ...J 3 times greater than the value of the
employed in the control rooms of generating sta- load resistance (Fig. 8.33). Furthermore, given
tions and the substations of electrical utilities and the 1-2-3-1 phase sequence of the line voltages £ 12 ,
large industrial consumers. E 31 , it is essential that the three impedances be
In 3-phase. 3-wire balanced circuits, we can cal- connected as indicated. If the capacitive and in-
culate the reactive power from the two wattmeter ductive reactances are interchanged, the 3-phase
readings (Fig. 8.30). We simply multiply the differ- system becomes completely unbalanced.
ence of the two readings by ...J 3. For example, if the
two wattmeters indicate + 5950 Wand + 2380 W re- Example 8-15
spectively, the reactive power is (5950 - 2380) X A 800 kW single-phase load is connected between
'13 = 6176 vars. Note that this method of var mea- phases I and 2 of a 440 V, 3-phase line, wherein £ 12
surement is only valid for balanced 3-phase circuits. = 440 L 0, 440 L 120, E,,i = 440 L 120.
Calculate the load currents and line currents
8.21 A remarkable single-phase a. When the single-phase load is connected alone
to 3-phase transformation on the 3-phase line
It sometimes happens that a large single-phase b. When balancing reactances are added across
unity power factor load has to be connected to a the remaining lines, as shown in Fig. 8.34
3-phase line. This can create a badly unbalanced Solution
system. However, it is possible to balance the a. The resistance of the single-phase load is
three phases perfectly by connecting a capacitive
reactance and an inductive reactance across the £2 440 2
other two lines. The reactances must each have
R= p = 0.242 n
800 000
 THREE-PHASE CIRCUITS 179

The current in the load and in two of the three

3 lines is

I 1818 A

The current in the third line is zero, and so the

3-phase system is badly unbalanced.
b. By introducing capacitive and inductive reac-
tances having an impedance of 0.242 'If 3
0.419 fl, we obtain a balanced 3-phase line, as
demonstrated below. Taking successive loops
around the respective circuit elements in Fig.
8.34, and using Kirchhoff's voltage law (see
Section 2.32). we obtain the following results:

- 0.24211 0 :.11 4.13£12

4.13 X 440LO = 1817 LO
£ 23+ j 0.419 12 = 0 :. h = j 2.38
2.38 X 440L(-120 + 90) = 1047L-30
-j0.4191:~ 0 :. 13 j2.38E31
2.38 X 440L(l20 + 90 - 180) 1047L30

Applying Kirchhoff's current law to nodes I, 2.

Figure 8.33 and 3. we obtain
A single-phase resistive load can be transformed into
a balanced 3-phase load. IA=l1 {_.,
= 1817LO - 1047L30
1817 - 907 j 523
I047L-30
IB = 12 11
= 1047L-30 - 1817LO
907 j 523 - 1817
-907 - j 523
1047L2IO
le= I:, 12
= 1047 L30 1047 L 30
907 + j 523 907 + j 523
1047 j
= 1047 L90

Thus, IA, 18 , le make up a balanced 3-phase sys-

Figure 8.34 tem because they are equal and displaced at 120°
See Example 8-14. to each other 8.35).
180 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS

E~ 1 e. The ohmic value of each resistor

8-6 a. What is the phase sequence in Fig. 8.1 O?
b. Could we reverse it by changing the direction
of rotation of the magnet?
8-7 A 3-phase motor connected to a 600 V line
draws a line current of 25 A. Calculate the
apparent power supplied to the motor.
8-8 Three incandescent lamps rated 60 W, 120 V
are connected in delta. What line voltage is
needed so that the lamps burn normally?
8-9 Three I0 n resistors are connected in delta
on a 208 V, 3-phase line.
Figure 8.35 a. What is the power supplied to the 3-phase load?
See Example 8-14.
b. If the fuse in one line burns out, calculate the
new power supplied to the load.
Questions and Problems 8-10 If one line conductor of a 3-phase line is
cut is the load then supplied by a single-
Practicctl level
phase voltage or a 2-phase voltage?
8-1 A 3-phase wye-connected generator in-
duces 2400 V in each of its windings. 8-11 A 3-phase heater dissipates 15 kW when
Calculate the line voltage. connected to a 208 V, 3-phase line.
a. What is the line current if the resistors are
8-2 The generator in Fig. 8.9 generates a peak connected in wye?
voltage of JOO V per phase. b. What is the line current if the resistors are
a, Calculate the instantaneous voltage between connected in delta?
terminals I, a at 0°. 90°. 120°, 240°, and 330°. c. If the resistors are known to be connected in
b. What is the polarity of terminal a with re- wye. calculate the resistance of each.
spect to terminal 1 at each of these instants?
8-12 We wish to apply full-load to a I00 kYA,
c. What is the instantaneous value of the volt-
age across terminals 2, b at each of these
4 kV, 3-phase generator using a resistive
same instants? load. Calculate the value of each resistance
if the elements are connected
8-3 Referring to Fig. 8.9c, phasor £b 2 is 120° a. In wye
behind phasor Ea 1• Could we also say that
b. Jn delta
is 240° ahead of Ea 1?
8-13 The windings of a 3-phase motor are con-
8-4 The voltage between lines a-b-c of Fig.
nected in delta. If the resistance between
8.12 is 620 V.
two terminals is 0.6 n, what is the resis-
a. What is the voltage across each resistor?
tance of each winding?
b. If R = 15 n. what is the current in each line?
c. Calculate the power supplied to the 3-phase 8-14 Three 24 n resistors are connected in delta
load. across a 600 V, 3-phase line. Calculate the
8-5 Three resistors are connected in delta. If the resistance of three elements connected in
line voltage is 13.2 kV and the line current wye that would dissipate the same power.
is 1202 A, calculate the following: 8-15 A 60 hp 3-phase motor absorbs 50 kW
a. The current in each resistor from a 600 V, 3-phase line. If the line cur-
b. The voltage across each resistor rent is 60 A, calculate the following:
c. The power supplied to each resistor a. The efficiency of the motor
d. The power supplied to the 3-phase load b. The apparent power absorbed by the motor
 THREE-PHASE CIRCUITS 181

c. The reactive power absorbed by the motor b. What is the phase angle between the line cur-
d. The power factor of the motor rent and the corresponding line-to-neutral
8-16 Three 15 fl resistors and three 8 fl reac- voltage?
tors are connected as shown in 8.18. 8-24 An industrial plant draws 600 kVA from a
If the line voltage is 530 V, calculate the 2.4 kV line at a power factor of 80 percent
following: lagging.
a. The active, reactive. and apparent power sup- a. What is the equivalent line-to-neutral imped-
plied to the 3-phase load ance of the plant')
b. The voltage across each resistor b. Assuming that the plant can be represented by
8-17 Two 60 W lamps and a I0 µF capacitor are an equivalent circuit similar to Fig. 8.18. deter-
mine the values of the resistance and reactance.
connected in wye. The circuit is connected
to the terminals X-Y-Z of a 3-phase 120 V 8-25 Two wattmeters connected into a 3-phase.
outlet. The capacitor is connected to termi- 3-wire 220 V line indicate 3.5 kW and 1.5
nal Y, and the lamp that burns brighter is kW, respectively. If the line current is 16 A,
connected to terminal X. calculate the following:
a. What is the phase sequence? a. The apparent power
b. Draw the phasor diagram for the line voltages. b. The power factor of the load
8-26 An electric motor having a cos 0 of 82 per-
Advanced level cent draws a current of 25 A from a 600 V
8-18 Three I 0 µF capacitors are connected in 3-phase line.
wye across a 2300 V, 60 Hz line. Calculate a. Calculate the active power supplied to the
the following: motor.
a. The line current b. If the motor has an efficiency of 85 percent.
calculate the mechanical power output.
b. The reactive power generated
c. How much energy does the motor consume
8-19 In Problem 8-17. if the capacitor is connected in> h'?
to terminal X, which lamp will be brighter?
8-27 The wattmeters in Fig. 8.30 register + 35
8-20 Three delta-connected resistors absorb 60 kW and -20 kW, respectively. If the load
kW when connected to a 3-phase line. If is balanced, calculate the following:
they are reconnected in wye, calculate the a. The load power factor;
new power absorbed. b. The line current if the line voltage is 630 Y.
8-21 Three 15 fl resistors (R) and three 8 f! re- Industrial application
actors (X) are connected in different ways
8-28 A 20 fl resistor is connected between lines
across a 530 V, 3-phase line. Without draw-
A and B of a 3-phase, 480 V line. Calculate
ing a phasor diagram, calculate the line cur-
the currents that flow in lines A, B. and C.
rent for each of the following connections:
respectively.
a. R and X in series. connected in wye
b. Rand X in parallel, connected in delta 8-29 n
Two 30 resistors are connected between
c. R connected in delta and X connected in wye phases AB and BC of a 3-phase 480 V line.
8-22 In 8.19, calculate the line current if the Calculate the currents flowing in lines A.
frequency is 50 Hz instead of 60 Hz. B, and C. respectively.

8-23 In Problem 8-15. assume that the motor is 8-30 A 150 kW. 460 V. 3-phase heater is in-
connected in wye and that each branch can stalled in a hot water boiler. What power
be represented by a resistance R in series does it produce if the line voltage is 470 V?
with an inductive reactance X. 8-31 n
Three 5 resistors are connected in wye
a. Calculate the values of R and X. across a 3-phase 480 V line. Calculate the
182 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS

current flowing in each. If one of the resis- has a full-load efficiency of 93.6% and a
tors is disconnected, calculate the current power factor of 83%. Calculate the following:
that flows in the remaining two. a. The active power drawn by the motor:
b. The apparent power drawn by the motor:
8-32 One of the three fuses protecting a 3-phase
c. The full-load line current:
electric heater rated at 200 kW. 600 Vis re-
moved so as to reduce the heat produced by 8-35 A 92 in X 24 in X 32 in, 450 kg Square D
the boiler. What power does the heater de- motor controller is used to drive a 1600 hp,
velop under these conditions? 2400 V, 3-phase, 60 Hz squirrel-cage motor.
a. Assuming the motor has a minimum effi-
8-33 A 450 kW. 575 V, 3-phase steam boiler pro- ciency and power factor of 96% and 90%.
duces 1300 lb of steam per hour. Estimate respectively. calculate the full-load current
the quantity of steam produced if the line delivered by the controller.
voltage is 612 V. b. What is the reactive power drawn from the
8-34 A 40 hp, 460 V, 1180 r/min, 3-phase, 60 Hz line at full-load?
TEFC, premium efficiency induction motor c. What is the phase angle between the line-to-
neutral voltage and the line current?
manufactured by Baldor Electric Company
 CHAPTER 9
The Ideal Transformer

9.0 Introduction
~encyf
he transformer is probably one of the most use-
T ful electrical devices ever invented. It can raise
or lower the voltage or current in an ac circuit, it can
(a)
~"'"'"'
isolate circuits from each other, and it can increase
or decrease the apparent value of a capacitor, an in-
ductor, or a resistor. Furthermore, the transformer
enables us to transmit electrical energy over great
distances and to distribute it safely in factories and
homes.
(b)
We will study some of the basic properties of
transformers in this chapter. It will help us under-
stand not only the commercial transformers covered
in later chapters but also the basic operating princi-
ple of induction motors, alternators, and synchro-
nous motors. All these devices are based upon the Figure 9.1
laws of electromagnetic induction. Consequently, a. A voltage is induced in a coil when it links a vari-
we encourage the reader to pay particular attention able flux.
b. A sinusoidal flux induces a sinusoidal voltage.
to the subject matter covered here.

9.1 Voltage induced in a coil itive and negative peaks <Pmax· The alternating flux
induces a sinusoidal ac voltage in the coil. whose
Consider the coil of Fig. 9.1 a, which surrounds (or
effective value is given by
links) a variable flux <I>. The flux alternates sinu-
soidally at a frequency_{, periodically reaching pos- (9.1)

183
184 ELECTRICAL MACH/NlS AND TRANSFORMERS

where 9.2 Applied voltage

E =effective voltage induced [V] and induced voltage
f frequency of the flux [Hz I Fig. 9.2a shows a coil of N turns connected to a si-
nusoidal ac source Eg. The coil has a reactance X111
N = number of turns on the coil
and draws a current 1,w If the resistance of the coil
<I)""" peak value of the flux I Wb I is negligible. the current is given by
4.44 =a constant [exact value 2 TIN2]
/ 111 E/X 111
It does not matter where the ac flux comes from: It As in any inductive circuit, / 111 90° behind
may be created by a moving magnet, a nearby ac and cJ> is in phase with the current (Fig. 9.2b).
coiL or even by an ac current that flows in the coil The detailed behavior of the circuit can be ex-
itself. plained as follows:
Eq. 9.1 is derived from Faraday's law equation The sinusoidal current / 111 produces a sinusoidal
e = N .:l([J/.:lt in which .:lqJ/.:lt is the rate of change rnmf N/111' which in turn creates a sinusoidal flux cJ).
of flux and e is the instantaneous induced voltage. Consequently. I 111 is called the mogneti:ing cur-
Thus. in Fig. 9.1 b. when the flux is increasing with rent. The peak value of this ac flux is <JJmav The flux
time. the rate of change .:l<jJ/.:lt is greater than zero induces an effective voltage E across the terminals
and so the voltage is positive. Conversely. when of the coiL whose value is given by Eq. 9.1. On the
the flux is decreasing with time. the rate of change other hand. the applied voltage Eg and the induced
..1¢1.:lt is less than zero: consequently. the voltage voltage E must be identical because they appear be-
is negative. Finally. when the flux is neither in- tween the same pair of conductors. Because Eg = E,
creasing nor decreasing (even for one microsec- \Ve can write
ond). the rate of change .:l<!:i/.cit is zero. and so the
= 4.44.f NcJ>max
voltage is zero.
The question also arises: why do we use the peak from which we obtain
flux qJ'""' instead of the rms value'? The reason is Eg
that the peak flux is proportional to the peak flux (9.2)
4.44.fN
density Brn, 1, which. in iron cores. determines the
level of saturation.

Example 9-1
The coil in Fig. 9.1 possesses 4000 turns and links N turns i
an ac flux having a peak value of 2 mWb. If the fre-
quency is 60 Hz. calculate the effective value and
----~-................../
... ..
.......

(a)
frequency of the induced voltage E.

Solution
E 4.44f Nc}Jnrn (9.1)
= 4.44 x 60 x 4000 x 0.002
2131 v
Figure 9.2
The induced voltage has an effective or RMS value a. The voltage E induced in a coil is equal to the ap-
of 2131 Vanda frequency of 60 Hz. The peak volt- plied voltage E9 .
age is 2131 3014 V. b. Phasor relationships between E, /111 , and <Ji.
 THE IDEAL TRANSFORMER J 85

This equation shows that for a given frequency and a. The peak value of flux
a given number of turns, cpmax varies in proportion b. The peak value of the mmf
to the applied voltage This means that if £ 12 is c. The inductive reactance of the coil
kept constant, the peak must remain constant. d. The inductance of the coil
For example, suppose we gradually insert an
So/Wion
iron core into the coil while keeping £ 12 fixed (Fig.
a. (l> 11 rnx £/( 4.44 fiV) (9.2)
9.3). The peak value of the ac flux will remain ab-
solutely constant during this operation, retaining its
120/(4.44 x 60 x 90)

original value cf>max even when the core is com- = 0.005 = 5 mWb
pletely inside the coil. In effect. if the flux increased b. The peak current is
(as we would expect), the induced voltage E would
also increase. But this is impossible because E
at every instant and, as we said. £1' is kept fixed. 5.66A
For a given supply voltage£'!!, the ac flux in Figs.
The peak rnmf U is
9.2 and 9.3 is therefore the same. However, the mag-
neti::.ing current / 111 is much smaller when the iron U Nim = 90 X 5.66
core is inside the coil. In effect, to produce the same = 509.IA
flux. a smaller magnetomotive force is needed with
an iron core than with an air core. Consequently, the The flux is equal to 5 mWb at the instant when
magnetizing current in Fig. 9.3 is much smaller than the coil mmf is 509.1 ampere-turns.
in 9.2. c. The inductive reactance is

X 111 E// 111 = 120/4

/ ..........................
= 3on

\ <P
:
d. The inductance is

L X,,,12Trf (2.10)

! 30/(21T x 60)

(a) ....................,/ = 0.0796

79.6 mH

9.3 Elementary transformer

In Fig. 9.4, a coil having an air core is excited by
an ac source Ell. The resulting current /rn produces
a total flux (l>, which is dispersed in the space
around the coil. If we bring a second coil close to
Figure 9.3
a. The flux in the coil remains constant so long as E9 the first. it will surround a portion <l>m of the total 1

is constant. flux. An ac voltage £ 2 is therefore induced in the

b. Phaser relationships. second coil and its value can be measured with a
voltmeter. The combination of the two coils is
Example 9-2 called a transforma The coil connected to the
A coil having 90 turns is connected to a 120 V, 60 source is called the pri11wrr winding (or primarr)
Hz source. If the effective value of the magnetizing and the other one is called the seco11dmT winding
current is 4 A, calculate the following: (or seconda rr ).
J86 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS

/::.:\~m••"
polarity mark

/:::~~"'~m• ··-...._ ~· 3
\
\ 3 '
4>!1
\
4;f1 2 I 4

'~~----~/
=

~ 'it'!.. . . -~./
2
4

Figure 9.5
Terminals having the same instantaneous polarity are
Figure 9.4 marked with a dot.
Voltage induced in a secondary winding. Mutual flux is
<I>m 1 ; leakage flux is <1) 11 •
value at the same instant as£" does. Suppose, during
one of these peak moments. that primary terminal I
A voltage exists only between primary terminals
is positive with respect to primary terminal 2 and that
1-2 and secondary terminals 3-4, respectively. No
secondary terminal 3 is positive with respect to sec-
voltage exists between primary terminal I and sec-
ondary terminal 4 (Fig. 9.5). Terminals I and 3 are
ondary terminal 3. The secondary is therefore elec-
then said to possess the same polarity. This sameness
trically isolated from the primary.
can be shown by placing a large dot beside primary
The flux <P created by the primary can be broken
terminal I and another large dot beside secondary
up into two parts: a mutual.flux <f> 1111 , which links the
terminal 3. The dots are called polarity marks.
turns of both coils; and a leakage .flux <l\ 1• which The polarity marks in Fig. 9.5 could equally well
links only the turns of the primary. If the coils are far
be placed beside terminals 2 and 4 because, as the
apart. the mutual flux is very small compared to the
voltage alternates, they too, become simultaneously
total flux <I>; we then say that the coupling between
positive, every half-cycle. Consequently, the polar-
the two coils is weak. We can obtain a better cou-
ity marks may be shown beside terminals 1 and 3 or
pling (and a higher secondary voltage £ 2 ) by bring- beside terminals 2 and 4.
ing the two coils closer together. However, even if
we bring the secondary right up to the primary so
that the two coils touch, the mutual flux will still be
9.5 Properties of polarity marks
small compared to the total flux <I>. When the cou- A transformer is usually installed in a metal enclo-
pling is weak, voltage £ 2 is relatively small and, sure and so only the primary and secondary terminals
worse still, it collapses almost completely when a are accessible, together with their polarity marks. But
load is connected across the secondary terminals. In although the transformer may not be visible, the fol-
most industrial transformers, the primary and sec- lowing rules always apply to polarity marks:
ondary windings are wound on top of each other to
I. A current entering a polarity-marked terminal
improve the coupling between them.
produces a mmf that acts in a "positive" direc-
tion. As a result, it produces a flux in the "posi-
9.4 Polarity of a transformer tive"' direction* (Fig. 9.6). Conversely, a current
flowing out of a polarity-marked terminal pro-
In Fig. 9.4 fluxes <l\ 1 and <Pm 1 are both produced by
magnetizing current Inv Consequently, the fluxes are
in phase, both reaching their peak values at the same "Positive" and "negatiye·· are shown in 4uotation rnarb be-
instant. They also pass through zero at the same in- cause we can rarely look inside a transformer to sec in
stant. It follows that voltage £ 2 will reach its peak which direction the flux is actually circulating.
 THE IDEAL TRANSFORMER 187

polarity mark 9.6 Ideal transformer at no-load;

.J voltage ratio
3 Before undertaking the study of practical, commer-
cial transformers. we shall examine the properties
of the so-called ideal transf(mner. By definition. an
ideal transformer has no losses and its core is infi-
4 nitely permeable. Furthermore. any flux produced
by the primary is completely linked by the sec-
ondary. and vice versa. Consequently. an ideal
tr ans former enclosure
transformer has no leakage flux of any kind.
Figure 9.6 Practical transformers have properties which ap-
A current entering a polarity-marked terminal pro- proach those of an ideal transformer. Consequently,
duces a flux in a "positive" direction. our study of the ideal transformer will help us un-
derstand the properties of transformers in general.
Figure 9 .8a shows an ideal transformer in which the
duces a mmf and flux in the "negative" direction. primary and secondary respectively possess N and N2 1

Thus, currents that respectively flow into and out turns. The primary is connected to a sinusoidal source
of polarity-marked terminals of two coils pro- Eg and the magnetizing cu1Tent /m creates a flux ¢ 111 •
duce magnetomotive forces that buck each other. The flux is completely linked by the primary and sec-
2. If one polarity-marked terminal is momentarily ondary windings and, consequently, it is a mutual.flux.
positive, then the other polarity-marked tenni- The flux varies sinusoidally, and reaches a peak value
nal is momentarily positive (each with respect Q)max· According to Eq. 9.1. we can therefore write:
to its other terminal). This rule enables us to re-
late the phasor voltage on the secondary side
with the phasor voltage on the primary side.
For example, in Fig. 9.7, phasor Ed" is in phase •
+
with phasor Ear.·

Im
current ~....... i'
increasing ..........................................
a
•+ - c (a)

(a) _ _ _ _ __. E , E,
9

b + d

• (b)

(b)

Figure 9.7 Figure 9.8

a. Instantaneous polarities when the magnetizing cur- a. The ideal transformer at no-load. Primary and sec-
rent is increasing. ondary are linked by a mutual flux.
b. Phasor relationship. b. Phasor relationships at no-load.
188 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS

(9.3) Calculote:
a. The effective voltage across the secondary
and
terminals
(9.4) b. The peak voltage across the secondary terminals
From these equations. we deduce the expression for c. The instantaneous voltage across the secondary
the voltage ratio and tu ms ratio a of an ideal trans- when the instantaneous voltage across the pri-
former: mary is 37 V

Solution:
a (9.5) a. The turns ratio is:

where N/N, =2250/90 (9.5)

=25
£, voltage induced in the primary rv1
The secondary voltage is therefore 25 times greater
= voltage induced in the secondary l V l than the primary voltage because the secondary has
N1 numbers of turns on the primary 25 times more turns. Consequently:
N2 numbers of turns on the secondary
E 2=25 X £ 1 25 X 120
a = turns ratio =3000 v
This equation shows that the ratio of the primary Instead of reasoning as above, we can apply Eq. 9.5:
and secondary voltages is equal to the ratio of the
E 1/E 2 =NJN2
number of turns. Furthermore. because the primary
and secondary voltages are induced by the same 120/E2 = 90/2250 V
mutual cf\ 11' they are necessarily in phase. which again yields 3000 V
The phasor diagram at no load is given in Fig.
9.8b. Phasor is in phase with phasor £ 1 (and not b. The voltage varies sinusoidally; consequently,
180° out of phase) as indicated by the polarity the peak secondary voltage is:
marks. If the transformer has fewer turns on the sec- E2qxakJ =\} 2£ = '1 2 X 3000
ondary than on the primary, phasor £ 2 is shorter
=4242 v
than phasor £ 1 • As in any inductor, current / 111 lags
90° behind applied voltage El!. The phasor repre- c. The secondary voltage is 25 times greater than £ 1
senting llux cJ:.i, 11 is obviously in phase with magne- at every instant. Consequently, when e 1 = 37 V
tizing current / 111 which produces it. x 37 = 925 v
However. because this is an ideal transformer,
the magnetic circuit is infinitely permeable and so
9.7 Ideal transformer under load;
no magnetizing current is required to produce the
flux <1> 111 • Thus, under no-load conditions, the phasor
current ratio
diagram of such a transformer is identical to Fig. Pursuing our analysis. let us connect a load Z across
9.8b except that phasor /"'is infinitesimally small. the secondary of the ideal transformer (Fig. 9.9). A
secondary current!-::. will immediately flow, given by:
Example 9-3
A not quite ideal transformer having 90 turns on the
primary and 2250 turns on the secondary is con- Does change when we connect the load? To an-
nected to a 120 V, 60 Hz source. The coupling be- swer this question, we must recall two facts. First, in
tween the primary and secondary is perfect, but the an ideal transformer the primary and secondary wind-
magnetizing current is 4 A. ings are linked by a mutual flux <Prn, and by no other
 THE IDEAL TRANSFOR1'vfER 189

the same time. Thus. when 12 goes through zero, / 1,

11 goes through zero, and when 12 is maximum ( +) / 1
•
+
• is maximum ( + ). In other words. the currents must
be in phase. Furthermore. in order to produce the
E1 bucking effect, when / 1 flows into a polarity mark
I on the primary side, 12 must flow out <fthe polarity
mark on the secondary side (see Fig. 9.9a).
Using these facts. we can now draw the phasor
(a) '·............................................/
diagram of an ideal transformer under load (Fig.
9.9b). Assuming a resistive-inductive load. current
Ei 12 lags behind by an angle e. Flux <Dm lags 90°
- - . . . . . - - - - Eg, E 1
behind but no magnetizing current / 111 is needed
to produce this flux because this is an idea trans-
(b) former. Finally. the primary and secondary currents
are in phase. According to Eq. 9.6. they are related
by the equation:

Figure 9.9
a. Ideal transformer under load. The mutual flux re- (9.7)
NI (/
mains unchanged.
b. Phaser relationships under load. where

/ 1 primary current IAI

flux. In other words. an ideal transformer. by defini-
/, secondary current IA I
tion. has no leakage flux. Consequently. the voltage
ratio under load is the same as at no-load. namely: N 1 = number of turns on the primary
N'.2 = number of turns on the secondary
£ 1/E,_ NifN2
a turns ratio
Second, if the supply voltage Eg is kept fixed. then
the primary induced voltage £ 1 remains fixed. Comparing Eq. 9.5 and Eq. 9.7. we see that the
Consequently, mutual flux (Pm also remains fixed. It transformer current ratio is the inverse of the volt-
follows that also remains fixed. We conclude that age ratio. In effect, what we gain in voltage. we lose
E, remains fixed whether a load is connected or not. in current and vice versa. This is consistent with the
Let us now examine the magnetomotive forces requirement that the apparent power input E 1/ 1 to
created by the primary and secondary windings. First, the primary must equal the apparent power output
current r_,_ produces a secondary mmf N-yh. If it acted E,h of the secondary. If the power inputs and out-
alone. this mmf would produce a profound change in puts were not identical. it would mean that the
the mutual flux <l>m. But we just saw that cf.> 111 does not transformer itself absorbs power. By definition, this
change under load. We conclude that flux <I>rn can is impossible in an ideal transformer.
only remain fixed if the primary develops a mmf
which e.wctfr counterbalances N:J"!. at every instant. Example 9-4 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
Thus. a primary current / 1 must flow so that: An ideal transformer having 90 turns on the primary
N,f, (9.6) and 2250 turns on the secondary is connected to a
200 V. 50 Hz source. The load across the secondary
To obtain the required instant-to-instant bucking ef- draws a current of 2 A at a power factor of 80 per-
fect. currents / 1 and 12 must increase and decrease at cent lagging (Fig. 9.1 Oa).
190 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS

,....................... <Pm ........, 12 2A

£9 , £ 1
Ii .......~~ 200 V E 2 = 5000 V

• !l
•
+ +
200 v Ni N2
Ei Ei
50 Hz 90 2250.

<Pm 10 mWb
~~-~ ,.,.........:
.........................................
w ~

Figure 9.10
a. See Example 9-4.
b. Phasor relationships.

Ca/cu/ore: current in the secondary. Therefore when 12 =

a. The effective value of the primary current I 00 mA, 11 is:
b. The instantaneous current in the primary when
I, instantaneous = 25 I 2 instantaneous
the instantaneous current in the secondary is
25 x 0.1
IOOmA
c. The peak flux linked by the secondary winding 2.5A

d. Draw the phasor diagram c. In an ideal transformer, the flux linking the sec-
ondary is the same as that linking the primary.
Solution:
The peak flux in the secondary is
a. The turns ratio is:
<l\nax £/(4.44.fN,)
a=N,IN2 =9012250
1125
200/(4.44 x 50 x 90)
= 0.01
The current ratio is therefore 25 and because the
IOmWb
primary has fewer turns. the primary current is
25 times greater than the secondary current. d. To draw the phasor diagram, we reason as fol-
Consequently: lows: Secondary voltage is
11 25 X 2 = 50 A = 25 x EI = 25 x 200
Instead of reasoning as above. we can calculate 5000 v
the current by means of Eq. 9.6.
1s m phase with £ 1 indicated by the polarity
N 111 N 212 marks. For the same reason, 11 is in phase with 12 •
901, = 2250 x 2 Phase angle between E2 and 12 is
11 50A power factor = cos e
b. The instantaneous current in the primary is al- o.8 =cos e
ways 25 times greater than the instantaneous e 36.9°
 THE !DEAL TRANSFORMER 191

+ • +

(a) (b)

Figure 9.11
a. Symbol for an ideal transformer and phasor diagram using sign notation.
b. Symbol for an ideal transformer and phasor diagram using double-subscript notation.

The phase angle between £ 1 and / 1 is also 36.9°. In an ideal transformer, and specifically referring to
The mutual flux lags 90° behind Eg (Fig. 9. IOb). Fig. 9.11 a, £ 1 and are always in phase, and so are
/ 1 and / 2 .*
If the double-subscript notation is used (Fig.
9.8 Circuit symbol 9.1 lb), Eat> and are always in phase and so are
for an ideal transformer / 1 and / 2 •

To highlight the bare essentials of an ideal trans- The angle a depends upon the nature of the load
former, it is best to draw it in symbolic form. Thus, in- (which may sometimes be a source) connected to
stead of drawing the primary and secondary windings the secondary side.
and the mutual flux c(l 11 1' we simply show a box hav-
ing primary and secondary terminals (Fig. 9.11 ). 9.9 Impedance ratio
Polarity marks are added, enabling us to indicate the Although a transformer is generally used to trans-
direction of current flow as well as the polarities of form a voltage or current, it also has the impor-
voltages E 1 and E2 • For example, a current/ 1 flowing tant ability to transform an impedance. Consider,
into one polarity-marked terminal is always accom- for example, Fig. 9. I 2a in which an ideal trans-
panied by a current 12 flowing out of the other polar- former T is connected between a source Eg and a
ity-marked terminal. Consequently, / 1 and 12 are al- load Z. The ratio of transformation is a, and so we
ways in phase. can write
Furthermore, if we let the ratio of transformation
Nif N2 = a. we obtain Some texts show the respective voltages and currenb a~ heing
180° out of phase. This situation can arise depending upon
E 1 = aE2 how the behavior of the tramJormer is described. or how the
voltage polarities and current directions arc assigned. By us-
and
ing the methodology we have adopted in thi~ book. there is
r21a never any doubt as to how the phasors should he drawn.
 192 EU:'CTRIC4L MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS

II 12 tical to the actual impedance across the secondary

terminals multiplied by the syuare of the turns ratio .
• • The impedance transformation is real, and not
illusory like the image produced by a magnifying
(a)
r
£1
glass. An ideal transformer can modify the value
I of any component, be it a resistor, capacitor. or in-
n
ductor. For example, if a 1000 resistor is placed
across the secondary of a transformer having a pri-
mary to secondary turns ratio of I :5, it will appear

----,I across the primary as if it had a resistance of I 000

x ( 1/5) 2 40 n. Similarly, if a capacitor having
,...._, a reactance of I 000 n is connected to the sec-
(b) I I Zx ondary. it appears as a 40 n capacitor across the
l-r-1 primary. However, because the reactance of a ca-
....__-0- _ _ _ _ J
I pacitor is inversely proportional to its capacitance
(Xe: = I /2njC), the apparent capacitance between
Figure 9.12 the primary terminals is 25 times greater than its
a. Impedance transformation using a transformer. actual value. We can therefore artificially increase
b. The impedance seen by the source differs from z. (or decrease) the microfarad value of a capacitor
by means of a transformer.

9.1 O Shifting impedances from

and
secondary to primary
and vice versa
As far as the source is concerned. it sees an imped- As a further illustration of the impedance-changing
ance Zx between the primary terminals given by: properties of an ideal transformer. consider the cir-
cuit of Fig. 9. I 3a. It is composed of a source a
transformer T, and four impedances Z 1 to The
On the other hand. the secondary sees an impedance transformer has a turns ratio a.
Z given by We can progressively shift the secondary imped-
z E-JJ, ances to the primary side, as shown in Figs. 9. I 3h
to 9. I 3e. As the impedances arc shifted in this way.
However. Z, can be expressed in another way: the circuit configuration remains the same, but the
shifted impedance values are multiplied hy a 2 .
If all the impedances are transferred to the pri-
/,/a
mary side, the ideal transformer ends up at the ex-
Consequently. treme right-hand side of the circuit (Fig. 9. I 3d). In
this position the secondary of the transformer is on
(9.8)
open-circuit. Consequently, both the primary and
This means that the impedance seen by the source is secondary currents are zero. We can therefore re-
2
a times the real impedance (Fig. 9. 12b). Thus, an move the ideal transformer altogether, yielding the
ideal transformer has the amazing ability to increase equivalent circuit shown in Fig. 9. I 3e.
or decrease the value of an impedance. In effect, the In comparing Figs. 9. l 3a and 9. I 3e, we may won-
impedance seen across the primary terminals is iden- der how a circuit which contains a real transformer T
 THE IDEAL TRANSFORlHER 193

(e)
(a)
Figure 9.13
a. The actual circuit showing the actual voltages and
currents.
b. Impedance Z2 is shifted to the primary side. Note
the corresponding changes in E2 and / 2 .
c. Impedance Z3 is shifted to the primary side. Note
z4 the corresponding change in F 3 and 13 .
d. Impedance Z4 is shifted to the primary side. Note
the corresponding change in E4 and 14 . The cur-
rents in T are now zero.
e. All the impedances are now transferred to the pri-
mary side and the transformer is no longer needed.
(b)

can be reduced to a circuit which has no transformer

at all. In effect, is there any meaningful relationship
between the two circuits? The answer is ve:~--rnere
is a useful relationship between the real circuit of Fig.
9.13a and the eyuivalent circuit of 9. I 3e. The
reason is that the voltage E across each clement in the
secondary side becomes a£ when the element is
shifted to the primary side. Similarly, the current I in
each element in the secondary side becomes !/a when
the element is shifted to the primary side.
(c) On account of this relationship. it is easy to solve
a real circuit such as the one shown in 9.1 Ja.
We simply reduce it to the equivalent form shown
in Fig. 9. I 3c and solve for all the voltage:-. and cur-
rents. These values are then respectively multiplied
by l /a and by a, which yields the actual voltages
and currents of each element in the secondary side.
To illustrate, suppose that the real voltage across
Z+ in 9.14 is volts and that the real current
through it is 1-i amperes. Then. in the equivalent cir-
cuit. the voltage across the :.r"z
4 impedance is equal
to X a volts. On the other hamL the current
(d) through the impedance is eyual to 1-i -:- a amperes
194 ELECTRICAL MACFllNES AN/J TRANSFORMERS

(a)

Figure 9.14
Actual voltage and current in impedance Z4 .

(b)

Figure 9.15
Equivalent voltage and current in Z4 . (c)

(Fig. 9.15). In other words, whenever an impedance

is transferred to the primary side, the real voltage
across the impedance increases by a factor a, while
the real current decreases by the factor a.
In general, whenever an impedance is trans-
ferred from one side of a transformer to the other,
the real voltage across it changes in proportion to
(d)
the turns ratio. If the impedance is transferred to the
side where the transformer voltage is higher, the Figure 9.16
voltage across the transferred impedance will also a. The actual circuit, showing the real voltages and
be higher. Conversely, if the impedance is trans- currents on the primary side.
ferred to the side where the transformer voltage is b. Impedance Z1 is transferred to the secondary side.
lower, the voltage across the transferred impedance Note the corresponding change in E1 and / 1 .
c. The source is transferred to the secondary side.
is lower than the real voltage-again, of course, in
Note the corresponding change in E9 . Note also
the ratio of the number of turns.
that the currents in T are zero.
In some cases it is useful to shift impedances in d. All the impedances and even the source are now
the opposite way, that is from the primary side to the on the secondary side. The transformer is no
secondary side (Fig. 9. I 6a). The procedure is the longer needed because its currents are zero.
 THE IDEAL TRANSFORMER 195

same, but all impedances so transferred are now di- The impedance of the circuit in Fig. 9.18 is
l'ided by a 2 (Fig. 9. I 6b ). We can even shift the
source Eg to the secondary side, where it becomes a Z= (2.17)
source having a voltage £/a. The ideal transformer
(5 - 2).::
is now located at the extreme left-hand side of the
circuit (Fig. 9.16c). In this position the primary of \16 9
the transformer is on open-circuit. Consequently,
both the primary and secondary cmTents are zero. As 5n
before, we can remove the transformer completely, The current in the circuit is
leaving us with the equivalent circuit of Fig. 9. I 6d.
I = EIZ = I 0/5 = 2 A

Example9-5 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~ The voltage across the resistor is

Calculate voltage E and current I in the circuit of
Fig. 9.17, knowing that ideal transformer T has a El I 00 IR = 2 X 4 8V
primary to secondary turns ratio of I: I 00. The actual voltage Eis. therefore.
Sol111ion E = 8 X I 00 800 V
The easiest way to solve this problem is to shift all
the impedances to the primary side of the trans-
former. Because the primary has I 00 times fewer Questions and Problems
turns than the secondary, the impedance values are
2 9-1 The coil in Fig. 9.2a has 500 turns and a re-
divided by I 00 , or I 0 000. Voltage E becomes
actance of 60 n but negligible resistance. If
£/100, but current I remains unchanged because it
it is connected to a 120 V, 60 Hz source Eg.
is already on the primary side (Fig. 9.18).
calculate the following:
a. The effective value of the magnetizing cur-
sn 20k.Q rent / 111
b. The peak Yaluc of /rn
c. The peak and mmf' produced by the coil
d. The peak flux 4> 11 n,
10V
9-2 In Problem 9-1, if the voltage Eg is reduced
to 40 Y. calculate the new mmf developed
by the coil and the peak flux Q)m,"·
1:100 9-3 What is meant by 1maualf7ux'! by leakage
flux?
Figure 9.17
See Example 9-5. 9-4 The ideal transformer in Fig. 9.9 has 500
turns on the primary and 300 turns on the
secondary. The source produces a voltage
sn 2n
Eg of 600 V, and the load Z i" a resistance
of 12 n. Calculate the following:
a. The voltage E,
4.Q b. The current L
c. The current / 1
d. The power delivered to the primary [WI
e. The power output from lhe secondary IWI

Figure 9.18 9-5 In Problem 9-4, what is the impedance seen

Equivalent circuit of Fig. 9.17. by the source ·)
196 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS

9-6 In Fig. 9.17, calculate the voltage across 9-9 Two coils are set up as shown in Fig. 9.4.
the capacitor and the current flowing Their respective re:-.istances are small and
through it. may be neglected. The coil having terminals
I. 2 has 320 turns while the coil having ter-
Industrial application
minals 3. 4 has 160 turns. It is found that
9-7 The nameplate on a 50 kVA transformer when a 56 V, 60 Hz voltage is applied toter-
shows a primary voltage of 480 V and a sec- minals 1-2, the voltage across terminals 3-4
ondary voltage of 120 V. We wish to deter- is 22 V. Calculate the peak values of d>, d> 11 •
mine the approximate number of turns on the
and d>m 1•
primary and secondary windings. Toward this
9-10 A 40 µE 600 V paper capacitor is available.
end, three turns of wire are wound around the
but we need one having a rating of about
external winding, and a voltmeter is connected
300 µF. It is proposed to use a transformer
across this 3-turn coil. A voltage of 76 V is
to modify the 40 µF so that it appears as
then applied to the 120 V winding, and the
300 µF. The following transformer ratios
voltage across the 3-turn winding is found to
are available: 120 V/330 V: 60 V /450 V:
be 0.93 V. How many turns are there on the
480 VI 150 V. Which transformer is the most
480 V and 120 V windings (approximately)?
appropriate and what is the reflected value
9-8 A coil with an air core has a resistance of of the 40 µF capacitance? To which side of
14. 7 D. When it is connected to a 42 V, 60 the transformer should the 40 µF capacitor
Hz ac source. it draws a current of 1.24 A. be connected?
Calculate the following:
a. The impedance of the coil
b. The reactance of the coil, and its inductance
c. The pha-;e angle between the applied voltage
(42 V) and the current ( 1.24 A).
 CHAPTER 10
Practical Transformers

10.0 Introduction 10.1 Ideal transformer

n Chapter 9 we studied the ideal transformer and with an imperfect core
I discovered its basic properties. However. in the
real world transformers are not ideal and so our
The ideal transformer studied in the previous
chapter had an infinitely permeable core. What
simple analysis must be modified to take this into happens if such a perfect core is replaced by an
account. Thus, the windings of practical transform- iron core having hysteresis and eddy-current
ers have resistance and the cores are not infinitely losses and whose permeability is rather low? We
permeable. Furthermore, the flux produced by the can represent these imperfections by two circuit
primary is not completely captured by the sec- elements Rm and Xm in parallel with the primary
ondary. Consequently, the leakage flux must be terminals of the ideal transformer (Fig. 10.1 a). The
taken into account. And finally, the iron cores pro- primary is excited by a source Ef! that produces a
duce eddy-current and hysteresis losses, which con- voltage £ 1 •
tribute to the temperature rise of the transformer. The resistance Rm represents the iron losses and
In this chapter we discover that the properties of the resulting heat they produce. To furnish these
a practical transformer can be described by an losses a small current / 1 is drawn from the line. This
equivalent circuit comprising an ideal transformer current is in phase with £ 1 (Fig. IO. lb).
and resistances and reactances. The equivalent cir- The magnetizing reactance Xm is a measure of
cuit is developed from fundamental concepts. This the permeability of the transformer core. Thus, if
enables us to calculate such characteristics as volt- the permeability is low, Xm is relatively low. The
age regulation and the behavior of transformers that current /m flowing through Xm represents the mag-
are connected in parallel. The per-unit method is netizing current needed to create the flux <Pm in the
also used to illustrate its mode of application. core. This current lags 90c behind E 1•

197
198 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS

=0 5A
•
120V
Xm 60 Hz
ideal
T
Pm= 180 W
Figure 10.1 a
Figure 10.2a
An imperfect core represented by a reactance Xm and
See Example 10-1 .
a resistance Rm.

The values of the impedances R 111 and X111 can be transformer is shown in Fig. 10.1 b. The peak value
found experimentally by connecting the trans- of the mutual flux <Pm is again given by Eq. 9.2:
former to an ac source under no-load conditions and
measuring the active power and reactive power it
absorbs. The following equations then apply:
Example I 0-1
Rm E12f P111 (I 0.1) A large transformer operating at no-load draws an
2 exciting current / 0 of 5 A when the primary is con-
xlll E1 IQm ( 10.2)
nected to a 120 V, 60 Hz source (Fig. I0.2a). From
where a wattmeter test it is known that the iron losses are
Rm = resistance representing the iron losses fffl equal to 180 W.*

xm = magnetizing reactance of the primary Calculate

winding [f!J a. The reactive power absorbed by the core
E1 primary voltage [VJ b. The value of R111 and X 111
c. The value of fr, l,w and / 0
Pm iron losses [WJ
Qrn = reactive power needed to set up the mutual Solution
flux cJ:>, 11 I varJ a. The apparent power supplied to the core is

The total current needed to produce the flux <1> 111 in Sm= £1/0 120 X 5
an imperfect core is equal to the phasor sum of fr = 600 VA
and lm. It is called the excitinR current 1,,. It is usu-
ally a small percentage of the full-load current. The The iron losses are
phasor diagram at no-load for this less-than-ideal P111 l80W

It The reactive power absorbed by the core is

1
------- £9 , £
Qrn V600 2 - 1802
/,.,
572 var

<Pm

Figure 10.1 b
Phasor diagram of a practical transformer at no-load. Iron losses are discu~sed in Sections 2.26 to 2.29.
 PRACTICAL TRANSFORM!:RS 199

b. The impedance corresponding to the iron losses

is

Rm= E/!Prn = 120 /180

=son
2
-.
11 =0

I+ I+
The magnetizing reactance is E N1 N2 E2

Xm = E/!Qm = 120 /572

2 ( l
= 2s.2 n
c. The current needed to supply the iron losses is

fr= £ 1
/Rrn = 120/80
= 1.5 A Figure 10.3
Transformer with infinitely permeable core at no-load.
The magnetizing current is

Im= £ /Xm1
= 120/25.2 across the primary is £ 11 and it sets up a mutual flux
= 4.8A <Prnia in the core. This flux lags 900 behind £ 11 and
its peak value is given by <Pmla = E/(4.44.fN 1).
The exciting current / 0 is Because the core is infinitely permeable and be-
cause it has no losses, the no-load current / 1 = 0.
(, = Vii + /;n = \11.5 2 + 4.8 2
The voltage £ 2 is given by £ 2 = (N2 /N 1) £ 1,. Owing
=SA to the current being zero, no mmf is available to
The phasor diagram is given in Fig. 10.2b. drive flux through the air; consequently, there is no
leakage flux linking with the primary.
It= 1.5 A Let us now connect a load Z across the sec-
ondary, keeping the source voltage £ 11 fixed (Fig.
I.,,= 4.8 A I 0.4 ). This simple operation sets off a train of
10 = 5 A events which we list as follows:

<Pm

1<,~. . :•=-r-r...·1~: : . ,: : : :~.~:~.(~Yl

Figure 10.2b
Phasor diagram. 12
__
• 3
10.2 Ideal transformer
+
with loose coupling
We have just seen how an ideal transformer behaves
tt E,

when it has an imperfect core. We now assume a

transformer having a perfect core but rather loose
coupling between its primary and secondary wind-
2
i ...:/
- •.............. ,,<l>m2••
~'.- •
4

'·..................... <1>m1 ..................'

ings. We also assume that the primary and sec-
ondary windings have negligible resistance and the
Figure 10.4
turns are N 1, N 2 • Mutual fluxes and leakage fluxes produced by a trans-
Consider the transformer in Fig. 10.3 connected former under load. The leakage fluxes are due to the
to a source Eg and operating at no-load. The voltage imperfect coupling between the coils.
200 lLECTR!CAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORl'vtERS

I. Currents / 1 and r,_ immediately begin to flow in

the primary and secondary windings. They are 1. r~· .. _. . . . . . . 1
<P~I ¢/····••\
related by the ideal-transformer equation
.----<1-,,__-•-1--...-1
11112 = N 21N 1: hence N 111 = N 2 12 •
2. r,. produces an mmf N212 \Vhile I, produces an

.,)••\
mmf N 1 / 1 • These rnagnetornotive forces are
equal and in direct opposition because when / 1
flows into the polarity-marked terminal I, 12 2 __
flows out of polarity-marked terminal 3.
3. The mmf N,_l::_ produces a total ac flux (1> 2 . A
portion of (1) 2 «IJm,_) links with the primary
winding while another portion ((1) 11 ) does not. Figure 10.5
A transformer possesses two leakage fluxes and a
Flux <l> 12 is called the .\econdw~r lcakageflux.
mutual flux.
4. Similarly, the mmf N 1/ 1 produces a total ac flux
<I) 1 • A portion of<[> 1 {Cl\ 111 ) I inks with the sec-
2. A voltage E-::. induced by mutual flux <J:>rn and
ondary winding. while another prntion «Pn) does
given by
not. Flux <1\ 1 is called the pri111wy leakage.flux.
( 10.4)
The magnetomotive forces due to / 1 and1-::. upset
the magnetic field <llmr .. that existed in the core be- In general. Er and £ 2 are not in phase.
fore the load was connected. The question is, how Similarly, the voltage EP induced in the primary
can we analyze this new situation? is composed of two parts:
Referring to Fig. 10.4. we reason as follows:
I. A voltage £ 11 induced by leakage flux <1) 11 and
:First, the total flux produced by / 1 is composed given by
of two parts: a new mutual flux cl>ni r and a leakage
flux <[> 11 . (The mutual flux <l>m 1 in Fig. I0.4 is not (I 0.5)
the same as <I> 1111 " in Fig. 10.3.) 2. A voltage £ 1 induced by mutual flux <Pill and
Second, the total flux produced by 1-::. is com- given by
posed of a mutllal flux <Pm-::. and a leakage flux <Pr-::.·
( 10.6)
Third, we combine <l>m 1 and <J:>lll 2 into a single
mutual flux <!Jill (Fig. I 0.5 ). This mutual flux is cre- Sixth, induced voltage EP = applied voltage£~.
ated by the joint action of the primary and sec- Using these six basic facts. we now proceed to
ondary mmfs. develop the equivalent circuit of the transformer.
Fourth, we note that the primary leakage tlux
cl) 11 is created by N 1/ 1• while the secondary leakage 10.3 Primary and secondary
flux is created by N2' 2 • Consequently. leakage flux leakage reactance
<1) 11 is in phase with / 1• and leakage flux cl\-::. is in
phase with 12 • We can better identify the four induced voltages £ 1•
£ 11 • and by rearranging the transformer cir-
J<'ifth, the voltage E, induced in the secondary is
cuit as shown in Fig. 10.6. Thus. the secondary
actually composed of two parts:
winding is drawn twice to show even more clearly
I. A voltage £ 17 induced by leakage flux <l> 1-::. and that the N 2 turns are linked by two fluxes. <I) 12 and
given by <l\w This rearrangement does not change the value
of the induced voltages. but it does make each volt-
(10.3) age stand out by itself. Thus. it becomes clear that
 PRACTICAL TRANSFORMERS 201

c-· . . . . . ) c·~··· .,,· · · · -)

Ni r """""""""".m"". . """"""""1 N,

1---.-...t'.......~ ~.......~----!
+ +
E,

2 4

Figure 10.6
Separating the various induced voltages due to the mutual flux and the leakage fluxes.

2 4
I -:. , . .l
I ___
L •···..··-...............................
_:: ______ _J.f__ ideal transformer T

Figure 10.7
Resistance and leakage reactance of the primary and secondary windings.

E12 is really a voltage drop across a reactance. This Example 10-2

secondmy leakage reocta11ce is given by The secondary winding of a transformer possesses
180 turns. When the transformer is under load, the
(10.7)
secondary current has an effective value of 18 A. 60
The primary winding is also shown twice, to Hz. Furthermore, the mutual <1) 111 has a peak value of
separate £ 1 from E 11 . Again, it is clear that En is 20 mWb. The secondary leakage flux <1) 12 has a
simply a voltage drop across a reactance. This pri- peak value of 3 m Wb.
111£0:\' leakage reacta11ce X 11 is given by

(I 0.8) Calculate
The primary and secondary leakage reactances a. The voltage induced in the secondary winding
are shown in Figure 10.7. We have also added the by its leakage flux
primary and secondary winding resistances R 1 and b. The value of the secondary leakage reactance
R2• which. of course, act in series with the respec- c. The value of £ 2 induced by the mutual
tive windings. flux cf>m
202 ELECTRIC1.L MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS

2 4

Figure 10.8
Complete equivalent circuit of a practical transformer. The shaded box T is an ideal transformer.

Solution If we add circuit elements X111 and R 111 to repre-

a. The effective voltage induced by the secondary sent a practical core, we obtain the complete equiv-
leakage flux is alent circuit of a practical transformer I0.8 ).
In this circuit T is an ideal transformer, but only the
(I 0.3) primary and secondary terminals 1-2 and 3-4 are ac-
= 4.44 x 60 x 180 x 0.003 cessible; all other components are "buried" inside
143.9V the transformer itself. However, by appropriate
tests we can find the values of all the circuit ele-
b. The secondary leakage reactance is ments that make up a practical transformer.
X12 Er2lf2 ( 10.7) Table IOA shows typical values of Ri. R2 • Xr 1•
Xr2 , X 111 and R 111 for transformers ranging from I kVA
143.9/18
to 400 MVA. The nominal primary and secondary
=8!1 voltages £ 11 1' and£," range from 460 V to 424 000 V.
c. The voltage induced by the mutual flux is The corresponding primary and secondary currents
/ 11 P and / 11 ~ range from 0.417 A to 29 000 A.

(10.4) The exciting current (, for the various trans-

4.44 x 60 x 180 x 0.02 formers is also shown. It is always much smaller
than the rated primary current / 11 P.
959 v Note that in each case En 1) 11 p = E 11 J 11 , S,,.
where S11 is the rated power of the transformer.
10.4 Equivalent circuit
TABLE 1QA ACTUAL TRANSFORMER VALUES
of a practical transformer
Sn kVA I IO 100 IOOO 400000
The circuit of Fig. I 0. 7 is composed of resistive
Enr v 2400 2400 12470 69000 13800
and inductive elements (R 1, R2 , X 11 , X 12 , Z) cou- v 460 347 600 6900 424000
pled together by a mutual flux cI)m· which links the /llJl A 0.417 4.17 8.02 14.5 29000
primary and secondary windings. The leakage- A 2.17 28.8 167 145 943
free magnetic coupling enclosed in the dotted '"
R, Q 58.0 5.16 11.6 27.2 0.0003
square is actually an ideal transformer. It pos- R2 Q 1.9 0.095 0.024 0.25 0.354
sesses the same properties and obeys the same Xr1 Q 32 4.3 39 151 0.028
rules as the ideal transformer discussed in Chapter X12 Q 1.16 0.09 0.09 1.5 27
9. For example, we can shift impedances to the Xm n 200000 29000 150000 505000 460
primary side by multiplying their values by Rm Q 400000 51000 220000 432000 317
A 0.0134 0.0952 0.101 0.210 52.9
2
(N/N 2 ) , as we did before.
'"
 PRACTICAL TRANSFORMERS 203

10.5 Construction of a power Winding resistances R 1 and R2 are kept low, both
transformer to reduce the PR loss and resulting heat and to ensure
high efficiency. Figure 10. 9a is a simplified version of
Power transformers are usually designed so that a power transformer in which the primary and sec-
their characteristics approach those of an ideal ondary are wound on one leg. In practice, the primary
transformer. Thus, to attain high permeability, the and secondary coils are distributed over both core
core is made of iron (Fig. I0.9a). The resulting in order to reduce the amount of copper. For the
magnetizing current / 111 is at least 5000 times same reason, in larger transformers the cross section
smaller than it would be if an air core were used. of the laminated iron core is not square (as shown) but
Furthermore, to keep the iron losses down, the core is built up so as to be nearly round. (See Fig. 12. IOa).
is laminated, and high resistivity, high-grade silicon I 0.9b shows how the laminations of a
steel is used. Consequently, the current / 1 needed to small transformer are stacked to build up the core.
supply the iron losses is usually 2 to 4 times smaller I0.9c shows the primary winding of a much
than /nr transformer.
Leakage reactances Xr 1 and Xr:~ are made as The number of turns on the primary and sec-
small as possible by winding the primary and sec- ondary windings depends upon their respective
ondary coils on top of each other, and by spacing voltages. A high-voltage winding has far more turns
them as closely together as insulation considera- than a low-voltage winding. On the other hand. the
tions will permit. The coils are carefully insulated current in a HV winding is much smaller. enabling
from each other and from the core. Such tight cou- us to use a smaller size conductor. As a result, the
pling between the coils means that the secondary amount of copper in the primary and secondary
voltage at no-load is almost exactly equal to N 2 /N 1 windings is about the same. In practice, the outer
times the primary voltage. It also guarantees good coil (coil 2, in Fig. I0.9a} weighs more because the
voltage regulation when a load is connected to the length per turn is greater. Aluminum or copper con-
secondary terminals. ductors are used.

laminated iron core

Figure 10.9a Figure 10.9b

Construction of a simple transformer. Stacking laminations inside a coil.
204 !:LfXTR!CAL lvfACHINES AND TRANSFORl14ERS

additive polarity subtractive polarity

Figure 10.1 O
Additive and subtractive polarity depend upon the lo-
cation of the H 1 -X 1 terminals.

additive polarity when terminal H 1 is diagonally

opposite terminal X 1• Similarly, a transformer has
subtractive polarity when terminal H 1 is adjacent to
terminal X 1 (Fig. 10.10). If we know that a power
transformer has additive (or subtractive) polarity.
we do not have to identify the terminals by symbols.
Subtractive polarity is standard for all single-
phase transformers above 200 kYA. provided the
high-voltage winding is rated above 8660 V. All
other transformers have additive polarity.
Figure 10.9c
Primary winding of a large transformer; rating 128 kV, 10.7 Polarity tests
290 A.
To determine whether a transformer possesses ad-
(Courtesy ABB)
ditive or subtractive polarity, we proceed as follows
A transformer is reversible in the sense that ei- (Fig. 10.11 ):
ther winding can be used as the primary winding.
I. Connect the high-voltage winding to a low-
where primwy means the winding that is connected
voltage (say 120Y) ac source
to the source.
2. Connect a jumper J between any two adjacent
HV and LY terminals.
10.6 Standard terminal markings
3. Connect a voltmeter bet\\<een the other two
We saw in Section 9.4 that the polarity of a trans- adjacent HY and LY terminals.
former can be shown by means of dots on the primary
and secondary terminals. This type of marking is used
on instrument transformers. On power transformers.
however. the terminals are designated by the symbols
H 1 and H1 for the high-voltage (HY) winding and by
X1 and X, for the low-voltage (LY) winding. By con-
vention. H 1 and X 1 have the same polarity.
Although the polarity is known when the sym-
bols H 1• H 2 • X 1• and X 2 are given. in the case of
power transformers it is common practice to mount
the four terminals on the transformer tank in a stan- Figure 10.11
dard way so that the transformer has either additive Determining the polarity of a transformer using an ac
or subtractil'e polarity. A transformer is said to have source.
 PRACTICAL TRANSFORMERS 205

4. Connect another voltmeter across the HY ing. If. at this moment. the pointer of the voltmeter
winding. If E, gives a higher reading than EP, the moves upscale. the transformer terminal connected
polarity is additive. This tells us that H 1 and X 1 to the ( +) terminal of the voltmeter is marked H 1
are diagonally opposite. On the other hand. if Ex and the other is marked H 2 .
gives a lower reading than £ 1" the polarity is sub-
10.8 Transformer taps
tractive. and terminals H 1 and X 1 are adjacent.
Due to voltage drops in transmission lines, the volt-
In this polarity text. jumper J effectively connects
age in a particular region of a distribution system
the secondary voltage in series with the primary
may consistently be lower than normal. Thus, a dis-
voltage EP. Consequently. E, either adds to or sub-
tribution transformer having a ratio of 2400 V/120 V
tracts from EP. In other words. EP + E, or
may be connected to a transmission line where the
EP ~ E,. depending on the polarity. We can now see
voltage is never higher than 2000 V. Under these con-
how the terms additive and subtractive originated.
ditions the voltage across the secondary is consider-
In making the polarity test. an ordinary 120 V.
ably less than 120 Y. Incandescent lamps are dim.
60 Hz source can be connected to the HY winding.
electric stoves take longer to cook food, and electric
even though its nominal voltage may be several
motors may stall under moderate overloads.
hundred kilovolts.
To correct this problem taps are provided on the
primary windings of distribution transformers
Example 10-3
I 0.13 ). Taps enable us to change the turns ratio so
During a polarity test on a 500 k VA. 69 kV /600 V
as to raise the secondary voltage by 4 1

/]•9, or 13 '11
transformer (Fig. I 0.11 ). the following readings
percent. We can therefore maintain a satisfactory
were obtained: EP = 118 V. 119 V. Determine
secondary voltage. even though the primary voltage
the polarity markings of the terminals.
may be 4 '1.:i. 9, or 13 1/] percent below normal. Thus.
Solllfion referring to the transformer of Fig. I 0.13, if the line
The polarity is additive because is greater than voltage is only 2076 V (instead of 2400 Y), we
£ 1)' Consequently. the HY and LY terminals con- would use terminal I and tap 5 to obtain 120 Yon
nected by the jumper must respectively be labelled the secondary side.
H 1 and (or H 2 and X 1). Some transformers are designed to change the
Figure I 0.12 shows another circuit that may be taps automatically whenever the secondary voltage
used to determine the polarity of a transformer. A de is above or below a preset level. Such tap-clwng-
source. in series with an open switch, is connected ing tramformers help maintain the secondary volt-
to the LY winding of the transformer. The trans- age within ::±::2 percent of its rated value throughout
former terminal connected to the positive side of the the day.
source i:-. marked X 1 • A de voltmeter is connected
across the HY terminals. When the switch is closed.
a voltage is momentarily induced in the HY wind-

+l '\20 \/

Figure 10.12 Figure 10.13

Determining the polarity of a transformer using a de Distribution transformer with taps at 2400 V, 2292 V,
source. 2184 V, and 2076 V.
206 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS

10.9 Losses and transformer rating Example I 0-4

The nameplate of a distribution transformer indicates
Like any electrical machine, a transformer has 250 kVA, 60 Hz, primary 4160 V, secondary 480 V.
losses. They are composed of the following:
a. Calculate the nominal primary and secondary
I. i2 R losses in the windings currents.
2. Hysteresis and eddy-current losses in the core b. If we apply 2000 V to the 4160 V primary, can
we still draw 250 kVA from the transformer?
3. Stray losses due to currents induced in the tank
and metal supports by the primary and sec- Solution
ondary leakage fluxes a. Nominal current of the 4160 V winding is
nominal S 250 1000
The losses appear in the form of heat and pro- I = -- - 60A
np .
nomma IE:.P 4160
duce I) an increase in temperature and 2) a drop in
efficiency. Under normal operating conditions, the Nominal current of the 480 V winding is
efficiency of transformers is very high; it may reach
I =
nominal S
--
250 x 1000
99.5 percent for large power transformers. 521 A
11' nominal E, 480
The heat produced by the iron losses depends
upon the peak value of the mutual flux ¢ 11 1' which b. If we apply 2000 V to the primary, the flux and
in turn depends upon the applied voltage. On the the iron losses will be lower than normal and
other hand, the heat dissipated in the windings de- the core will be cooler. However, the load cur-
pends upon the current they carry. Consequently, rent should not exceed its nominal value, other-
to keep the transformer temperature at an accept- wise the windings will overheat. Consequently.
able level. we must set limits to both the applied the maximum power output using this far lower
voltage and the current drawn by the load. These voltage is
two limits determine the nominal voltage £ 11 P and
S 2000VX60A=120kVA
110111i11al current 11111 of the transformer winding
(primary or secondary).
10.1 O No-load saturation curve
The power rating of a transformer is equal to the
product of the nominal voltage times the nominal Let us gradually increase the voltage EP on the pri-
current of the primary or secondary winding. mary of a transformer, with the secondary open-cir-
However, the result is not expressed in watts, be- cuited. As the voltage rises, the mutual flux (D 111 in-
cause the phase angle between the voltage and cur- creases in direct proportion, in accordance with Eq.
rent may have any value at all, depending on the na- 9.2. Exciting current 10 will therefore increase but,
ture of the load. Consequently. the power-handling when the iron begins to saturate, the magnetizing
capacity of a transformer is expressed in voltam- current Im has to increase very steeply to produce
peres (VA). in kilovoltamperes (kVA) or in mega- the required flux. If we draw a graph of Er versus
voltamperes (MVA). depending on the size of the 10 • we see the dramatic increase in current as we
transformer. The temperature rise of a transformer pass the normal operating point I 0.14 ).
is directly related to the apparent power that flows Transformers are usually designed to operate at a
through it. This means that a 500 k VA transformer peak flux density of about 1.5 T, which corresponds
will get just as hot feeding a 500 kvar inductive load roughly to the knee of the saturation curve. Thus,
as a 500 kW resistive load. when nominal voltage is applied to a transformer.
The rated kVA, frequency, and voltage are al- the corresponding flux density is about 1.5 T. We
ways shown on the nameplate. In large transform- can exceed the nominal voltage by perhaps I 0 per-
ers the corresponding rated currents are also shown. cent but if we were to apply twice the nominal
 PRACTICAL TRANSFORMERS 207

j )
I
I
kV I

20 ·- l

1111•,t1m1~m1m.
!
18
~
16
--;.~ HIH11111111111111111111
l

normal operating point

14

f:1, 12
/! I I !

I I !
I !
f 10 I
I
I
nominal current·- ~
I I
8 JS

f
I I I
I
I
6 I
I
I
4 I
I

2
I I
I

0
I
I
I
0 0,5 1 2 3 4 5 6 A
- - exciting current / 0

Figure 10.14
No-load saturation curve of a 167 kVA, 14.4 kV/480 V,
60 Hz transformer.

Figure 10.15
Single-phase dry-type transformer, type AA, rated at
voltage, the exciting current could become even 15 kVA, 600 V/240 V, 60 Hz, insulation class 150°C for
greater than the nominal full-load current. indoor use. Height: 600 mm; width: 434 mm; depth:
The nonlinear relationship between Er and (, 230 mm; weight: 79.5 kg.
shows that the exciting branch (composed of Rm and (Courtesy of Hammond)
X111 in Fig. I 0.1 a) is not as constant as it appears. In
effect. although R 111 is reasonably constant, Xm de-
Distribution transformers below 200 kVA are
creases rapidly with increasing saturation. However,
usually immersed in mineral oil and enclosed in a
most transformers operate at close to rated voltage.
steel tank. Oil carries the heat away to the tank.
and so Rm and Xm remain essentially constant.
where it is dissipated by radiation and convection to
the outside air (Fig. I 0.16 ). Oil is a much better in-
10.11 Cooling methods
sulator than air is; consequently, it is invariably
To prevent rapid deterioration of the insulating ma- used on high-voltage transformers.
terials inside a transformer, adequate cooling of the As the power rating increases, external radiators
windings and core must be provided. are added to increase the cooling surface of the oil-
Indoor transformers below 200 kVA can be di- filled tank (Fig. I 0.17). Oil circulates around the
rectly cooled by the natural flow of the surrounding transformer windings and moves through the radia-
air. The metallic housing is fitted with ventilating tors, where the heat is again released to surrounding
louvres so that convection currents may flow over air. For still higher ratings, cooling fans blow air
the windings and around the core 10.15). over the radiators I 0.18).
Larger transformers can be built the same way, but For transformers in the megawatt range. cooling
forced circulation of clean air must be provided. may be effected by an oil-water heat exchanger. Hot
Such dry-type transformers are used inside build- oil drawn from the transformer tank is pumped to a
ings, away from hostile atmospheres. heat exchanger where it flows through pipes that are
208 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS

Figure 10.16
Two single-phase transformers, type OA, rated 75
kVA, 14.4 kV/240 V, 60 Hz, 55°C temperature rise, im-
pedance 4.2%. The small radiators at the side in-
crease the effective cooling area. Figure 10.17
Three-phase, type OA grounding transformer, rated
1900 kVA, 26.4 kV, 60 Hz. The power of this trans-
former is 25 times greater than that of the transform-
ers shown in Fig. 10.16, but it is still self-cooled. Note,
in contact with cool water. Such a heat exchanger is however, that the radiators occupy as much room as
very effective. but also very costly, because the water the transformer itself.
itself has to be continuously cooled and recirculated.
Some big transformers are designed to have a
multiple rating. depending on the method of cooling
used. Thus. a transformer may have a triple rating of The type of transformer cooling is designated by
18 000/24 000/32 000 kVA depending on whether it the following symbols:
is cooled
AA-dry-type. self-cooled
I. by the natural circulation of air (AO) ( 18 000
kVA) or AFA-dry-type. forced-air cooled
2. by forced-air cooling with fans (FA) C24 000 OA-oil-immersed. self-cooled
kVA) or QA/FA-oil-immersed. self-cooled/forced-
3. by the forced circulation of oil accompanied by air cooled
forced-air cooling (FOA) (32 000 kVA). AO/FA/FOA-oil-immersed. self-cooled/forced-
air cooled/forced-air. forced-oil
These elaborate cooling systems are nevertheless
cooled
economical because they enable a much bigger out-
put from a transformer of a given size and weight The temperature rise by resistance of oil-immersed
(Fig. 10.19). transformers is either 55°C or 65°C. The tempera-
 PRACTICAL TRANSFORMl:RS 209

Figure 10.19
Three-phase, type OA/FA/FOA transformer rated
36/48/60 MVA, 225 kV/26.4 kV, 60 Hz, impedance
Figure 10.18 7.4%. The circular tank enables the oil to expand as
Three-phase, type FOA, transformer rated 1300 MVA, the temperature rises and reduces the surface of the
24.5 kV/345 kV, 60 Hz 65°C temperature rise, imped- oil in contact with air. Other details:
ance: 11 .5%. This step-up transformer, installed at a
nuclear power generating station, is one of the weight of core and coils: 37.7 t
units ever built. The forced-oil circulating pumps can weight of tank and accessories: 28.6 t
be seen just below the cooling fans. weight of coil (44.8 m3 ): 38.2 t
(Courtesy of Westinghouse)
Total weight: 104.5 t

ture must he kept low to preserve the quality of the

oil. By contrast the temperature rise of a dry-type Ri X11 ~
transformer may he as high as I 80°C, depending on
the type of insulation used. Ip
Ep Xm Rm

10.12 Simplifying the equivalent l

circuit
The complete equivalent circuit of the transformer
Figure 10.20
as shown in Fig. 10.8 far more detail than is
Complete equivalent circuit of a transformer at no-load.
needed in most practical prohlems. Consequently.
let us try to simplify the circuit when the trans-
former operates I) at no-load and :2) at full-load.
drop across them is ncgligihle. Furthermore. the
I. At no-load (fig. I0.20) 12 is zero and so is / 1 current in R, and is zero. We can. therefore.
hecause T is an ideal transformer. Consequently. neglect these four impedances. us the
only the exciting current/{, flows in R and Xn.
1
much simpler circuit of I0.21. The turns ra-
These impedances are so small that the voltage tio. a N 1/N 2 • is ohviously equal to the ratio of
210 ELECTRICAL /l.1ACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS

the primary to secondary voltages E/E, mea-

sured across the terminals.
2. At.fid!-!oad / 11 is at least 20 times larger than / 0 •
Consequently. we can neglect / 0 and the corre- aE, a2z
sponding magnetizing branch. The resulting cir-
cuit is shown in Fig. l 0.22. This simplified cir-
cuit may be used even when the load is only I0
percent of the rated capacity of the transformer. Figure 10.23
Equivalent circuit with impedances shifted to the pri-
We can further simplify the circuit by shift- mary side.
ing everything to the primary side, thus elimi-
nating transformer T (Fig. I 0.23 ). This tech-
nique was explained in Section 9.10. Then, by
summing the respective resistances and reac-
tances, we obtain the circuit of Fig. I 0.24. In
this circuit

R11 = R 1 + a 2 R2 (10.9)
2
X 11 Xri +a Xr:2 (10.10)
where
Figure 10.24
R11 total transformer resistance referred to the The internal impedance of a large transformer is
primary side mainly reactive.
xp total transformer leakage reactance referred
to the primary side
The combination of RP and X 11 constitutes the to-
tal transformer impedance Zr referred to the pri-
mary side. From Eq. 2.12 we have
i
Es ( 10.11)

l Impedance Zr is one of the important parameters of

the transformer. It produces an internal voltage drop
when the transformer is loaded. Consequently,
Figure 10.21
affects the voltage regulation of the transformer.
Simplified circuit at no-load. Transformers above 500 k VA possess a leakage
reactance xp that is at least five times greater than
RP. In such transformers we can neglect RP, as far
as voltages and currents are concerned.* The
equivalent circuit is thus reduced to a simple reac-
tance XP between the source and the load (Fig.
I0.25). It is quite remarkable that the relatively
complex circuit of Fig. I 0.8 can be reduced to a
simple reactance in series with the load.

Figure 10.22 From the -;tandpoint of temperature ri'ie and efficiency. RP

Simplified equivalent circuit of a transformer at full-load. can never be neglected.
 PRACTICAL TRANSFORMERS 21 I

Solution
a. Rated primary current

/np = S 11 /E11 p 3 000 000/69 000 = 43.5 A

Rated secondary current

Ins S,/En, 3 000 000/4160 721 A

b. Because the transformer exceeds 500 kVA, the

Figure 10.25
The internal impedance of a large transformer is windings have negligible resistance compared to
mainly reactive. their leakage reactance: we can therefore write

Zr XP 127 n
Referring to 10.26a. the approximate imped-
ance of the 2000 kW load on the secondary side is
10.13 Voltage regulation
An important attribute of a transformer is its volt-
z= 2
1p = 416()2 /2 000 000
age regulation. With the primary impressed voltage = 8.65 n
held constant at its rated value, the voltage regula- Load impedance referred to primary side:
tion. in percent, is defined by the equation:
a2Z (69/4.16) 2 x 8.65 2380 n
ENL
voltage reaulation = - - x 100 (10.12) Referring to Fig. I 0.26b we have
b EFL

/p = 69 000/V 127 2 + 2380 2

where
28.95 A
ENL secondary voltage at no-load fVl
aE, = / 11 = 2380 X 28.95
EF1. = secondary voltage at full-load [VJ
= 68 902 v
The voltage regulation depends upon the power
factor of the load. Consequently. the power factor
68 902 x (4.16/69) = 4154 v
must be specified. If the load is capacitive, the no- Because the primary voltage is held constant al 69 kV,
load voltage may exceed the full-load voltage, in it follows that the secondary voltage at no-load 1s
which case the voltage regulation is negative. 4160 v.

Example 10-5
A single-phase transformer rated at 3000 k VA, 69
kV/4.16 kV, 60 Hz has a total internal impedance Zr
of 127 n.
referred to the primary side.

Calculate
a. The rated primary and secondary currents
b. The voltage regulation from no-load to full-
load for a 2000 kW resistive load, knowing
69
that the primary supply voltage is fixed at a _ = 16.58
4 16
69 kV
c. The primary and secondary currents if the sec- Figure 10.26a
ondary is accidentally short-circuited. See Example 10-7.
212 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS

Voltage regulation is:

ENI EH
voltage regulation = · · X I 00 (I 0.12)
EFL

4160 - 4154
x 100
4154
0.149'c

The voltage regulation is excellent.

c. Referring again to Fig. I 0.26b, if the secondary
is accidentally short-circuited, aE., = 0 and so Figure 10.27
Open-circuit test and determination of Rm, Xm, and
/
11
= EiJX 11 69 000/ 127 turns ratio.
543 A
The crnTesponding current /, on the secondary
and I 0.24 by means of an open-circuit and a short-
side:
circuit test.
I,= a/P = (69/4.16) x 543 During the open-cirrnit test, rated voltage is ap-
9006A plied to the primary winding and current / 0 , voltage
Er, and active power Pm are measured (Fig. 10.27).
The secondary open-circuit voltage is also mea-
sured. These test results give us the following in-
formation:
a2Z
active power absorbed by core = Pm
2380U
apparent power absorbed by core = S111 E11 / 0
reactive power absorbed by core =Q 111

Figure 10.26b where Q111 V

See Example 10-7.
Resistance Rm corresponding to the core loss is
The short-circuit currents in both the primary and (10. I)
secondary windings are 12.5 times greater than the
rated values. The PR losses are, therefore, 12.5 2 or Magnetizing reactance X111 is
156 times greater than normal. The circuit-breaker (10.2)
X 111 E/!Qm
or fuse protecting the transformer must open imme-
diately to prevent overheating. Very powerful elec- Turns ratio a is
tromagnetic forces are also set up. They, too, are a N 1/N 2 = E,JE,
156 times greater than normal and, unless the wind-
ings are firmly braced and supported, they may be During the short-circuit test, the secondary winding
damaged or torn apart. is short-circuited and a voltage much lower than
normal (usually less than 5 percent of rated voltage)
10.14 Measuring transformer is applied to the primary (Fig. I 0.28). The primary
current /,c should be less than its nominal value to
impedances prevent overheating and, particularly, to prevent a
For a given transformer, we can determine the actual rapid change in winding resistance while the test is
values of xtll. Rm, RP and xp shown in Figs. 10.21 being made.
 PRACTICAL TRANSFORMERS 213

The voltage E":' current /,c., and power P,c are Transformer impedance referred to the primary is
measured on the primary side I 0.28) and the
following calculations made:
zp EjtSL' = 2600/4
Total transformer impedance referred to the pri- 650!!
mary side is Resistance refeJTed to the primary is
( 10.13) R 11 Pjf,c 2 24()()/J 6
Total transformer resistance referred to the primary 15on
side is
Leakage reactance referred to the primary is
(I 0.14)
2
Xr = V650
. 1502
Total transformer leakage reactance referred to the
primary side is
632 n
(10.11)

Example 10-6
fsc = 4A
During a short-circuit test on a transformer rated
500 kVA, 69 kV/4.16 kV, 60 Hz, the following volt-
age. current, and power measurements were made.
Terminals Xi. X 2 were in short-circuit (see Fig.
10.28): Figure 10.29
See Example 10-6.
E,c 2600V
f,c 4A
Example I 0-7
P". 2400W An open-circuit test was conducted on the trans-
Calculate the value of the reactance and resistance former given in Example I 0-6. The following re-
of the transformer, referred to the HY side. sults were obtained when the low-voltaRe winding
was excited. (In some cases, such as in a repair
Solution
shop, a 69 kV voltage may not be avai !able and the
Referring to the equivalent circuit of the trans-
open-circuit test has to be done by exciting the LY
former under short-circuit conditions (Fig. 10.29),
winding at its rated voltage.)
we find the following values:
= 4160 v pill sooow
Using this information and the transformer char-
acteristics found in Example I 0-6, calculate:
a. the values of X111 and Rm on the primary side
(Fig. I 0.21)
b. the efficiency of the transformer when it sup-
plies a load of 250 kVA, whose power factor is
80 % (lagging).
Solution
a. Applying Eq. I 0.1 to the secondary side:
Figure 10.28
Short-circuit test to determine leakage reactance and Rill= E,2/Pm
winding resistance. 4160 2;sooo 3461 n
214 ELECTRICAL MACHIN ES AND TRANSFORlvf ERS

The apparent power 5 111 is: cause these impedances arc much greater than X11
and Rr. Let us assume that the voltage across the
5 111 £, / 0 4160 X 2 = 8320 VA
\;----:;---, load is 4160 Y. We now calculate the efficiency of
Q 111 5,~ P,~, the transformer.
= v83W' 50002 6650 n The load current is
2
Xn, = E, -/Qm 12 SIE, = 250 000/4160
4160 2 /6650 2602 ! ! = 60A
The values of Rm and Xm referred the primary side
The turns ratio is
will be (69 000/4160) 1 275 times greater. The
values on the primary side are therefore: a= 69 kV/4160 V = 16.59

x 111= 275 x 2602 n = 715 x 10 n = 715 kn 3

The current on the primary side is:
Rlll n5 x 3461 n = 952 x 10:' n = 952 kn
11 r,_/a = 60/16.59 3.62 A
These are the values that would have been found if
The total copper loss (primary and secondary) is
the primary had been excited at 69 kV.
2
b. Industrial loads and voltages fluctuate all the prnpper !/RP= 3.62 X 150

time. Thus. when we state that a load is 250 kVA. = 1966 w

with cos 8 0.8. it is understood that the load
The iron loss is the same as that measured at
is ahout 250 k VA and that the power factor is
rated voltage on the LY side of the transformer.
about 0.8. Furthermore. the primary voltage is
about 69 kV. Piron = 5000 W

Consequently. in calculating efficiency. there is Total losses arc

no point in arriving at a precise mathematical an-
swer. even if we were able to give it. Knowing this. Plosm = 5000 + 1966
we can make certain assumptions that make it much 6966 W = 7 kW
easier to arrive at a solution.
The active power delivered by the transformer
The equivalent circuit of the transformer and its
to the load is
load is represented by 10.30. The values of Rr
and XP are already known. and so we only have to po= s cos e 250 x 0.8
add the magnetizing branch. To simplify the calcu- = 200 kW
lations. we shifted X 111 and R111 from points 3, 4 to the
The active power received by the transformer is
input terminals 1, 2. This change is justified be-
pi Po + plow"s 200 + 7
Rµ Xp
150 n 632.\2 I,= 60 A 207kW
3
--;-:-- 5 The efficiency is therefore
Rm 3.62 A
Xm 69 kV 4160 Tl= PjPi = 200/207
5000W
0.966 or 96.6%
6
2 4 Note that in making the calculations, we only con-
sider the active power. The reactive power of the
Figure 10.30 transformer and its load does not enter into effi-
See Example 10-7. ciency calculations.
 PRACTICAL TRANSFORMl:'R5' 215

10.15 Introducing the per-unit The best approach is to employ the 110111i11a/ load
method (voltage and current) of the transformer. We can
calculate its ohmic value and use it as a reference.
Per-unit notation is often encountered when dealing For example, in the case of the I 0 kVA trans-
with transformers and other electrical machines. The former listed in Table I OA, the nominal load im-
reason is that per-unit values give us a feel for the pedance on the secondary side is
relative magnitudes of impedances, voltages, cur-
rents and powers. Thus, instead of dealing with 347 v
12.on
ohms, amperes, volts and kilowatts. we simply work 28.8 A
with numbers. Consequently, we don't have to carry Using this ohmic value as a reference. the relath•e
along units when per-unit values are used. value of the secondary resistance R1 is
The per-unit method as applied to transformers
is easy to understand. However, readers who are not
0.095 n
0.0079
yet familiar with per-unit calculations will find it 12.on
useful to read Sections 1.9 to 1.11 in Chapter I be- Similarly, the nominal load impedance on the pri-
fore proceeding further. mary side is:
Let us begin by looking at Table I OA which is re-
2400 v
produced here for convenience. It displays the ac- = 5761!
/
1111
4.17 A
tual values of R 1, R1 , Xn, X1:i. X111 and R111 of five
transformers ranging from I kVA to 400 MVA. In Using this load impedance as a reference. the rela-
scanning through the table, we see that the imped- til'e value of the primary resistance R is 1

ances vary from 505 000 n to 0.0003 n. a range in 5.16!2

excess of a billion to one. Furthermore. there is no R,(pu) = 576 n 0.0090
recognizable pattern to the values: they are all over
The relative values R 1(pu) and R2(pu) are pure
the map. The reason is that the various voltages,
numbers because they are the ratio of two quantities
currents and impedances are expressed in actual
that bear the same unit.
values using volts, amperes and ohms.
Circuit elements on the primary side are always
TABLE 10A ACTUAL TRANSFORMER VALUES compared with the nominal load impedance Z 11 P on
the primary side. Similarly, circuit elements on the
Sn kYA 10 100 1000 400000
v secondary side are compared with the nominal load
2400 2400 12470 69000 13800
v 460 347 600 6900 424000 impedance Z 11 s on the secondary side.
E,"
/np A 0.417 4. 17 8.02 14.5 29000 Proceeding in this way for the other impedances
A 2.17 28.8 167 145 943 of the I 0 kVA transformer. we obtain the relative
'"
R1 Q 58.0 5.16 11.6 27.2 0.0003 values X11 (pu). R 11 ,(pu). etc. displayed in Table I OB.
R1 Q 1.9 0.095 0.024 0.25 0.354 The relative impedances of the other transformers
Xr1 Q 32 4.3 39 151 0.028 are calculated the same way. In each case. the respec-
Xr2 ~2 1.16 0.09 0.09 1.5 27 tive nominal load impedances Z 11 P and are chosen
xlll n 200000 29000 150000 505000 460 as the reference impedances. Using the rated voltage
Rm Q 400000 51000 220000 432000 317
and power of the transformer, they are given hy:
I., A 0.0134 0.0952 0.101 0.21 () 52.9
l:;_np Enp
znp = ( 10.150)
Instead of expressing R 1, R2 • X 11 , X 12 • X111 and Rm /np S,/£1111 Sn
in ohms. we could express them relative to another
ohmic value. The question is: what value should we [~~l•
Zn, = E," (I0.15b)
choose as a basis of comparison'? In, S,/E," Sn
216 l:f,tXTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS

In practice. the relative values of R 1• R 2 • Xn. etc .. Example 10.8 _ _ _ _ __

are called per-1111it values and are designated by the A transformer rated 250 kVA. 4160 V/480 V. 60 Hz
symbols R 1(pu). R2 (pu). X11 (pu), etc. The quantities has an impedance of 5.1 q,. Calculate:
used as references are called base quantities. Thus.
a. the base impedance on the primary and sec-
Znp· Zn,. 5 11 • £ 1111 • £,". / 1111 • / 11 , listed in Table I OB are
ondary side
all base quantities.
b. the total internal impedance zp or the trans-
In examining 1~1ble IOB. the reader wil I note that
former referred to the primary side
for a given transformer. the values of R 1(pu) and
R2 (pu) are nearly the same. Similarly. the values of
Solution
Xri(pu) and X12 (pu) are nearly the same. This pat-
a. Base impedance on the primary side is
tern of similarity does not show up in Table IOA.
2
Z1111 £/-/Sn 4160 /250000
TABLE 108 PER UNIT TRANSFORMER VALUES
= 69n
S" kVA IO 100 JO()()400000 Base impedance on the secondary side is
E"" v 2400 2400 12470 69000 13800
2
E,1' v 460 347 600 6900 424000 Z11 , = /S 11 480 2 /250 00()
/11p A 0.417 4.17 8.02 14.5 29000 o.92 n
111'-. A 2.17 28.8 167 145 943
~.! 5760 576 1555. 4761 0.4761 b. The actual value of ZP on the primary side is:
7,,, n 211.6 12.0 3.60 47.61 449.4 Zp 5.1 CJ(, X Znp 0.05 J X 69 n= 3.52 n
R (pu)
1
- 0.0101 0.0090 0.0075 0.0057 0.00071
Ro (pu) 0.0090 0.0079 0.0067 0.0053 0.00079
X 11 (pu) -
0.0056 0.0075 0.0251 0.0317 0.0588 10.17 Typical per-unit impedances
X12 (pul 0.0055 0.0075 0.0250 0.0315 0.0601
We have seen that we can get a better idea of the rel-
X"'(pul 34.7 50.3 96.5 106 966
R"' (puJ 69.4 88.5 141.5 90.7 666 ative magnitude of the winding resistance. leakage re-
/_,(puJ 0.032 0.023 0.013 0.015 0.0018 actance. etc .. of a transformer by comparing these im-
pedances with the base impedance of the transformer.
There is even a similarity between the per-unit In making the comparison. circuit clements located
values of transformers whose ratings are quite dif- on the primary side arc compared with the primary
ferent. For example, the R (pu) of the I kVA trans- base impedance. Similarly. circuit elements on the
1

former (0.0 I0 I) is of the same order of magnitude secondary side are compared with the secondary base
as the R 1(pu) of the IOOO kVA transformer (0.0057) impedance. The comparison can be made either on a
despite the fact that the latter is I000 times more percentage or on a per-unit basis: we shall use the lat-
powerful and the voltages are vastly different. ter. Typical per-unit values are listed in Table IOC for
Clearly. the per-unit method offers insights that transformers ranging from 3 kVA to 100 MVA. For
would otherwise not be evident. example, the table shows that the per-unit resistance
of the primary winding of a transformer ranges from
0.(X)9 to 0.002 for all power ratings between 3 kVA
10.16 Impedance of a transformer
and I00 MVA. Over this tremendous power range.
The total internal impedance ZP of a transformer the per-unit resistance R 1 of the primary or secondary
was defined in Section l 0.12 and highlighted in windings varies only from 0.009 to 0.002 of the base
Fig. I 0.24. In power and distribution transformers impedance of the transformer. Knowing the base im-
its value is always indicated on the nameplate. pedance of either the primary or the secondary wind-
However. it is expressed as a pereent of the nominal ing, we can readily estimate the order of magnitude of
load impedance. Thus. if the nameplate is marked the real values of the transformer impedances. Table
3.6 (lr-. the per unit value of Z11 is 0.036. lOC is. therefore. a useful source of information.
 PRACTICAL TRANSFOR1'v1 ERS 217

TABLE 10C TYPICAL PER-UNIT VALUES OF TRANSFORMERS

l i

x1 I '-----,..---~mmmmmrnt

2 4

Figure 10.31
Equivalent circuit of a transformer.

Typical per-unit \alucs

Circuit element (see Fig. 10.31) 3 kVA to 250 kVA I MVA to 100 \1VA

R 1 or R2 0.009-0.005 0.005--0.002
X 11 or X 12 0.008-0.025 O.tn-0.06
20-30 50-200
20-50 100-500
0.05-0.03 0.02-0.005

Example 10-9
o.35 n 1.1 n 23mn 4.6 m.11
Using the information given in Table IOC. calculate
the approximate real values of the impedances of a
250 kVA. 4160 V/480 V, 60 Hz distribution trans-
former.

Solution
We first determine the base impedances on the pri- 4160 = 8 67
a 480 ·
mary and secondary side. From the results of
Example I 0-8, we have Figure 10.32
See Example 10-9.
znp 69 n
zl" o.92 n This example shows the usefulness of the per-
unit method of estimating impedances. The equiv-
We now calculate the real impedances by multi-
alent circuit of the 250 kVA transformer is shown
plying Znp and Z1" by the per-unit values given in
in Fig. I0.32. The true values may be ::w to 50 per-
Table I OC. This yields the following results:
cent higher or lower than those shown in the fig-
R 1 = 0.005 x 69 n o.35 n ure. The reason is that the per-unit values given in
R~ 0.005 X 0.92 H = 4.6 m!l Table I OC are broad estimates covering a wide
xt" 1 = 0.025 x 69 n 1.7 n range of transformers.

Xr.:! 0.025 x 0.92 !! 23 m!l Example 10.l() _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

xlll = 30 x 69 n n = 2070 2 kn The 500 kYA. 69 kV/4160 V, 60 Hz transformer
Rlll 50 x 69 n 3450 n = 3.5 kn shown in I 0.30 has a resistance RP of 150 n
218 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS

and a leakage reactance X11 of632 fl. Using the per- Q(pu) VS 2 (pu) P\pu)
unit method, calculate:
a. the voltage regulation when the load varies be-
0.3
tween zero and 250 k VA at a power factor
of 80% The per-unit load resistance R1• corresponding to Pis
b. the actual voltage ac:ross the 250 kVA load £\pu) 1.0::.
c. the actual line current / 1 • RiJpu) 2.50
P(pu) 0.4
Solution The per-unit load reactance corresponding to Q is
In examining Fig. I 0.30, it is clear that the pres-
ence of the magnetizing branch does not affect the
voltage drop across R11 and Xr. Consequently, the
magnetizing branch does not affect the voltage
We now draw the equivalent per-unit circuit shown
regulation. in Figure I 0.33. The magnetizing branch is not
To determine the voltage regulation, we will re- shown because it does not enter into the calcula-
fer all voltages, impedances, and currents to the
tions. Note that the load appears across the primary
HV (69 kV) side. We assume the voltage between
terminals 3, 4 of the circuit shown in Figure I 0.30.
terminals I, 2 is 69 kV. and that it remains fixed.
(These terminals are not accessible; they exist only
The base power P., is 500 kVA in the equivalent circuit diagram.) The per-unit im-
The base voltage £.,, is 69 kV pedance between terminals 3, 4 is
Consequently. the base current is
t., P.,,IE., = 500 000/69 000 Z, 4 (pu)
250 + j 3.33
7.25 A = 2L36.87°
and the base impedance is = 1.6 + j 1.2
zB E.,11., = 69 ooon.25 = 9517 n The per-unit impedance between terminals I. 2 is
The per-unit value of R11 is
Zdpu) = 0.0158 + 1.6
Rr(pu) = 150/9517 = 0.0158 + j( 1.2 0.0664)
The per-unit value of Xr is 1.616 j 1.266
X11 (pu) = 632/9517 = 0.0664 = 2.053L38.07°
The per-unit value of voltage £ 1::. is
Rp(pu) Xµ{pu)
£ 1:i(pu) 69 000/69 kV = 1.0
0.0158 i 0.0664
The per-unit value of the apparent power absorbed 3

by the load is
R,(pu) X 1 (pu)
S(pu) 250 kVA/500 kVA = 0.5
2.5 j 3.33
The per-unit value of the active power absorbed by
the load is 2 4
P(pu) S(pu) cos 0 0.5 X 0.8 = 0.4
Figure 10.33
The per-unit value of the reactive power absorbed Per-unit equivalent circuit of a 500 kVA transformer
by the load is feeding a 250 kVA load.
 PRACTICAL TRANSFORMERS 219

The per-unit current 11 is ensure proper load-sharing between the two trans-
formers, they must possess the following:
£ 11(Eu) 1.0
a. The same primary and secondary voltages
Z 12 (pu) 2.053 38.07°
b. The same per-unit impedance
0.4872L 38.07°
Particular attention must be paid to the polarity
The per-unit voltage across the load is of each transformer, so that only terminals having
the same polarity are connected together (Fig.
EJ_.(pu) = l 1(pu) X Zq(pu)
10.34 ). An error in polarity produces a severe short-
(0.4872L -38.07°) (2L36.87°) circuit as soon as the transformers are excited.
= 0.9744L -1.20° In order to calculate the currents flowing in each
transformer when they are connected in parallel, we
The per-unit voltage regulation is must first determine the equivalent circuit of the
system.
E14 (pu) at no-load - at full-load
Consider first the equivalent circuit when a single
£ 34 (pu) at full-load
transformer feeds a load Z1. (Fig. 10.35a). The pri-
1.0 0.9744 mary voltage is EP and the impedance of the trans-
= 0.0263
0.9744 former referred to the primary side is Zpi· If the ratio

a. The voltage regulation is therefore 2.63 o/c.

: I:>:~: I
2
We can now calculate the actual values of the volt-
•
R~
age and current as follows: T
Voltage across terminals 3, 4 is
...... ......
E.q £J 4 (pu) X Es 1
T r T r···
= 0.9744 x 69 000
67.23 kV
<............. H1 Xl•·· ........!

b. Actual voltage across the load is

8
£ 56 E,4 x (4160/69 000) ............. Hl X1 ....................}
67.23 x 103 x 0.0603
4054 v Figure 10.34
Connecting transformers in parallel to share a load.
c. Actual line current is

11 / 1(pu) X ls

= 0.4872 x 7.246
3.53 A

10.18 Transformers in parallel

2
When a growing load eventually exceeds the power
rating of an installed transformer. we sometimes Figure 10.35a
connect a second transformer in parallel with it. To Equivalent circuit of a transformer feeding a load ZL.
220 ELECTRICAL lv1ACHINE5 AND TRANSFORJ'v1ERS

of transformation is a, the circuit can be simplified to portional to the respective k VA ratings. Consequently.
that shown in Fig. I 0.35b. a procedure we are already we want to fulfill the following condition:
familiar with.
If a second transformer having an impedance ZP 2 ( 10.18)
is connected in parallel with the first. the equivalent
circuit becomes that shown in Fig. I 0.35c. Jn effect.
From Eqs. I 0.17 and I 0.18 it can readily be
the impedances of the transformers are in parallel.
proved that the desired condition is met if the trans-
The primary currents in the transformers are re-
formers have the same per-unit impedances. The
spectively / 1 and 12 . Because the voltage drop £ 1 ,,,
following example shows what happens when the
across the impedances is the same. we can write
per-unit impedances are different.
f1Zp1 f2Z112 ( 10.16)
Example 10-11
that is.
A I 00 k VA transformer is connected in parallel with
/I zr2 an existing 250 k VA transformer to supply a load of
( 10.17)
/, z111
330 kVA. The transformers are rated 7200 V/240 V.
but the l 00 k VA unit has an impedance of 4 percent
The ratio of the primary currents is therefore de-
while the 250 kVA transformer has an impedance of
termined by the magnitude of the respective primary
6 percent (Fig. I 0.36a).
impedances--and not by the ratings of the two trans-
formers. But in order that the temperature rise be the Cairn/ate
same for both transformers. the cuJTents must be pro- a. The nominal primary current of each trans-
former
b. The impedance of the load referred to the pri-
3 mary side
c. The impedance of each transformer referred to
the primary side
d. The actual primary current in each transformer

Solution
2 a. Nominal primary current of the 250 k VA trans-
former is
Figure 10.35b
Equivalent circuit with all impedances referred to the / 111 = 250 000/7200 = 34.7 A
primary side.

load

330
240 v kVA
3

Figure 10.35c
Equivalent circuit of two transformers in parallel feeding Figure 10.36a
a load Z 1 • All impedances referred to the primary side. Actual transformer connections.
 PRACTICAL TRANSFORMl:RS 221

Nominal primary current of the 100 kVA trans- d. Referring to Fig. I0.36b. we find that the 46 A
former is load current divides in the following way:
100000/7200 = 13.9A 11 46 X 20.7/( 12.4 + 20.7) = 28.8 A
b. The equivalent circuit of the two transformers 12 = 46 28.8 l7.2A
and the load. referred to the primary side. is
The I 00 k VA transformer is seriously overloaded
given in Fig. I0.35e. Note that transformer im-
because it carries a primary current of 17 .2 A,
pedances ZP 1 and are considered to be en-
which is 25 percent above its rated value of 13. 9 A.
tirely reactive. This assumption is justified be-
cause the transformers are fairly big. The 250 kVA unit is not overloaded because it only
Load impedance referred to the primary side is carries a current of 28.8 A versus its rated value of
34. 7 A. Clearly. the two transformers are not carry-
2 2
Z £" /S 10 ,1d 7'200 /330 000 ing their proportionate share of the load.
157 n The I 00 k VA transformer is overloaded because
of its low impedance (4 percent). compared to the
The approximate load current is
impedance of the 250 kVA transformer (6 percent).
A low-impedance transformer always tends to carry
more than its proportionate share of the load. If the
c. The base impedance of the 250 kVA unit is
percent impedances were equal. the load would be
znp l = 7200 2 /250 000 = 207 n shared between the transformers in proportion to
their respective power ratings.
Transformer impedance referred to the primary
side is
z111 0.06 x 207 = 12.4 n Questions and Problems
Pmctical /ei·el
Base impedance of the I 00 k VA unit is
I 0-1 Name the principal parts of a
7200 211 oo ooo s 18 n transformer.
Transformer impedance referred to the primary 10-2 Explain how a voltage is induced in the
side is secondary winding of a transformer.
10-3 The secondary winding of a transformer
ZP 2 =0.04X518 20.7!!
has twice as many turns as the primary. Is
the secondary voltage higher or lower
than the primary voltage?
1,. 1 = 34.7 A
1 1 = 28.8 A 10-4 Which winding is connected to the load:
the primary or secondary?
h =46A I 0-5 State the voltage and current relationships
between the primary and secondary wind-
ings of a transformer under load. The pri-
7200 v
12 -
= 17.2 A
I,.!= 13.9A
mary and secondary windings have N 1
and turns, respectively.
10-6 Name the losses produced in a transformer.
Figure 10.36b 10-7 What purpose does the no-load current of
Equivalent circuit. Calculations show that the 100 kVA a transformer serve?
transformer is seriously overloaded.
222 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFOR1WERS

10-8 Name three conditions that must be met 10-15 A 3000 kVA transformer has a ratio of
in order to connect two transformers in 60 kV to 2.4 kV. Calculate the nominal
parallel. current of each winding.
I 0-9 What is the purpose of taps on a trans- intermediate level
former'! l 0-16 In Problem I 0-11. calculate the peak
10-10 Name three methods used to cool trans- value of the flux in the core.
formers. 10-17 Explain why the peak flux in a 60 Hz
10-1 l The primary of a transformer is connected transformer remains fixed as long as the
to a 600 V. 60 Hz source. If the primary ac supply voltage is fixed.
has 1200 turns and the secondary has 240, 10-18 The transformer in Fig. I 0.37 is excited
calculate the secondary voltage. by a 120 V. 60 Hz source and draws a no-
10-12 The windings of a transformer respec- load current / 0 of 3 A. The primary and
tively have 300 and 7500 turns. If the secondary windings respectively possess
low-voltage winding is excited by a 200 and 600 turns. If 40 percent of the pri-
2400 V source. calculate the voltage mary flux is linked by the secondary. cal-
across the HY winding. culate the following:
a. The voltage indicated by the voltmeter
10-13 A 6.9 kV transmission line is connected to
b. The peak value of flux c(J
a transformer having 1500 turns on the
c. The value of <1\ 11
primary and 24 turns on the secondary. If
d. Draw the phasordiagram showing £ 1• E:_.
the load across the secondary has an im- /,,, <l)m· and <Pn
pedance of 5 n. calculate the following:
10-19 In Fig. I0.38, when 600 V is applied to
a. The secondary
terminals H 1 and H 2 , 80 Vis measured
across terminals X 1, X:2•
10-14 The primary of a transformer has twice as
a. What is the voltage between terminals H 1
many turns as the secondary. The primary and X:.'?
n
voltage is 220 v and a 5 load is con- b. If terminals H 1 • X 1 are connected together.
nected across the secondary. Calculate the calculate the voltage across terminal:-, H 2 • X.,.
power delivered by the transformer. as well c. Does the transformer have additive or sub-
as the primary and secondary currents. tractive polarity?

Figure 10.37
See Problem 10-18.
 PRACTICAL TRANSFORA1ERS 223

Figure 10.38
See Problem 10-19.

10-20 a. Referring to Fig. I 0.34, what would happen Figure 10.39

if we reversed terminals H 1 and H 2 of trans- See Problem 10-33. The primary is wound on one leg
former B? and the secondary on the other.
b. Would the operation of the transformer
bank be affected if terminals H 1• H 2 and Adrnnced level
X 1• X 2 of transformer B were reversed·)
Explain.
I 0-27 Referring to Fig. I 0.39. calculate the peak
value of flux in the core if the transformer
10-21 Explain why the secondary voltage of a
is supplied by a 50 Hz source.
practical transformer decreases with in-
creasing resistive load. I0-28 The impedance of a transformer increases
as the coupling is reduced between the
10-22 What i.'> meant by the following terms:
primary and secondary windings. Explain.
a. Transformer impedance
b. Percent impedance of a transformer I 0-29 The following information is given for the
transformer l'.ircuit of Fig. I 0.22.
10-23 The transformer in Problem I 0-15 has an
impedance of 6 percent. Calculate the im- R 1 = 18 H £ 11 14.4 kV (nominal)
pedance lHJ referred to: R, = 0.005 H E, = 240 V (nominal)
a. The 60 kV primary
X11 40 f! X 12 = 0.01 H
b. The 2.4 kV secondary
If the transformer has a nominal rating of 75
10-24 A 2300 V line is connected to terminals 1
kVA. calculate the following:
and 4 in I 0.13. Calculate the following:
a. The transformer impedance [f!] referred to
a. The voltage between terminals X 1 and
the primary side
b. The current in each winding. if a 12 kVA
b. The percent impedance of the transformer
load is connected across the secondary
c. The impedance l n I referred to the sec-
10-25 A 66.7 MVA transformer has an efficiency ondary side
of 99.3 percent when it delivers full power d. The percent impedance referred to the sec-
to a load having a power factor of 100 ondary side
percent. e. The total copper losses at full load
a. Calculate the losses in the transformer un- f. The percent resistance and percent rcac-
der these conditions. tance of the transformer
b. Calculate the losses and efficiency when 10-30 During a short-circuit test on a 10 MVA.
the transformer delivers 66.7 :vtVA to a 66 kV/7.2 kV transformer (see Fig. 10.28).
load having a power factor of 80 percent. the following results were obtained:
10-26 If the transformer shown in Fig. 10.15
were placed in a tank of oil. the tempera-
2640 v
ture rise would have to be reduced to 65°. (c 72A
Explain. P". 9.85 kW
224 l:'/LCJRICAL lVIACHINES AND TRANSFORlvtERS

Calculate the following: Industrial applirntion

a. The total resi-.tance and the total leakage re- 10-34 A transformer has a rating 200 kVA,
actance referred to the 66 kV primary side 14 400 V /277 V. The high-voltage wind-
b. The nominal impedance of the tram.former
ing has a resistance of 62 fl. What is the
referred to the primary side
approximate resistance of the 277 V
c. The perc..:nt impedance of the transformer
winding?
I 0-31 In Problem I 0-30. if the iron losses at
I0-35 The primary winding of the transformer in
rated voltage are 35 kW. calculate the full-
Problem 10-34 is wound with No. 11 gauge
load efficiency of the transformer if the
AWG wire. Calculate the approximate
power factor of the load is 85 percent.
cross section (in square millimeters) of the
I 0-32 a. The windings of a transformer operate at a conductors in the secondary winding.
current density of 3.5 A/mm 2 . If they are
I 0-36 An oil-fi lied distribution transformer rated
made of copper and operate at a tempera-
at 10 kVAweighs 118 kg, whereas a 100
ture of 75cc_ calculate the copper loss per
k VA transformer of the same kind weighs
kilogram.
b. If aluminum windings were used. calculate 445 kg. Calculate the power output in
the lo~s per kilogram under the same condi- watts per kilogram in each case.
tion;,. I 0-37 The transformer shown in Fig. I 0.13 has a
I 0-33 If a transformer were actually built ac- rating of 40 kYA. If 80 Vis applied be-
cording to Fig. 10.39. it would have very tween terminals X 1 and X,, what voltage
poor voltage regulation. Explain why and will appear between termi~als 3 and 4'?lf
propose a method of improving it. a single load is applied between terminals
3 and 4 what is the maximum allowable
current that can he drawn'?
 CHAPTER 11
Special Transformers

11.0 Introduction windings. each rated at 120 Y. The windings are

connected in series. and so the total voltage be-
any transformers are designed to meet specific
M industrial applications. In this chapter we study
some of the special transformers that are used in dis-
tween the lines is 240 V while that between the
lines and the center tap is 120 V (Fig. 11.1 ). The
center tap. called 1u'utml. is always connected to
tribution systems. neon laboratories. induction ground.
furnaces, and high-frequency applications. Although Terminal H 2 on the high-voltage winding is usu-
they are special. they still possess the basic prope1ties ally bonded to the neutral terminal of the secondary
of the standard transformers discussed in Chapter I0. winding so that both windings are connected to
As a result. the following approximations can be ground.
made when the transformers are under load: The nominal rating of these distrib11tio11 trans-
I. The voltage induced in a winding is directly j(>rmers ranges from 3 kVA to 500 kVA. They are
proportional to the number of turns. the fre- mounted on poles of the electrical utility com-
quency. and the flux in the core. pany (Fig. 11.2) to supply power to as many as 20
1 customers.
The ampere-turns of the primary are equal and
The load on distribution transformers varies
opposite to the ampere-turns of the secondary.
greatly throughout the day, depending on customer
3. The apparent power input to the transformer is demand. In residential districts a peak occurs in the
equal to the apparent power output. morning and another peak occurs in the late after-
4. The exciting current in the primary winding noon. The power peaks never last for more than one
may be neglected. or two hours, with the result that during most of the
24-hour day the transformers operate far below
11.1 Dual-voltage distribution their normal rating. Because thousands of such
transformers are connected to the public utility sys-
transformer
tem, every effort is made to keep the no-load losses
Transformers that supply electric power to resi- small. This is achie\'ed by using special low-loss
dential areas generally have two secondary silicon-steel in the core.

225
226 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS

HI XI lo
_ _,,. B
~ +
( :
'+ c
(a)

14.tJ 240V
£1
i

}v, +

Hi x4 Tl
~••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••n•
E1

Hi xi ~:
A

x3 Figure 11.3
(b) 120 v
x2 I Autotransformer having N 1 turns on the primary and
! N2 turns on the secondary.

H2 x4
Figure 11.1
11.2 Autotransformer
a. Distribution transformer with 120 V/240 V sec- Consider a single transformer winding having N 1
ondary. The central conductor is the neutral. turns, mounted on an iron core (Fig. 11.3). The wind-
b. Same distribution transformers reconnected to give
ing is connected to a fixed-voltage ac source E 1, and
only 120 V.
the resulting exciting cmTent / 0 creates an ac flux <Pm
in the core. As in any transformer, the peak value of
the flux is fixed so long as is fixed (Section 9.2).
Suppose a tap C is taken off the winding, so that
there are N2 turns between terminals A and C.
Because the induced voltage between these termi-
nals is proportional to the number of turns, £ 2 is
given by
(I I. I)

Clearly. this simple coil resembles a transformer

having a primary voltage £ 1 and a secondary voltage
However, the primary terminals B, A and the
secondary terminals C, A are no longer isolated from
each other, because of the common terminal A.
If we connect a load to secondary terminals CA.
the resulting cmTent 12 immediately causes a pri-
mary current / 1 to flow (Fig. 11.4 ).
The BC portion of the winding obviously car-
ries current/ 1. Therefore, according to Kirchhoff's
current Jaw, the CA portion carries a current (1 2 -
11). Furthermore, the mmf due to / 1 must be equal
and opposite to the mmf produced by (1 2 /i). As
Figure 11.2 a result, we have
Single-phase pole-mounted distribution transformer
rated: 100 kVA, 14.4 kV/240 V/120 V, 60 Hz.
 SPECIAL TRANSFORMERS 227

+ c

load

Figure 11.4
Autotransformer under load. The currents flow in opposite directions in the upper and lower windings.

which reduces to 3.6 kW load is connected across the secondary.

calculate:
( 11.2)
a. The secondary voltage and current
Finally. assuming that both the transformer losses
b. The currents that flow in the winding
and exciting current are negligible. the apparent
c. The relative size of the conductors on windings
power drawn by the load must equal the apparent
BC and CA
power supplied by the source. Consequently.
Solution
(11.3)
a. The secondary voltage is
Equations 11.1. 11.2, and 11.3 are identical to those
E~ = 8()'4 X 300 240 V
of a standard transformer having a turns ratio NifN2 .
However. in this outotronsf(mner the secondary The secondary current is
winding is actually part of the primary winding. In
effect. an autotransformer eliminates the need for a 12 = P/£2 = 3600/240 15 A (Fig. 11.5).
separate secondary winding. As a result. autotrans- b. The current supplied by the source is
formers are always smaller. lighter, and cheaper than
standard transformers of equal power output. The / 1 P/£ 1 = 3600/300 12 A
difference in size becomes pai1icularly important the current in winding BC 12 A
when the ratio of transformation lies between
the current in winding CA 15 - 12 = 3A
0.5 and 2. On the other hand. the absence of electri-
cal isolation between the primary and secondary c. The conductors in the secondary winding CA
windings is a serious drawback in some applications. can be one-quarter the size of those in wind-
Autotransformers are used to start induction mo- BC because the current is 4 times smaller
tors. to the voltage of transmission lines. (see Fig. 11.5). However. the voltage across
and. in to transform voltages when the pri- winding BC is equal to the difference he-
mary to secondary ratio is close to I. tween the primary and secondary volt<1ges.
namely (300 - 240) 60 Y. Consequently,
Example 11-1 \Vinding CA has four times as many turns as
The autotransformer in Fig. 11.4 has an 80 per- winding BC. Thus, the two windings require
cent tap and the supply voltage £ 1 is 300 Y. If a essentially the same amount of copper.
228 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS

-
11 12A

c
300V
l3A 240V load

Figure 11.5
Autotransformer of Example 11-1.

11.3 Conventional transformer 6. The voltages add when terminals of opposite

connected as an polarity (1-1 1 and X 2 , or 1-1 2 and X 1) are con-
nected together by means of a jumper. The
autotransformer
voltages subtract when H 1 and X 1 (or H 2 and
A conventional two-winding transformer can be X 2 ) are connected together.
changed into an autotransformer by connecting the
primary and secondary windings in series. Depending Example 11-2
upon how the connection is made, the secondary volt- The standard single-phase transformer shown in
age may add to. or subtract from, the primary voltage. Fig. 11.6 has a rating of a 15 kVA. 600 V/120 V, 60
The basic operation and behavior of a transformer is Hz. We wish to reconnect it as an autotransformer
unaffected by a mere change in external connections. in three different ways to obtain three different volt-
Consequently. the following rules apply whenever a age ratios:
conventional transformer is connected as an auto- a. 600 V primary to 480 V secondary
transformer: b. 600 V primary to 720 V secondary
c. 120 V primary to 480 V secondary
I. The current in any winding should not exceed
its nominal current rating. Calculate the maximum load the transformer can
2. The voltage across any winding should not ex- carry in each case.
ceed its nominal voltage rating.
3. If rated current flows in one winding. rated cur-
rent will automaticallv flow in the other wind-
ing (reason: The ampere-turns of the windings
are always equal).
4. If rated voltage exists across one winding, rated
voltage automatically exists across the other
winding (reason: The same mutual flux links
both windings).
5. If the current in a winding flows from H 1 to 1-1 2 ,
the current in the other winding must flow from Figure 11.6
to X 1 and vice versa. Standard 15 kVA, 600 V/120 V transformer.
 SPECIAL TRANSFORMER5." 229

Solution
Nominal current of the 600 V winding is

15 000/600 25 A

Nominal current of the 120 V winding is

12 S/£ 2 15 000/120 125 A

a. To obtain 480 V, the secondary voltage ( 120 V)

between terminals X 1, X 2 must subtract from
the primary voltage (600 V). Consequently. we
connect terminals having the same polarity to-
gether, as shown in Fig. 11. 7. The correspond- Figure 11.7
ing schematic diagram is given in 11.8. Transformer reconnected as an autotransformer to
give a ratio of 600 V/480 V.
Note that the current in the 120 V winding is
the same as that in the load. Because this wind-
ing has a nominal current rating of 125 A, the
load can draw a maximum power.

Sa = 125 A X 480 V 60 kVA

The currents flowing in the circuit at full-load

are shown in Fig. 11.8. Note the following:
125 A
I. If we assume that the current of 125 A flows
from X 1 to X 2 in the winding, a current of
25 A must flow from H2 to H 1 in the other 125 Al
winding. All other currents are then found
by applying Kirchhoff's current law.
2. The apparent power supplied by the source Figure 11.8
is equal to that absorbed by the load: Schematic diagram of Fig. 11.7 showing voltages and
current flows.
S I00 A X 600 V = 60 k VA

b. To obtain a ratio of 600 V/720 V. the secondary

voltage must add to the primary voltage: 600
120 720 V. Consequently. terminals of oppo-
site polarity (H 1 and X 2 ) must be connected to-
gether, as shown in Fig. 11.9.
The current in the secondary winding is again
the same as that in the load. and therefore the
maximum load current is again 125 A. The
maximum load is now

Sh 125 A X 720 V = 90 k VA
The previous examples show that when a con- Figure 11.9
ventional transformer is connected as an auto- Transformer reconnected to give a ratio of 600 V/720 V.
 230 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS

69 kV line

primary •
125 A ~~s~~~~~a~~~n::__ _:·,r-- ~lr;o.!.·.·voltmeter
• V . 0 to 150 V
--- () ()
secondary c=-
grounded

Figure11.10
Transformer reconnected to give a ratio of 120 V/480 V. Figure 11.11
Potential transformer installed on a 69 kV line. Note
transformer. it can supply a load far greater the distributed capacitance between the windings.
than the rated capacity of the transformer. As
mentioned earlier, this is one of the advantages
of using an autotransformer instead of a con- most exactly in phase with the primary voltage.
ventional transformer. However, this is not al- The nominal secondary voltage is usually I I 5 V, ir-
ways the case, as the next part of our example respective of what the rated primary voltage may
shows. be. This permits standard instruments and relays to
c. To ohtain the desired ratio of 120 V to 480 V, be used on the secondary side. Voltage transform-
we again connect H 1 and X 1 (as in solution a). ers are used to measure or monitor the voltage on
but the source is now connected to terminals transmission lines and to isolate the metering
X (Fig. I I. I 0). equipment from these lines (Fig. 11.11 ).
This time. the current in the 600 V winding is The construction of voltage transformers is sim-
the same as that in the load: consequently. the ilar to that of conventional transformers. However.
maximum load current cannot exceed 25 A. the insulation between the primary and secondary
The corresponding maximum load is, therefore, windings must be particularly great to withstand the
full line voltage on the HY side.
Sc 25 A X 480 V 12 kVA
In this regard, one terminal of the secondary
This load is less than the nominal rating ( 15 winding is always connected to ground to eliminate
k VA) of the standard transformer. the danger of a fatal shock when touching one of the
We want to make one final remark concern- secondary leads. Although the secondary appears
ing these three autotransformer connections. to be isolated from the primary, the distributed ca-
The temperature rise of the transformer is the pacitance between the two windings makes an in-
same in each case, even though the loads are visible connection which can produce a very high
respectively 60 kVA, 90 kVA, and 12 kYA. The voltage between the secondary winding and
reason is that the currents in the windings and ground. By grounding one of the secondary termi-
the flux in the core are identical in each case nals, the highest voltage between the secondary
and so the losses are the same. lines and ground is limited to 115 Y.
The nominal rating of voltage transformers is
11.4 Voltage transformers usually less than 500 YA. As a result. the volume of
insulation is often far greater than the volume or
Voltage transformers (also called potellfial tra11s-
copper or steel .
.f;1rn1ers) are high-precision transformers in which
thL' ratio of primary voltage to secondary voltage is
a 1-nown constant, which changes very little with In the ca:-;e or\ oltagl' transl'ormer;. and current 1ra11,former;..
load.':' Furthermore, the secondary voltage is al- the load i;, called /){(u/rn.
 SPECIAL TRANSFORMERS 231

Voltage transformers installed on HY lines al- 11.5 Current transformers

ways measure the line-to-neutral voltage. This
eliminates the need for two HY bushings because Current transformers are high-precision transform-
one side of the primary is connected to ground. For ers in which the ratio of primary to secondary cur-
example, the 7000 VA, 80.5 kV transformer shown rent is a known constant that changes very little
in ll .12 has one large porcelain bushing to iso- with the burden. The phase angle between the pri-
late the HV line from the grounded case. The latter mary and secondary current is very small, usually
houses the actual transformer. much less than one degree. The highly accurate cur-
The basic impulse insulation (BIL) of 650 kV rent ratio and small phase angle are achieved by
expresses the transformer's ability to withstand keeping the exciting current small.
lightning and switching surges. Current transformers are used to measure or
monitor the current in a line and to isolate the me-
tering and relay equipment connected to the sec-
ondary side. The primary is connected in series with
the line, as shown in Fig. 11.13. The nominal sec-
ondary current is usually 5 A, irrespective of the pri-
mary current rating.
Because current transformers (CTs) are onlv
used for measurement and system protection, thelr
power rating is small-generally between 15 VA
and 200 VA. As in the case of conventional trans-
formers, the current ratio is inversely proportional
to the number of turns on the primary and sec-
ondary windings. A current transformer having a ra-
tio of 150 A/5 A has therefore 30 times more turns
on the secondary than on the primary.
For safety reasons current transformers must al-
ways be used when measuring currents in HY trans-
mission lines. The insulation between the primary
and secondary windings must be great enough to
withstand the full line-to-neutral voltage. including
line surges. The maximum voltage the CT can with-
stand is always shown on the nameplate.

69 kV line

•
c ::~:: c
~~~----- - /distributed
Figure 11.12 secondary capacitance
7000 VA, 80.5 kV, 50/60 Hz potential transformer hav-
ing an accuracy of 0.3% and a BIL of 650 kV. The pri- •
mary terminal at the top of the bushing is connected ammeter
to the HV line while the other is connected to ground. Oto5A
The secondary is composed of two 115 V windings secondary=
each tapped at 66.4 V. Other details: total height: 2565 grounded
mm; height of porcelain bushing: 1880 mm; oil: 250 L;
weight: 740 kg. Figure 11.13
(Courtesy of Ferranti-Packard) Current transformer installed on a 69 kV line.
2.12 ELECTRICAi_ MACHINES AND TRANSFORMFRS

As in the case of voltage transformers (and for into an ac line. having a line-to-neutral voltage of
the same reasons) one of the secondary terminals is 14.4 kV. in a manner similar to that shown in
ahvays connected to ground. 11.13. The ammeters. relays. and connecting
Figure 11.14 shows a 500 YA I00 A/5 A cutTent wires on the secondary side possess a total imped-
transfonnerdcsigned for a 230 kV line. The large bush- ance (burden) of 1.2 fl. If the transmission-line
ing serves to isolate the HY line from the ground. The current is 280 A, calculate
CT is housed in the grounded steel case at the lower end
a. The secondary current
of the bushing. The upper end of the bushing has two
b. The voltage across the secondary terminals
terminals that are connected in series with the HY line.
c. The voltage drop across the primary
The line current flows into one terminal. down the
bushing. through the primary of the transformer. then Solution
up the bushing and out by the other terminal. The in- a. The current ratio is
ternal construction of a CT is shown in Fig. 11.15 and
!/I~ = 400/5 80
a typical installation is shown in Fig. I I .16.
By way of comparison. the 50 YA current trans- The turns ratio is
former shown in Fig. 11.17 is much smaller. mainly
because it is insulated for only 36 k Y.
The secondary current is
Example I 1-3
The current transformer in Fig. I I .17 has a rating t~ = 280/80 = 3.5 A
of 50 YA. 400 A/5 A. 36 k Y. 60 Hz. It is connected

Figure 11.14
500 VA, 100 A/5 A 60 Hz current transformer, insulated Figure 11.15
for a 230 kV line and having an accuracy of 0.6%. Current transformer in the final process of construction.
(Courtesy of Westinghouse) (Courtesy of Ferranti-Packard}
 SPECIAL TRANSFORMERS' 233

Figure 11.17
Epoxy-encapsulated current transformer rated 50 VA,
400 N5 A, 60 Hz and insulated for 36 kV.
(Courtesy of Monte/, Sprecher & Schuh)

/ 1 continues to flow unchanged because the imped-

Figure 11.16 ance of the primary is negligible compared to that

Current transformer in series with one phase of a of the electrical load. The line current thus becomes
220 kV. 3-phase line inside a substation. the exciting current of the transformer because there
is no further bucking effect due to the secondary
b. The voltage across the burden is ampere-turns. Because the line current may he I 00
to 200 times greater than the normal exciting cur-
IR 3.5 x 1.2 = 4.2 V rent, the flux in the core reaches peaks much higher
The secondary voltage is therefore 4.2 V. than normal. The flux is so large that the core is to-
c. The primary voltage is tally saturated for the greater part of every half cy-
cle. Referring to 11.18, as the primary current
£ 1
4.2/80 0.0525 = 52.5 mY 11 rises and falls during the first half cycle. flux <I)
This is a miniscule voltage drop, compared to in the core also rises and foils, but it remains at a
the 14.4 kV line-to-neutral voltage. fixed, saturation level <]>,for most of the time. The
same thing happens during the second half-cycle.
11.6 Opening the secondary During these saturated intervals. the induced volt-
age across the secondary winding is negligible be-
of a CT can be dangerous cause the flux changes very little. However, during
Every precaution must be taken to never open the the unsaturated intervals. the flux changes al an ex-
secondary circuit of a current transformer while tremely high rate, inducing voltage peaks of several
current is flowing in the primary circuit. If the sec- hundred volts across the open-circuited secondary.
ondary is accidentally opened, the primary current This is a dangerous situation because an unsuspect-
234 FLl:XTRICAL MACHINES' AND TRANSFORlv1ERS

operator could easily receive a bad shoek. The

voltage is particularly high in current transformers
having ratings above 50 VA.
In view of the above. if a meter or relay in the sec-
ondary circuit of a CT has to be disconnected, we
must first sh01t-circuit the secondary winding and
then remove the component. Short-circuiting a cur-
rent transformer does no harm because the primary
current remains unchanged and the secondary current
can be no greater than that determined by the turns ra-
tio. The short-circuit across the winding may be re-
moved (I/fer the secondary circuit is again closed.

11.7 Toroidal current transformers

Figure 11.18
When the Iinc current exceeds I 00 A, we can some- Primary current, flux, and secondary voltage when a
timet-. use a toroidal current transformer. It consists CT is open-circuited.
of a laminated ring-shaped core that carries the sec-
ondary winding. The primary is composed of a sin-
gle conductor that simply passes through the center 200 turns
of the ring (Fig. 11.19). The position of the primary
conductor is unimportant as long as it is more or
less centered. If the secondary possesses N turns. bus
the ratio of transformation is N. Thus. a toroidal CT ( 1 turn)
having a ratio of 1000 A/5 A has 200 turns on the
secondary winding.
Toroidal CT's are simple and inexpensive and arc
widely used in low-voltage (LY) and medium-voltage
Figure 11.19
(MY) indoor installations. They are also incorporated Toroidal transformer having a ratio of 1000 A/5 A, con-
in circuit-breaker bushings to monitor the line current nected to measure the current in a line.
11.20). If the current exceeds a predetermined
limit. the CT causes the circuit-breaker to trip.

Example J 1-4
A potential transformer rated 14 400 VI I 15 V and a
current transformer rated 75/5 A are used to measure
the voltage and current in a transmission line. If the
voltmeter indicates 111 V and the ammeter reads
3 A. calculate the voltage and current in the line.
Solution current
The voltage on the line is transformer

E 11 I x ( 14 400/1 15) = 13 900 V

The current in the line is Figure 11.20
Toroidal transformer surrounding a conductor inside a
I 3X(75/5) 45A bushing.
 SPECIAL TRANSFORMERS 235

11.8 Variable autotransformer 11.22). The input voltage £ 1 is usually connected to

a fixed 90 percent tap on the winding. This enables
A variable autotransformer is often used when we
to vary from 0 to 110 percent of the input voltage.
wish to obtain a variable ac voltage from a fixed-
Variable autotransformers are efficient and provide
voltage ac source. The transformer is composed of
good voltage regulation under variable loads. The sec-
a single-layer winding wound uniformly on a
ondary line should always be protected by a fuse or
toroidal iron core. A movable carbon brush in slid-
circuit-breaker so that the output cun-ent 12 never ex-
ing contact with the winding serves as a variable
ceeds the cun-em rating of the autotransformer.
tap. The brush can be set in any position between 0
and 330°. Manual or motorized positioning may be
used (Figs. 11.21 and 11.23).
As the brush slides over the bared portion of the
winding, the secondary voltage increases in pro-
portion to the number of turns swept out (Fig.

Figure 11.21
Cutaway view of a manually operated 0-140 V, 15 A
variable autotransformer showing ( 1) the laminated
toroidal core; (2) the single-layer winding; (3) the mov-
able brush.
(Courtesy of American Superior Electric)

Figure 11.23
Variable autotransformer rated at 200 A, 0-240 V.
50/60 Hz. It is composed of eight 50 A, 120 V units,
connected in series-parallel. This motorized unit can
Figure 11.22 vary the output voltage from zero to 240 V in 5 s.
Schematic diagram of a variable autotransformer hav- Dimensions: 400 mm x 1500 mm.
ing a fixed 90% tap. (Courtesy of American Superior Electric)
236 EU:'CTRIC4L MACHINES AND TRANSFORMER!-)

11.9 High-impedance transformers The primary winding Pis connected to a

240 V ac source. and the two secondary winding"
The transformers we have studied so far are al I de- S arc connected in series across the long neon
signed to have a relatively low leakage reactance. tube. Owing to the large leakage fluxes (I>" and
ranging perhaps from 0.03 to 0.1 per unit (Section <I\,. the secondary voltage E 2 falls rapidly with
10.13 ). However. some industrial and commercial increasing current as seen in the regulation curve
applications require much higher reactances. some- of the transformer (Fig. l l .24c). The high opcn-
times reaching values as high as 0.9 pu. Such high- circuit voltage (:20 kV) initiates the discharge. but
impedance transformers are used in the following as soon as the neon tube lights up, the secondary
typical applications: cu1Tent is automatically limited to 15 mA. The
electric toys arc welders corresponding voltage across the neon tube falls
fluorescent lamps electric arc furnaces to 15 k Y. The power of these transformers ranges
neon signs reactive power regulators from 50 VA to 1500 VA. The secondary voltages
oil burners
Let us briefly examine these special applications.
1. A toy transformer is often accidentally short-
circuited, but being used by children it is nei-
(a)
ther practical nor safe to protect it with a fuse.
7.5 kV 7.5 kV
Consequently. the transformer is designed so
that its leakage reactance is so high that even a
permanent short-circuit across the low-voltage
secondary will not cause overheating.
The same remarks apply to some bell trans-

i!lDI
formers that provide low-voltage signalling
power throughout a home. If a short-circuit oc- (b)
curs on the secondary side. the current is auto-
matically limited by the high reactance so as
not to burn out the transformer or damage the
fragile annunciator wiring.
kV open circuit
2. Electric arc furnaces and discharges in gases 2011"-~~~~~~~~~

possess a negative Ell characteristic. meaning

that once the arc is struck. the current increases
as the voltage falls. To maintain a steady arc. or
a uniform discharge. we must add an imped- (c)
ance in series with the load. The series imped-
ance may be either a resistor or reactor. but we
prefer the latter because it consumes very little
acti vc power.
However. if a transformer is used to supply 15 30 mA

the load, it is usually more economical to incor-

porate the reactance in the transformer itself. by Figure 11.24
designing it to have a high leakage reactance. A a. Schematic diagram of a neon-sign transformer.
typical example is the neon-sign transformer b. Construction of the transformer.
shown in Fig. 11.24. c. Typical E-1 characteristic of the transformer.
 SPECIAL TRANSFORMERS 237

range from 2 kV to 20 kV. depending mainly ings are very loosely coupled. The three pri-
upon the length of the tube. mary windings are connected to the HY line
Returning to I l .24a. we note that the (typically between 230 kV and 765 kV) while
center of the secondary winding is grounded. the three secondary windings (typically 6 kV)
This ensures that the secondary line-to-ground are connected to an electronic controller (Fig.
voltage is only one-half the voltage across the 11.25). The controller permits more or less sec-
neon tube. As a result, less insulation is needed ondary current to flow. causing the leakage flux
for the high-voltage winding. to vary accordingly. A change in the leakage
Fluorescent lamp transformers (called bal- flux produces a corresponding change in the re-
lasts) have properties similar to neon-sign active power absorbed by the transformer. The
transformers. Capacitors are usually added to transformer, incorporated in a static var com-
improve the power factor of the total circuit. pensator. is further discussed in Section 25.27.
Oi I-burner transformers possess essentially
3-phase primary input 230 kV
the same characteristics as neon-sign trans-
formers do. A secondary open-circuit voltage or
about I 0 kV creates an arc between two closely
spaced electrodes situated immediately above
the oil jet. The arc continually ignites the va-
porized oil while the burner is in operation. primary
leakage flux
3. Some electric furnaces generate heat by main-
taining an intense arc between two carbon elec-
trodes. A relatively low secondary voltage is used
and the large secondary current is limited by the
leakage reactance of the transformer. Such trans-
formers have ratings between 100 k VA and 500
MVA. In very big furnaces. the leakage reactance
of the secondary, together with the reactance of
the conductors. is usually sufficient to provide
the necessary limiting impedance.
4. Arc-welding transformers are also designed to electronic controller
have a high leakage reactance so as to stabilize
the arc during the welding process. The open- Figure 11.25
circuit voltage is about 70 Y. which facilitates Three-phase static var compensator having high leak-
striking the arc when the electrode touches the age reactance.
work. However. as soon as the arc is estab-
lished. the secondary voltage falls to about
15 V. a value that depends upon the length of 11.1 O Induction heating
the arc and the intensity of the welding current. transformers
5. As a final example of high-impedance trans- High-power induction furnaces also use the trans-
formers. we mention the enormous 3-phase former principle to produce high-quality steel and
units that absorb reactive power from a 3-phase other alloys. The induction principle can be under-
transmission line. These transformers are inten- stood by referring to Fig. 11.26. A relatively high-
tionally designed to produce leakage flux and. frequency 500 Hz ac source is connected to a coil
consequently. the primary and secondary wind- that surrounds a large crucible containing molten
238 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORlvfERS

molten iron primary

t---+---.;...._j--1-r~
lip

molten steel

crucible
0 \
ac
source o I
o I
--,--+-~~01 channel
eddy currents
crucible
induction furnace

Figure 11.26
Careless induction furnace. The flux cJl produces eddy
currents in the molten metal. The capacitor furnishes
the reactive power absorbed by the coil.
iron core

iron. The coil is the primary, and the molten iron

acts like a single secondary turn, short-circuited
upon itself. Consequently. it carries a very large
secondary current. This current provides the energy primary coil
that keeps the iron in a liquid state, melting other
scrap metal as it is added to the pool. Figure 11.27
Such induction furnaces have ratings between Channel induction furnace and its water-cooled
15 kVA and 40 000 kVA. The operating frequency transformer.
becomes progressively lower as the power rating
The magnetizing current is low because the flux is
increases. Thus. a frequency of 60 Hz is used when
confined to a highly permeable iron core. On the
the power exceeds about 3000 kVA.
other hand, the leakage flux is large because the sec-
The power factor of coreless induction furnaces is
ondary turn is obviously not tightly coupled to the
very low (typically 20 percent) because a large mag-
primary coil. Nevertheless, the power factor is higher
netizing current is required to drive the flux through
than that in Fig. 11.26, being typically between 60
the molten iron and through the air. In this regard, we
and 80 percent. As a result, a smaller capacitor bank
must remember that the temperature of molten iron is
is required to furnish the reactive power.
far above the Curie point and so it behaves like air as
Owing to the very high ambient temperature, the
far as permeability is concerned. That is why these
primary windings of induction furnace transform-
furnaces are often called coreless induction furnaces.
ers are always made of hollow, water-cooled copper
Capacitors are installed close to the coil to sup-
conductors. Induction furnaces are used for meltinn
ply the reactive power it absorbs. . . 0

alum mum. copper, and other metals, as well as iron.

In another type of furnace, known as a clumnelfur-
Figure 11.28 shows a very special application of
1wce, a transformer having a laminated iron core is
the induction heating principle.
made to link with a channel of molten iron, as shown
in Fig. 11.27. The channel is a ceramic pipe that is fit-
ted to the bottom of the crucible. The primary coil is
11.11 High-frequency transformers
excited by a 60 Hz source. and the secondary current In electronic power supplies there is often a need to
/-:,_flows in the liquid channel and through the molten isolate the output from the input and to reduce the
iron in the crucible. In effect. the chan~el is equiva- weight and cost of the unit. In other applications,
lent to a single turn short-circuited on itself. such as in aircraft, there is a strong incentive to
 SPEC/AL TRANSFORMER.)" 239

order to illustrate the reason for this phenomenon. we

limit our discussion to transformers. Furthermore, to
avoid a cumbersome theoretical analysis. we will
take a practical transformer and observe how it be-
haves when the frequency is raised.
Consider Fig. 11.29. which shows a conven-
tional 120 V/24 V, 60 Hz transformer having a rat-
of 36 VA. This small transformer weighs 0.5 kg
and operates at a peak flux density of 1.5 T. The flux
in the core attains a peak of 750 µ Wb. The lami-
nated core is made of ordinary silicon steel having
a thickness of 0.3 mm ( 12 mils) and the total core
loss is about I W. The current rating is 300 mA for
the primary and 1.5 A for the secondary.

core: 6 x 5 x 2.5 cm

1.5 _..
A P 36VA
B 1.5 T
t/Jmax 750pWb
24 v core loss 1 W

Figure 11.29
Figure 11.28
Special application of the transformer effect. This pic- Without making any changes to the transformer.
ture shows one stage in the construction of the rotor
let us consider the effect of operating it at a fre-
of a steam-turbine generator. It consists of expanding
the diameter of a 5 t coil-retaining ring. A coil of as- quency of 6000 Hz. which is I 00 times higher than
bestos-insulated wire is wound around the ring and what it was designed for. Assuming the same peak
connected to a 35 kW, 2000 Hz source (left fore- flux density. it follows that the flux (l>, 11 "~ will re-
ground). The coil creates a 2000 Hz magnetic field, main at 750 µ Wb. However. according to Eq. 9.3.
which induces large eddy currents in the ring, bringing this means that the corresponding primary voltage
its temperature up to 280°C in about 3 h. The resulting can be increased to
expansion enables the ring to be slipped over the coil-
ends, where it cools and contracts. This method of in- E = 4.44fN 1(1> 11 w, (9.3)
duction heating is clean and produces a very uniform 6
temperature rise of the large mass.
= 4.44 X 6000 x 600 X 750 X IO
(Courtesy of ABB) = 12 000 v
which is 100 times greater than before! The sec-
minimize weight. These objectives are best achieved ondary voltage will likewise be 100 times greater.
by using a relatively high frequency compared to, becoming 2400 Y. The operating conditions are
say. 60 Hz. Thus. in aircraft the frequency is typically shown in Fig. 11.30. The primary and secondary
400 Hz. while in electronic power supplies the fre- currents remain unchanged and so the power of the
quency may range from 5 kHz to 50 kHz. transformer is now 3600 VA. I 00 times greater than
An increase in frequency reduces the size of such in Fig. 11.29. Clearly. raising the frequency has had
devices as tran'">formers. inductors. and capacitors. In a very beneficial effect.
240 EL!XTRICAL MACHINES ANO TRANSFORMERS

However. the advantage is not as great as it seems The corresponding secondary voltage is 320 V.
because at 6000 Hz the core loss is enormous (about and so the enhanced capacity of the transformer is
700 WJ. due to the increase in eddy current and hys- 320 V X 1.5 A 480 VA 11.32).
teresis losses. Thus. the transformer in 11.30 is We are interested. of course. in maintaining the
not feasible because it will quickly overheat. original voltage ratio of 120 V to 24 V. This is read-
To get around this problem. we can reduce the ily achieved by rewinding the transformer. Thus,
llux density so that the core losses are the same as the number of turns on the primary will be reduced
they were in Fig. 11.29. Based upon the properties from 600 to 600 t X ( 120 VI 1600 V) 45 turns.
of 12 mil silicon steel, this requires a reduction in while the secondary will have only 9 turns. Such a
the flux density from 1.5 T to 0.04 T. As a result. ac- drastic reduction in the number of turns means that
cording lo Eq. 9.3. the primary and secondary volt- the wire size can be increased significantly.
ages will have to he reduced to 320 V and 64 V, re- Bearing in mind that the capacity of the trans-
spectively. The new power of the transformer will former is still 480 VA. it follows that the rated pri-
be P 320 X (U = 96 VA (Fig. 11.31 ). This is al- mary current can be raised to 4 A while that in the
most 3 times the original power of 36 VA, while re- secondary becomes 20 A. This rewound trans-
taining the same temperature rise. former with its special core (Fig. 11.33) has the
By using thinner laminations made of special same size and weight as the one in 11.29.
nickel-steel, it is possible to raise the tlux density Furthermore, because the iron and copper losses
above 0.04 T while maintaining the same core are the same in both cases, the efficiency of the
losses. Thus. if we replace the original core with high frequency transformer is better.
this special materiaL the flux density can be raised It is now obvious that the increase in frequency
to 0.2 T. This corresponds to a peak flux cprnax of has permitted a very large increase in the power ca-
750 µWb x (0.2 T/1.5 T) JOO µWb, which pacity of the transformer. It follows that for a given
means that the primary voltage can be raised to power output a high frequency transformer is much
E = 4.44fN 1 cI> 11 "'~ smaller, cheaper. more efficient, and lighter than a
= 4.44 x 6000 x 600 x 100 x IO~() 60 Hz transformer.

1600V
core: 6 x 5 x 2.5 cm core: 6 x 5 x 2.5 cm

silicon 12 mil
300mA
. P 3600 VA
H= 1.5T
!/!max = 750 µWb
P = 480 VA
B 0.2T
¢max 100 ,uWb
core loss 700 W core loss = 1 W

Figure 11.30 Figure 11.32

core: 6 x 5 x 2.5 cm core: 6 x 5 x 2.5 cm

1.5 A P 96 VA 20A P 480 VA

300mA ~~-....

~·
~..-
H = 0.04 T H = 0.2 T
Omax = 20 11Wb v <Pmax = 100 µWb
64 v core loss 1W
24
core loss 1 W

Figure 11.31 Figure 11.33

 SPECIAL TRANSFORlvfERS 241

Questions and Problems a. Calculate the voltage across the secondary

winding if the ammeter has an impedance
Practical lel'el of0.15 n.
11-1 What is the difference between an auto- b. Calculate the voltage drop the transformer
transformer and a conventional transformer? produces on the line conductor.
c. If the primary conductor is looped four
11-2 What is the purpose of a voltage trans-
times through the toroidal opening. calcu-
former'? or a current transformer? late the new current ratio.
11-3 Why must we never open the secondary of
a current transformer? Industrial application
11-4 Explain why the secondary winding of a 11 12 The nameplate of a small transformer in-
CT or PT must be grounded. dicates 50 VA. 120 V. 12.8 V. When
118.8 V is applied to the primary. the
11-5 A toroidal current transformer has a ratio of
voltage across the secondary at no-load
1500 A/5 A. How many turns does it have?
is 13.74 Y. If 120 V were availahle. what
11-6 A current transformer has a rating of I 0 would the secondary voltage be? Why 1s
VA. 50 A/5 A. 60 Hz. 2.4 kV. Calculate this voltage higher than the indicated
the nominal voltage across the primary nameplate voltage?
winding.
11 13 Referring to Problem 11-12. the windings
Intermediate level are encapsulated in epoxy and cannot he
11-7 A single-phase transformer has a rating of seen. However. the resistance of the pri-
I 00 k VA. 7200 V/600 V. 60 Hz. If it is re- mary is 15.2 Hand that of the secondary
connected as an autotransformer having a is 0.306 !!. Is the 120 V winding wound
ratio of 7800 V /7200 V, calculate the load upon the 12.8 V winding. or vice versa?
it can carry. 11-14 Ytany airpo11s use series lighting systems in
11-8 In Problem 11-7. how should the trans- which the primary windings of a large num-
former terminals (H 1• H 2 • X 1• X 2 ) be con- ber of current transformers are connected in
nected? series across a constant current 60 Hz
11-9 The transformer in Problem 11-7 is recon- source. In one installation. the primary cur-
nected again as an autotransformer having a rent is kept constant at 20 A The secondary
ratio of 6.6 kV/600 V. What load can it carry windings are individually connected to a
and how should the connections be made? I 00 W. 6.6 A incandescent lamp.
a. Calculate the aLTo~s each la111p.
Admnced /eFel b. The resistance of the ~econdary winding is
11 I 0 A current transformer has a rating of 0.07 n while that of the primary is 0.008 n.
100 VA. 2000 A/5 A. 60 Hz. 138 kV. It Knowing that the magnetizing current and
has a primary to secondary capacitance the rcactancc arc both negligible.
calculate the across the primary
of 250 pF. If it is installed on a transmis-
winding of each transformer.
sion line where the line-to-neutral volt-
c. If 140 lamps. at every 50 m inter-
age is 138 kV. calculate the capacitive
vals. are connected in series using No 14
leakage current that flows to ground (see wire. calculate the minimum voltage or the
Fig. 11.13 ). power source. Assume the \Vire operates at
11-11 The toroidal current transformer of Fig. a temperature of I OY'C.
11.19 has a ratio of I 000 A/5 A. The line 11-15 A no-load test on a 15 kVA . .:J.8() V/120 Y.
conductor carries a current of 600 A. 60 Hz transformer yields the following
242 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS

saturation curve data when the 120 V c. Draw the saturation curve at 60 Hz (peak
winding is excited by a sinusoidal source. flux in mWb versus current in mA). At
The primary is known to have 260 turns. what point on the saturation curve does sat-
a. Draw the saturation curve (voltage versus uration become important? Is the flux dis-
current in mA). torted under these conditions?
b. If the experiment were repeated using a
50 Hz source. redraw the resulting satura-
tion curve.

14.8 31 49.3 66.7 90.5 110 120 130 136 142 v

59 99 144 210 430 700 1060 1740 2300 3200 mA
 CHAPTER 12
Three-Phase Transformers

12.0 Introduction connected in several ways. Thus, the primaries may

be connected in delta and the secondaries in wye, or

P ower is .distributed throug.ho.ut N?rth America by

means of 3-phase transm1ss1on Imes. In order to
transmit this power efficiently and economically. the
vice versa. As a result. the ratio of the 3-phase input
voltage to the 3-phase output voltage depends not
only upon the turns ratio of the transformers. but
voltages must be at appropriate levels. These levels also upon how they are connected.
( 13.8~ kV to 765 kV) depend upon the amount of A 3-phase transformer bank can also produce a
power that has to be transmitted and the distance it phase shift between the 3-phase input voltage and
has to be carried. Another aspect is the appropriate the 3-phase output voltage. The amount of phase
voltage levels used in factories and homes. These are shift depends again upon the turns ratio of the
fairly uniform. ranging from 120/240 V single-phase transformers, and on how the primaries and secon-
systems to 600 V 3-phase systems. Clearly, this re- daries are interconnected. Furthermore. the phase-
quires the use of 3-phase transformers to transform shift feature enables us to change the 11w11her of
the voltages from one level to another. phases. Thus. a 3-phase system can be converted
The transformers may be inherently 3-phase, into a 2-phase, a 6-phase. or a 12-phase system.
having three primary windings and three secondary Indeed, if there were a practical application for it. we
windirn!s mounted on a 3-legged core. However, could even convert a 3-phase system into a 5-phase
the sa~e result can be achieved by using three system by an appropriate choice of single-phase
single-phase transformers connected together to transformers and interconnections.
form a 3-phase transformer hank. In making the various connections. it is impor-
tant to observe transformer polarities. An error in
12.1 Basic properties of 3-phase polarity may produce a short-circuit or unbalance
the line voltages and currents.
transformer banks
The basic behavior of balanced 3-phase trans-
When three single-phase transformers are used to former banks can be understood by making the fol-
transform a 3-phase voltage, the windings can he lowing simplifying assumptions:

243
244 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS

I. The exciting currents are negligible. nected in delta-delta. Terminal H 1 of each trans-
2. The transformer impedances, due to the resis- former is connected to terminal of the next
tance and leakage reactance of the windings, transformer. Similarly, terminals X 1 and X::- of suc-
are negligible. cessive transformers are connected together. The ac-
tual physical layout of the transformers is shown in
3. The total apparent input power to the trans-
Fig. 12.1. The corresponding schematic diagram is
former bank is equal to the total apparent out-
given in Fig. 12.2.
put power.
The schematic diagram is drawn in such a way to
Furthermore, when single-phase transformers show not only the connections, but also the phasor
are connected into a 3-phase system. they retain all
p
their basic single-phase properties. such as current
ratio, voltage ratio, and flux in the core. Given the ----<>--1
,----------,
I
polarity marks X 1, X 2 and H 1, H", the phase shift I
between primary and secondary is zero, in the sense I
2
.,.__,.._-c>-
that Ex,x., is in phase with EH,Hc· i I balanced
three-phase
load
1
12.2 Delta-delta connection 3 I
-~>--i
The three single-phase transformers P, Q, and R of I
Fig. 12. l transform the voltage of the incoming L--------'
transmission line A, B, C to a level appropriate for Figure 12.1
the outgoing transmission line I, 2. 3. The incoming Delta-delta connection of three single-phase trans-
line is connected to the source, and the outgoing line formers. The incoming lines (source) are A, B, C and
is connected to the load. The transformers are con- the outgoing lines (load) are 1, 2, 3.

load

Figure 12.2
Schematic diagram of a delta-delta connection and associated phasor diagram.
 THREE-PHASE TRANSFORMERS 245

relationship between the primary and secondary c. The current in the HY lines
voltages. Thus. each secondary winding is drawn d. The current in the LY lines
parallel to the corresponding primary winding to e. The currents in the primary and secondary
which it is coupled. Furthermore, if source G pro- windings of each transformer
duces voltages £AB• Ep,c, EcA according to the in- f. The load carried by each transformer
dicated phasor diagram, the primary windings are
Solution
oriented the same way, phase by phase. For exam-
a. The apparent power drawn by the plant is
ple, the primary of transformer P between lines A
and B is oriented horizontally, in the same direction S P/cos 0 (7.7)
as phasor £AB· = 21/0.86
Because the primary and secondary voltage:-.
= 24.4 MYA
EH,H. and Ex,x, of a given transformer must be in
phase, it follows that £ 12 (secondary voltage of b. The transformer bank itself absorbs a negligible
transformer P) must be in phase with £AB (primary amount of active and reactive power because
of the same transformer). Similarly, is in phase the PR losses and the reactive power associated
with EBc· and E,, 1 with EcA· with the mutual flux and the leakage fluxes are
In such a delta-delta connection, the voltages be- small. It follows that the apparent power fur-
tween the respective incoming and outgoing trans- nished by the HY line is also 24.4 MYA.
mission lines are in phase. c. The current in each HY line is
If a balanced load is connected to lines 1 the
11 S/('13 £) (8.9)
resulting line currents are equal in magnitude. This
6
produces balanced line currents in the incoming (24.4 x I 0 )/(-i 3 x 138 000)
lines A-B-C. As in any delta connection, the line 102 A
currents are times greater than the respective
d. The current in the LY lines is
currents IP and /, flowing in the primary and sec-
ondary windings (Fig. 12.2). The power rating of l:,_ Sf(../ 3 £)
the transformer bank is three times the rating of a (24.4 x 106 )/('13 x 4160)
single transformer.
3386A
Note that although the transformer bank consti-
tutes a 3-phase arrangement, each transformer, e. Referring to Fig. 12.2. the current in each pri-
considered alone, acts as if it were placed in a single- mary winding is
phase circuit. Thus, a current Ir flowing from H 1 to Ir 102/'13 = 58.9 A
H 2 in the primary winding is associated with a cur-
rent I, flowing from X 2 toX 1 in the secondary. The current in each secondary winding is
I, 3386!'13 = 1955 A
Example 12-1
Three single-phase transformers are connected in f. Because the plant load is balanced. each trans-
delta-delta to step clown a line voltage of 138 k Y to former carries one-third of the total load, or
4160 Y to supply power to a manufacturing plant. 24.4/3 8.13 MYA.
The plant draws 21 MW at a lagging power factor The individual transformer load can also be
of 86 percent. obtained by multiplying the primary voltage
times the primary current:
Calculate
a. The apparent power drawn by the plant S E,j 11 138000X58.9
b. The apparent power furnished by the HY line 8.13 MYA
246 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS

Note that we can calculate the line currents and the The relative values of the ctments in the trans-
current" in the transformer windings even though we former windings and transmission lines are given in
do not know how the 3-phase load is connected. In ef- Fig. 12.4. Thus, the line currents in phases A. B, and
fect the plant load (shown as a box in Fig. 12.2) is Care '13 times the currents in the primary windings.
composed of hundreds of individual loads. some of The line currents in phases I, 2, 3 are the same as
which are connected in delta. others in wye. the currents in the secondary windings.
Furthermore, some are single-phase loads operating A delta-wye connection produces a 30° phase
at much lower voltages than 4160 V, powered by shift between the line voltages of the incoming and
smaller transformers located inside the plant. The outgoing transmission lines. Thus. outgoing line
sum total of these loads usually results in a reasonably
p
well-balanced 3-phase load, represented by the box. r-------..,
----c;--,
I
12.3 Delta-wye connection I
I

I balanced
When the trnnsformers are connected in delta-wye, ........--c-. ~ three-phase
the three primary windings are connected the same 1 load
I
way a" in Fig. 12.1. However, the secondary windings I
I
are connected so that all the terminals are joined ~~-<::>--I
I
together. cre<.iting a common neutral N (Fig. 12.3 ). In I... ______ ..J
such a delta-wye connection. the voltage across each
primary winding is equal to the incoming line volt- Figure 12.3
age. However. the outgoing line voltage is '13 times Delta-wye connection of three single-phase
the secondary voltage across each transformer. transformers.

1.73
B

load

Figure 12.4
Schematic diagram of a delta-wye connection and associated phasor diagram. (The phasor diagrams on the pri-
mary and secondary sides are not drawn to the same scale.)
 THREE-PHASE TRANSFORMERS 247

375 A
A 3932 A

138 kV

2
13.2 kV

B
xi 3
"-~~~--~~~-0----1

c 375 A

Figure 12.5
See Example 12-2.

voltage £ 12 is 30° ahead of incoming line voltage The voltage across the secondary is. therefore,
£.A.H•as can be seen from the phasor diagram. If the 80 kV.
outgoing line feeds an isolated group of loads, the The voltage between the outgoing lines L 2,
phase shift creates no problem. But, if the outgoing and 3 is
line has to be connected in parallel with a line com-
80 '13 = 139 kV
ing from another source, the 30° shift may make
such a parallel connection impossible, even if the b. The load carried by each transformer is
line voltages are otherwise identical. S 90/3 30 MVA
One of the important advantages of the wye con-
nection is that it reduces the amount of insulation The current in the primary winding is
needed inside the transformer. The HY winding has /P 30 MVA/13.2 kV= 2273 A
to be insulated for only IN 3, or 58 percent of the
The current in the secondary winding is
line voltage.
I, 30 MVA/80 kV= 375 A
Example 12-2 c. The current in each incoming line A, B, C is
Three single-phase step-up transformers rated at 40
MVA, 13.2 kV/80 kV are connected in delta-wye on I 2273 ,/ 3 3937 A
a 13.2 kV transmission line (Fig. I 2.5). If they feed The current in each outgoing line I, 2, 3 is
a 90 MVA load. calculate the following:
I 375 A
a. The secondary line voltage
b. The currents in the transformer windings
12.4 Wye-delta connection
c. The incoming and outgoing transmission line
currents The currents and voltages in a w."e-delta connection
are identical to those in the delta-wye connection of
Solution
Section 12.3. The primary and secondary connec-
The easiest way to solve this problem is to consider
tions are simply interchanged. In other words, the
the windings of only one transformer, say, trans-
H2 terminals are connected together to create a neu-
former P.
tral, and the X 1 , X2 terminals are connected in delta.
a. The voltage across the primary winding is obvi- Again. there results a 30° phase shift between the
ously 13.2 kV. voltages of the incoming and outgoing lines.
248 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS

.-~~~~~~~~~1
A
3

/
/
I
I
I
ac source 1
\
B

Figure 12.6
Wye-wye connection with neutral of the primary connected to the neutral of the source.

~~~~~~~~~~1
A
3

B
x y z
c

Figure 12.7
Wye-wye connection using a tertiary winding.

12.5 Wye-wye connection to a delta-delta connection, except that one trans-

former is absent (Fig. 12.8). However, the open-
When transformers are connected in wye-wye, spe- delta connection is seldom used because the load
cial precautions have to be taken to prevent severe capacity of the transformer bank is only 86.6 per-
distortion of the line-to-neutral voltages. One way cent of the installed transformer capacity. For ex-
to prevent the distortion is to connect the neutral of ample, if two 50 kVA transformers are connected in
the primary to the neutral of the source, usually by open-delta. the installed capacity of the transformer
way of the ground (Fig. 12.6). Another way is to bank is obviously 2 X 50 100 kVA. But. strange
provide each transformer with a third winding, as it may seem, it can only deliver 86.6 kVA before
called tertiarr winding. The tertiary windings of the the transformers begin to overheat.
three transformers are connected in delta (Fig. The open-delta connection is mainly used in
They often provide the substation service emergency situations. Thus. if three transformers
voltaue where the transformers are installed.
N(~tc that there is no phase shift between the in- p

coming and outgoing transmission line voltages of

a wye-wye connected transformer.

12.6 Open-delta connection

It is possible to transform the voltage of a 3-phase
svstem bv using onlv 2 transformers, connected in Figure 12.Sa
t;pen-del;a. The~ope1;-delta arrangement is identical Open-delta connection.
 THREE-PHASE TRANSFORMERS 249

are connected in delta-delta and one of them be- Thus. the ratio
comes defective and has to be removed, it is possi- maximum load 260 kV A
ble to feed the load on a temporary basis with the installed transformer rating 300 k YA
two remaining transformers.
0.867. or 86.?Ck
Example 12-3
12.7 Three-phase transformers
Two single-phase 150 kVA. 7200 Y/600 V trans-
formers are connected in open-delta. Calculate the A transformer bank composed of three single-phase
maximum 3-phase load they can carry. transformers may be replaced by one 3-phase trans-
former (Fig. 12.9). The magnetic core of such a
Solution
transformer has three that carry the primary and
Although each transformer has a rating of 150 k YA,
secondary windings of each phase. The windings are
the two together cannot carry a load of 300 kVA.
connected internally. either in wye or in delta. with
The following calculations show why:
the result that only six terminals have to be brought
The nominal secondary current of each trans-
outside the tank. For a given total capacity. a 3-phase
former is
transformer is always smaller and cheaper than three
I,= 150 kVA/600 V 250 A single-phase transformers. Nevertheless, single-
phase transformers are sometimes preferred, partic-
The current /, in lines I. 2. 3 cannot. therefore. ex- ularly when a replacement unit is essential. For ex-
ceed 250 A (Fig. l 2.8b). Consequently. the maxi- ample, suppose a manufacturing plant absorbs 5000
mum load that the transformers can carry is k YA. To guarantee continued service we can install
one 3-phase 5000 k YA transformer and keep a sec-
5' >J 3 EI (8.9)
ond one as a spare. Alternatively. we can install three
'13 X 600 X 250 259 800 YA single-phase transformers each rated at 1667 k YA.
260 kYA plus one spare. The 3-phase transformer option is

load

Figure 12.8b
Associated schematic and phasor diagram.
250 ELECTRICAi, MACHINES AND TRANSFORA1ERS

more expensive (total capacity: 2 X 5000 10000 tional lateral They enable the designer to re-
kVA) than the single-phase option (total capacity: duce the overall height of the transformer, which
4 X 1667 = 6667 kVAJ. simplifies the problem of shipping. In effect when-
Fig. I 2. I 0 shows successive stages of construc- ever large equipment has to he shipped. the de-
tion of a 3-phase 110 M VA, 222.5 kV /34.5 kV tap- signer is faced with the problem of overhead clear-
changing transformer. Note that in addition to the ances on highways and rail lines.
three main legs, the magnetic core has two addi-

A lap-changing lransl'ormer regulates the secondary voltage

by automatically switching from one tap to another on the pri-
mary winding. The tap-changer is a motoriLe<l de\· ice under the
control ()fa sensor that continually monitors the \(Jltage that
h~1s lo be held constant.

Figure 12.10a
Core of a 110 MVA, 222.5 kV/34.5 kV, 60 Hz, 3-phase
transformer. By staggering laminations of different
widths, the core legs can be made almost circular. This
reduces the coil diameter to a minimum, resulting in
less copper and lower 12 R losses. The legs are tightly
bound to reduce vibration. Mass of core: 53 560 kg.

Figure 12.9
Three-phase transformer for an electric arc furnace,
rated 36 MVA, 13.8 kV /160 V to 320 V, 60 Hz. The
secondary voltage is adjustable from 160 V to 320 V
by means of 32 taps on the primary winding (not Figure 12.1 Ob
shown). The three large busbars in the foreground de- Same transformer with coils in place. The primary
liver a current of 65 000 A. Other characteristics: im- windings are connected in wye and the secondaries in
pedance: 3.14%; diameter of each leg of the core: 711 delta. Each primary has 8 taps to change the voltage
mm; overall height of core: 3500 mm; center line dis- in steps of =2.5%. The motorized tap-changer can be
tance between adjacent core legs: 1220 mm. seen in the right upper corner of the transformer.
(Courtesy of Ferranti-Packard) Mass of copper: 15 230 kg.
 THREE-PHASE TRANSFORMERS 251

The 34.5 kV windings (connected in delta) are windings. A space of several centimeters separates the
mounted next to the core. The 222.5 kV windings two windings to ensure good isolation and to allow
(connected in wye) are mounted on top of the 34.5 kV cool oil to flow freely between them. The HY bush-
ings that protrude from the oil-filled tank are con-
nected to a 220 kV line. The medium voltage (MY)
bushings are much smaller and cannot be seen in the
photograph (Fig. 12. IOc).

12.8 Step-up and step-down

autotransformer
When the voltage of a 3-phase line has to be stepped
up or stepped down by a moderate amount. it is eco-
nomically advantageous to use three single-phase
transformers to create a wye-connected a11totrans-
forme1: The actual physical connections are shown
in Fig. 12.11 a, and the corresponding schematic di-
agram is given in 12.11 b. The respective line-
to-neutral voltages of the primary and secondary
Figure 12.1 Oc are obviously in phase. Consequently, the incoming
Same transformer ready for shipping. It has been sub- and outgoing transmission line voltages are in
jected to a 1050 kV impulse test on the HV side and a phase. The neutral is connected to the system neu-
similar 250 kV test on the LV side. Other details: tral. otherwise a tertiary winding must be added to
power rating: 110 MVA/146.7 MVA (OA/FA); total prevent the line-to-neutral voltage distortion men-
mass including oil: 158.7 t; overall height: 9 m; width: tioned previously (Section 12.5 ).
8.2 m, length: 9.2 m.
(Courtesy of ABB)

A - I,

B
B
2
2

c
3 A load

Figure 12.11a Figure 12.11b

Wye-connected autotransformer. Associated schematic diagram.
252 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS

Figure 12.11c
Single-phase autotransformer (one of a group of three) connecting a 700 kV, 3-phase, 60 Hz transmission line to
an existing 300 kV system. The transformer ratio is 404 kV/173 kV, to give an output of 200/267/333 MVA per
transformer, at a temperature rise of 55°C. Cooling is OA/FA/FOA. A tertiary winding rated 35 MVA, 11.9 kV
maintains balanced and distortion-free line-to-neutral voltages, while providing power for the substation. Other
properties of this transformer: weight of core and windings: 132 t; tank and accessories: 46 t; oil: 87 t; total
weight: 265 t. BIL rating is 1950 kV and 1050 kV on the HV and LV side, respectively. Note the individual 700 kV
(right) and 300 kV (left) bushings protruding from the tank. The basic impulse insulation (BIL) of 1950 kV and
1050 kV expresses the transformer's ability to withstand lightning and switching surges.
(Courtesy of Hydro-Quebec)
 THREE-PHASE TRANSFORMERS 253

For a given power output an autotransformer is The basic rating of the 3-phase transformer bank
smaller and cheaper than a conventional trans- is 22.1 x 3 66.3 MVA.
former (see Section 11.2). This is particularly true if The basic transformer rating (as far as size is con-
the ratio of the incoming line voltage to outgoing cerned) is considerably less than its load-carrying
line voltage lies between 0.5 and 2. capacity of 200 MYA. This is in keeping with the
Figure 12.11 c shows a large single-phase auto- fact that the ratio of transformation (345/230 1.5)
transformer rated 404 kV /173 kV with a tertiary lies between 0.5 and 2.0.
winding rated 11.9 kV. It is part of a 3-phase trans-
former bank used to connect a 700 kV transmission 12.9 Phase-shift principle
line to an existing 300 kV system.
A 3-phase system enables us to shift the phase an-
Example I 2-4 gle of a voltage very simply. Such phase shifting en-
The voltage of a 3-phase. 230 kV line has to be ables us to create 2-phase, 6-phase, and 12-phase
stepped up to 345 kV to supply a load of 200 MVA. systems from an ordinary 3-phase line. Such multi-
Three single-phase transformers connected as au- phase systems are used in large electronic converter
totransformers are to be used. Calculate the basic stations and in special electric controls. Phase shift-
power and voltage rating of each transformer. as- ing is also used to control power flow over trans-
suming they are connected as shown in Fig. mission lines that form part of a power grid.
12.1 lb. To understand the phase shifting principle, con-
sider a rheostat connected between phases B and C
Soluthm of a 3-phase line (Fig. 12.12). As we slide contact P
To simplify the calculations, let us consider only
one phase (phase A. say).

~-Joe
The line-to-neutral voltage between X 1 and H 2 is

£IN = 345/-V 3 = 199 kV

A
The line-to-neutral voltage between H 1 and H2 is
output £AP
£AN 230/-0 3 133 kV voltage

The voltage of winding X 1X 2 between lines I and A is

£IA= 199 133 = 66 kV

rheostat
This means that each transformer has an effective pri-
mary to secondary voltage rating of 133 kV to 66 kV.
A
The current in each phase of the outgoing line is

I, = S!-V 3 £ (8.9)
= (200 x 6
10 )/(~ 3 x 345 000)
335A

The power associated with winding X 1 X~ is

S" 66 000 x 335 22.1 MVA

Winding H 1 H2 has the same power rating. The ba- Figure 12.12
sic rating of each single-phase transformer is there- Voltage EAP can be phase-shifted with respect to
fore 22.1 MVA. by means of a potentiometer.
254 ELECTRICAL lHACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS

from phase B toward phase C. voltage E AP changes

both in amplitude and phase. We obtain a 60° phase
shift in moving from one end of the potentiometer
to the other. Thus. as we move from B to C. voltage
£AP gradually advances in phase with respect to

£AB· At the same time, the magnitude of £AP varies

slightly, from E (voltage between the lines) to 0.866
E when the contact is in the middle of the rheostat.
Such a simple phase-shifter can only be used in
circuits where the load between terminals A and P
draws a few milliamperes. If a heavier load is ap-
plied. the resulting IR drop in the rheostat com-
pletely changes the voltage and phase angle from Figure 12.14
what they were on open-circuit. Three-phase phase shifter.
To get around this problem, we connect a mul-
titap autotransformer between phases B and C ate a 3-phase source P 1, P 3 whose phase angle
(Fig. 12.13). By moving contact P, we obtain the changes stepwise with respect to source ABC. We
same open-circuit voltages and phase shifts as be- obtain a maximum phase shift of 60° as we move
fore, but this time they remain essentially un- from one extremity of the autotransformers to the
changed when a load is connected between termi- other. We now discuss some practical applications
nals A and P. Why is this so? The reason is that the of the phase-shift principle.
flux in the autotransformer is fixed because is
fixed. As a result, the voltage across each turn re- 12.10 Three-phase to 2-phase
mains fixed (both in magnitude and phase)
transformation
whether the autotransformer de! ivers a current to
the load or not. The voltages in a 2-phase system are equal but dis-
Fig. 12.14 shows 3 tapped autotransformers con- placed from each other by 90°. There are several
nected between lines A, B, and C. Contacts P 1, P2 , ways to create a 2-phase system from a 3-phase
P3 move in tandem as we switch from one set of source. One of the simplest and cheapest is to use a
taps to the next. This arrangement enables us to ere- single-phase autotransformer having taps at 50 per-
cent and 86.6 percent. We connect it between any
two phases of a 3-phase line, as shown in Fig. 12.15.
If the voltage between lines A, B, C is I 00 V, voltages
line A
EAT and are both equal to 86.6 V. Furthermore,
they are displaced from each other by 90°. This rela-
tionship can be seen by referring to the phasor dia-
gram (Fig. I 2. J 5c) and reasoning as follows:

1. Phasors EAB• EBc· and Ee"' are fixed by the

p
source.
2. Phasor EAN is in phase with phasor be-
cause the same ac flux links the turns of the au-
totransformer.
Figure 12.13 3. Phasor is in phase with phasor EAB for the
Autotransformer used as a phase-shifter. same reason.
 THREE-PHASE TRANSF0Rll4ER.)" 255

tap and the other an 86.6 percent tap on the primary

/::,~T
A winding. The transformers are connected as shown in
Fig. 12.16. The 3-phase source is connected to termi-
B nals A, B, C and the 2-phase load is connected to the
secondary windings. The ratio of transformation
c ENC
(3-phase line voltage to 2-phase line voltage) is given
by £A 8/£ 12 . The Scott connection has the advantage of
(a)
isolating the 3-phase and 2-phase systems and provid-
ing any desired voltage ratio between them.
EAT load 1 Except for servomotor applications, 2-phase
systems are seldom encountered today.

Example 12~5
A 2-phase, 7 .5 kW (I 0 hp), 240 Y. 60 Hz motor has
an efficiency of 0.83 and a power factor of 0.80. ll
load 2 is to be fed from a 600 V, 3-phase line using a Scott-
connected transformer bank 12. 16c ).
(b)
Calculate
a. The apparent power drawn by the motor
b. The current in each 2-phase line
c. The current in each 3-phase line

Solution
a. The active power drawn by the motor is

P PJr1 7500/0.83

(c)
9036 w
The apparent power drawn by the motor is
Figure 12.15
a. Simple method to obtain a 2-phase system from a S Picas <!> 9036/0.8
3-phase line, using a single transformer winding.
11 295 VA
b. Schematic diagram of the connections.
c. Phasor diagram of the voltages. The apparent power per phase is

4. From Kirchhoff's voltage law, + ENc S = I I 295/2 = 5648 VA

= 0. Consequently, phasor must have b. The current in each 2-phase line is
the value and direction shown in the figure.
l S/E = 5648/240
Loads I and 2 must be isolated from each other,
= 23.5 A
such as the two windings of a 2-phase induction mo-
tor. The ratio of transfor!nation (3-phase voltage to c. The transformer bank itself consumes very lit-
2-phase voltage) is fixed and given by Et\P,IEAI tle active and reactive power: consequently, the
100/86.6 1.15. 3-phase line supplies only the active and reac-
Another way to produce a 2-phase system is to use tive power absorbed by the motor. The total ap-
the Scott connection. It consists of two identical parent power furnished by the 3-phase line is,
single-phase transformers, the one having a 50 percent therefore, 11 295 YA.
256 ELH'TRICAL lv!ACHINES ANIJ TRANSFORMERS

e 4~A

phase 1

600
/
Iv 3
3

I
A B
A

•
~n,
1 2 23.5 A

phase 2

(a) Figure 12.16c

See Example 12-5.

The 3-phase line current is

l=SJ(lf3 = 11 295/('\/ 3 X 600)
I0.9A

Figure I 2.16c shows the power circuit and the

line voltages and currents.

12.11 Phase-shift transformer

A phase-shift transformer is a special type of 3-phase
autotransformer that shifts the phase angle between
the incoming and outgoing lines without changing
the voltage ratio.
Consider a 3-phase transmission line connected
to the terminals A. B. C of such a phase-shift trans-
(b)
former (Fig. 12.17). The transformer twists all the
incoming line voltages through an angle a without.
Figure 12.16
a. Scott connection. however. changing their magnitude. The result is
b. Phasor diagram of the Scott connection. that all the voltages of the outgoing transmission
line I. 2, 3 are shifted with respect to the voltages of
the incoming line A, B, C. The angle may be lead-
 THREE-PHASE TRANSFORlvfERS 257

phase-shift
Example 12-6
transformer A phase-shift transformer is designed to control 150
A MVA on a 230 kV, 3-phase line. The phase angle is
variable between zero and ± 15°.
B 2 a. Calculate the approximate basic power rating
of the transformer.
c 3 b. Calculate the line currents in the incoming and
outgoing transmission lines.
Tap changer
Solution
a. The basic power rating is
Figure 12.17a
Phase-shift transformer. ST = 0.025 SL a 111 a, ( 12.1)
0.025 x 150 x 15
56MVA
Note that the power rating is much less than the
power that the transformer carries. This is a
feature of all autotransformers.
3 b. The line currents are the same in both lines. be-
cause the voltages are the same. The line cur-
rent is
2
I 5 1/'13£ (8.9)
Figure 12.17b ( 150 x 6
10 )/(\i 3 x 230 000)
Phasor diagram showing the range over which the
phase angle of the outgoing line can be varied. 377 A
I 2. I 8a is an example of a 3-phase transformer
ing or lagging. and is usually variable between zero
that could be used to obtain a phase shift of. say. 20
and ±20°.
The transformer has two windings on each
The phase angle is sometimes varied in discrete
Thus. the associated with phase A has one
steps by means of a motorized tap-changer.
winding PN with a tap brought out at terminal A and
The basic power rating of the transformer
a second winding having terminals a. 3. The wind-
(which determines its size) depends upon the ap-
ings of the three phases are interconnected as shown.
parent power carried by the transmission line. and
The incoming line is connected to terminals A. B. C
upon the phase shift. For angles less than 20°. it is
and the outgoing line to terminals I. 2. 3.
given by the approximate formula
The result is that £ 1N lags 20° behind
( 12.1) Similarly, 20° behind and lags
20° behind Ee:-:. (Fig. I 2.18c ).
where
The basic principle of obtaining a phase shift is to
S1 = basic power rating of the 3-phase connect two voltages in series that arc generated
transformer bank [VA] by two different phases. Thus. voltage E 1h gener-
Si. apparent power carried by the trans- ated by phase B is connected in series \Vith EpN
mission line [VA] generated by phase A. The values and £ 1b are
cx 111 a, maximum transformer phase shift l 0 J selected so that the output voltage is equal to the in-
0.025 an approximate coefficient put voltage while obtaining the desired phase angle
..'58 ELECTRICAL lvtACH/Nt:·s AND TRANSFORMERS

I
I
I£ .....,= E -20°

20""
I

N N N

Figure 12.1 Sa
Construction of a 3-phase-shift transformer. The in- 2
coming terminals are A, B, C; the outgoing terminals
are 1, 2, 3. Figure 12.18c
Phaser diagram of a transformer that gives a phase-
shift of 20°.

£AN= E
EpN 1.14£
E:.a 0.40£
N = EA':'JL 20°
In practice. the internal circuit of a tap-changing,
phase-shift transformer is much more complex.
However, it rests upon the basic principles we have
just discussed. The purpose of such transformers
will be covered in Chapter 25.

12.12 Calculations involving

3-phase transformers
The behavior of a 3-phase transformer bank is cal-
culated the same way as for a single-phase trans-
former. In making the calculations, we proceed as
Figure 12.1 Sb
follows:
Schematic diagram of the transformer in Fig. 12.1 Ba.
I. We assume that the primary and secondary
windings are both connected in wye, even {(
between them. In our particular example. if Eis the they are not (see Section 8.14). This eliminates
line-to-neutral voltage of the incoming line. the re- the problem of having to deal with delta-wye
spective voltages across the windings of phase A are and delta-delta voltages and currents.
 THREE-PHASE TRANSFORMERS 259

2. We consider only one transformer (single phase) ZT(pu)

of this assumed wye-wye transformer bank. = j0.115 /i(pu)

3. The primary voltage of this hypothetical trans-

former is the line-to-neutral voltage of the in-
coming line.
Ei(pu)
4. The secondary voltage of this transformer is the
line-to-neutral voltage of the outgoing line.
5. The nominal power rating of this transformer is
one-third the rating of the 3-phase transformer
bank. Figure 12.19
6. The load on this transformer is one-third the See Example 12-7.
load on the transformer bank.
This is a very large transformer; consequently. the
Example 12-7 transformer impedance is almost entirely reactive.
The 3-phase step-up transformer shown in Fig. The per-unit impedance is. therefore.
10.18 (Chapter 10) is rated 1300 MVA, 24.5 kV/345
ZT(pu)=j0.115
kV. 60 Hz, impedance 11.5 percent. It steps up
the voltage of a generating station to power a The equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 12.19.
345 kV line. b. The power of the load per phase is

a. Determine the equivalent circuit of this trans- SL= 810/3 = 270 MVA
former, per phase. The voltage E1. across the load is
b. Calculate the voltage across the generator ter-
minals when the HY side of the transformer EL= 370 kV/~3 = 213.6 kV
delivers 810 MVA at 370 kV with a lagging The per-unit power of the load is
power factor of 0.90.
Si_(pu) = 270 MVA/433.3 MVA = 0.6231
Solution
a. First. we note that the primary and second- By selecting E1. as the reference phasor. the
ary winding connections are not specified. per-unit voltage across the load is
We don't need this information. However, £1.(pu) = 213.6 kV/199.2 kV
we assume that both windings are connected
= l.0723L0°
in wye.
We shall use the per-unit method to solve The per-unit current in the load is
this problem. We select the nominal voltage of
0.6231
the secondary winding as our base voltage. E 8 . = 0.5811
The base voltage is 1.0723

E 8 = 345/~ 3 = 199.2 kV The power factor of the load is 0.9. Consequently.

11, lags behind EL by an angle of arcos 0.90 =
Ratio of transformation is 25.84°.
(/ = 345/24.5 = 14.08 Consequently, the amplitude and phase of the
per-unit load current is given by
The nominal power rating of the transformer
will be used as the base power S 8 . Thus, / 1,(pu) = 0.5811 L -25.8-JY

S 8 = 1300/3 = 433.3 MVA The per-unit voltage£, (Fig. 12.19) is

260 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS

E,(pu) Ei,(pu) /iJpu) X Zr(pu) H1

l.0723L0° + (0.5811 ~25.84°)

X (0.115L90°) X1

X3<J
= 1.0723 + 0.0668L64.16°
1.0723 + 0.0668(cos 64.16° +
j sin 64.16°)
1.1014 +j 0.0601
H3 H2 X2
l.103L3.l2°
(a)
Therefore.
= l.103 X 345kV 381 kVL3.12° X1

The per-unit voltage on the primary side is also

£ 11 l.103L3.l2°
The effective voltage across the terminals of the
generator is, therefore,
= £ 11 (pu) X £ 8 (primary)
= 1.103 X 24.5 kV
27.02 kV X2

Figure 12.20
Polarity marking of 3-phase transformers.
12.13 Polarity marking
of 3-phase transformers
The HY terminals of a 3-phase transformer are
marked H 1, H2 , H3 and the LY terminals are marked
X 1, X 2 , X 3 • The following rules have been stan- ondary line voltages. The internal connections
dardized: are made so that the voltages on the HY side
I. If the primary windings and secondary wind- always lead the voltages of similarly-marked
ings are connected wye-wye or delta-delta, the terminals on the LY side. Thus.
voltages between similarly-marked terminals leads by 30°
are in phase. Thus,
EH,H, leads by 30°
EH,ll, is in phase with Ex,x,
EH,H, leads Ex,x, by 30°
EH,ll, is in phase with Ex,x, and so on.
EH,H, is in phase with Ex,x, 12.20 shows two ways of representing the
and so on. delta-wye terminal markings.
2. If the primary and secondary windings are con- 3. These rules are not affected by the phase
nected in wye-delta or delta-wye, there results sequence of the line voltage applied to the
a 30° phase shift between the primary and sec- primary side.
 THREE-PHASE TRANSFORMERS 261

Questions and Problems 12-7 In order to meet an emergency. three

single-phase transformers rated
Practical level 100 kVA, 13.2 kV/2.4 kV are connected
12-1 Assuming that the transformer terminals in wye-delta on a 3-phase 18 kV line.
have polarity marks Ht> H 2 , X 1 , X 2 , make a. What is the maximum load that can be
schematic drawings of the following con- connected to the transformer bank?
nections: b. What is the outgoing line voltage?
a. Delta-wye 12-8 Two transformers rated at 250 k VA,
b. Open-delta
2.4 kV /600 V are connected in open-
12-2 Three single-phase transformers rated at delta to supply a load of 400 kVA.
250 k VA, 7200 V /600 V, 60 Hz, are con- a. Are the transformers overloaded?
nected in wye-delta on a 12 470 V, 3-phase b. What is the maximum load the bank
line. If the load is 450 k VA, calculate the can carry on a continuous basis?
following currents:
12-9 Referring to Figs. 12.3 and 12.4, the line
a. In the incoming and outgoing transmis-
voltage between phases A-B-C is 6.9 kV
sion lines
and the voltage between lines 1. 2, and 3
b. In the primary and secondary windings
is balanced and equal to 600 V. Then, in a
12-3 The transformer in Fig. 12.9 has a rating similar installation the secondary wind-
of 36 MVA, 13.8 kV/320 V. Calculate the ings of transformer Pare by mistake con-
nominal currents in the primary and sec- nected in reverse.
ondary lines. a. Determine the voltages measured be-
12-4 Calculate the nominal currents in the pri- tween lines 1-2, 2-3. and 3-1.
mary and secondary windings of the trans- b. Draw the new phasor diagram.
former shown in Fig. I0.18, knowing that
the windings are connected in delta-wye. Industrial application
12- IO Three 150 k VA. 480 V/4000 V, 60 Hz sin-
Intermediate level gle-phase transformers are to be installed
12-5 The transformer shown in Fig. I 0.19 oper- on a 4000 V, 3-phase line. The exciting
ates in the forced-air mode during the current has a value of 0.02 pu. Calculate
morning peaks. the line current when the transformers are
a. Calculate the currents in the sec- operating at no-load.
ondary lines if the primary line volt- 12-11 The core loss in a 300 k VA 3-phase
age is 225 kV and the primary line distribution transformer is estimated to
current is 150 A. be 0.003 pu. The copper losses are
b. Is the transformer overloaded? 0.0015 pu. If the transformer operates
12-6 The transformers in Problem 12-2 are effectively at no-load 50 percent of
used to raise the voltage of a 3-phase the time, and the cost of electricity is
600 V line to 7.2 kV. 4.5 cents per kWh. calculate the cost of
a. How must they be connected? the no-load operation in the course of
b. Calculate the line currents for a 600 one year.
kVA load. 12-12 The bulletin of a transformer manufacturer
c. Calculate the corresponding primary indicates that a 150 kVA. 230 V/208 V.
and secondary currents. 60 Hz, 3-phase autotransformer weighs
262 ELECTRICAi. MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS

3 I0 lb. whereas a standard 3-phase trans- 12-14 In Problem 12-13 calculate the maximum
former having the same rating weighs line current that can be drawn from the 600 V
1220 lb. Why this difference? source. Then calculate the maximum load
12-13 Three single-phase transformers rated at (k VA) that the autotransformer can carry.
IS kVA . ..:J.80 V/120 V, 60 Hz are con- 12-15 You wish to operate a 40 hp, 460 V.
nected in delta to function as autotrans- 3-phase motor from a 600 V. 3-phase sup-
formers on a 600 V 3-phase line. The H 1• ply. The full-load current of the motor is
H::i, X 1 • X:i polarity marks appear on the 42 A. Three 5 kVA 120 Y/480 Y.
metal housing. single-phase transformers are available.
a. Show how the transformers should be How would you connect them? Are they
connected. able to furnish the load current drawn by
b. Determine the 3-phase voltage output the motor without overheating?
of the transformer.
c. Determine the phase shift between the
3-phase voltage output and the 600 V,
3-phase input.
 CHAPTER 13
Three-Phase Induction Motors

13.0 Introduction that ranges from 0.4 mm to 4 mm, depending on the

power of the motor.
hree-phase induction motors. a~e the motors
T most frequently encountered m mdustry. They
are simple, rugged, low-priced, and easy to main-
The stator (Fig. 13.2) consists of a steel frame that
supports a hollow, cylindrical core made up of
stacked laminations. A number of evenly spaced slots,
tain. They run at essentially constant speed from punched out of the internal circumference of the lam-
zero to full-load. The speed is frequency-dependent inations, provide the space for the stator winding.
and, consequently, these motors are not easily The rotor is also composed of punched lamina-
adapted to speed control. However, variable fre- tions. These are carefully stacked to create a series
quency electronic drives are being used more and of rotor slots to provide space for the rotor winding.
more to control the speed of commercial induction We use two types of rotor windings: (I) conven-
motors. tional 3-phase windings made of insulated wire and
In this chapter we cover the basic principles of (2) squirrel-cage windings. The type of winding
the 3-phase induction motor and develop the funda- rise to two main classes of motors: .'iqttirrd-
mental equations describing its behavior. We then cagc induction 1110/ors (also called cage motors)
discuss its construction and the way the and wound-rotor induction motors.
windings are made. A squirrel-cage rotor is composed of bare cop-
Squirrel-cage, wound-rotor, and linear induction per bars, slightly longer than the rotor, which are
motors ranging from a few horsepower to several pushed into the slots. The opposite ends are welded
thousand horsepower permit the reader to see that to two copper end-rings, so that all the bars are
they all operate on the same basic principles. short-circuited together. The entire construction
(bars and end-rings) resembles a squirrel cage,
from which the name is derived. In small and
medium-size motors. the bars and end-rings are
13.1 Principal components made of die-cast aluminum. molded to form an in-
A 3-phase induction motor (Fig. 13.1) has two main tegral block (Fig. I 3.3a). Figs. I 3.3b and I 3.3c
parts: a stationary stator and a revolving rotor. The show progressive stages in the manufacture of a
rotor is separated from the stator by a small air gap squirrel-cage motor.

263
264 ELECTRICAL MACH/NFS AND TRANSFORlvfERS

A wound rotor has a 3-phase winding. similar to

the one on the stator. The winding is uniformly dis-
tributed in the slots and is usually connected in 3-
wire wye. The terminals are connected to three slip-
rings, which turn with the rotor (Fig. 13.4). The
revolving slip-rings and associated stationary
brushes enable us to connect external resistors in se-
ries with the rotor winding. The external resistors arc
mainly used during the start-up period; under normal
running conditions, the three brushes are short-cir-
cuited.

Figure 13.1 13.2 Principle of operation

Super-E, premium efficiency induction motor rated
The operation of a 3-phase induction motor is based
10 hp, 1760 r/min, 460 V, 3-phase, 60 Hz. This to-
upon the application of Faraday's Law and the
tally-enclosed fan-cooled motor has a full-load cur-
rent of 12. 7 A, efficiency of 91. 7%, and power fac- Lorentz force on a conductor (Sections 2.20. 2.21.
tor of 81 %. Other characteristics: no-load current: and 2.22). The behavior can readily he understood
5 A; lockedrotor current: 85 A; locked rotor torque: by means of the following example.
2.2 pu; breakdown torque: 3.3 pu; service factor Consider a series of conductors of length /.
1.15; total weight: 90 kg: over-all length including whose extremities are short-circuited by two bars A
shaft: 491 mm; overall height: 279 mm. and B (Fig. I 3.5a). A permanent magnet placed
(Courtesy of Baldor Electric Company) above this conducting ladder. moves rapidly to the
right at a speed i; so that its magnetic field B sweeps
across the conductors. The following sequence of
events then takes place:

Figure 13.2
Exploded view of the cage motor of Fig. 13.1, showing the stator, rotor, end-bells, cooling fan, ball bearings,
and terminal box. The fan blows air over the stator frame, which is ribbed to improve heat transfer.
(Courtesy of Baldor Electric Company)
 THREE-PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS 265

moving magnet is replaced by a rotating field. The

field is produced by the 3-phase currents that flow
in the stator windings, as we will now explain.

13.3 The rotating field

Consider a simple stator having 6 salient poles, each
of which carries a coil having S turns (Fig. 13.6).
Coils that are diametrically opposite are connected
in series by means of three jumpers that respectively
connect terminals a-a, b-b. and c-c. This creates
three identical sets of windings AN. BN. CN. that
are mechanically spaced at 120° to each other. The
Figure 13.3a
Die-cast aluminum squirrel-cage rotor with integral
cooling fan.
(Courtesy of Lab-Volt)

I. A voltage E = Bfr is induced in each conductor

while it is being cut by the flux (Faraday\ law).
2. The induced voltage immediately produces a
current/, which flows down the conductor un-
derneath the pole-face. through the end-bars,
1 2
and back through the other conductors.
3. Because the current-carrying conductor lies in
the magnetic field of the permanent magnet, it
experiences a mechanical force (Lorentz force).
4. The force always acts in a direction to drag the
conductor along with the magnetic field
(Section
3 4
If the conducting ladder is free to move. it wil I ac-
celerate toward the right However. as it picks up
speed. the conductors will be cut less rapidly by the
moving magnet with the result that the induced volt-
age E and the current I will diminish. Consequently,
the force acting on the conductors will also decrease.
If the ladder were to move at the same speed as the
Figure 13.3b
magnetic field. the induced £. the current /, Progressive steps in the manufacture of stator and
and the force dragging the ladder along would all be- rotor laminations. Sheet steel is sheared to size
come zero. (1), blanked (2), punched (3), blanked (4), and
In an induction motor the ladder is closed upon punched (5).
itself to form a squirrel-cage (Fig. l 3.5b) and the (Courtesy of Lab-Volt)
266 EILCTRICA/, MACHINES AN[) TRANSFORMERS

upper

compressed t~mold
injection air in
air cylinder
press
piston

r - -
·-- -,-r - ,
- - - ...,,
compressed
air in

*
+I:: ' -
-.
-~ -.·. (
lower
mold

molten
hardened[J
aluminum aluminum
residue _ -: _- -: _- __

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Figure 13.3c
Progressive steps in the injection molding of a squirrel-cage rotor.
a. Molten aluminum is poured into a cylindrical cavity. The laminated rotor stacking is firmly held between
two molds.
b. Compressed air rams the mold assembly into the cavity. Molten aluminum is forced upward through the
rotor bar holes and into the upper mold.
c. Compressed air withdraws the mold assembly, now completely filled with hot (but hardened) aluminum.
d. The upper and lower molds are pulled away, revealing the die-cast rotor. The cross section view shows
that the upper and lower end-rings are joined by the rotor bars. (Lab-Volt)

two coils in each winding produce magnetomotive always flow in the windings from line to neutral.
forces that act in the same direction. Conversely, negative cu1Tents flow from neutral to
The three sets of windings are connected in wye, line. Furthermore. to enable us to work with num-
thus forming a common neutral N. Owing to the bers, suppose that the peak current per phase is 10 A.
perfectly symmetrical arrangement, the line-to- Thus, when I" = + 7 A. the two coils of phase A will
neutral impedances are identical. In other words, as together produce an mmf of7 A X 10 turns = 70 am-
regards terminals A, B, C, the windings constitute a pere-turns and a corresponding value of flux.
balanced 3-phase system. Because the current is positive. the flux is directed
If we connect a 3-phase source to terminals A, B. C, vertically upward, according to the right-hand rule.
alternating currents I". lh, and lc will flow in the wind- As time goes by, we can determine the instanta-
ings. The currents will have the same value but will be neous value and direction of the current in each
displaced in time by an angle of 120°. These currents winding and thereby establish the successive flux
produce magnetomotive forces which, in turn, create a patterns. Thus. referring to Fig. 13.7 at instant 1. cur-
magnetic flux. It is this flux we are interested in. rent I" has a value of + 10 A. whereas lb and lc both
In order to follow the sequence of events. we as- have a value of - 5 A. The mmf of phase A is
sume that positive currents (indicated by the arrows) 10 A X 10 turns= 100 ampere-turns. while the mmf
Figure 13.4a
Exploded view of a 5 hp, 1730 r/min wound-rotor induction motor.

Figure 13.4b
Close-up of the slip-ring end of the rotor.
(Courtesy of Brook Crompton Parkinson Ltd)

267
268 ELECTRICAL MACl/lNES AND TRANSFOR1WERS

Figure 13.Sa
Moving magnet cutting across a conducting ladder.
A

Figure 13.Sb
Ladder bent upon itself to form a squirrel-cage.

of phases B and C are each 50 ampere-turns. The di-

rection of the mmf depends upon the instantaneous
current flows and. using the right-hand rule. we find
that the direction of the resulting magnetic field is as
shown in Fig. 13.8a. Note that as far as the rotor is
concerned, the six salient poles together produce a N
magnetic field having essentially one broad north
Figure 13.6
pole and one broad south pole. This means that the
Elementary stator having terminals A, B, C connected
6-pole stator actually produces a 2-pole field. The
to a 3-phase source (not shown). Currents flowing
combined magnetic field points upward.
from line to neutral are considered to be positive.
At instant 2. one-sixth cycle later, current (. at-
tains a peak of - I 0 A. while ( 1 and / 0 both have a
value of + 5 A (Fig. I 3.8b ). We discover that the cycle. we find that the magnetic field makes one com-
new field has the same shape as before, except that plete turn during one cycle (see Figs. 13.8a to 13.8t).
it has moved clockwise by an angle of 60°. In other The rotational speed of the field depends, there-
words, the flux makes I /6 of a turn between instants fore. upon the duration of one cycle, which in turn
I and 2. depends on the frequency of the source. If the fre-
Proceeding in this way for each of the successive quency is 60 Hz. the resulting field makes one turn
in-;tants 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7, separated by intervals of I/6 in 1/60 s, that is, 3600 revolutions per minute. On
Figure 13.7
Instantaneous values of currents and position of the flux in Fig. 13.6.

A A

N N

Figure 13.Sa Figure 13.Sb

Flux pattern at instant 1. Flux pattern at instant 2.

269
270 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORAfERS

A A

Figure 13.Sc Figure 13.Sd

Flux pattern at instant 3. Flux pattern at instant 4.
A A

N N

Figure 13.Se Figure 13.Sf

Flux pattern at instant 5. Flux pattern at instant 6.

the other hand. if the frequency were 5 Hz, the field produces a field that rotates clockwise. If we inter-
would make one turn in I /5 s. giving a speed of only change any two of the lines connected to the stator.
300 r/min. Because the speed of the rotating field is the new phase sequence will be A-C-B. By following
necessarily synchronized with the frequency of the the same line of reasoning developed in Section 13.3.
source. it is called synchronous speed. we find that the field now revolves at synchronous
speed in the opposite, or counterclockwise direction.
Interchanging any two lines of a 3-phase motor will,
13.4 Direction of rotation
therefore. reverse its direction of rotation.
The positive crests of the currents in Fig. 13.7 follow Although early machines were built with salient
each other in the order A-B-C. This phase sequence poles, the stators of modern motors have internal di-
 THREE-PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS 271

ameters that are smooth. Thus. the salient-pole stator gered coils connected in series to be placed in 5 suc-
of 13.6 is now replaced by a smooth stator such cessive slots is shown in 13.20.
as shown in Figs. 13.2 and I 3.24a.
Jn Fig. 13.6, the two coils of phase A (Aa and An) 13.5 Number of poles-
are replaced by the two coils shown in I 3.9a. synchronous speed
They are lodged in two slots on the inner surface of the
stator. Note that each coil covers 180° of the circum- Soon after the invention of the induction motor. it
ference whereas the coils in Fig. 13.6 cover only 60°. was found that the speed of the revolving tlux could
The 180° coil pitch is more efficient because it pro- be reduced by increasing the number of poles.
duces more flux per tum. A cuffent /a flowing from To construct a 4-pole stator. the coils are distrib-
terminal A to the neutral N yields the tlux distribution uted as shown in Fig. 13.1 Oa. The four identical
shown in the figure. groups of phase A now span only 90° of the stator cir-
The coils of phases Band Care identical to those cumference. The groups are connected in series and
of phase A and. as can be seen in Fig. 13. 9b, they are in such a way that adjacent groups produce magne-
displaced at 120° to each other. The resulting mag- tomotive forces acting in opposite directions. In
netic field due to all three phases again consists of other words, when a current /a flows in the stator
two poles. winding of phase A (Fig. 13. IOa), it creates four al-
In practice. instead of using a single coil per pole ternate N-S poles.
as shown in I 3.9a. the coil is subdivided into The windings of the other two phases are identi-
two, three or more coils lodged in adjacent slots. The cal but are displaced from each other (and from
staggered coils are connected in series and constitute phase A) by a mechanical angle of 60°. When the
what is known as a phase group. Spreading the coil wye-connected windings are connected to a 3-phase
in this way over two or more slots tends to create a source. a revolving field having four poles is created
sinusoidal flux distribution per pole. which improves <Fig. 13. IOb). This field rotates at only half the
the performance of the motor and makes it less noisy. speed of the 2-pole field shown in I 3.9b. We
A phase group (or simply group) composed of 5 stag- will shortly explain why this is so.

phase group 1 group 1

phase A group 1 phase B
Ua + 10 A),~ phase A (lb= - 5 Al
Ua = + 10 A)
A c,____.._I-"a---1

B•.>-,-----
C ,~,_ _ _ _-1 BO----i

N co--__;~

phase group 2
phase A

group 1
phase C
Figure 13.9a (! c = 5 A)
Phase group 1 is composed of a single coil lodged
in two slots. Phase group 2 is identical to Phase Figure 13.9b
group 1. The two coils are connected in series. In Two-pole, full-pitch, lap-wound stator and resulting
practice, a phase group usually consists of two or magnetic field when the current in phase A = + 1O
more staggered coils. A and lb = le - 5 A.
272 ELECTRIC4L MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS

phase group 1
phase A
1/.,
group 1
phase C
group 8
Au----t phase A Uc= 5A)

Bt.i----t

C D-----1. A~---1

ao----t

Figure 13.1 Oa
The four phase groups of phase A produce a 4-
pole magnetic field.
Figure 13.11
Eight-pole, full-pitch, lap-wound stator and result-
group 1 group 1 ing magnetic field when la ..,.-10 A and /b le =
phase A phase B
Ua + 10 Al -SA.
(lb 5 A)

group 4
phase A group 1
phase C
Uc= 5 Al rent flow in the three phases, let us restrict our at-
Arr----t
tention to phase A. In Fig. 13. I I each phase group
ar)----t covers a mechanical angle of 360/8 = 45°.
Suppose the current in phase A is at its maximum
positive value. The magnetic flux is then centered
on phase A, and the N-S poles are located as
shO\vn in Fig. I 3. I 2a. One-half cycle later, the
current in phase A will reach its maximum nega-
tive value. The flux pattern will be the same as be-
Figure 13.1 Ob
fore, except that all the N poles will have become
Four-pole, full-pitch, lap-wound stator and resulting
S poles and vice versa (Fig. 13.12b). In compar-
magnetic field when la -'-10 A and /b le -5 A.
ing the two figures, it is clear that the entire mag-
netic field has shifted by an angle of 45°-and
this gives us the clue to finding the speed of rota-
We can increase the number of poles as much as tion. The flux moves 45° and so it takes 8 half-cy-
we please provided there are enough slots. Thus, cles ( = 4 cycles) to make a complete turn. On a
Fig. 13.11 shows a 3-phase, 8-pole stator. Each 60 Hz system the time to make one turn is there-
phase consists of 8 groups. and the groups of all the fore 4 X 1/60 = I/15 s. Consequently. the flux
phases together produce an 8-pole rotating field. turns at the rate of 15 r/s or 900 r/min.
When connected to a 60 Hz source, the poles turn, The speed of a rotating field depends therefore
like the spokes of a wheel, at a synchronous speed upon the frequency of the source and the number of
of 900 r/min. poles on the stator. Using the same reasoning as
How can \Ve tell what the synchronous speed above. we can prove that the synchronous speed is
will be? Without going into all the details of cur- always given by the expression
 THREE-PHASE INDUCTION lv!OTORS 27J

phase group 1 phase group 1

phase A phase A
f/, = + 10 A) (I"= - 10A)

phase group 8 phase group 8

phase A phase A

Ar>---- A tJ-----t

Bt>---- B u-----t
C1>-----1 c

Figure 13.12a Figure 13.12b

Flux pattern when the current in phase A is at its Flux pattern when the current in phase A is at its
maximum positive value. maximum negative value. The pattern is the same as
in Fig. 13.12a but it has advanced by one pole pitch.

ing field created by the stator cuts across the rotor

120/
n, = ( 13.1) bars and induces a in all of them.
p
This is an ac voltage because each conductor is
where
cut in rapid succession, by a N pole followed by a
11, synchronous speed fr/min] S pole. The frequency of the voltage depends upon
f frequency of the source [Hzl the number of >l' and S poles that sweep across a
p number of poles conductor per second; when the rotor is at rest it is
always equal to the frequency of the source.
This equation shows that the synchronous speed in-
Because the rotor bars are short-circuited by the
creases with frequency and decreases with the m1111-
end-rings. the induced voltage causes a large cur-
ber of poles.
rent to flow-usually several hundred amperes per
bar in machines of medium power.
Example 13-1
The cwTent-e<.mying conductors are in the path of
Calculate the synchronous speed of a 3-phase in-
the flux created by the stator. consequently. they all
duction motor having 20 poles when it is connected
experience a strong mechanical force. These forces
to a 50 Hz source.
tend to drag the rotor along with the revolving field.
Sof ll tiOil In summary:
11, = 120//p 120 x 50/20
l. A revolving magnetic field is set up when a
= 300 r/min 3-phase voltage is applied to the stator of an
induction motor.
13.6 Starting characteristics 2. The revolving field induces a voltage in the ro-
of a squirrel-cage motor tor bars.
Let us connect the stator of an induction motor lo a 3. The induced voltage creates large circulating cur-
3-phase source. with the rotor locked. The revolv- rents which flow in the rotor bars and end-rings.
274 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS

4. The current-carrying rotor bars are immersed in equal to the load torque. When this state is reached. the
the magnetic field created by the stator: they are speed will cease to drop and the motor will turn at a
therefore subjected to a strong mechanical force. constant rate. It is very important to understand that a
5. The sum of the mechanical forces on all the ro- motor only turns at constant speed when its torque is
tor bars produces a torque which tends to drag exactly equal to the torque exerted by the mechanical
the rotor along in the same direction as the re- load. The moment this state of equilibrium is upset the
volving field. motor speed will start to change (Section 3.11 ).
Under normal loads, induction motors run very
13.7 Acceleration of the rotor-slip close to synchronous speed. Thus, at full-load, the
slip for large motors (1000 kW and more) rarely
As soon as the rotor is released, it rapidly acceler- exceeds 0.5% of synchronous speed, and for small
ates in the direction of the rotating field. As it picks machines (IO kW and less), it seldom exceeds 5%.
up speed, the relative velocity of the field with re- That is why induction motors are considered to be
spect to the rotor diminishes progressively. This constant speed machines. However, because they
causes both the value and the frequency of the in- never actually turn at synchronous speed, they are
duced voltage to decrease because the rotor bars are sometimes called asynchronous machines.
cut more slowly. The rotor current, very large at
first decreases rapidly as the motor picks up speed. 13.9 Slip and slip speed
The speed will continue to increase, but it will
never catch up with the revolving field. In effect, if The slips of an induction motor is the difference be-
the rotor did turn at the same speed as the field (syn- tween the synchronous speed and the rotor speed,
chronous speed), the flux would no longer cut the expressed as a percent (or per-unit) of synchronous
rotor bars and the induced voltage and current speed. The per-unit slip is by the equation
would fall to zero. Under these conditions the force
acting on the rotor bars would also become zero and s (I
the friction and windage would immediately cause where
the rotor to slow down.
The rotor speed is always slightly less than syn- s slip
chronous speed so as to produce a current in the ro- n, synchronous speed [r/min l
tor bars sufficiently large to overcome the braking n = rotor speed [r/minJ
torque. At no-load the percent difference in speed The slip is practically zero at no-load and 1s
between the rotor and field (called slip), is small: equal to 1 (or 100%) when the rotor is locked.
usually less than 0.1 % of synchronous speed.
Example 13-2
13.8 Motor under load A 0.5 hp, 6-pole induction motor is excited by a 3-
Suppose the motor is initially running at no-load. If phase, 60 Hz source. If the full-load speed is 1140
we apply a mechanical load to the shaft, the motor r/min, calculate the slip.
will begin to slow down and the revolving field will Solution
cut the rotor bars at a higher and higher rate. The in- The synchronous speed of the motor is
duced voltage and the resulting current in the bars
will increase progressively, producing a greater and n, = 12Qflp = 120 X 60/6 (13.1)
greater motor torque. The question is, for how long 1200 r/min
can this go on? Will the speed continue to drop un-
The difference between the synchronous speed of
ti I the motor comes to a halt?
the revolving flux and rotor speed is the slip speed:
No: the motor and the mechanical load will reach a
state of equilibrium when the motor torque is exactly n, - n = 1200 1140 60 r/min
 THREE-PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS 275

The slip is c. Motor turning at 500 r/min in the opposite

direction to the revolving field
s = (n, 11 )In, 60/ 1200 ( 13.2)
d. Motor turning at 2000 r/min in the same direc-
0.05 or 5% tion as the revolving field

13.1 O Voltage and frequency Solution

induced in the rotor From Example 13-2. the synchronous speed of the
motor is 1200 r/min.
The voltage and frequency induced in the rotor both
depend upon the slip. They are given by the folJow- a. At standstill the motor speed 11 0.
ing equations: Consequently. the slip is
s (n,-n)/n,=(1200 0)/1200
( 13.3)
(approx.) ( 13.4) The frequency of the induced voltage (and of
the induced current) is
where
12 = sf'= 1 X 60 60 Hz
.12 frequency of the voltage and current in
b. When the motor turns in the same direction as the
the rotor [Hzl
field. the motor speed n is positive. The slip is
f frequency of the source connected to
the stator [Hz I s (n, -11)/n, = (1200 500)/1200
s slip = 700/1200 = 0.583
induced in the rotor at slips The frequency of the induced voltage (and of
the rotor current) is
£ 0 .: open-circuit voltage induced in the ro-
tor when at rest [VJ f2 = sf'= 0.583 X 60 35 Hz

In a cage motor, the open-circuit voltage £ 0 .: is c. When the motor turns in the opposite direction
the voltage that would be induced in the rotor bars to the field, the motor speed is negati\'e; thus.
if the bars were disconnected from the end-rings. In n = -500. The slip is
the case of a wound-rotor motor the open-circuit
voltage is I/'\/ 3 times the voltage between the open-
circuit slip-rings. = [1200 - (-500)]/1200
It should be noted that Eq. 13.3 always holds = ( 1200 + 500 )/1200 1700/ 1200
true. but 13.4 is valid only if the revolving flux = 1.417
(expressed in webers) remains absolutely constant.
A slip greater than I implies that the motor is
However. between zero and full-load the actual
operating as a brake.
value is only slightly less than the value
The frequency of the induced voltage and rotor
by the equation.
current is
Example I .kl j~ ,\f 1.417 X 60 = 85 Hz
The 6-pole wound-rotor induction motor of Example
d. The motor speed is positive because the rotor
13-2 is excited by a 3-phase 60 Hz source. Calculate
turns in the same direction as the field:
the frequency of the rotor cmTent under the follow-
11 = + 2000. The slip is
ing conditions:
s (11, n)ln,
a. At standstill
b. Motor turning at 500 r/min in the same direc- ( 1200 2000)/1200
tion as the revolving field -800/1200 = -0.667
276 ELECTRIC4.L MACH/NFS AND TRANSFORMERS

A negative slip implies that the motor is actually I. Motor at no-load. When the motor runs at no
operating as a generator. load, the stator current lies between 0.5 and 0.3 pu (of
The frequency of the induced voltage and rotor full-load current). The no-load current is similar to the
current is exciting current in a transformer. Thus. it is composed
of a magnetizing component that creates the revolv-
f2 .sf -0.667 X 60 = -40 Hz
ing tlux cf>m and a small active component that sup-
A negative frequency means that the phase se- plie'> the windage and friction losses in the rotor plus
quence of the voltages induced in the rotor wind- the iron losses in the stator. The flux cf>m links both the
ings is reversed. Thus, if the phase sequence of the stator and the rotor; consequently it is similar to the
rotor voltages is A-8-C when the frequency is pos- mutual flux in a transformer (Fig. 13.13).
itive. the phase sequence is A-C-B when the fre- Considerable reactive power is needed to create
quency is negative. As far as a frequency meter is the revolving field and, in order to keep it within ac-
concerned, a negative frequency gives the same ceptable limits, the air gap is made as short as me-
reading as a positive frequency. Consequently, we chanical tolerances will permit. The power factor at
can say that the frequency is simply 40 Hz. no-load is therefore low; it ranges from 0.2 (or 209'c)
for small machines to 0.05 for large machines. The
13.11 Characteristics of squirrel- efficiency is zero because the output power is zero.
cage induction motors 2. Motor under load, When the motor is under load,
the current in the rotor produces a mmf which tends
Table l 3A lists the typical properties of squirrel- to change the mutual flux <l\w This sets up an oppos-
cage induction motors in the power range between ing current flow in the stator. The opposing mmfs of
I kW and 20 000 kW. Note that the current and the rotor and stator are very similar to the opposing
torque are expressed in per-unit values. The base mmfs of the secondary and primary in a transformer.
current is the full-load current and all other cur- As a result. leakage fluxes cI>n and <I\:c are created, in
rents are compared to it. Similarly, the base torque addition to the mutual flux cf> 111 (Fig. 13.14). The total
is the full-load torque and all other torques are reactive power needed to produce these three fluxes is
compared to it. Finally, the base speed is the syn- slightly greater than when the motor is operating at
chronous speed of the motor. The following expla- no-load. However, the active power (kW) absorbed
nations will clarify the meaning of the values given by the motor increases in almost direct proportion to
in the table. the mechanical load. It follows that the power factor

TABLE 13A TYPICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF SQUIRREL-CAGE INDUCTION MOTORS

Loading Current Torque Slip Efficiency Power factor

(per-unit) (per-unit) {per-unit)

Motor size --:; Small* Big'' Small Big Small Big Small Big Small Big

Full-load ().()3 0.004 0.7 0.96 0.8 0.87

to to to to
0.9 0.98 0.85 0.9

No-load 0.5 0.3 () 0 =O =O () 0 0.2 0.05

Locked rotor 5 4 1.5 0.5 0 0 0.4 0.1

to to to to
6 6 3 I

*Small means under 11 kW (15 hp); big means over 1120 kW (1500 hp) and up to 25 000 hp.
 THREE-PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS 277

<I>f I

A
B
c
<fir 2 <tif2

Figure 13.13 Figure 13.14

At no-load the flux in the motor is mainly the mu- At full-load the mutual flux decreases, but stator
tual flux <Dm. To create this flux, considerable reac- and rotor leakage fluxes are created. The reactive
tive power is needed. power needed is slightly greater than in Fig. 13.13.

of the motor improves dramatically as the mechanical where

load increases. At full-load it ranges from 0.80 for
I= full-load current fA]
small machines to 0.90 for large machines. The effi-
P 11 = output power [horsepower!
ciency at full-load is particularly high; it can attain
E = rated line voltage (V)
98% for very large machines.
600 = empirical constant
3. Locked-rotor characteristics. The locked-rotor
current is 5 to 6 times the full-load current, making Recalling that the starting current is 5 to 6 pu and
the / 2 R losses 25 to 36 times higher than normal. that the no-load current lies between 0.5 and
The rotor must therefore never remain locked for 0.3 pu, we can readily estimate the value of these
more than a few seconds. currents for any induction motor.
Although the mechanical power at standstill is
zero. the motor develops a strong torque. The power
factor is low because considerable reactive power is Example 13-4
needed to produce the leakage flux in the rotor and a. Calculate the approximate full-load current,
stator windings. These leakage fluxes are much locked-rotor current. and no-load current of a
larger than in a transformer because the stator and 3-phase induction motor having a rating of
the rotor windings are not as tightly coupled (see 500 hp, 2300 V.
Section 10.2). b. Estimate the apparent power drawn under
locked-rotor conditions.
c. State the nominal rating of this motor,
13.12 Estimating the currents expressed in kilowatts.
in an induction motor Solution
a. The full-load current is
The full-load current of a 3-phase induction motor
may be calculated by means of the following ap- I = 600 P /£1
( 13.5)
proximate equation: = 600 x 500/2300
( 13.5) = 130 A (approx.)
27~ EU:'CTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS

The no-load current is motor. However. it is easier to see how electrical

energy is converted into mechanical energy by fol-
'" 0.3/ 0.3 x 130 lowing the active power as it flows through the ma-
39 A (approx.)
chine. Thus, referring to Fig. 13.15, active power
The starting current is Pc flows from the line into the 3-phase stator. Due
to the stator copper losses, a portion Pi, is dissi-
f u< = 6/ 6 x I 30
pated as heat in the windings. Another portion P 1 is
= 780 A (approx.) dissipated as heat in the stator core. owing to the
b. The apparent power under locked-rotor condi- iron losses. The remaining active power Pr is car-
tions is ried across the air gap and transferred to the rotor
by electromagnetic induction.
S = V3 El Due to the PR losses in the rotor, a third portion
= '13 x 2300 x 780 (8.9) Pjr is dissipated as heat, and the remainder is finally
3100 kVA (approx.) available in the form of mechanical power P 111 • By
subtracting a small fourth portion P v• representing
c. When the power of a motor is expressed in kilo-
watts. it always relates to the mechanical output windage and bearing-friction losses, we finally ob-
and not to the electrical input. The nominal rating tain P1,. the mechanical power available at the shaft
of this motor expressed in SI units is. therefore, to drive the load.
The power flow diagram of Fig. 13.15 enables us
p 500/1.34 to identify and to calculate three important proper-
= 373 kW (see Power conversion chart in ties of the induction motor: (1) its efficiency, (2) its
Appendix AXO) pcw.-er, and (3) its torque.
1. Efficiency. By definition, the efficiency of a
13.13 Active power flow motor is the ratio of the output power to the input
Voltages. currents. and phasor diagrams enable us power:
to understand the detailed behavior of an induction efficiency (11) PdP.., ( 13.6)

windage and friction loss

2
l R loss rt! mechanical power {jp shaft
Pi, )
u v
po~
active power
I pm . c=2~

t~o)£--~rr~~~~-==~@
to stator

supplied to rotor

Figure 13.15
Active power flow in a 3-phase induction motor.
 THREE-PHASE INDUCJWN MOTORS 279

2. 12 R losses in the rotor. It can be shown* that the 4. Motor torque. The torque T111 developed by the
rotor PR losses Pi, are related to the rotor input motor at any speed is given by
power Pr by the equation 9.55 pill
T 111 = (3.5)
(13.7) II

where

pjr rotor l'-R losses [WI therefore.

s slip ( 13.9)
Pr power transmitted to the rotor [W] where
Equation 13.7 shows that as the slip increases, the T111 = torque developed by the motor at any
rotor PR losses consume a larger and larger pro- speed [N·ml
portion of the power P1 transmitted across the air P,. = power transmitted to the rotor [WI
gap to the rotor. A rotor turning at half synchro-
n, = synchronous speed [r/minJ
nous speed (s 0.5) dissipates in the form of heat
9.55 = multiplier to take care of units [exact
50 percent of the active power it receives. When
value: 60/2TI I
the rotor is locked (s = l ). all the power transmit-
ted to the rotor is dissipated as heat. The actual torque TL available at the shaft is
3. Mechanical power. The mechanical power P111 slightly less than Tm, due to the torque required to
developed by the motor is equal lo the power trans- overcome the windage and friction losses. However,
mirted to the rotor minus its / 2 R losses. Thus, in most calculations we can neglect this small
difference.
pm pr pjr Equation 13.9 shows that the torque is directly
P, - sP1 ( 13.7) proportional to the active power transmitted to the ro-
whence tor. Thus, to develop a high locked-rotor torque. the
rotor must absorb a large amount of active power. The
Pm= (I - s)P,. (13.8)
latter is dissipated in the form of heat. consequently,
The actual mechanical power available to drive the temperature of the rotor rises very rapidly.
the load is slightly less than P111 , due to the power
needed to overcome the windage and friction Example 13-5
losses. In most calculations we can neglect this A 3-phase induction motor having a synchronous
small loss. speed of 1200 r/min draws 80 kW from a 3-phase
mechanical - electromagnetic 1 I- electrical~
power output transferred j
1

- I . los:-.es
P,
of tlux X electronmgnetic torque
of rotor to rotor Lm rotor 9.55

pm P,- Ii) P, (iii)

9.55
but from Eq. 3.5 hut the mechanical torque T,., must equal
rotor speed X mechanical to!_que the electromagnetic torque
9.55 Thus
Hence.
T," (iv)
l/E.i (ii) Sub.,lituting (ii). (iii), and (iv) in (il. we find
9.55
Also from Eq. J.5 we can write P 1, sP,
280 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRAN5FORMERS

feeder. The copper losses and iron losses in the sta- e. The efficiency is
tor amount to 5 kW. If the motor runs at 1152 r/min.
11 Pi.IP.: = 70/80
calculate the following:
0.875 or 87.5<;:0
a. The active power transmitted to the rotor
b. The rotor / 2 R losses Example 13-6
c. The mechanical power developed A 3-phase. 8-pole squirrel-cage induction motor.
d. The mechanical pO\ver delivered to the load. connected to a 60 Hz line. possesses a synchronous
knowing that the windage and friction losses speed of 900 r/min. The motor absorbs 40 kW. and
are equal to 2 kW the copper and iron losses in the stator amount to
e. The efficiency of the motor 5 kW and I kW. respectively. Calculate the torque
developed by the motor.
Sol Ill ion
a. Active power to the rotor is Solution
The power transmitted across the air gap to the rotor is
P, = pc - Pi, - Pr
80 5 = 75 kW P, Pc: - Pi, - Pr
b. The slip is = 40 - 5 I = 34 kW
Tm 9.55 P1 !11, ( 13.9)
= 9.55 x 34 000/900
( 1200 1152)/1200
361 N·m
= 48/ 1200 0.04
2
Rotor / R losses are Note that the solution to this problem (the
torque) is independent of the speed of rotation. The
Pir sP,. 0.04 X 75 = 3 kW motor could be at a standstill or running at full
c. The mechanical power developed is speed. but as long as the power P, transmitted to the
2
rotor is equal to 34 kW. the motor develops a torque
P 111 = P, 1 R losses in rotor
of 361 N·m.
75 - 3 = 72 kW
Example 13-7
d. The mechanical power P1, delivered to the load
A 3-phase induction motor having a nominal rating of
is slightly less than P 111 , due to the friction and
I00 hp ( ~ 75 kW) and a synchronous speed of 1800
windage losses.
r/min is connected to a 600 V source (Fig. I 3.16a).
The two-wattmeter method shows a total power con-

o.34n8
A Pf
Pv ~
2 kW
1.2 kW 100 HP("= 75 kW)

I
1783 r/min

Figure 13.16a
See Example 13-7.
 THREE-PHASE INDUCTION lvfOTORS 281

sumption of 70 kW, and an ammeter indicates a line b. The slip is

current of 78 A. Precise measurements give a rotor
s (n, n)/n,
speed of 1763 r/min. In addition, the following char-
acteristics are known about the motor: ( 1800 1763 )/1800
0.0205
stator iron losses P1 2 kW
windage and friction losses P, = 1.2 kW Rotor /'R losses:
resistance between two stator terminals = 0.34 n Pir = sPr 0.0205 X 64.9 = 1.33 kW
Ca/cu/are c. Mechanical power developed is
a. Power supplied to the rotor
b. Rotor/' R losses P 111 =Pr Pjr 64.9 - 1.33 63.5 kW
c. Mechanical power supplied to the load. in Mechanical power PL to the load:
horsepower
d. Efficiency Pi. 63.5 P, 63.5 - 1.2
e. Torque developed at 1763 r/min 62.3 kW 62.3 x 1.34 (hp)
Soluri on = 83.5 hp
a. Power supplied to the stator is d. Efficiency of the motor is

11 = P 1jP., 62.3/70 0.89 or 897<·

Stator resistance per phase (assume a wye con- e. Torque at 1763 r/min:
nection) is
T = 9.55 P,!11, 9.55 X 64 900/1800
R = 0.34/2 0.17 fl
= 344 N·m
Stator /'R losses are
The above calculations are summarized in
Pi, = 3 /'R 3 X (78y2 x 0.17 Fig. I 3. I 6b.
= 3.1 kW
13.14 Torque versus speed curve
Iron losses Pr= 2 kW
Power supplied to the rotor: The torque developed by a motor depends upon it-.
speed, but the relationship between the two cannot
P, = P., - P1, Pr
be expressed by a simple equation. Consequently.
(70 - 3.1 - 2) 64.9 kW we prefer to show the relationship in the form of a

Figure 13.16b
Power flow in Example 13-7.
282 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORlvfERS

curve. Fig. 13.17 shows the torque-speed curve of a aluminum. or other metals in the rotor bars and end-
conventional 3-phase induction motor whose nom- rings. The torque-speed curve is greatly affected by
inal full-load torque is T The stm1ing torque is such a change in resistance. The only characteristic
1.5 T and the maximum torque (called breakdown that remains unchanged is the breakdown torque. The
torque) is 2.5 T Pull-up torque is the minimum following example illustrates the changes that occur.
torque developed by the motor while it is accelerat- Figure I 3. l 8a shows the torque-speed curve of a
ing from rest to the breakdown torque. IO kW ( 13.4 hp), 50 Hz, 380 V motor having a syn-
At full-load the motor runs at a speed n. If the me- chronous speed of 1000 r/min and a full-load torque
chanical load increases slightly, the speed will drop of 100 N·m ( ~ 73.7 ft·lbf). The full-load current is
until the motor torque is again equal to the load :20 A and the locked-rotor current is I00 A. The ro-
torque. As soon as the two torques are in balance. the tor has an arbitrary resistance R.
motor will turn at a constant but slightly lower Let us increase the rotor resistance by a factor of
speed. However. if the load torque exceeds :2.5 T 2.5. This can be achieved by using a material of
(the breakdown torque). the motor will quickly stop. higher resistivity, such as bronze. for the rotor bars
Small motors (I 5 hp and less) develop their and end-rings. The new torque-speed curve is
breakdown torque at a speed 11d of about 80% of shown in Figure I 3. I 8b. It can be seen that the start-
synchronous speed. Big motors (I 500 hp and more) ing torque doubles and the locked-rotor crnTent de-
attain their breakdown torque at about 98%, of syn- creases from I00 A to 90 A. The motor develops its
chronous speed. breakdown torque at a speed Nd of 500 r/min. com-
pared to the original breakdown speed of 800 r/min.
If we again double the rotor resistance so that it
13.15 Effect of rotor resistance
becomes 5 R, the locked-rotor torque attains a max-
The rotor resistance of a squiITel-cage rotor is es- imum value of 250 N·m for a corresponding current
sentially constant from no-load to full-load, except of 70 A (Fig. I 3.18c).
that it increases with temperature. Thus, the resis- A further increase in rotor resistance decreases
tance increases with increasing load because the both the locked-rotor torque and locked-rotor cur-
temperature rises. rent. For example. if the rotor resistance is in-
In designing a squirrel-cage motor, the rotor resis- creased 25 times (25 R). the locked-rotor current
tance can be set over a wide range by using copper. drops to 20 A, but the .motor develops the same

2T

locked-rotor torque
(I)
:::J 1.5 T
l?" I
s pull-up torq~e full load

I 0.5 T
T ----------- -----nominal torque

0 0 20 40 60 80 100 %
- rotational speed
t t
Figure 13.17
Typical torque-speed curve of a 3-phase squirrel-cage induction motor.
 N·m A
250 100

E
Cl> ~
:I
:;
e- ...
(a) s
normal rotor
resistance= R
i 100 960 r/min
____I,(_to________________
yield 100 N-m
nd 20
500 I

00 800 1000 r/min 00 500 1000 r/min

-speed --speed

N·m
250 A
90 ""·
200
....c: locked
(b) Cl> rotor
:I
rotor e- ~
resistance= 2.5 R
s ...
:I

100
r r
20
___I ,(_to_______________
yield 100 N-m
900 r/min
nd
7 A at no-load+
I
00 500 9001000 r/min 00 500 1000 r/min
-speed -speed

N·m
250

Cl>
A
(c) :I 70
e-
rotor s ....c:
resistance= 5 R
I 100
T (nominal)
~
...
::l

i 20
I to yield 100 N.m
-----------------

00 500 800 1000 r/min 00 1000 r/min

-speed -speed

N·m
(d) ~ 100
rotor O"

resistance= 25 R
.9

1000 r/min r/min

-speed

Figure 13.18
Rotor resistance affects the motor characteristics.

283
284 ELECTRICAL iWACH!lVES AND TRANSFORMERS

starting torque (100 N·m), as it did when the I. The locked-rotor current can be drastically re-
locked-rotor current was I00 A (Fig. I 3. l 8d). duced by inserting three external resistors in
In summary. a high rotor resistance is desirable series with the rotor. Nevertheless. the locked-
because it produces a high starting torque and a rotor torque will still be as high as that of a
relatively low starting current (Fig. I 3. I 8c). squirrel-cage motor.
Unfortunately. it also produces a rapid fall-off in
2. The speed can be varied by varying the exter-
speed with increasing load. Furthermore, because
nal rotor resistors.
the slip at rated torque is high, the motor i1R
losses are high. The efficiency is therefore low 3. The motor is ideally suited to accelerate high-
and the motor tends to overheat. inertia loads. which require a long time to bring
Under running conditions it is preferable to have up to speed.
a low rotor resistance (Fig. I 3. I 8a). The speed de-
Fig. 13.19 is a diagram of the circuit used to start
creases much less with increasing load, and the slip
a wound-rotor motor. The rotor windings are con-
at rated torque is small. Consequently. the effi-
nected to three wye-connected external resistors by
ciency is high and the motor tends to run cool.
means of a set of slip-rings and brushes. Under
We can obtain both a high starting resistance
locked-rotor (LR) conditions, the variable resistors
and a low running resistance by designing the rotor
are set to their highest value. As the motor speeds
bars in a special way (see Fig. 14.5. Chapter 14).
up, the resistance is gradually reduced until foll-
However, if the rotor resistance has to be varied
load speed is reached, whereupon the brushes are
over a wide range, it may be necessary to use a
short-circuited. By properly selecting the resistance
wound-rotor induction motor. Such a motor en-
values, we can produce a high accelerating torque
ables us to vary the rotor resistance at will by
with a stator current that never exceeds twice full-
means of an external rheostat.
load current.
To start large motors, we often use liquid
13.16 Wound-rotor motor
rheostats because they are easy to control and have
We explained the basic difference between a a large thermal capacity. A liquid rheostat is com-
squirrel-cage motor and a wound-rotor motor in posed of three electrodes immersed in a suitable
Section 13.1. Although a wound-rotor motor costs electrolyte. To vary its resistance, we simply vary
more than a squirrel-cage motor, it offers the fol- the level of the electrolyte surrounding the elec-
lowing advantages: trodes. The large thermal capacity of the electrolyte

~
~ 3-phase
source ~ stator
b
collector ring

starting rheostat and

speed controller

Figure 13.19
External resistors connected to the three slip-rings of a wound-rotor induction motor.
 THREE-PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS 285

limits the temperature rise. For example. in one ap- coils per group must have a total of (4 X 3 X 5)
plication a liquid rheostat is used in conjunction 60 coils. lodged in 60 slots. The coils in each group
with a 1260 kW wound-rotor motor to bring a large are connected in series and are staggered at one-slot
synchronous machine up to speed. intervals (Fig. 13.20). The coils are identical and
We can also regulate the speed of a wound-rotor may possess one or more turns. The width of each
motor by varying the resistance of the rheostat. As coil is called the coil pitch.
we increase the resistance. the speed will drop. This Such a distributed winding is obviously more
method of speed control has the disadvantage that a costly to build than a concentrated winding having
lot of heat is dissipated in the resistors: the effi- only one coil per group. However. it improves the
ciency is therefore low. Furthermore. for a given starting torque and reduces the noise under running
rheostat setting. the speed varies considerably if the conditions.
mechanical load varies. When the stator windings arc excited from a
The power rating of a self-cooled wound-rotor 3-phase source. a multipolar revolving field is pro-
motor depends upon the speed at which it operates. duced. The distance between adjacent poles is called
Thus. for the same temperature rise, a motor that can the pole pitch. It is equal to the internal circumfer-
develop 100 kW at 1800 r/min can deliver only about ence of the stator divided by the number of poles. For
40 kW at 900 r/min. However. if the motor is cooled example. a 12-pole stator having a circumference of
by a separate fan. it can deliver 50 kW at 900 r/min. 600 mm has a pole-pitch of 600/12 or 50 mm.
In practice, the coil pitch is between 80% and
IOOC!o of the pole pitch. The coil pitch is usually
13.17 Three-phase windings
made less than the pole pitch in order to save copper
In 1883 a 27-year-old Yugoslav scientist named and to improve the tlux distribution in the air gap.
Nikola Tesla invented the 3-phase induction motor. The shorter coil width reduces the cost and weight
His first model had a salient-pole stator winding of the windings. while the more sinusoidal tlux dis-
similar to the one shown in Fig. 13.6. Since then the tribution improves the torque during start-up. and
design of induction motors has evolved consider- often results in a quieter machine. In the case of
ably; modern machines are built with lap windings 2-pole machines. the shorter pitch also makes the
distributed in slots around the stator. coils much easier to insert in the slots.
A lap winding consists of a set of phase groups To get an overall picture of a lap winding. let us
evenly distributed around the stator circumference. suppose a 24-slot stator is laid out tlat as shown in
The number of groups is given by the equation Fig. 13.21 a. The 24 coils are held upright. with one

groups poles phases

1-t---··COll pitch--j
Thus, a 4-pole, 3-phase stator must have 4 X 3 = 12
phase groups. Because a group must have at least
one coil. it follows that the minimum number of
coils is equal to the number of groups. A 4-pole.
3-phase stator must therefore have at least 12 coils.
Furthermore. in a lap winding the stator has as many
slots as it has coils. Consequently, a 4-pole, 3-phase 5 coils per group
stator must have at least 12 slots. However, motor
designers have discovered that it is preferable to use
,JlJlJ1JlJ1_,2
2. 3. or more coils per group rather than only one. Figure 13.20
The number of coils and slots increases in propor- The five coils are connected in series to create one
tion. For example, a 4-pole. 3-phase stator having 5 phase group.
286 EU:TTR/CAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS

coil side set in each slot. If the windings are now laid c. Number of groups per phase number of
down so that all the other coil sides fall into the slots, poles 10
we obtain the classical appearance of a 3-phase lap Coils per group 40 + I0 4.
winding having two coil sides per slot 13.21 b ). d. The pole pitch corresponds to
The coils are connected together to create three pole pitch = slots/poles 120/ 10
identical windings. one for each phase. Each wind- = 12 slots
ing consists of a number of groups equal to the num- One pole pitch extends therefore from slot I
ber of poles. The groups of each phase are symmet- (say) to slot 13.
rically distributed around the circumference of the e. The coil pitch covers I 0 slots (slot I to slot 11 ).
stator. The following examples show how this is The percent coil pitch = 10/12 83.3%.
done. The next example shows in greater detail how
the coils are interconnected in a typical 3-phase sta-
Example I 3-8 tor winding.
The stator of a 3-phase, I 0-pole induction motor
possesses 120 slots. If a lap winding is used, calcu- Example 13-9
late the following: A stator having 24 slots has to be wound with a
3-phase, 4-pole winding. Determine the following:
a. The total number of coils
I. The connections between the coils
b. The number of coils per phase
2. The connections between the phases
c. The number of coils per group
d. The pole pitch Solution
e. The coil pitch (expressed as a percentage of the The 3-phase winding has 24 coils. Assume that they
pole pitch), if the coil width extends from slot are standing upright. with one coil side in each slot
I to slot 11 (Fig. 13.22). We will first determine the coil distri-
bution for phase A and then proceed with the con-
Solution
nections for that phase. Similar connections will
a. A 120-slot stator requires 120 coils.
b. Coils per phase = 120 3 = 40. then be made for phases B and C. Here is the line of
reasoning:
a. The revolving field creates 4 poles; the motor
therefore has 4 groups per phase, or 4 X 3 12
phase groups in all. Each rectangle in Fig. 13.22a
represents one group. Because the stator contains
24 coils, each group consists of 24/12 2 con-
secutive coils.
b. The groups (poles) of each phase must be uni-
formly spaced around the stator. The group
Figure 13.21 a
Coils held upright in 24 stator slots.
distribution for phase A is shown in Fig.
l 3.22b. Each shaded rectangle represents two
upright coils connected in series, producing
the two terminals shown. Note that the me-
chanical distance between two successive
groups always corresponds to an electrical
phase angle of 180°.
Figure 13.21 b c. Successive groups of phase A must have oppo-
Coils laid down to make a typical lap winding. site magnetic polarities. Consequently, the four
 {yone group of one phase tf each group is composed of two coils in series

WlliWWDD~DDDDD
Figure 13.22a
The 24 coils are grouped two-by-two to make 12 groups.

iDD~DDiDDi~~
l--180° (electrical)-j

Figure 13.22b
The four groups of phase A are selected so as to be evenly spaced from each other.

Figure 13.22c
The groups of phase A are connected in series to create alternate N-S poles.

start of phase •. B•. ···ii.'· c,~·.· start. of phase C

0~
1--120°4
C
,
001··I ~/:D
B
0 0
!
C B

f---240°-------j
Figure 13.22d
The start of phases Band C begins 120° and 240°, respectively, after the start of phase A.

/a+ A, C2 /b+ 81 /c+ C1 A2 82

..-+-~~~---~~~~~~~~~~--~~--.

Figure 13.22e
When all phase groups are connected, only six leads remain.

287
288 EUX'TRICA/, MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS

Figure 13.22f
The phase may be connected in wye or in delta, and three leads are brought out to the terminal box.

one group of phase A

23 24 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

Figure 13.23
The pole pitch is from slot 1 slot 7; the coil pitch from slot 1 to slot 6.

groups of phase A are connected in series to pro- f. Because the pole pitch corresponds to a span of
duce successive N-S-N-S poles (Fig. l 3.22c). 24/4 = 6 slots, the coil pitch may be shortened
Phase A now has two terminals, a starting ter- to 5 slots (slot 1 to slot 6). Thus. the first coil of
minal A and afinishing terminal
1
phase A is lodged in the first and sixth slots
d. The phase groups of phases B and C are spaced (Fig. 13.23 ). All the other coils and connections
the same way around the stator. However, the follow suit according to Fig. I 3.22e.
starring terminals B 1 and C 1 are respectively Figs. 13.24a and 13.24b show the coil and
located at 120° and 240° (electrical) with re- stator of a 450 kW (600 hp) induction motor.
spect to the starting terminal A 1 of phase A Fig. 13.25 illustrates the procedure used in
(Fig. 13.22d). winding a smaller 37.5 kW (50 hp) stator.
e. The groups in phases B and Care connected in
series in the same way as those of phase A are 13.18 Sector motor
I This yields six terminals: A 1A 2 • Consider a standard 3-phase. 4-pole. wye-connected
B1 and C 1C,. They may be connected either motor having a synchronous speed of 1800 r/min.
in wye or in delta inside the machine. The re- Let us cut the stator in half. so that half the winding
sulting 3 wires corresponding to the 3 phases is removed and only two complete N and S poles are
are brought out to the terminal box of the ma- left (per phase). Next, let us connect the three phases
chine (Fig. J 3.22f). In practice. the connections in wye. without making any other changes to the ex-
arc made. not while the coils are upright (as isting coil connections. Finally. we mount the origi-
shown) but only after they have been laid down nal rotor above this sector stator. leaving a small air
in the slots. gap (Fig. 13.26).
 THREE-PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS 289

should be reduced to half its original value hecause

the stator winding now has only one-half the origi-
nal number of turns. Under these conditions. this re-
markable truncated sector motor still develops about
20 percent of its original rated power.
The sector motor produces a rernfring field that
moves at the same peripheral speed as the tlux in
the original 3-phase motor. However. instead of
making a complete turn. the field simply travels
continuously from one end of the stator to the other.

13.19 Linear induction motor

It is obvious that the sector stator could be laid out
flat. without affecting the shape or speed of the
magnetic field. Such a flat stator produces a field
Figure 13.24a that moves at constant speed. in a straight line.
Stator of a 3-phase, 450 kW, 1180 r/min, 575 V, 60 Using the same reasoning as in Section 13.5. we can
Hz induction motor. The lap winding is composed of
prove that the tlux travels at a Iinear synchronous
108 preformed coils having a pitch from slots 1 to 15.
speed given by
One coil side falls into the bottom of a slot and the
other at the top. Rotor diameter: 500 mm; axial ( 13.10)
length: 460 mm. (Courtesy of Services Electro-
mecaniques Roberge) where

1\ = linear synchronous speetl I rn/s I

H' width of one pole-pitch [ m I
f =frequency [HI'.]

Note that the linear speed does not depend upon the
number of poles but only on the pole-pitch. Thus. it
is possible for a 2-pole linear stator to create a field
moving at the same speed as that of a 6-pole linear
stator (say). provided they have the same pole-pitch.
If a flat squill"el-cage winding is brought near the
flat stator. the travelling field the squirrel cage
along with it (Section 13.2). In practice. we generally
use a simple aluminum or copper plate as a rotor (Fig.
13.27). Fmthermore, to increase the power and lo re-
duce the reluctance of the magnetic path. two flat sta-
tors are usually mounted. face-to-face. on opposite
Figure 13.24b sides of the aluminum plate. The comhination is called
Close-up view of the preformed coil in Fig. 13.24a. a linear induction mo{()[: The direction of the motor
can be reversed by interchanging any two stator leads.
If \Ve connect the stator terminals to a 3-phase, In many practical applications. the rotor is sta-
60 HI'. source, the rotor will again turn at close to tionary while the stator moves. For example. in
1800 r/min. To prevent saturation. the voltage some high-speed trains. the rotor is composed of a
 (a) (c)

(b) (d)

Figure 13.25
Stator winding of a 3-phase, 50 hp, 575 V, 60 Hz, 1764 r/min induction motor. The stator possesses 48 slots
carrying 48 coils connected in wye.
a. Each coil is composed of 5 turns of five No. 15 copper wires connected in parallel. The wires are covered
with a high-temperature polyimide insulation. Five No. 15 wires in parallel is equivalent to one No. 8 wire.
b. One coil side is threaded into slot 1 (say) and the other side goes into slot 12. The coil pitch is, there-
fore, from 1 to 12.
c. Each coil side fills half a slot and is covered with a paper spacer so that it does not touch the second coil
side placed in the same slot. Starting from the top, the photograph shows 3 empty and uninsulated slots
and 4 empty slots insulated with a composition paper liner. The remaining 10 slots each carry one coil
side.
d. A varnished cambric cloth, cut in the shape of a triangle, provides extra insulation between adjacent phase
groups.
(Courtesy of Services Electromecaniques Roberge)

290
 THREE-PHASI: IN/JUCTWN iHOTORS 291

13.20 Traveling waves

We are sometimes left with the impression that
when the flux reaches the end of a linear stator.
there must be a delay before it returns to restart once
more at the beginning. This is not the case. Thelin-
ear motor produces a traveling wave of flux which
moves continuously and smoothly from one end of
the stator to the other. Figure 13.28 shows how the
flux moves from left to right in a 2-pole linear mo-
tor. The flux cuts off sharply at extremities A. B of
Figure 13.26 the stator. However. as fast as a N or S pole disap-
Two-pole sector induction motor. pears at the right. it builds up again at the left.
I in ear rotor
(aluminum, copper or 13.21 Properties of a linear
iron plate)
induction motor
The properties of a linear induction motor are al-
most identical to those of a standard rotating ma-
chine. Consequently, the equations for slip. thrust,
power, etc., are also similar.
1. Slip. Slip is defined by

L1 u---------
L2o.;;;;;;;;;=--~ linear 3-phase stator where
s ( v, - v )Ii\ ( I 3. I I )

~
L30--,:;;;__.--
s slip

Figure 13.27 l\ synchronous linear speed [m/s]

Components of a 3-phase linear induction motor. v speed of rotor (or stator) [m/s l

thick aluminum plate fixed to the ground and ex- 2. Active power flow. With reference to Fig. 13.15.
tending over the full length of the track. The linear active power flows through a linear motor in the same
stator is bolted to the undercarriage of the train and way it does through a rotating motor, except that the
straddles the plate. Train speed is varied by chang- stator and rotor are flat. Consequently. Eqs. 13.6.
ing the frequency applied to the stator (Fig. I 3.31 ). 13.7, and 13.8 apply to both types of machines:

TJ ( 13.6)
Example 13-10 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
Pir sPr ( 13.7)
The stator of a linear induction motor is excited
Pin (I s)Pr ( 13.8)
from a 75 Hz electronic source. If the distance be-
tween consecutive phase groups of phase A is 300 3. Thrust. The thrust or force developed by a lin-
mm, calculate the linear speed of the magnetic field. ear induction motor is given by:

Solution ( 13.12)
The pole pitch is 300 mm. Consequently. where
l\ 2 Hf (13.10) F = thrust [Nl
2 x 0.3 x 75 P, = power transmitted to the rotor IWJ
45 m/s or 162 km/h 1\ = linear synchronous speed I m/s l
292 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS

'a Example 13-11 - - - - - - - - - - - -

3-p~ase stator
An overhead crane in a factory is driven horizon-
tally by means of two linear induction motors
whose rotors are the two steel I-beams upon which
the crane rolls. The 3-phasc, 4-polc linear stators
(mounted on opposite sides of the crane and facing
the respective webs of the I-beams) have a pole
pitch of 8 cm and arc driven by a variable frequency
electronic source. During a test on one of the mo-
tors, the following results were obtained:
stator frequency: 15 Hz
power to stator: 5 kW
copper loss .-:-. iron loss in stator: 1 kW
crane speed: 1.8 m/s

Calculate
a. Synchronous speed and slip

y
b. Power to the rotor
c. PR loss in rotor
d. Mechanical power and thrust
Solution
a. Linear synchronous speed

I\ 2 Hf (13.10)
= 2 x 0.08 x 15
2.4 m/s

The slip is

s = (v, - v)h\ (13.11)

(2.4 - 1.8)/2.4
= 0.25
b. Power to the rotor is

Pr= Pc - Pi, - P 1 (see Fig. 13.15)

5 I
=4kW
2
c. 1 R loss in the rotor is
Figure 13.28
Shape of the magnetic field created by a 2-pole, PJr sPr (13.7)
3-phase linear stator, over one complete cycle. The
successive frames are separated by an interval of
0.25 x4
time equal to 1/6 cycle or 60%. =I kW
 THREE-PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS 293

d. Mechanical power is cause the flux density is greatest at the center of

the pole. If the magnet moves very slowly, the re-
Pm= pr - pjr (Fig. 13.15)
sulting induced current reaches its maximum
=4-1 value at virtually the same time. This current, re-
=3kW turning by conductors 1 and 3, creates magnetic
poles nnn and sss as shown in Fig. 13.29.
The thrust is
According to the laws of attraction and repulsion,
F P/v,.. ( 13.12) the front half of the magnet is repelled upward
4000/2.4 while the rear half is attracted downward. Because
the distribution of the nnn and sss poles is sym-
1667N 1.67 kN lb)
metrical with respect to the center of the magnet,
the vertical forces of attraction and repulsion are
13.22 Magnetic levitation equal, and the resulting vertical force is nil.
In Section 13.2 we saw that a moving permanent Consequently, there is only a horizontal tractive
magnet, sweeping across a conducting ladder, tends force.
to drag the ladder along with the magnet. We will But suppose now that the magnet moves very
now show that this horizontal tractive force is also rapidly. Owing to its inductance, the current in con-
accompanied by a vertical force, which tends to ductor 2 reaches its maximum value a fraction of a
push the magnet away from the ladder. second after the voltage has attained its maximum.
Referring to Fig. 13.29, suppose that conduc- Consequently, by the time the current in conductor 2
tors I, 2, 3 are three conductors of the stationary is maximum. the center of the magnet is already
ladder. The center of the N pole of the magnet is some distance ahead of the conductor (Fig. 13.30).
sweeping across the top of conductor 2. The volt- The current returning by conductors 1 and 3 again
age induced in this conductor is maximum be- creates nnn and sss poles; however, the N pole of the
magnet is now directly above an nnn pole, with the
result that a strong vertical force tends to push the
magnet upward.* This effect is called the principle
of magnetic levitation.
Magnetic levitation is used in some ultra-high-
speed trains that glide on a magnetic cushion rather
than on wheels. A powerful electromagnet fixed un-
2 3 derneath the train moves above a conducting rail in-
ducing currents in the rail in the same way as in our
Figure 13.29 ladder. The force of levitation is always accompa-
Currents and magnetic poles at low speed.
nied by a small horizontal braking force which
must, of course, be overcome by the linear motor
that propels the train. See Figs. 13.31 and 13.32 .

.,, The current is alway.'> delayed <even at low .-,peeds) hy an in-

terval of time :::.1. which depends upon the UR time constant
s s s s s of the rotor. This delay is so hrief that. at low speeds. the
current reaches it;, maximum al virtually the same time and
place as the voltage does. On the other hand. at high speeds.
the same delay i'.lt produces a significant shift in .I/HU'!' be-
Figure 13.30 tween the points where the voltage and current reaeh their
Currents and magnetic poles at high speed. respective maximum values.
Figure 13.31
This 17 t electric train is driven by a linear motor. The motor consists of a stationary rotor and a flat stator
fixed to the undercarriage of the train. The rotor is the vertical aluminum plate mounted in the center of the
track. The 3-tonne stator is energized by a 4.7 MVA electronic de to ac inverter whose frequency can be
varied from zero to 105 Hz. The motor develops a maximum thrust of 35 kN (7800 lb) and the top speed is
200 km/h. Direct-current power at 4 kV is fed into the inverter by means of a brush assembly in contact
with 6 stationary de busbars mounted on the left-hand side of the track.
Electromagnetic levitation ls obtained by means of a superconducting electromagnet. The magnet is 1300
rnrn long, 600 mm wide, and 400 mm deep, and weighs 500 kg. The coils of the magnet are maintained at a
'')mperature of 4 K by the forced circulation of liquid helium. The current density is 80 A/mm 2 , and the result-
inq flux density is 3 T. The vertical force of repulsion attains a maximum of 60 kN and the vertical gap be-
tween the magnet and the reacting metallic track varies from 100 mm to 300 mm depending on the current.
(CoJrtesy of Siemens)
 THRF.E-PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS ~95

~---superconducting electromagnet

guide and support

wheels linear motor
(stator)
....@~~:i:!Xima#.• conducting plate
(rotor)

brush assembly for power

input, from 4 kVdc source
~--~~----1

Figure 13.32
Cross-section view of the main components of the high-speed train shown in Fig. 13.31.
(Courtesy of Siemens)

Questions and Problems 13-8 Give two advantages of a wound-rotor

motor over a squirrel-cage motor.
Practical level
13-9 Both the voltage and frequency induced in
13-1 Name the principal components of an in-
the rotor of an induction motor decrease
duction motor.
as the rotor speeds up. Explain.
13-2 Explain how a revolving field is set up in
a 3-phase induction motor. 13-10 A 3-phase. 20-pole induction motor is
13-3 If we double the number of poles on the connected to a 600 V. 60 Hz source.
stator of an induction motor. will its syn- a. What is the synchronous speed'!
chronous speed also double? b. ff the voltage is reduced to 300 Y. w i11 the
synchronous speed change')
13-4 The rotor of an induction should never be
c. How many groups are there. pl'.r phase'!
locked while full voltage is being applied
to the stator. Explain. 13-11 Describe the principle of operation of a
linear induction motor.
13-5 Why does the rotor of an induction motor
turn slower than the revolving field? 13-12 Cakulate the approximate values of the
13-6 What happens to the rotor speed and rotor starting current full-load current. and
current when the mechanical load on an no-load current of a 150 horsepower.
induction motor increases? 575 V, 3-phase induction motor.
13-7 Would you recommend using a 50 hp 13-13 Make a drawing of the magnetic field cre-
induction motor to drive a I 0 hp load? ated by a 3-phase, 12-pole induction motor.
Explain.
296 r:LECTRICAL MACHINES AN/J TRANSFORMERS

13-14 How can we change the direction of rota- the mmf developed by the windings.
tion of a 3-phase induction motor'? c. Docs the re~ulting mmf point in a direction
intermediate between the mm f's corre-
lmer111ediate !ere! sponding to instants 3 and 4"
13-15 a. Calculate the synchronous speed of a 13-21 A 3-phase lap-wound stator possessing
3-phasc. 12-pole induction motor that is ex- 72 slots produces a synchronous speed
cited by a 60 Hz source.
of 900 r/min when connected to a 60 Hz
b. Whal is the nominal speed if the slip at full
source. Calculate the number of coils
load is 6 percent'?
per phase group as well as the probable
13-16 A 3-phase 6-pole induction motor is con-
coil pitch. Draw the complete coil con-
nected to a 60 Hz supply. The voltage
nection diagram, following steps (a) to
induced in the rotor bars is 4 V when the ro-
(f) in 13.22.
tor is locked. If the motor turns in the same
direction as the flux, calculate the approxi- 13-22 The 3-phase. 4-pole stator of Fig. 13.25
mate voltage induced and its frequency: has an internal diameter of 250 mm and a
a. At 300 r/min stacking (axial length) of 200 mm. If the
b. AI 1000 r/min maximum flux density per pole is 0.7 T.
c. At l 500 r/min calculate the following:
13-17 a. Calculate the approximate values of full- a. The peripheral speed lm/sj of the revolving
load current. starting current. and no-load field when the stator is connected to a
current or a 75 kW. 4000 V. 3-phasc. 900 60 Hz source
r/min. 60Hz induction motor. b. The peak voltage induced in the rotor bars
h. Calculate the nominal full-load speed and c. The pole-pitch
torque knowing that the slip is 2 percent. 13-23 A large 3-phase. 4000 V. 60 Hz squirrel-
IJ-18 A 3-phase. 75 hp, 440 V induction motor cage induction motor draws a current of
has a ful I-load efficiency of 91 percent 385 A and a total active power of 2344 kW
and a power factor of 83 percent. when operating at full-load. The corre-
Calculate the nominal current per phase. sponding speed is accurately measured and
13-19 An open-circuit voltage of 240 V appears is found to be 709.2 r/rnin. The stator is
across the slip-rings of a wound-rotor in- connected in wye and the resistance be-
duction motor when the rotor is locked. tween two stator terminals is 0.10 H. The
The stator has 6 poles and is excited by a total iron losses are 23.4 kW and the
60 Hz source. If the rotor is driven by a windage and friction losses arc 12 kW.
variable-speed de motor. calculate the Calculate the following:
open-circuit voltage and frequency across a. The power factor at full-load
b. The active power supplied lo the rotor
the slip-rings if the de motor turns 0
c. The total / R lo ... ses in the rotor
a. At 600 r/min. in the same direction as the
d. The load mechanical power lkWJ, torque
rotating field
[kt\·mJ. and efficiency ltfrl
b. At 900 r/rnin. in the same direction as the
rotating field 13-24 lf WC slightly increase the rotor resistance
c. At 3600 r/rnin. opposite to the rotating field of an induction motor. what effect does
13-20 a. Referring lo Fig. 13.7. calculate the instan- this have (increase or decrease) upon
taneous value;. of/,,. lb. and /, for an angle a. Starting torque
of 150 . b. Starting current
b. Determine the actual direction of cmTcnt flow c. Full- load speed
in the three phases at this instant and calculate d. Efficiency
 THREE-PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS 297

c. Power factor 13-30 Referring to the motor described in

f. Temperature rise of the motor at its rated Problem 13-29. calculate Lmder full-
power output voltage LR (locked-rotor) conditions:
13-25 Explain the principle of magnetic levitation. a. Reactive power absorbed by the motor
b. /~ R losses in the stator
Adl'lmced le1·el c. Active power supplied to the rotor
13-26 In I 3.5a the permanent magnet has d. Mechanical power output
a width of I 00 mm and moves at 30 m/s. e. Toryue developed by the rotor
The flux density in the air gap is 0.5 T 13-31 We wish to control the speed of the motor
and the effective resistance per rotor bar given in Problem 13-29 by inserting resis-
is I mn. Calculate the current I and the tors in series with the rotor (see Fig. 13.19).
tractive force. If the motor has to develop a torque of 20
13-27 If the conducting ladder in l 3.5a is kN·m at a speed of 450 r/min, calculate the
pulled along with a force of 20 N, what is following:
the braking force exerted on the magnet? a. Voltage between the slip rings
13-28 A 3-phase, 5000 hp. 6000 V, 60 Hz 12- b. Rotor resistance (per phase) and the total
power dissipated
pole wound-rotor induction motor turns at
c. Approximate rotor current. per pha:-.e
594 r/min. What are the approximate rotor
(R losses at rated load? 13-32 The train shown in Fig. 13.31 moves al
200 km/h when the stator frequency is
13-29 The motor in Problem 13-28 has the fol-
105 Hz. By supposing a negligible slip.
lowing characteristics:
l. de resistance between stator terminals = calculate the length of the pole-pitch of
0. 112 D at I 7°C the linear motor [mmJ.
2. de resistance between rotor slip-rings 13-33 A 3-phase, 300 kW, 2300 V. 60 Hz.
0.0073 n at l 7°C 1780 r/min induction motor is used to
3. open-circuit induced between slip-
drive a compressor. The motor has a full-
with rotor locked = 1600 V
load efficiency and power factor of 92 per-
4. line-to-line stator voltage 6000 V
5. no-load stator cuffent, per phase = I 00 A cent and 86 percent respectively. If the
6. active power supplied to motor at no- terminal voltage rises to 2760 V while the
load 91 kW motor operates at full-load. determine the
7. windage and friction losses = 51 kW effect (increase or decrease) upon
8. iron losses in the stator = 39 kW a. Mechanical power delivered by the motor
9. locked-rotor current at 6000 V 1800 A b. Motor torque
IO. active power to stator with rotor locked c. Rotational speed
2207 kW d. Full-load current
e. Power factor and efficiency
Cairn/ate
f. Starting torque
a. Rotor and stator resistance per phase at
g. Starting current
75°C (assume a wye connection)
h. Breakdown torque
b. Voltage and frequency induced in the rotor
i. Motor temperature rise
when it turns at 200 r/min and at 594 r/min
j. Flux per pole
c. ReiJCtive pmver absorbed by the motor to
k. Exciting current
create the revolving field. at no-load
I. Iron llhses
d. 12 R losses in the stator when the motor runs
at no-load (winding temperature 75°C) 13-34 A 3-phasc. 60 Hz linear induction motor
c. Active power supplied to the rotor at no-load has to reach a top no-load speed of 12 m/s
298 l:J,U'TRIC\L 1WACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS

and it must develop a standstill thrust of Calculate

I 0 kN. Calculate the required pole-pitch a. The number of coils on the stator
and the minimum i2R loss in the rotor. at b. The number of coils per phase
standstil I. c. The number of coils per group
d. The coil pitch (in millimeters)
Industrial application e. The area of one pole
13-35 A I 0 hp. 575 V, 1160 r/min. 3-phase. 60 Hz f. The flux per pole if the average flux density
induction motor has a rotor made of alu- is 0.54 T
minum. similar to the rotor shown in Fig. 13-37 A 25 hp. 1183 r/min. 575 V, 3-phase, 60 Hz
I 3.3a. The end-rings are trimmed in a lathe. wound-rotor induction motor produces at
cutting off the cooling fins and also a por- standstill 320 V between the open-circuit
tion of the rings. making them less thick. lines of the rotor. It is known that the RMS
What effect will this have on the following: brush voltage drop is about 0.6 V. Estimate
a. The full load speed of the motor the no-load speed of the motor.
b. The starting torque
13-38 The rotor of a 60 hp. 1760 r/min, 60 Hz
c. The temperature rise at full-load
induction motor has 117 bars and a diame-
13-36 The stator of a 600 hp, 1160 r/min. 575 V. ter of 11 inches. Calculate the average
3-phase. 60 Hz induction motor has force on each bar (in newtons) when the
90 slots. an internal diameter of 20 inches, motor is running at full-load.
and an axial length of 16 inches.
 CHAPTER 14
Selection and Application of
Three-Phase Induction Motors

14.0 Introduction be replaced by that of any other manufacturer,

without having to change the mounting holes. the

W hen purchasing a 3-phase induction motor for

a particular application, we often discover that
several types can fill the need. Consequently, we
shaft height or the type of coupling. The stan-
dardization covers not only frame sizes, but also
establishes limiting values for electrical, mechan-
have to make a choice. The selection is generally ical, and thermal characteristics. Thus, motors
simplified because the manufacturer of the lathe, fan, must satisfy minimum requirements as to starting
pump, and so forth indicates the type of motor that is torque, locked-rotor current overload capacity.
best suited to drive the load. Nevertheless. it is use- and temperature rise.
ful to know something about the basic construction
and characteristics of the various types of 3-phase in-
duction motors that are available on the market. 14.2 Classification according
In this chapter we also cover some special appli- to environment and
cations of induction machines, such as asynchro-
cooling methods
nous generators and frequency converters. These
interesting devices will enable the reader to gain a Motors are grouped into several categories. de-
better understanding of induction motors in general. pending upon the environment in which they have
to operate. We limit our discussion to five important
14.1 Standardization and classes.

classification of 1. Drip-proof motors. The frame in a drip-proof

motor protects the windings against liquid drops
induction motors* and solid particles which fall at any angle between
The frames of all industrial motors under 500 hp 0 and 15 degrees downward from the vertical. The
have standardized dimensions. Thus, a 25 hp, motors are cooled by means of a fan directly cou-
1725 r/min, 60 Hz motor of one manufacturer can pled to the rotor. Cool air. drawn into the motor

'' Standards in the United State"' ar<". governed by National governed by Canadian Standards Association (CSA) publi-
Electrical .\lfanufacturers ( NEMA) publication MG- I titled cation C 154. The two standards arc essentially identical.
ivloror.1 and Genem10r.1. Standards in Canada are similarly

299
 JOO ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS

through vents in the frame, is blown over the wind- 4. Total(v enclosed, fan-cooled motors. Medium-
ings and then expelled. The maximum allowable and high-power motors that arc totally enclosed are
temperature rise (measured by the change in wind- usually cooled by an external blast of air. An external
ing resistance) may be 60°C, 80°C. I05°C. or fan, directly coupled to the shaft blows air over the
I 25°C. depending on the type of insulation used in ribbed motor frame (Fig. 14.3). A concentric outer
the windings. Drip-proof motors (Fig. 14.1) can be shield prevents physical contact with the fan and
used in most locations. serves to channel the airstream. The permissible tem-
2. Splash-proof mot01: The frame in a splash- perature rise is the same as for drip-proof motors.
proof motor protects the windings against liquid 5. Explosion-proof motors. Explosion-proof mo-
drops and solid particles that fall at any angle be- tors are used in highly inflammable or explosive
tween 0 and I 00° downward from the vertical. surroundings. such as coal mines, oil refineries, and
Cooling is similar to that in drip-proof motors and grain elevators. They are totally enclosed (but not
the maximum temperature rise is also the same.
These motors are mainly used in wet locations.
3. Totally enclosed, 11011ve11tilated motors. These
motors have closed frames that prevent the free
exchange of air between the inside and the outside
of the case. They are designed for very wet and
dusty locations. Most are rated below 10 kW be-
cause it is difficult to get rid of the heat of larger
machines. The motor losses are dissipated by nat-
ural convection and radiation from the frame. The
permissible temperature rise is 65°C, 85°C.
110°C. or I 30°C, depending on the class of insu-
lation (see Fig. 14.2).
Figure 14.2
Two totally enclosed nonventilated (TENV) 2 hp, 1725
r/min cage motors are shown in foreground and two
30 hp, 1780 r/min totally enclosed blower-cooled mo-
tors (TEBC) in background. These 3-phase, 460 V
motors are intended to operate at variable speeds
ranging from a few revolutions per minute to about 3
times rated speed.
The 2 hp motors have a full-load current of 2.9 A,
efficiency of 84 percent and power factor of 76 per-
cent. Other characteristics: no-load current: 1.7 A;
locked-rotor current: 26 A; locked-rotor torque: 4.2
pu; breakdown torque: 5.0 pu; service factor: 1.0; to-
tal weight: 39 kg; overall length including shaft: 377
mm; overall height: 235 mm.
The 30 hp motors have a full-load current of 34 A,
efficiency of 93 percent, and power factor of 84 per-
cent. Other characteristics: no-load current: 12 A;
locked-rotor current: 214 A; locked rotor torque: 1.6 pu;
Figure 14.1 breakdown torque: 2.84 pu; service factor: 1.0; total
Energy efficient drip-proof, 3-phase squirrel-cage induc- weight: 200 kg; overall length including shaft: 834 mm;
tion motor rated 230 V/460 V, 3 hp, 1750 r/min, 60 Hz. overall height: 365 mm.
(Courtesy of Gould) (Courtesy of Baldor Electric Company )
 SELEC710N AND APPLICATION OF THREE-PH.4SE INDUCTION MOTORS 301

14.3 Classification according to

electrical and mechanical
properties
In addition to the various enclosures just mentioned,
3-phase squi1Tel-cage motors can have special elec-
trical and mechanical characteristics, as listed below.
I. Motors with standard locked-rotor torque
(NEMA Design B). Most induction motors belong
to this group. The per-unit locked-rotor torque de-
creases as the size of the motor increases. Thus, it
ranges from 1.3 to 0.7, as the power increases from
20 hp to 200 hp (15 kW to 150 kW). The corre-
Figure 14.3
sponding locked-rotor current should not exceed
Totally enclosed tan-cooled induction motor rated 350
hp, 1760 r/min, 440 V, 3-phase, 60 Hz. 6.4 times the rated full-load current. These general-
(Courtesy of Gould ) purpose motors are used to drive fans, centrifugal
pumps, machine tools, and so forth.
2. High starting-torque motors (NEMA Design C).
These motors are employed when starting conditions
are difficult. Pumps and piston-type compressors
that have to stai1 under load are two typical applica-
tions. In the range from 20 hp to 200 hp, the locked-
rotor torque is 200% of full-load torque, which cor-
responds to a per-unit torque of 2. The locked-rotor
current should not exceed 6.4 times the rated full-
load current.
In general. these motors are equipped with a
double-cage rotor. The excellent performance of a
double-cage rotor (Fig. 14.5) is based upon the fol-
lowing facts:
Figure 14.4 a. The frequency of the rotor current diminishes
Totally enclosed, fan-cooled, explosion-proof motor. as the motor speeds up
Note the particularly rugged construction of this type b. A conductor that lies close to the rotor surface
of motor.
(cage I) has a lower inductive reactance than
(Courtesy of Brook Crompton-Parkinson Ltd)
one buried deep inside the iron core (cage 2)
c. The conductors of cage I are much smaller
than those of cage 2
airtight) and the frames are designed to withstand
the enormous pressure that may build up inside the When the motor is connected to the line with the
motor due to an internal explosion. Furthermore, rotor at standstill, the frequency of the rotor current
the flanges on the end-bells are made extra long in is equal to line frequency. Owing to the high in-
order to cool any escaping gases generated by such ductive rcactance of squirrel-cage 2, the rotor cur-
an explosion. Such explosions may be initiated by rent flows mainly in the small bars of cage I. The
the spark or a short-circuit within the windings. The effective motor resistance is therefore high, being
permissible temperature rise is the same as for to- essentially equal to that of cage 1. Consequently, a
tally enclosed motors (see Fig. 14.4). high starting torque is developed.
302 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND 7RANSFORMERS

-speed

Figure 14.5
Typical torque-speed curves of NEMA design B, C, and D motors. Each curve corresponds to the minimum NEMA
values of locked-rotor torque, pull-up torque, and breakdown torque of a 3-phase 1800 r/min, 10 hp, 60 Hz squirrel-
cage induction motor. The cross-section of the respective rotors indicates the type of rotor bars used.

As the motor speeds up. the rotor frequency tors are usually designed for intermittent duty to
falls, with the result that the inductive reactance of prevent overheating.
both squirrel-cage windings diminishes. At rated The large drop in speed with increasing load is
speed the rotor frequency is so low (typically 1 Hz) also ideal to drive impact-type machine tools that
that the reactance of both windings is negligible. punch holes in sheet metal. When the worker initi-
The rotor current is then limited only by the resis- ates the operation, a clutch engages the flywheel.
tance of cage I and cage 2 operating in parallel. causing the punch to descend and pierce the sheet.
Because the conductors of cage 2 are much larger Punching a hole requires a tremendous amount
than those of cage I, the effective rotor resistance at of power, sometimes exceeding I 000 hp. The rea-
rated speed is much lower than at standstill. For this son is that the punching energy is delivered in a
reason the double-cage rotor develops both a high fraction of a second. The energy is furnished by the
starting torque and a low slip at full-load. flywheel rather than by the motor itself. As the
Despite their high torque. Design C motors are punch does its work, the speed of the flywheel
not recommended for starting high-inertia loads. The drops immediately, thus releasing a lot of kinetic
reason is that most of the rotor PR losses during start- energy in a very short time. The speed of the motor
up are concentrated in cage I. Owing to its small size. also drops considerably, along with that of the fly-
it tends to overheat and the bars may melt. wheel. However, the Class D design ensures that
3. High-slip motors (NEMA Design D). The the current drawn from the line at the lower speed
rated speed of high-slip, Design D motors usually will not exceed its rated value.
lies between 850 and 95£'/c of synchronous speed. As soon as the hole is pierced, the only load on
These motors are used to accelerate high-inertia the motor is the flywheel, which is now gradually
loads (such as centrifugal dryers), which take a rel- brought back up to speed. During the acceleration
atively long time to reach full speed. The high-re- period, the motor delivers energy to the flywheel.
sistance squirrel cage is made of brass, and the mo- thus restoring the energy it lost during the impact. A
 SELECTION AND APPL!l'ATION OF THREE-PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS 303

powerful motor will quickly accelerate the fly- motor, and its efficiency and power factor are
wheel. permitting rapid, repetitive operation of the higher.
punch press. On the other hand, if the repetition rate
2. The locked-rotor torque of a high-speed motor
is low, a much smaller motor will suffice: it will
is always greater (as a percentage of full-load
only take longer to bring the flywheel up to speed.
torque) than that of a similar low-speed motor
The torque-speed curves of Fig. 14.5 enable us to
of equal power.
compare the characteristics of NEMA Design B, C
and D motors. The rotor construction is also shown, By way of example, Table 14A compares the
and it can be seen that the distinguishing properties are properties of two I 0 hp, 3-phase, 60 Hz. totally en-
obtained by changing the rotor design. For example, if closed, fan-cooled induction motors having different
the rotor resistance is increased (by using brass instead synchronous speeds. The difference in price alone
of copper or aluminum), the locked-rotor torque in- would justify the use of a high-speed motor and a
creases, but the speed at rated torque is lower. gearbox to drive a load operating at, say, 900 r/min.
When equipment has to operate at very low
14.4 Choice of motor speed speeds ( 100 r/min or less), a gearbox is mandatory.
The gears are often an integral part of the motor,
The choice of motor speed is rather limited because making for a very compact unit (Fig. 14.6).
the synchronous speed of induction motors changes A gearbox is also mandatory when equipment
by quantum jumps, depending upon the frequency has to run above 3600 r/min. For example, in one
and the number of poles. For example, it is impos- industrial application a large gear unit is used to
sible to build a conventional induction motor hav- drive a 1200 hp. 5000 r/min centrifugal compressor
ing an acceptable efficiency and running at a speed, coupled to a 3560 r/min induction motor.
say, of 2000 r/min on a 60 Hz supply. Such a motor
would require 2 poles and a corresponding syn-
chronous speed of 3600 r/min. The slip of (3600 14.5 Two-speed motors
2000)/3600 0.444 means that 44.4<k, of the power The stator of a squirrel-cage induction motor can be
supplied to the rotor would be dissipated as heat. designed so that the motor can operate at two differ-
(See Section 13.13.) ent speeds. Such motors are often u.sed on drill
The speed of a motor is obviously determined by presses. blowers. and pumps. One way to obtain two
the speed of the machine it has to drive. However, speeds is to wind the stator with two separate wind-
for low-speed machines, it is often preferable to use ings having, say, 4 poles and 6 poles. The problem is
a high-speed motor and a gearbox instead of di- that only one winding is in operation at a time and so
rectly coupling a low-speed motor to the load. only half the copper in the slots is being utilized.
There are several advantages to using a gearbox: However, special windings have been invented
I. For a given output power, the size and cost of a whereby the speed is changed by simply changing
high-speed motor is less than that of a low-speed the external stator connections. The synchronous

TABLE 14A COMPARISON BETWEEN TWO MOTORS OF DIFFERENT SPEEDS

Power Synchronous Power Ellil.:iem:y Locked-rotor f'vfo\\ Price

'peed factor torque (2002)

hp

10
kW

7.5
r/rnin

3600
'Ir

89
'le

90
'X

150
""50
::: U.S.$

650
10 7.5 900 75 85 125 170 2000
304 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS

ac source

(a)

-
Figure 14.6
Gear motor rated at 2.25 kW, 1740 r/min, 60 Hz. The "
output torque and speed are respectively 172 N·m
and 125 r/min.
(Courtesy of Reliance Electric)

'1..J ac source (b)

speeds obtained are usually in the ratio 2: I
(3600/1800 r/min. 1200/600 r/min, etc.). The lower
speed is produced by the creation of consequent
poles.
Consider. for example. one phase of a two-pole.
3-phase motor (Fig. 14.7a). When the two poles are
connected in series to a 60 Hz ac source, current 11
flows into terminal I and current 12 ( 11) flows out
Figure 14.7
of terminal 2. As a result. one N pole and one S pole
a. Two short-pitch coils connected in series produce a
are created and the flux has the pattern shown. The
two-pole motor.
synchronous speed is b. When the coils are connected in parallel, a 4-pole
motor is produced. Two of the poles are conse-
11, I 20f/p 120 x 60/2
quent poles.
3600 r/min

Note that each pole covers only one-quarter of the

stator circumference instead of the usual one-half. Because every N pole must be accompanied by a
This is achieved by using a coil pitch equal to 50 S pole, it follows that two S poles will appear between
percent of the pole-pitch. the two N poles. The south poles created in this inge-
Let us now connect the two poles in parallel, as nious way are called consequent poles. The new con-
shown in Fig. 14. 7b. In this case, at the instant cur- nection produces 4 poles in all, and the synchronous
rent 11 flows into terminal I. current 12 flows into ter- speed is 1800 r/min. Thus, we can double the nµmber
minal 2. As a result two N poles are created by the of poles by simply changing the stator connections. It
windings. is upon this principle that 2-speed motors are built.
 SELECTION AND APPLICATION OF THREE-PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS 305

produces 4 poles per phase. but now they all

possess the same polarity (Fig. 14.8b).
Two-speed motors have a relatively lower effi-
and power factor than motors
do. They can be designed to develop (at both
either constant power. constant torque, or
variable torque. The choice depends upon the load
that has to be driven.
The 2-speed motors described so far have pole ra-
tios of 2: I. If the motor drives a fan. this may be too
2 big a change in speed. The reason is that the power of
a fan varie:-. as the cube of the speed. Consequently.
if the speed is reduced by half. the power drops to
(a)
one-eighth. which is often too low to be of interest.
To overcome this problem. some 3-phase wind-
A
are designed to obtain lower pole ratios such as
8110. 14116. 26/28, I0/14, and 38/46. These pole
amplitude mod11/atio11. or PAM, motors are pm1icu-
larly useful in driving 2-speed fans in the hundred
B horsepower range and more. PAM motors enable a
moderate reduction in fan power by simply recon-
necting the windings to give the lower speed.

14.6 Induction motor

characteristics under
c various load conditions
(b) The complete torque-speed curves displayed in Fig.
14.5 are important but it must be recognized that
Figure 14.8
most of the time a motor runs at close to synchro-
a. High-speed connection of a 3-phase stator, yield-
ing 4
nous speed. supplying a torque that varies from zero
b. Low-speed connection of same motor yielding to full-load torque ft so happens that between
8 poles. these limits the torque-speed curve is essentially a
straight line (Fig. l 4. 9). The slope of the line de-
14.8 shmvs the stator connections for a pends mainly upon the rotor resistance-the lower
4-pole/8-pole. 3-phase motor. Six leads. the resistance, the steeper the slope.
numbered I to 6. are brought out from the stator wind- In effect, it can be shown that at rated frequency,
For the high-speed connection, power is applied the slips. torque T. line voltage E. and rotor resis-
to terminals 1-2-3, and terminals 4-5-6 are open. The tance Rare related by the expression
resulting delta connection produces 4 poles per phase
kTRIE~ ( 14.1)
having two N and two S poles <Fig. l 4.8a). Note that
the four poles are connected in series. where k is a constant that depends upon the con-
The low-speed connection is made by short- struction or the motor.
circui ting terminals 1-2-3 and applying power toter- Thi" expression enables us to cstahlish a simple
minals 4-5-6. The resulting double-wye connection formula showing how the line voltage and rotor
306 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS

breakdown
torque

locked-rotor
corresponding to
torque
EN' RN

/condition N

Figure 14.9
The torque-speed curve is essentially a straight line between the no-load and rated torque operating points.

resistance affect the behavior of the motor under an accuracy of better than 5 percent which is suffi-
load. In effect, once we know the characteristics of a cient for most practical problems.
motor for a given load condition, we can predict its
Example 14-1
speed, torque, power. and so on, for any other load
A 3-phase, 208 V induction motor having a syn-
condition. These quantities are related by the formula
chronous speed of 1200 r/min runs at 1140 r/min
when connected to a 215 V Iinc and driving a con-
( 14.2)
stant torque load. Calculate the speed if the voltage
increases to 240 V.
where
Solution
n = subscript referring to the initiaL or given load The slip at 215 Vis
conditions (the given conditions may corre-
spond to the nominal rating of the motor) s (ns - n)/ns
x = subscript referring to the new load conditions = ( 1200 - 1140)/1200
s =slip = 0.05
T torque [N·m]
R rotor resistance [n] When the voltage rises to 240 V. the load torque and
E stator voltage l VI rotor resistance remain the same. Consequently, in
applying Eq. 14.2, we can write
Jn applying the formula, the only restriction is
2
that the new torque Tx must not be greater than Sx Sn (£11 /£x)2 0.05 (215/240)
T11 (E,IE,J2• Under these conditions Eq. 14.2 yields 0.04
 SELECTION AND APPLICATION OF THREE-PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS 307

The slip speed is, therefore, Example 14-3

A 3-phase, 4-pole wound-rotor induction motor has a
0.04 X 1200 = 48 r/min
rating of 110 kW, l 760r/min, 2.3 kV, 60 Hz. Three ex-
The new speed at 240 V is ternal resistors of 2 n are connected in wye across the
rotor slip-rings. Under these conditions the motor de-
11:, 1200 48 = 1152 r/min
velops a torque of 300 N ·m at a speed of 1000 r/min.
a. Calculate the speed for a torque of 400 N·m.
Example 14-2 b. Calculate the value of the external resistors so
A 3-phase, 8-pole induction motor driving a com- that the motor develops I 0 kW at 200 r/min.
pressor runs at 873 r/min immediately after it is
connected to a fixed 460 V, 60 Hz line. The initial Solution
cold rotor temperature is 23°C. The speed drops to a. The given conditions are
864 r/min after the machine has run for several
hours. T 11 300 N·m

Calculate .\'
11
( 1800 - 1000)/1800 0.444
a. The hot rotor resistance in terms of the cold re- All other conditions being fixed. we have for a
sistance torque of 400 N·m the following:
b. The approximate hot temperature of the rotor
bars. knowing they are made of copper .l'x .1 11 (TJT11 ) 0.444 (400/300)
0.592
Solution
a. The synchronous speed is: The slip speed 0.592 X 1800 = I 066 r/min.
Consequently, the motor speed is
n, 120.flp 120 X 6018 = 900 r/min
n = 1800 - I 066
The initial and final slips are
734 r/min
S 11 = (900 873)/900 0.03
Note that the speed drops from I 000 rim in to
Sx = (90() - 864 )1900 = 0.04
734 rlmin with increasing load.
The voltage and torque are fixed: consequently. b. The torque corresponding to JO kW at 200
the speed change is entirely due to the change rlmin is
in rotor resistance. We can therefore write T, = 9.55 Pin (3.5)
9.55 x I0 0001200
0.04 = 0.()3 (RJR 11 ) 478 N·m

Rx 1.33 R 11 The rated torque is

The hot rotor resistance is 33'7o greater than the = 9.55 Pin
cold rotor resistance. 9.55 x 110 000/1760
b. The hot rotor temperature is
597 N·m
R"- (234 + T ) - 234 (6.5) Because T, is less than T,ar-:d• we can apply
1
RI Eq. 14.2.
1.33 + 23) 234 The slip is
108°C .1·, ( 1800 200)/ I 800 0.89
308 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS

All other conditions being fixed, we have, from Rule 1 - The heat dissipated in the rotor during
Eq. 14.2: the starting period (from zero speed to final rated
speed) is equal to the final kinetic energy stored in
S, \' 11 (Tx/T11 ) (RJR 11 )
all the revolving parts.
0.89 0.44 (478/300) (Rx/2) This rule holds true, irrespective of the stator volt-
and so age or the torque-speed curve of the motor. Thus, if
a motor brings a massive flywheel up to speed, and
if the energy stored in the flywheel is then 5000
Three 2.5 n wye-connected resistors in the ro- joules, the rotor will have dissipated 5000 joules in
tor circuit will enable the motor to develop the form of heat. Depending upon the size of the ro-
10 kW at 200 r/min. tor and its cooling system, this energy could easily
produce overheating.
14.7 Starting an induction motor
14.8 Plugging an induction motor
High-inertia loads put a strain on induction motors
because they prolong the starting period. The starting Jn some industrial applications, the induction motor
current in both the stator and rotor is high during this and its load have to be brought to a quick stop. This
interval so that overheating becomes a major prob- can be done by interchanging two stator leads, so
lem. For motors of several thousand horsepower. a that the revolving field suddenly turns in the oppo-
prolonged starting period may even overload the site direction to the rotor. During this phlf:{ginR pe-
transmission line feeding the plant where the motor riod, the motor acts as a brake.
is installed. The line voltage may fall below normal It absorbs kinetic energy from the still-revolving
for many seconds, thus affecting other connected load, causing its speed to fall. The associated me-
loads. To relieve the problem, induction motors are chanical power Pm is entirely dissipated as heat in the
often started on reduced voltage. This limits the rotor. Unfortunately, the rotor also continues to re-
power drawn by the motor, and consequently reduces ceive electromagnetic power Pr from the stator,
the line voltage drop as well as the heating rate of the which is also dissipated as heat 14.10).
windings. Reduced voltage lengthens the start-up Consequently, plugging produces PR losses in the
time, but this is usually not important. However, rotor that even exceed those when the rotor is locked.
whether the stait-up time is long or short, it is worth Motors should not be plugged too frequently because
remembering the following rule for a motor that is high rotor temperatures may melt the rotor bars or
not loaded mechanically: overheat the stator winding. In this regard it is worth

Figure 14.10
When a 3-phase induction motor is plugged, the rotor / 2 R losses are very high.
 SELECTION AND APPLICATION OF THREE-PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS 309

remembering the following rule for plugging opera- The advantage of de braking is that it produces
tions for a motor that is not loaded mechanically: far less heat than does plugging. In effect. the en-
Rule 2 - The heat dissipated in the rotor during ergy dissipated in the rotor is only equal to the
the plugging period (initial rated speed to zero original kinetic energy stored in the revolving
speed) is three times the original kinetic energy of masses, and not three times that energy. The en-
all the revolving parts. ergy dissipated in the rotor is independent of the
magnitude of the de current. However. a smaller
Example 14-4 de current increases the braking time. The de cur-
A I 00 kW, 60 Hz. 1175 r/min motor is coupled to a rent can be two or three times the rated current of
flywheel by means of a gearbox. The kinetic energy the motor. Even larger values can be used. pro-
of all the revolving parts is 300 kJ when the motor vided that the stator does not become too hot. The
runs at rated speed. The motor is plugged to a stop braking torque is proportional to the square of the
and allowed to run up to 1175 r/min in the reverse de braking current.
direction. Calculate the energy dissipated in the ro-
tor if the flywheel is the only load. Example 14-5
Solution A 50 hp, 1760 r/min. 440 V. 3-phase induction mo-
During the plugging period, the motor speed drops tor drives a load having a total moment of inertia of
2
from 1175 r/min to zero. The heat dissipated in the 25 kg·m . The de resistance between two stator ter-
rotor is 3 X 300 kJ = 900 kJ. The motor then accel- minals is 0.32 n.and the rated motor current is
erates to nominal speed in the reverse direction. The 62 A. We want to stop the motor by connecting a
24 V battery across the terminals.
energy dissipated in the rotor during this period is
300 kJ. By reversing the speed this way, the total heat Calculate
dissipated in the rotor from start to finish is therefore a. The de current in the stator
900 + 300 = 1200 kJ. b. The energy dissipated in the rotor
c. The average braking torque if the stopping time
14.9 Braking with direct current is 4 min

An induction motor and its high-inertia load can Solution

also be brought to a quick stop by circulating de a. The de current is
current in the stator winding. Any two stator termi-
I= EIR = 24/0.32 = 75 A
nals can be connected to the de source.
The direct current produces stationary N. S poles This current is slightly higher than the rated
in the stator. The number of poles created is equal current of the motor. However. the stator will
to the number of poles which the motor develops not overheat, because the braking time is
normally. Thus. a 3-phase, 4-pole induction motor short.
produces 4 de poles, no matter how the motor ter- b. The kinetic energy in the rotor and load at 1760
minals are connected to the de source. r/min is
When the rotor sweeps past the stationary field,
Ek = 5.48 X 10- 3 Jn 2 (3.8)
an ac voltage is induced in the rotor bars. The volt-
age produces an ac current and the resulting rotor = 5.48 x 10- 3
x 25 x 1760 2

PR losses are dissipated at the expense of the = 424 kJ

kinetic energy stored in the revolving parts. The
motor finally comes to rest when all the kinetic en- Consequently, the rotor absorbs 424 kJ during
ergy has been dissipated as heat in the rotor. the braking period.
310 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORM ENS

c. The average braking torque T can be calculated factor 1.15. The allowable temperature rise is then
from the equation 1(f'C higher than that permitted for drip-proof mo-
tors operating at normal load.
D.11 9.55 TD.t/J (3.14) During emergencies a drip-proof motor can be
1760 9.55 TX (4 X 60)/25 made to carry overloads as much as 125 percent. as
Jong as supplementary external ventilation is pro-
T 19.2 N·m
vided. This is not recommended for long periods
because even if the external frame is cool. the tem-
14.1 O Abnormal conditions perature of the windings may be excessive.
Abnormal motor operation may be due to internal
problems ( sh011-circuit in the stator. overheating of 14.12 Line voltage changes
the bearings, etc.) or to external conditions. External The most important consequence of a line voltage
problems may be caused by any of the following: change is its effect upon the torque-speed curve of
I. Mechanical overload the motor. In effect, the torque at any speed is pro-
portional to the square of the applied voltage. Thus.
2. Supply voltage changes
if the stator voltage decreases by I 0%. the torque at
3. Single phasing every speed will drop by approximately 20%. A line
4. Frequency changes voltage drop is often produced during sta11-up, due
to the heavy starting current drawn from the line. As
We will examine the nature of these problems in
a result of the lower voltage, the starting torque may
the sections that follow.
be much less than its rated value.
According to national standards. a motor shall
On the other hand, if the line voltage is too high
operate satisfactorily on any voltage within 10%
when the motor is running, the flux per pole will be
of the nominal voltage, and for any frequency within
above normal. For a motor running at full-load. this
±5% of the nominal frequency. If the voltage and
increases both the iron losses and the magnetizing
frequency hoth vary, the sum of the two percentage
current, with the result that the temperature increases
changes must not exceed I 0 percent. Finally, all mo-
slightly and the power factor is slightly reduced.
tors are designed to operate satisfactorily at altitudes
If the 3-phase voltages are unbalanced, they can
up to I000 m above sea level. At higher altitudes the
produce a serious unbalance of the three line cur-
temperature may exceed the permissible limits due
rents. This condition increases the stator and rotor
to the poor cooling afforded by the thinner air.
losses, yielding a higher temperature. A voltage un-
balance of as little as 3.5% can cause the tempera-
14.11 Mechanical overload ture to increase by I 5°C. The utility company
Although standard induction motors can develop as should be notified whenever the phase-to-phase
much as twice their rated power for short periods. line voltages differ by more than 2 percent.
they should not be allowed to run continuously be-
yond their rated capacity. Overloads cause over- 14.13 Single-phasing
heating. which deteriorates the insulation and re- If one line of a 3-phase line is accidentally opened.
duces the service life of the motor. In practice. the or if a fuse blows while the 3-phase motor is run-
overload causes the thermal overload relays in the ning, the machine will continue to run as a single-
starter box to trip. bringing the motor to a stop be- phase motor. The current drawn from the remaining
fore its temperature gets too high. two lines will almost double. and the motor will be-
Some drip-proof motors are designed to carry a gin to overheat. The thermal relays protecting the
continuous overload of I 5 percent. This overload ~otor will eventually trip the circuit-breaker,
capacity is shown on the nameplate by the service thereby disconnecting the motor from the line.
 SELECTION AND APPLICATION OF THREE-PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS 311

0 20 40
-speed
60 80
1 IT%
Figure 14.11
Typical torque-speed curves when a 3-phase squirrel-cage motor operates normally and when it operates on
single-phase.

The torque-speed curve is seriously affected when Machine tools and other motor-driven equip-
a 3-phase motor operates on single phase. The break- ment imp011ed from countries where the frequency
down torque decreases to about 40% of its original is 50 Hz may cause problems when they are con-
value. and the motor develops no starting torque at nected to a 60 Hz system. Everything runs 20%
all. Consequently, a fully loaded 3-phase motor may faster than normal, and this may not be acceptable
simply stop if one of its lines is suddenly opened. The in some applications. In such cases we either have
resulting locked-rotor current is about 90% of the to gear down the motor speed or supply an expen-
normal 3-phase LR current. It is therefore large sive auxiliary 50 Hz source.
enough to trip the circuit breaker or to blow the fuses. A 50 Hz motor operates well on a 60 Hz line, but
Fig. 14.11 shows the typical torque-speed curves its terminal voltage should be raised to 6/5 (or
of a 3-phase motor when it runs normally and when I of the nameplate rating. The new breakdown
it is single-phasing. Note that the curves follow torque is then equal to the original breakdown
each other closely until the torque approaches the torque and the starting torque is only slightly re-
single-phase breakdown torque. duced. Power factor. efficiency, and temperature
rise remain satisfactory.
14.14 Frequency variation A 60 Hz motor can also operate on a 50 Hz line,
but its terminal voltage should be reduced to 5/6 (or
Important frequency changes never take place on a
83%) of its nameplate value. The breakdown torque
large distribution system, except during a major dis-
and starting torque are then about the same as be-
turbance. However, the frequency may vary signif-
fore, and the power factor, efficiency, and tempera-
icantly on isolated systems where electrical energy
ture rise remain satisfactory.
is generated by diesel engines or gas turbines. The
emergency power supply in a hospital, the electrical
14.15 Induction motor operating
system on a ship, and the generators in a lumber
camp, are examples of this type of supply.
as a generator
The most impmtant consequence of a frequency Consider an electric train powered by a squirrel-
change is the resulting change in motor speed: if the cage induction motor that is directly coupled to the
frequency drops by 5%, the motor speed drops by 5%. wheels. As the train climbs up a hill, the motor will
J 12 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORJ'vfERS

Figure 14.12
The electric train makes the round trip be-
tween Zermatt (1604 m) and Gornergrat
(3089 m) in Switzerland. The drive is pro-
vided by four 3-phase wound-rotor induc-
tion motors, rated 78 kW, 1470 r/m, 700 V,
50 Hz. Two aerial conductors constitute
phases A and B, and the rails provide
phase C. A toothed gear-wheel 573 mm in
diameter engages a stationary rack on the
roadbed to drive the train up and down the
steep slopes. The speed can be varied from
zero to 14.4 km/h by means of variable re-
sistors in the rotor circuit. The rated thrust is
78 kN.
(Courtesy of ABB)

run at slightly less than synchronous speed, devel- We can make an asynchronous generator by con-
oping a torque sufficient to overcome both friction necting an ordinary squirrel-cage motor to a 3-
and the force of gravity. At the top of the hi!L on phase line and coupling it to a ga-;olinc engine (Fig.
level ground. the force of gravity no longer comes 14.13 ). As soon as the engine speed exceeds the
into play and the motor has only to overcome the synchronous speed. the motor becomes a generator.
friction of the rails and the air. The motor runs at delivering active power P to the electrical system to
light load and very close to synchronous speed. which it is connected. However. to create its mag-
Whal happens when the train begins to move netic field, the motor has to absorb reactive power
downhill'? The force of gravity causes the train to Q. This power can only come from the ac line. with
accelerate and because the motor is coupled to the the result that the reactive power Q flows in the op-
wheels. it begins to rotate abm·c synchronous po:-.ite direction to the active power P (Fig. 14.13 ).
speed. However. as soon as this takes place. the mo- The active power delivered to the line is di-
tor develops a counter torque that opposes the in- rectly proportional to the slip above synchronous
crease in speed. This torque has the same effect as a speed. Thus, a higher engine speed produces a
brake. However. instead of being dissipated as heat.
the mechanical braking power is returned to the 3- phase syste rn
3-phase line in the form of electrical energy. An in-
p
duction motor that turns faster than synchronous
speed acts. therefore. as a generator. It converts the
mechanical energy it receive-; into electrical energy.
and this energy is returned to the line. Such a ma-
gasoline
engine
11 ll Q

chine is called an asrnchronous ge11emt01:

Although induction motors running off a
3-phase line are rarely used to drive trains (Fig. squirrel-cage
14.12). there are several industrial applications that induction motor

may cause a motor to run above synchronous speed. Figure 14.13

In cranes. for example, during the lowering cycle. Gasoline engine driving an asynchronous generator
the motor receives power from the mechanical connected to a 3-phase line. Note that P and Q flow in
"load" and returns it to the line. opposite directions.
 SELECTION AND APPLICATION OF THREE-PHASE !NDUCTION MOTORS 313

Solution
a. The apparent power drawn by the machine
when it operates as a motor is

S = -J3 El
= I. 7 3 x 440 x 41
= 31.2 kVA

The corresponding active power absorbed is

Figure 14.14
p = s cos ti
Capacitors can provide the reactive power for any = 31.2 x 0.84
asynchronous generator. This eliminates the need for = 26.2 kW
a 3-phase external source.
The corresponding reactive power absorbed is

Q = \S'· - p~
greater electrical output. However, the rated out-
put is reached at very small slips, typically less = \' I
than 3%.
= 17 kvar
The reactive power may be supplied by a group
of capacitors connected to the terminals of the mo- When the machine operates as an asynchronous
tor. With this arrangement we can supply a 3-phase generator, the capacitor bank must supply at
load without using an external 3-phase source (Fig. least 17-:- 3 = 5.7 kvar per phase. The voltage
14.14). The frequency is slightly less per phase is 440 V because the capacitors are
than that corresponding to the speed of rotation. connected in delta. Consequently, the capaci-
Thus, a 4-pole motor driven at a of 2400 tive current per phase is
r/min produces a frequency slightly less than ( = Q/E = 5700/440
f = pn/ 120 = 4 X 2400/ 120 80 Hz.
The terminal voltage of the generator increases
= 13A

with the capacitance, but its magnitude is limited by The capacitive reactance per phase is
saturation in the iron. If the capacitance is insuffi-
cient. the generator voltage will not build up. The
X,. Ell= 440/13
capacitor bank must be able to supply at least as = 34H
much reactive pmver as the machine normally ab-
The capacitance per phase mu<;t be al least
sorbs when operating as a motor.
C 112Ti.fXc
Example 14-6 l/(2Ti x 60 x 34)
We wish to use a 40 hp, 1760 r/rnin. 440 V, 3-phase
78 µF
squirrel-cage induction motor as an asynchronous
generator. The rated current of the motor is 41 A, 14.15 shows how the generating system is
and the full-load power factor is 840L connected. Note that if the load also absorbs reac-
tive power, the capacitor bank must be increased to
a. Calculate the capacitance required per phase if
provide it.
the capacitors are connected in delta.
b. At what speed should the driving engine run to b. The driving engine must turn at slightly more
generate a frequency of 60 Hz? than synchronous speed. Typically. the slip
314 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS

14.16 Complete torque-speed

characteristic of an
induction machine
We have seen that a 3-phase squirrel-cage induction
motor can also function as a generator or as a brake.
These three modes of operation-motor, generator.
and brake ~merge into each other. as can be seen
from the torque-speed curve of Fig. 14.16. This
curve. together with the adjoining power flow dia-
Figure 14.15
grams. illustrates the overall properties of a 3-phase
See Example 14-6.
squirrel-cage induction machine.
should be equal to the full-load slip when the We see. for example. that when the shaft turns in
machine operates as a motor. Consequently, the same direction as the revolving field. the induc-
tion machine operates in either the motor or the
slip = 1800 1760
generator mode. But to operate in the generator
40 r/min mode. the shaft must turn faster than synchronous
The engine should therefore run at an approxi- speed. Similarly, to operate as a motor. the shaft
mate speed of must turn at less than synchronous speed.
Finally, in order to operate as a brake, the shaft
1l = 1800 + 40 must turn in the opposite direction to the revolving
l 840 r/min flux.
pis pt P. P

Lt n un
BRAKE tr --speed
~ stator rotor

GENERATOR

stator rotor stator rotor

T = torque developed n speed of rotation lls = synchronous speed

by the machine of the revolving field

Figure 14.16
Complete torque-speed curve of a 3-phase induction machine.
 SELECTION AND APPLICATION OF THREE-PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS 315

14.17 Features of a wound-rotor suit, it is possible for the motor to develop its max-
induction motor imum torque during the entire acceleration period.
Thus, the final speed can be reached in the shortest
So far, we have directed our attention to the squirrel- possible time.
cage induction motor and its related properties as a
generator and brake. The reason is that this type of
motor is the one most frequently used in industry.
14.19 Variable-speed drives
However, the wound-rotor induction motor has cer- We have already seen that for a given load, an in-
tain features that make it attractive in special indus- crease in rotor resistance \viii cause the speed of an
trial applications. These may be listed as follows: induction motor to fall. Thus, by varying the exter-
nal resistors of a wound-rotor motor we can obtain
I. Start-up of very high-inertia loads
any speed we want, so long as it is below synchro-
2. Variable-speed drives nous speed. The problem is that the power dissipated
3. Frequency converter as heat in the resistors makes for a very inefficient
We now examine these applications. system. which becomes too costly when the motors
have ratings of several thousand horsepower. We get
14.18 Start-up of high-inertia loads around this problem by connecting the slip-rings to
an electronic converter. The converter changes the
We recall that whenever a load is brought up to power at low rotor frequency into power at line fre-
speed by means of an induction motor, the energy quency and feeds this power back into the 3-phase
dissipated in the rotor is equal to the kinetic energy system (Fig. 14.17). As a result such a variable-
imparted to the load. This means that a high-inertia speed control system is very efficient, in the sense
load will produce very high losses in the rotor, caus- that little power is lost in the form of heat.
ing it to become excessively hot. The advantage of
the wound-rotor motor is that the heat is dissipated
14.20 Frequency converter
in the external resistors connected to the slip-rings.
Thus. the rotor itself remains cool. A conventional wound-rotor motor may be used as
Another advantage is that the external resistors a frequency converter to generate a frequency dif-
can be varied as the motor picks up speed. As a re- ferent from that of the utility company. The stator of

Figure 14.17
The water supply in the City of Stuttgart, Germany, is
provided by a pipeline that is 1.6 m in diameter and
11 O km long. The water is pumped from Lake
Constance in the Alps. The pump in the background
is driven by a wound-rotor induction motor rated at
3300 kW, 425 to 595 r/min, 5 kV. 50 Hz. The variable
speed enables the water supply to be varied accord-
ing to the needs of the city.
The enclosed motor housing seen in the fore-
ground contains an air/water heat exchanger that
uses the 5°C water for cooling purposes. During
start-up, liquid rheostats are connected to the slip-
rings, but when the motor is up to speed the slip-
rings are connected to an electronic converter which
feeds the rotor power back into the line.
(Courtesy of Siemens)
316 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS

R
D. ir
Pi,
:>:Pm +Pr
sP,

squirrel-cage wound-rotor
motor induction
"motor"

Figure 14.18
Wound-rotor motor used as a frequency converter. Figure 14.19
Power flow in a frequency converter when the output
frequency is greater than the line frequency.
the wound-rotor machine is connected to the utility
line, and the rotor is driven at an appropriate speed
by a motor M (Fig. 14.1 The rotor supplies power Calculate
to the 3-phase load at a voltage£? and frequency.f2, a. The turns ratio of the stator to rotor windings
both of which depend upon the slip. Thus, accord- b. The rotor voltage and frequency when the rotor
to Eqs. 13.3 and 13.4, we have is driven at 720 r/min in the same direction as
the revolving field
12 .~f ( 13.3) c_ The rotor and frequency when the rotor
(I is driven at 720 r/min opposite to the revolving
field
In general, the desired frequency is two or three
times that of the utility company. According to Eq. Solution
13.3, in order to attain this frequency the slip must a. The turns ratio is
be positive and greater than I. As a result, the shaft
(l 2300/500
must be rotated against the direction of the revolv-
ing flux. 4.6
The operation of the frequency converter is b. The slip at 720 r/min is
then identical to that of an induction motor oper-
ating as a brake_ However, the power Pi,_, usually ( 1800 - 720)/1800
dissipated as heat in the rotor, is now available to = 0.6
supply power to the load. The converter acts as a
The rotor voltage at 720 r/min is
generator. and the active power flow is as shown
in 14.19. Note how similar this is to the 0_6 x 500
power flow when an induction motor runs as a 300V
brake 14.16).
The rotor frequency is
Example/4-7 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~
f? 0.6 x 60
A 3-phase wound-rotor induction motor has a rating
36 Hz
of 150 hp ( ~ 110 kW). 1760 r/min, 2.3 kV. 60 Hz.
Under locked-rotor conditions, the open-circuit ro- c. The motor speed is considered to be negatiYe
tor voltage between the slip-rings is 500 V. The ro- (-) when it turns opposite to the revolving
tor is driven by a variable-speed de motor. field. The slip at -720 r/min is
 SELECTION AND APPLICATION OF THREE-PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS 317

s (n, n)/n, The converter must therefore be driven at a

( 1800 ( - 720) )/1800 speed of 1800 r/min. The negative sign indi-
cates that the rotor must run opposite to the re-
( 1800 + 720)/1800 volving field. The induction motor driving the
= 1.4 converter must. therefore, have a synchronous
The rotor voltage and frequency at - 720 r/min speed of 1800 r/min.
are b. The rotor delivers an output of 60 kW. This
corresponds to PJr· but instead of being dissi-
1.4 x 500 pated in the rotor, Pi, is useful power delivered
700 v to a load (Fig. 14.20). The power P, transferred
.12 = .~f' = 1.4 x 60 from the stator to the rotor is

= 84 Hz P, = P/s = 60/3 ( 13.7)

20 kW
Example 14-8
The power input to the stator of the frequency
We wish to use a 30 kW, 880 r/min. 60 Hz wound-
converter is equal to 20 kW plus the small cop-
rotor motor as a frequency converter (F) to generate
per and iron losses in the stator.
60 kW at an approximate frequency of 180 Hz (see
c. The remaining power input to the rotor amount-
Fig. 14.18). If the supply-line frequency is 60 Hz,
to (60 20) 40 kW, is derived from the
calculate the following:
mechanical input to the shaft. By referring to
a. The speed of the induction motor (M) that dri-
14.19 and Fig. 14.20, we can see how the
ves the frequency converter active power flows into (and out of) the con-
b. The active power delivered to the stator of the verter.
frequency converter In summary, the rotor receives 20 kW of
c. The power of the induction motor (M) electrical power from the stator and 40 kW of
d. Will the frequency converter overheat under mechanical power from the driving motor M.
these conditions The rotor converts this power into 60 kW of
Solution electrical power at a frequency of 180 Hz.
a. To generate 180 Hz the slip must be Induction motor M must therefore have a rat-
ing of 40 kW, 60 Hz, 1800 r/min.
f,. =sf' ( 13.3)
180 =s x 60
load
from which f0 60 Hz

s = 3
The stator is still fed from the 60 Hz line, con-
sequently, the synchronous speed of the con-
verter is 900 r/min. The converter must be dri-
ven at a speed 11 given by
(13.2)
driving frequency
3 (900 - n)/900 motor converter
from which
Figure 14.20
n 1800 r/min See Example 14-8.
318 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS

d. The stator of the converter wil I not overheat 14- l 0 A standard squirrel-cage induction motor
because the 20 kW it absorbs is much less than rated at 50 hp, 440 V, 60 Hz, 1150 r/min is
its nominal rating of 30 kW. The rotor will not connected to a 208 V, 3-phase line. By
overheat either. even though it delivers 60 kW. how much are the breakdown torque and
The increased power arises from the fact that locked-rotor torque reduced?
the voltage induced in the rotor is three times 14-11 A 3-phase squirrel-cage induction motor
higher than at standstill. The iron losses in the having a rated voltage of 575 V, is con-
rotor will be high because the frequency is 180 nected to a 520 V line. Explain how the
Hz: however, because the rotor turns at twice following parameters are affected:
normal speed, the cooling is more effective, a. Locked-rotor current
and the rotor will probably not overheat. The b. Locked-rotor torque
c. No-load current
stator frequency is 60 Hz, consequently, the
d. No-load speed
iron losses in the stator are normal. e. Full-load current
f. Full-load power factor
Questions and Problems g. Full-load efficiency

Practical lei·el 14-12 a. Referring to 14.6, if we eliminated the

gearbox and used another motor directly
l 4-1 What is the difference between a drip-proof coupled to the load, what would its power
motor and an explosion-proof motor? output have to be [hp]?
14-2 What is the approximate life expectancy b. How many poles would the motor have'?
of a motor'? 14-13 Draw the typical torque-speed curve of a
14-3 Explain why a NEMA Design D motor is NEMA Design C squirrel-cage induction
unsatisfactory for driving a pump. motor, rated at 30 hp, 900 r/min (see
14-4 Identify the motor components shown in 14.5 ). Give the values of the LR, pull-up,
14.3. and breakdown torques and the corre-
sponding speeds [ft·lbf and r/minl.
14-5 Show the flow of active power in a
3-phase induction motor when it operates I 4-14 A 300 hp, 2300 V, 3-phase. 60 Hz
a. As a motor squirrel-cage induction motor turns at a
b. As a brake full-load speed of 590 r/min. Calculate the
2
approximate value of the rotor 1 R losses.
14-6 Will a 3-phase motor continue to rotate if
If the line voltage then drops to 1944 V,
one of the lines becomes open? Will the
calculate the following:
motor be able to start on such a line?
a. The new speed, knowing that the load
14-7 What type of ac motor would you recom- torque remains the same
mend for the following applications: b. The new power output
a. A saw in a lumber mill c. The new /!- R losses in the rotor
b. A variable speed pump
14-15 We wish to make an asynchronous generator
14-8 Give some of the advantages of standard- using a standard squirrel-cage induction mo-
ization as it relates to induction motors. tor rated at 40 hp, 208 V, 870 r/min, 60 Hz
14-9 We can bring an induction motor to a (Fig. 14.14 ). The generator is driven at 2 IOO
quick stop either by plugging it or by ex- r/min by a gasoline engine, and the load
citing the stator from a de source. Which consists of three 5 ! l resistors connected jn
method produces the least amount of heat wye. The generator voltage builds up when
in the motor? Explain. three 100 µF capacitors are connected in
 SELECTION AND APPLICATION OF THREE-PHASE INDUCTION lvlOTORS 319

wye across the terminals. If the line voltage 14-19 A 3-phase induction motor rated at 10 kW.
is 520 V. calculate the following: 1450 r/min. 380 V. 50 Hz has to be con-
a. The approximate frequency generated nected to a 60 Hz line.
b. The active power supplied to the loud a. What line voltage should he used. and what
c. The reactive power supplied hy the capaci- will he the approximate speed of the motor')
tor hank b. What power !hp] can the motor deliver
d. The stator current without overheating'?
e. If the following ga:-.oline engines are
Adl'(lnced f el'ef
available-JO hp. 100 hp. and 150 hp-
which one is best :mired to drive the 14-20 A I hp. squirrel-cage, Design B induction
motor accelerates an inertia load of 1.4
14-16 A 30 000 hp. 13.2 kY. 3-phase, 60 Hz . from 0 to 1800 r/min. Could this
air-to-water cooled induction motor drives motor be replaced by a class D motor and.
a turbo compressor in a large oxygen- if so.
a. Which motor has the shortest acceleration
manufocturing plant. The motor runs at an
time from zero to 1200 r/min'?
exact full-load speed of 1792.8 r/min and
b. Which of the two rotors will he the hottest.
by means of a gearbox. it drives the com-
after reaching the no-load speed?
pressor at a speed of 4930 r/min. The motor
has an efficiency of 98.1 <;( and a power 14-21 A 3-phase. wound-rotor induction motor
factor of 0.90. The LR torque and current having a rating of 1.50 hp. 1760 r/min.
are respectively 0.7 pu and 4.7 pu. 2.3 kV. 60 Hz. drives a belt conveyor.
Calculate the following: The rotor is connected in wye and the
a. The full-load current nominal open-circuit voltage between
b. The total losses at full load the slip rings is 530 Y. Calculate the
c. The exact rotor 12R losses if the "'"",i._,.,,,. following:
and friction losses amount to 62 kW a. The rotor winding resistance per phase
d. The LR current and torque b. The resistance that must he placed in :-,cries
e. The torque developed at the compressor shaft with the rotor (per phase) so that the motor
will deliver 40 hp at a speed of 600 r/min.
14-17 The motor in Problem 14-16 is cooled by knmving that the line voltage is 2.4 kV
circulating 350 gallons (U.S.) of water
14-22 A 150 hp. 1165 r/min. 440 V. 60 Hz.
through the heat exchanger per minute.
3-phase induction motor is running at no-
Calculate the increase in water tempera-
load. close to its synchronous speed of
ture as the water flows through the heat
1200 r/min. The stator leads are suddenly
exchanger.
reversed. and the stopping time is clocked
14-18 The motor and compressor in Problem at 1.3 s. Assuming that the torque exerted
14-16 are started on reduced voltage.
during the plugging interval is equal to
and the average starting torque during
the starting torque ( 1.2 pu). calculate the
the acceleration period is 0.25 pu. The
following:
compressor has a moment of inertia of a. The magnitude of the torque
2
130 000 lb·ft referred to the motor b. The moment of inertia of tile rotor
shaft. The squirrel-cage rotor alone has
14-23 In Problem 14-22 calculate the energy
a J of 18 000 lb· fr".
dissipated in the rotor during the plugging
a. How long will it take to bring the motor
interval.
and compressor up to at no-load'?
b. What is the energy 01ss1p,ate·d 14-24 A 3-phase. 8-pole induction motor has a
during the starting rating of 40 hp. 575 Y. 60 Hz. It drives a
320 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS

steel flywheel having a diameter of 31.5 Industrial app! irntion

inches and a thickness of 7.875 in. The 14-17 The bearings in a motor have to be
torque-speed curve corresponds to that of greased regularly, but not too often. The
a design D motor given in Fig. 14.5. following schedule applies to two motors:
a. Calculate the mass of the tlyv•heel and its
moment of inertia !lb· fr\ Motor A: 75 hp, 3550 r/min: lubricate
b. Calculate the rated speed of the motor and every 2200 hours of running time.
the corresponding torque [ft.lbf]. Motor B: 75 hp. 900 r/min: lubricate
c. Calculalc the locked-rotor torque fft·lbtl every 10 000 hours of running time.
d. Draw the ton.1ue-spccd curve of the 40 hp
motor anJ give the torques [N·ml at 0, 180. Motor A runs continually, 24 hours per
360. 540. 720. and 810 r/min. day. Motor B drives a compressor and op-
erates about 6 hours per day. How often
14-25 a. In Problem 14-24 calculate the average
should the bearings of each motor be
torque bel\veen 0 and 180 r/min.
b. Using Eq. 3.14 calculale the time required greased per year?
10 accelerate the flywheel from 0 to 180 14-28 A 40 hp, 1780 r/min. 460 V. 3-phase.
r/min. assuming no other load on the motor. 60 Hz, drip-proof Baldor Super E pre-
c. Using Eq. 3.8 calculate the kinetic energy mium energy induction motor has a power
in !he flywheel at 180 r/min. factor of 86o/c and an efficiency of 93.6ck.
d. Calculate the time required lo accelerate The motor, priced at $2243, runs at full-
the rlyvihccl from 0 to 540 r/rnin. knowing
load 12 hours per day, 5 days a week.
thal thi~ time the load exerts a fixed
Calculate the cost of driving the motor
counter-torque of 300 N·m in addition to
the flywheel load. during a 3-year period, knowing that the
cost of energy is $0.06/kWh.
14-26 The train in Fig. 14.12 has a mass of
14-29 A standard 40 hp motor, similar to the one
78 500 lb and can carry 240 passengers.
described in Problem 14-28, costs $1723
Calculate the following:
and has an efficiency of 90.2% and power
a. The ;..peed of rotation of the gear wheel
when lhe train moves at 9 miles per hour factor of 829c. Calculate the energy sav-
h. The speed ratio between the motor and the ings that accrue to the high-efficiency mo-
gear wheel tor during the 3-year period.
c. The approximate transmission line current 14-30 A constant horsepower. 2-speed induction
when the motors are operating al full-load motor rated 2 hp. 1760/870 r/min, 460 V
d. The Iola! mass of the loaded train if the av- has windings similar to those shown in
erage weight of a passenger is 60 kg
14.8. The resistance measured between ter-
e. The energy required to climb from Zermatt
minals I and 2 in the high-speed connec-
to Gornergrat I MJ I
f. The minimum time required to make the tion is 12 n. What resistance would you
trip !mini expect to measure between terminals 4 and
g. Assuming that 80 percent of the electrical 6 in the low-speed connection?
energy is converted into mechanical energy 14-31 A 150 hp, 1175 r/min, 460 V, 3-phase.
when the train is going uphill and that 80 60 Hz induction motor has the following
percent of the mechanical energy is recon-
properties:
verted to electrical energy \vhen going
downhill. calculate the total electrical en- no-load current: 71 A
ergy consumed during a round trip [kW·hJ. full-load cmTent: 183 A
 SELECTION AND APPLICATION OF THREE-PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS 32 l

locked-rotor current: 1550 A a. Determine the equivalent circuit or the mo-

tor under locked-rotor conditions.
A full-load torque: 886 ft-lbf
b. Assuming the cable impedance is purely re-
breakdown torque: 2552 ft-lbf sistive. calculate the approximate current
locked-rotor torque: 1205 ft-lbf when the motor is started up across the line.
c. Estimate the resulting starting torque.
locked-rotor power factor: 32'k
d. Compare it with the rated starting torque.
A 3-conductor 250 kcmil copper cable perccntagcwise.
stretches from the main panelboard to the 14-32 In Problem 14-31 express the currents and
motor, 850 ft away. The voltage at the pan- torques in per-unit values.
el board is 480 V and the average tempera-
ture of the cable is estimated to be 25°C.
 CHAPTER 15
Equivalent Circuit of the
Induction Motor

15.0 Introduction cal secondary windings--one set for each phase. On

account of the perfect symmetry, we can consider a
he preced~ng thre~ chapters have sh:)wn ~hat \:e
T can describe the important prope1t1es ot squir-
rel-cage and wound-rotor induction motors without
single primary winding and a single secondary wind-
ing in analyzing the behavior of the motor.
When the motor is at standstill, it acts exactly like
using a circuit diagram. However. if we want to a conventional transformer, and so its equivalent cir-
gain even a better understanding of the properties of cuit (Fig. 15. l) is the same as that of a transformer,
the motor. an equivalent circuit diagram is indis- previously developed in Chapter I 0, l 0.20.
pensible. In this chapter* we develop the equivalent We assume a wye connection for the stator and
circuit from basic principles. We then analyze the the rotor. and a turns ratio of l: l. The circuit para-
characteristics of a low-power and high-power mo- meters, per phase. are identified as follows:
tor and observe their basic differences.
Finally, we develop the equivalent circuit of an = source voltage, line to neutral
asynchronou:-. generator and determine its proper- r1 stator winding resistance
ties under load.
x1 = stator leakage reactance
x2 rotor leakage reactance
15.1 The wound-rotor induction
r 2 = rotor winding resistance
motor
Rx external resistance, effectively connected
A 3-phase wound-rotor induction motor is very simi- between one slip-ring and the neutral of the
lar in construction to a 3-phase transformer. Thus, the rotor
motor has 3 identical primary windings and 3 identi-
xm magnetizing reactance
Rm = resistance whose losses correspond to the
This chapter can be -,kipped by the reader who does not
iron losses and windage and friction losses
ha\e time lo -,1udy the more theoretical aspects of induction
motor bcliav ior. T = ideal transformer having a turns ratio of 1: I

322
 EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF THE INDUCTION A10TOR 323

- t,,

1 :1
2 4

Figure 15.1
Equivalent circuit of a wound-rotor induction motor at standstill.

1 :1
2 4

Figure 15.2
Approximation of the equivalent circuit is acceptable for motors above 2 hp.

In the case of a conventional 3-phase trans- / and E 2 • h on the primary and secondary side of
1

former, we would be justified in removing the mag- the ideal transformer T. Furthermore. the frequency
netizing branch composed of JXm and Rm because in the secondary winding will become sf: where f is
the exciting current / 0 is negligible compared to the the frequency of the source Fig. 15.3 shows
load current / 11 • However, in a motor this is no longer these new operating conditions.
true: / 0 may be as high as 40 percent of / 11 because of Directing our attention to the secondary side. the
the air gap. Consequently. we cannot eliminate the amplitude of the induced voltage £ 2 would he equal
magnetizing branch. However, for motors exceed- to (the turns ratio is 1: I) if the motor were sta-
ing 2 hp, we can shift it to the input terminals, as tionary. But because the slip is s. the actual voltage
shown in Fig. 15.2. This greatly simplifies the equa- induced is
tions that describe the behavior of the motor. with-
£, sE 1
out compromising accuracy.* Fig. 15.2 is a true rep-
resentation of the motor when the rotor is locked. The frequency is sf' and this changes the imped-
How is it affected when the motor starts turning? ance of the secondary leakage reactance fromj.r=' to
Suppose the motor runs at a slip s. meaning that jsx 2 • Because resistors are not frequency-sensitive.
the rotor speed is n.., ( 1 - s), where n, is the syn- the values of r 2 and R., remain the same. Let us lump
chronous speed. This will modify the values of E 1 , the two together to form a single secondary resis-
tance R=', given by
For motors under 2 hp the exact circuit of Fig. I 5.1 sht>ulJ
be used. ( 15.1)
324 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS

- 1,,

stator
res•stance
- I,

external
JXm E, T resistance

L----<).--__._----------LH N, = ,\'2 ~)---------Cl-----'

2 4
\. I
¥
frequency f frequency sf

Figure 15.3
Equivalent circuit of a wound-rotor motor when it is running at a slips. The frequency of the voltages and currents
in the stator is f. But the frequency of the voltages and currents in the rotor is sf.

The details of the secondary circuit are shown in

Fig. I 5.4a, and the resulting current f.:,_ is
sE 1 L
I~ -~----~~ (15.2) 3
R'2 + jsx 2
-·•
,,.,
where total
resistance
13 arc tan sx-::_!R2 ( 15.3) of rotor
circuit
The corresponding phasor diagram is shown in
Fig. I 5.4b. It is important to realize that this phasor 4
diagram relates to the frequency sj: Consequently. it frequency = sf
cannot be integrated into the phasor diagram on the
(a)
primary side, where the frequency isf Nevertheless,
there is a direct relationship between 12 (frequency sf)
in the rotor and 11 (frequency f) in the stator. In ef-
fect, the absolute value of 11 is exactly the same as
that of 12 . Furthermore, the phase angle 13 between
£ 1 and 11 is exactly the same as that between £ 2 and
12 . This enables us to draw the phasor diagram for £ 1
and 11 as shown in Fig. 15.5.

To summarize:
frequency sf
I. The effective value of 11 is equal to the effec-
tive value of 12 , even though their frequencies (b)
are different.
2. The effective value of £ 1 is equal to the effec- Figure 15.4
tive value of £ 2 divided by the slips. a. Equivalent circuit of the rotor; £ 2 and 12 have a fre-
quency .if
3. The phase angle between £ 1 and 11 is the same b. Phasor diagram showing the current lagging be-
as that between and 12 • hind the voltage by angle f).
 EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF THE INDUCTION MOTOR 325

Thus, on the primary side we can write

s§_I (15.4)

Therefore,

(15.5)
R,
+ jx,,
~··'"'
s - 2

The impedance seen between the primary termi- Figure 15.6

nals I, 2 of the ideal transformer is, therefore, Equivalent circuit of a wound-rotor motor referred to
the primary (stator) side.
R,
···-
s
+ ( 15.6)

As a result, we can simplify the circuit of Fig. This equivalent circuit of a wound-rotor induc-
15.3 to that shown in Fig. 15.6. The leakage reac- tion motor is so similar to that of a transformer that
tances jx 1,j.r2 can now be lumped together to create it is not surprising that the wound-rotor induction
a single total leakage reactance jx. It is equal to the motor is sometimes called a rotary transformer.
total leakage reactance of the motor referred to the The equivalent circuit of a squirrel-cage induction
stator side. motor is the same. except that R 2 is then equal to the
equivalent resistance r2 of the rotor alone referred to
the stator, there being no external resistor.

15.2 Power relationships

The equivalent circuit enables us to arrive at some
basic electromechanical power relationships for the
frequency f 3-phase induction motor. The following equations
can be deduced by visual inspection of the equiva-
11 absolute
lent circuit of the wound-rotor motor (Fig. 15.7):
+ (SX2J2

Figure 15.5
The voltage and current in the stator are separated by
the same phase angle [:$, even though the frequency
is different.

The final equivalent circuit of the wound-rotor

induction motor is shown in Fig. 15.7. In this di-
agram, the circuit elements are fixed, except for
the resistance R 2 /s. Its value depends upon the slip
and hence upon the speed of the motor. Thus, the
Figure 15.7
value of R 2 /s will vary from R 2 to infinity as the The primary and secondary leakage reactances x 1
motor goes from start-up (s I) to synchronous and x2 are combined to form an equivalent total leak-
speed (s 0). age reactance x.
326 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS

1. Active power absorbed by the motor is 10. Efficiency of the motor is:

P E~ I R 111 + nr 1 + nR 2 /s 1J P,)P
2. Reactive power absorbed by the motor is Note: The preceding quantities are "per phase";
some must be multiplied by J to obtain the total
motor quantities.
J. Apparent power absorbed by the motor is
s \ 15.3 Phasor diagram
of the induction motor
4. Power factor of the motor is
If we use current / 1 in 15.7 as the reference pha-
cos 0 =PIS sor, we obtain the complete phasor diagram of the
5. Line current is wound-rotor motor shown in Fig. 15.8. In this dia-
gram (and also in future calculations) it is useful to
/
11
= S/Eg define an impedance Z 1 and angle a as follows:
6. Active power supplied to the rotor is
Z1 = (15.7a)
2
P, 11 Ris a arctan xlr 1 (15.7b)
7. Power dissipated as PR losses in the rotor cir- In these equations r 1 is the stator resistance and jx is
cuit is the total leakage reactance of the motor refeJTed to the
stator. Because r and jx are fixed. it follows that Z 1
1

and cx are fixed, irrespective of the speed of the motor.

8. Mechanical power developed by the motor is In large motors above I000 hp,jx is much larger
than r 1 and so the angle a approaches 90°.
P", = P,. - Pi,
In the equivalent circuit of Fig. 15.7, the calcu-
P, (1 - s) lation of mechanical power, torque. and speed de-
9. Torque developed by the motor is pends upon r 1 jx, and R/\·. The magnetizing branch
R 11 , andjX 111 does not come into play. Consequently.
T for these calculations the equivalent circuit and cor-
11 11, ( 1 - s) responding phasor diagram can be simplified to that
9.55 P, shown in Figs. 15.9 and 15.10.

z,

1,

Figure 15.9
As far as mechanical power, torque, and speed are
Figure 15.8 concerned, we can neglect the magnetizing branch
Phasor diagram of the voltages and currents in Xm and Rm· This yields a simpler circuit for the analy-
Fig. 15.7. The power factor of the motor is cos tt. sis of motor behavior.
 EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF THE INDUCTION MOTOR 327

I. Phasors AB and BC have the same length and

0
the angle between them is ( 180 (l'.) •

2. angle CAB angle ACB a/2

Consequently,

Figure 15.10
Phasor diagram of the circuit of Fig. 15.9. Note that
phasor /1 Z 1 is always ex degrees ahead of phasor /1 .

The slip at breakdown torque is

15.4 Breakdown torque and speed
We have seen that the torque developed by the motor (15.9)
is given by T = 9.55 PJn, where P.. is the power de- The current at the breakdown torque is
livered to the resistance Ris (Fig. 15.9). According
to a basic power transfer theorem. the power is max- 1111 = E/(2 Z 1 cos cd2) ( 15.10)
imum (and therefore the torque is maximum) when
The breakdown torque is
the value of R 2 /s is equal to the absolute value of im-
pedance Z 1• Thus. for maximum torque 9.55
( 15.11)
( 15.8) nJ4 Z 1 cos=' a/2)

Under these circumstances. the magnitude of the We note that the magnitudes of both the breakdown
voltage drop across Z 1 is equal to that across R 2 1s. torque Tb and the breakdown current / 1h are fixed.
We can therefore write in the sense that they are in<lependent of the rotor
circuit resistance R-..
However. the slip at the breakdown torque de-
pends upon R:>. Indeed. if R:> = the breakdown
torque coincides with the starting torque because ·'his
The phasor diagram corresponding to this special
then equal to I. These conclusions are all borne out by
condition is shown in Fig. 15.11. It is a special case
the torque-speed curves in Fig. 13.18 (Chapter 13).
of the phasor diagram of Fig. 15.10. Simple geom-
In the case of <.;quirrel-cage motors. the resistance
etry yields the following results:
R2 becomes equal to r 2 • which is the resistance of the
rotor alone reflected into the stator. In practice. the
angle a lies between 80° and 89°. The larger angles
correspond to medium- and high-power cage mo-
tors. In such machines the ratio R°2/Z 1 can he as low
as 0.02. Consequently. the breakdown torque occurs
at slips as small as 2 percent.

15.5 Equivalent circuit of two

A I ,R /~ B practical motors
Figure 15.11 The impedances and resulting equivalent circuits of
Phasor diagram when the motor develops its maxi- two squirrel-cage motors. rated 5 hp and 5000 hp
mum torque. Under these conditions R2 /s = Z 1 . are given in Figs. 15.12 and 15.13. together with the
328 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS

motor ratings. The motors are both connected 111 3. an 38°, cos u/2 = 0.788
wye and the impedances are given per phase.
4. The slip at breakdown is

15.6 Calculation of the Sb= R21Z, : :-.: 1.2/6.18 0.194

breakdown torque 5. The speed nh at breakdown is
We will now calculute the breakdown torque Th nb 11,( I - sh)
and the corresponding speed nh and current 11b for
1800( I - 0. 194)
the 5 hp motor.
1450 r/min
\ +r = 6.18 n
6. The current at breakdown is
2. o: arclan .r/r 1 = arctan 6/1.5 76"
E1.
1,h = -
2 Z 1 cos u/2
r, jx
I,
1.5 l! 6 l!

l
r,
0.083 !!
J.\'m R,..
440VI\ 3 l! 6900 Vl\3
110

j
'.\lotor rating: l\lotor rating:

5 hp. 60 H1. I 800 r/min. 440 V. 3-pha'c 5000 hp. 60 Hz. 600 r/min. 6900 V. 3-phasc
full-load cnrrcm: 7 A full-load current: 358 A
luckcd-rntm current: 39 A locked-rotor current: 1616 A

stator resistance 1.5 n r, = stator resistance 0.083 n

r, = rotor resistance 1.2 n r"' rotor resistance 0.080 .n
j.r total leakage reactance 6 n jx total leakage reactance 2.6 n
JXn, magnetizing reactance 110 H .iXm = magnetizing reactance 46 .n
Rm = no-load losses resistance 900 H R111 no-load losses resistance 600 n
iThe no-load losses include the iron losses plus The no-load losses of 26.4 kW (per phase) consist of
windagc and friction losses.) 15 kW for windage and friction and 11.4 kW for the
iron losses.

Figure 15.12 Figure 15.13

Equivalent circuit of a 5 hp squirrel-cage induction Equivalent circuit of a 5000 hp squirrel-cage induc-
motor. Because there is no external resistor in the tion motor. Although this motor is 1000 times mqre
rotor, R2 = r2. powerful than the motor in Fig. 15.12, the circuit dia-
gram remains the same.
 EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF THE INDUC710N lVIOTOR 329

breakdown torque 22.3 N·m

440/\3
26.1 A (per phase)
2 x 6.18 x 0.788 241T· I
1
E ! s hp 440 V 3 ph
7. The power to the rotor is z 20 1800 r!min 60 Hz -c----1---,r-
m I I
P1 11:>.K/s l 1:>.Z1 ~ 16 TORQUE-SPEED
o.. CHARACTERISTIC
2
= 26.1 x 6.18 = 42lOW a:
~ 12r--+--::;;1.~-"--~+--.,_-"---t,----r--T-1

8. The breakdown torque Th is w

5a: 81----+--l----t-----~--+-----r---+-'--··~--~H
9.S5 P, g 4 t----+---+ loer

0
9.S5 x 4210 o 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800
22.3 N·m r1min
1800 -SPEED

Note that this is the torque developed per phase. Figure 15.14
The total torque is. therefore. 3 X 22.3 67 N·m. Torque-speed curve of a 5 hp motor.
The same calculations are made for the SOOO hp
15.7 Torque-speed curve motor. Table I SB lists the results and IS. l S
and other characteristics shows the torque-speed curve. Note the relatively
low starting torque for this large motor. as well as
We can determine the complete torque-speed curve of
the near-synchronous speed from no-load right up
the S hp motor by selecting various values of slip and
to the breakdown torque. These characteristics are
solving the circuit of Fig. 15.12. The results are listed
typical for large squirrel-cage induction motors.
in Table I SA. and the curve is in Fig. 1S.14.
TABLE 15B TORQUE-SPEED AND LOAD
TABLE 15A TORQUE-SPEED CHARACTERISTIC CHARACTERISTIC
5 hp. 440 V, 1800 r/min, 60 Hz squirrel-cage induction 5000 hp, 6900 V, 600 r/min, 60 Hz squirrel-cage induction
motor motor

Torque Total Speed cm tt Eff\.:y

11 P, T II
power '"
[Al [WJ tN·ml [r/rnin] [kN·ml [hpl Ir/mini I';; I l',1rl I/\ I
0.0125 2.60 649 3.44 1777 2 1.49 377 -600 4.9 1617
0.025 5.09 12-B 6.60 1755 2.98 () 0 6.3 () 1616
0.026 5.29 1291 6.85 1753 0.6 4.95 500 240 8.2 23.4 1614
0.05 9.70 2256 12.0 1710 0.4 7.39 1120 360 10.6 40.8 1610
0.1 17.2 3547 18.8 1620 0.2 14.4 2921 480 17.7 64.7 1593
0.2 26.4 4196 22.3 1440 0.1 26.8 6095 540 30.8 80.4 1535
0.4 33.9 3441 18.3 1080 0.05 42.l 1()114 570 5 l.7 89.5 1363
0.6 36.6 2674 14.2 720 ().()3077 47.0 11520 581.5 68.2 93.1 1133
0.8 37.9 2150 11.4 360 O.D2 43.1 10679 588 79.8 95.1 878
38.6 1788 9.49 ()
0.0067 l9.9 5000 596 90.1 96.6 358
The rated power of 5 hp is developed at s = 0.026. o.ocm 10.2 2577 598 85. l 95.4 198
:no l:LECTR!CAI. MACHIN LS ANf) TRANSFORMERS

P-
breakdown torque 47 kN m r,
IP 1.5 j6
k~0m~ T (pe• ~h,.e) A

r I
r· 69001 310 •lmr 60 "'
40 TORQUE-SPEED CHARACTERISTIC

~
w 254 v j110
Cf)
<( 30 v
:r
Q,
a:
w
Q,
j
w 3
0
::J
20 rated torque --~--------- B 4
a:
0 Figure 15.16
I- I
10 Equivalent circuit of a 5 hp motor operating as an
asynchronous generator. Note that a negative resis-
0 ~:--~-----L-~--~-~-··--~ tance is reflected into the primary circuit.
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
rlmin
-SPEED I. Net resistance of branch l-2-3-4 is

Figure 15.15 R 11 -48 + 1.5 -46.5 H

Torque-speed curve of a 5000 hp motor.
2. Impedance of branch 1-2-3-4 is

z \
15.8 Properties of an
asynchronous generator =\

We have already learned that a squirrel-cage induc- 46.88 n

tion motor can act as a generator if it is driven above
3. Current in branch 1-2-3-4 is
synchronous speed. Now that we have the equiva-
lent•circuit for the 5 hp motor. we can calculate the / 1 = EIZ = 254/46.88
power it can generate, together with its other prop- 5.42A
erties as a generator.
Let us connect the motor to a 440 V, 3-phase 4. Active power delivered to the rotor is
line and drive it at a speed of 1845 r/min. which is P, 112R2/s 5.4i' ( -48)
45 r/min above syrn.:hronous speed. The slip is -1410W

This negative power means that 1410 W is

= (1800 1845)/1800 flowing from the rotor to the stator.
-0.025
5. The PR losses in the rotor are
The value of R-::.fs in the equivalent circuit is. there-
Pjr f, = 5.42 2 X 1.2
fore.
35.2 w
R 2 /s = 1.2/(--0.025)
6. The mechanical power input to the shaft is
-48 n equal to P, plus the losses P,r in the rotor:
The negative resistance indicates that power is
pill= pr+ pjr
flowing from the rotor to the stator rather than from
the stator to the rotor. Referring to 15.16 we 1410 + 35.2
make the following calculations: = 1445 w
 EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF THE INDUCTION MOTOR 33 I

7. The PR losses in the stator are cos 8 Pj5 = 1294/1502

2 2 0.861 86.1%
Pi, 11 r 1 5.42 X 1.5
16. The efficiency of the asynchronous generator is
=44.1 w
useful electric power Pc
8. The iron plus windage and friction losses are 'YI
mechanical input
2 2
Pr+ Pv = E /R 111 = 254 /900
1294
= 71.7 w = 0.895 89.5%
1445
9. The active power delivered to the linefeedin;.:: 17. The horsepower needed to drive the generator is
the motor is P111 3 P,i/746 = 3 x 14451746
Pc power delivered from rotor to stator minus = 5.81 hp
losses 18. Torque exerted by the driving motor is:

= P, Pi, - P 1 Pv 9.55 x p 9.55 3 x 1445

T = 22.3 N·m
1410-44.1-71.7 l1 1854

1294 w 15.9 Tests to determine

(Pc for the 3 phases 3 X 1294 = 3882 W) the equivalent circuit
10. Reactive power absorbed by the leakage reac- The approximate values of r 1• r 2 , X 111 • R 111 , and x in
tance is the equivalent circuit can be found by means of the
2 2 following tests.
QI= f1 X 5.42 X 6
No-load test When an induction motor runs at no-
= 176 var
load, the slip is exceedingly small. Referring to Fig.
11. Reactive power absorbed by the magnetizing 15.6. this means that the value of R2 /s is very '1.igh
reactance is and so current / 1 is negligible compared to/"' Thus.
at no-load the circuit consists essentially of the
Q2 = E2/X 111 = 254 21110 magnetizing branch X 11 ,, R 11,. Their values can be de-
= 586 var termined by measuring the voltage, current, and
power at no-load, as follows:
12. Total reactive power absorbed by the motor is
a. Measure the stator resistance R11 between any
Q Q1 + Q2 two terminals. Assuming a wye connection. the
176 + 586 = 762 vars value of r 1 is
13. Apparent power at the generator terminals A, r1 R1112
Bis b. Run the motor at no-load using rated line-to-
5 VP~+ Q 2
VI line voltage. ENL (Fig. 15.17). Measure the no-
load current I NL and the total 3-phase active
1502 VA
power PNL·
14. The line current/Pis The following calculations of total apparent power
I 11 5/E 1502/254 5NL and total reactive power QN 1 are then made:

= 5.91 A 5'\I /'\L \3

15. The power factor at the generator terminals is \S2'\L
JJ2 /:LHTRICAL A1AC!f!NES ANO TRANSFORlv!ERS

Figure 15.17 Figure 15.18

A no-load test permits the calculation of Xm and Rm of A locked-rotor test permits the calculation of the total
the magnetizing branch. leakage reactance x and the total resistance (r1 ~ r2 ).
From these results we can determine the equivalent
circuit of the induction motor.
P1 + Pv = windage. friction. and iron losses
F\.Jt - 3 /~ 1 r 1
The resistance R 111 representing P 1 + P, is Hence.

Rm= E~Ll(Pr + P,)

The magnetizing reactance is: More elaborate tests are conducted on large ma-
chines. but the above-mentioned procedure gives
xm = E~1JQi\L results that are adequate in most cases.
Locked-rotor test Under rated line voltage, when
the rotor of an induction motor is locked. the stator Example 15-1
current / 11 is almost six times its rated value. A no-load test conducted on a 30 hp. 835 r/min. 440 V,
Furthermore. the slip s is equal to one. This means 3-phase, 60 Hz squi1Tel-cage induction motor yielded
that r·l> is equal to r 2 , where r 2 is the resistance of the following results:
the rotor reflected into the stator. Because / 11 is much
No-load voltage (line-to-line): 440 V
greater than the exciting current / 0 , we can neglect
the magnetizing branch. This leaves us with the cir- No-load current: 14 A
cuit of Fig. 15.9. composed of the leakage reactance No-load power: 1470 W
x. the stator resistance r and the reflected rotor re-
1
•
Resistance measured between two terminals:
sistance R/s r211 = r2 • Their values can be deter- o.5 n
mined by measuring the voltage. current, and power
under locked-rotor conditions. as follows: The Jocked-rotor test. conducted at reduced volt-
age, gave the following results:
a. Apply reduced 3-phase voltage to the stator so
that the stator current is about equal to its rated Locked-rotor voltage (line-to-line): 163 V
value. Locked-rotor power: 7200 W
b. Take readings of Eu< (line-to-line). /LR· and the Locked-rotor current: 60 A
total 3-phase power Pu{ (Fig. 15.18).
Determine the equivalent circuit of the motor.
The following calculations are then made:
Solution
Assuming the stator windings are connected rn
wye. the resistance per phase is
Qu~ \SfR Pi.R
X = QIR /3 nR r, 0.5 fl/2 0.25 n
3 /f R(r, + PLR From the no-load test we find
 EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF THE INDUCTION MOTOR 333

£, 1/,1, \3 440 X 14\ 3 (In a squirrel-cage motor. R 2 r 2 because

Rx O; see Eq. 15.1.)
10 669 VA
The equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 15.19.
1470W
\ 10 669 2 - 14702 Questions and Problems
I 0 568 var 15-1 Without referring to the text. explain the
Xrn E~ 1 1Q, 1 440 2 / 10 568 meaning of the impedances. currents. and
voltages in Fig. 15.2.
1s.3 n
15-2 A wye-connected squirrel-cage motor
Rm= = 440 2/(1470 3 x 14 2 x 0.25) having a synchronous speed of 900 r/min
146fl has a stator resistance of 0. 7 !! and an
equivalent rotor resistance of 0.5 n. If the
From the locked-rotor test we find
total leakage reactance is 5 n and the line-
Su~ Eu/LR \ 3 = 163 X 60\ 3 to-neutral voltage is 346 V. calculate the
following:
16 939 VA
a. The value of Z 1 and the angle a
PLR 7200 w b. The speed when the breakdown torque is
reached
QLR \
c. The current 1 at the breakdown torque (see
1

15 333 var 15.9)

d. The value of the breakdown torque I N·m]
11.R 60 A
15-3 a. In Problem l 5-2. draw the equivalent
Total leakage reactance referred to stator is circuit if the motor runs at 950 r/rnin in
the same direction as the revolving flux.
15 333
x 1.42!1 Does the machine operate as a gener-
3 x 60 2 ator'? Calculate the torque of the
Total resistance referred to stator is machine.
b. Draw the equivalent circuit if the motor
r1 - r2 PLR 13 /2LR= 7200/(3 x 60 2 ) runs at 950 r/min opposite to the revolving
flux. Does the machine operate as a genera-
o.67 n
tor? Calculate the torque.
0.25 n 15-4 A 550 Y, 1780 r/min. 3-phase. 60 Hz
o.67 0.25 = 0.42 n squirrel-cage induction motor running at
r, x1
no-load draws a current of 12 A and a
0.25 n 142 n total power of 1500 W. Calculate the
value of Xrn and Rm per phase (see
Fig. 15.2).
l 5-5 The motor in Problem 15-4 draws a cur-
rent of 30 A and a power of 2.43 kW
when connected to a 90 V. 3-phase line
under locked-rotor conditions. The resis-
tance between two stator terminals is
Figure 15.19 0.8 n. Calculate the values of r 1• r 2 • and
Determining the equivalent circuit of a squirrel-cage x and the locked-rotor torque I N·m I at
induction motor (see Example 15-1). rated vollage.
33.+ ELECTRICAi, MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS

15-6 If the line voltage for the motor in Industrial application

Fig. 15.15 dropped to 6200 V, calculate 15-9 Consider the 5 hp motor whose equivalent
the new breakdown torque and starting circuit is shown in Fig. 15.12.
torque. a. Calculate the values of the indpctances (in
15- 7 A 440 V, 3-phase, 1800 r/min squi1Tel-cage millihenries) of the leakage and magnetiz-
motor has the following characteristics: ing reactances.
b. Determine the values of the leakage reac-
r1 I.Sn tance and the magnetizing reactance at a
,., = 1.2n frequency of 50 Hz.
c. Calculate the 50 Hz line-to-neutral voltage
x 60 to obtain the same magnetizing current and
If the magnetizing branch can be neglected, compare it with the voltage at 60 Hz.
calculate the value of the starting torque 15-10 The 5 hp motor represented by the equiva-
and the breakdown torque if a 4.5 n resis- lent circuit of 15.12 is connected to a
tor is connected in series with each line. 503 V (line-to-line), 3-phase, 80 Hz
15-8 In Problem 15-7 calculate the starting source. The stator and rotor resistances are
torque and the breakdown torque if a 4.5 n assumed to remain the same.
a. Determine the equivalent circuit when the
reactor is connected in series with each line.
motor runs at 2340 r/min.
b. Calculate the value of the torque [N·ml and
power [hp] developed by the motor.
 CHAPTER 16
Synchronous Generators

16.0 Introduction some other source of motive power. As it rotates, a

3-phase voltage is induced. whose value depends

T hree-phase synchronous generators are the

primary source of all the electrical energy we
consume. These machines are the largest energy con-
upon the speed of rotation and upon the de exciting
current in the stationary poles. The frequency of the
voltage depends upon the speed and the number of
verters in the world. They convert mechanical energy poles on the field. Stationary-field generators are
into electrical energy. in powers ranging up to 1500 used when the power output is less than 5 k VA.
MW. In this chapter we will study the construction However, for greater outputs. it is cheaper. safer,
and characteristics of these large, modern generators. and more practical to employ a revolving de field.
They are based upon the elementary principles cov- A revolving~ffeld synchronous generator has a
ered in Section 8.6. and the reader may wish to re- stationary armature called a stator. The 3-phase sta-
view this material before proceeding further. tor winding is directly connected to the load, with-
out going through large. unreliable slip-rings and
16.1 Commercial synchronous brushes. A stationary stator also makes it easier to
generators insulate the windings because they arc not sub-
jected to centrifugal forces. Fig. 16.1 is a schematic
Commercial synchronous generators are built with diagram of such a generator. sometimes called an
either a stationary or a rotating de magnetic field. alternator. The field is excited by a de generator,
A stationary}leld synchronous generator has the usually mounted on the same shaft. Note that the
same outward appearance as a de generator. The brushes on the commutator have to be connected to
salient poles create the de field, which is cut by a re- another set of brushes riding on slip-rings to feed
volving armature. The armature possesses a the de current Ix into the revolving field.
3-phase winding whose terminals are connected to
three slip-rings mounted on the shaft. A set of
brushes, sliding on the slip-rings. enables the arma-
16.2 Number of poles
ture to be connected to an external 3-phase load. The number of poles on a synchronous generator de-
The armature is driven by a gasoline engine, or pends upon the of rotation and the frequency

335
::IJ6 ELECTRICAL /VIA CHINES ANIJ TRANSFORMERS

pilot exciter
25 kW exciting coil

main exciter
2400 kW, 400 V
3-phase alternator
500 MW, 12 kV, 60 Hz

Figure 16.1
Schematic diagram and cross-section view of a typical 500 MW synchronous generator and its 2400 kW de exciter.
The de exciting current Ix (6000 A) flows through the commutator and two slip-rings. The de control current le from
the pilot exciter permits variable field control of the main exciter, which, in turn. controls Ix.

we wish to produce. Consider. for example. a stator p 120/ln

conductor that is successively swept by the N and S 120 x 60/200
poles of the rotor. If a posirii·e voltage is induced
36 poles. or 18 pairs of N and S poles
when an N pole s\veeps across the conductor. a sim-
ilar negmil'e voltage is induced when the S pole
speeds by. Thus. every time a complete pair of poles 16.3 Main features of the stator
crosses the conductor. the induced voltage goes
From an electrical standpoint. the stator of a syn-
through a co111plete lTcle. The same is true for every
chronous generator is identical to that of a 3-phase
other conductor on the stator; we can therefore de-
induction motor (Section 13.17). It is composed of
duce that the alternator frequency is given by
a cylindrical laminated core containing a set of slots
. pn
.t
= 120 ( 16.1 ) that carry a 3-phase lap winding (Figs. 16.2, 16.3 ).
The winding is always connected in wye and the
where
neutral is connected to ground. A wye connection is
f frequency of the induced voltage [Hz] preferred to a delta connection because
p = number of poles on the rotor I. The voltage per phase is only 11'13 or 58rk of
11 speed of the rotor l r/min]
the voltage between the lines. This means that
the highest voltage between a stator conductor
Example 16- 1
and the grounded stator core is only 58</c of the
A hydraulic turbine turning at 200 r/min is con-
line voltage. We can therefore reduce the
nected to a synchronous generator. If the induced
amount of insulation in the slots which, in turn.
voltage has a frequency of 60 Hz. how many poles
enables u-; to increase the cross section of the
does the rotor have?
conductors. A larger conductor permits us to in-
So/11tio11 crease the current and. hence. the power output
From Eq. 16.1. \Ve have of the machine.
 SYNCHRONOUS GENERATORS 337

Figure 16.2a
Stator of a 3-phase, 500 MVA, 0.95 power factor, 15 kV, 60 Hz, 200 r/min generator. Internal diameter: 9250 mm;
effective axial length of iron stacking: 2350 mm; 378 slots.
(Courtesy of Marine lndustrie)

2. When a synchronous generator is under load. the tion is used. the harmonic voltages do not cancel.
voltage induced in each phase becomes disto11ed. but add up. Because the delta is closed on itself.
and the waveform is no longer sinusoidal. The they produce a third-harmonic circulating cur-
distrntion is mainly due to an undesired thin! rent. vvhich increases the (' R losses.
lwmwnif' voltage whose frequency is three times The nominal line voltage of a synchronous gen-
that of the fundamental frequency. With a wye erator depends upon its kVA rating. In general. the
connection. the disto11ing line-to-neutral harmon- greater the power rating. the higher the voltage.
ics do not appear hetv•een the line-; because they However. the nominal line-to-line voltage seldom
effectively cancel each other. Consequently. the exceeds 25 kV because the increased slot insulation
line rn/wges remain sinusoidal under all load takes up valuable space at the expense of the copper
corn.Iition-;. Unfortunately. when a delta connec- conduct( irs.
Figure 16.2b
The copper bars connecting successive stator poles are designed to carry a current of 3200 A. The total output is
19 250 A per phase.
(Courtesy of Marine lndustrie)

Figure 16.2c
The stator is built up from toothed segments of high-quality
silicon-iron steel laminations (0.5 mm thick), covered with
an insulating varnish. The slots are 22.3 mm wide and 169
mm deep. The salient poles of the rotor are composed of
much thicker (2 mm) iron laminations. These laminations
are not insulated because the de flux they carry does not
vary. The width of the poles from tip to tip is 600 mm and
the air gap length is 33 mm. The 8 round holes in the face
of the salient pole carry the bars of a squirrel-cage winding.
Figure 16.3
Stator of a 3-phase, 722 MVA, 3600 r/min, 19 kV, 60 Hz steam-turbine generator during the construction phase.
The windings are water-cooled. The stator will eventually be completely enclosed in a metal housing (see back-
ground). The housing contains hydrogen under pressure to further improve the cooling.
(Courtesy of ABB)

339
340 ELECTRICAL lvfACll/NES AND 1RANSFOR1'v!ERS

16.4 Main features of the rotor ing. the field coils are made of bare copper bars.
with the turns insulated from each other by strips of
Synchronous generators are built with two types of mica (Fig. 16.5). The coils are connected in series,
rotors: salient-pole rotors and smooth, cylindrical with adjacent poles having opposite polarities.
rotors. Salient-pole rotors are usually driven by In addition to the de field winding, we often add
low-speed hydraulic turbines. and cylindrical rotors a squirrel-cage winding, embedded in the pole-faces
are driven by high-speed steam turbines. (Fig. 16.6). Under normal conditions, this winding
J. Salient-pole rotors. Most hydraulic turbines does not caITy any current because the rotor turns at
have to turn at low speeds (between 50 and 300 synchronous speed. However, when the load on the
r/min) in order to extract the maximum power from generator changes suddenly, the rotor speed begins
a waterfall. Because the rotor is directly coupled to to fluctuate, producing momentary speed variations
the waterwheel, and because a frequency of 50 Hz above and below synchronous speed. This induces a
or 60 Hz is required. a large number of poles are re- voltage in the squirrel-cage winding, causing a large
quired on the rotor. Low-speed rotors always pos- cuITent to flow therein. The current reacts with the
sess a large diameter to provide the necessary space magnetic field of the stator, producing forces which
for the poles. The salient poles are mounted on a dampen the oscillation of the rotor. For this reason,
large circular steel frame which is fixed to a revolv- the squiJTel-cage winding is sometimes called a
ing vertical shaft (Fig. 16.4 ). To ensure good cool- damper winding

Figure 16.4
This 36-pole rotor is being lowered into the stator shown in Fig. 16.2. The 2400 A de exciting current is suppliea by
a 330 V, electronic rectifier. Other details are: mass: 600 t; moment of inertia: 4140 t-m 2 ; air gap: 33 mm.
(Courtesy of Marine lndustrie)
Figure 16.5 Figure 16.6
This rotor winding for a 250 MVA salient-pole genera- Salient-pole of a 250 MVA generator showing 12 slots
tor is made of 18 turns of bare copper bars having a to carry the squirrel-cage winding.
width of 89 mm and a thickness of 9 mm.

Figure 16.7a
Rotor of a 3-phase steam-turbine generator rated 1530 MVA, 1500 r/min, 27 kV, 50 Hz. The 40 longitudinal slots
are being milled out of the solid steel mass. They will carry the de winding. Effective axial magnetic length: 7490
mm; diameter: 1800 mm.
(Courtesy of Al/is-Chalmers Power Systems Inc., West Allis, Wisconsin)

341
342 LU:C!RICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS

Figure 16.7b
Rotor with its 4-pole de winding. Total mass: 204 t; moment of inertia: 85 t·m 2 ; air gap: 120 mm. The de exciting cur-
rent of 11.2 kA is supplied by a 600 V de brush less exciter bolted to the end of the main shaft.
(Courtesy of Allis-Chalmers Power Systems Inc., West Affis, Wisconsin)

The damper winding also tends to maintain bal- and retained by high-strength end-rings,* serve to
anced 3-phase voltages between the lines, even create the N and S poles.
when the line currents are unequal due to unbal- The high speed of rotation produces strong cen-
~mced load conditions. trifugal forces, which impose an upper limit on the
2. Cylindrical rotors. It is well known that high- diameter of the rotor. In the case of a rotor turning
speed steam turbines are smaller and more efficient at 3600 r/min, the elastic limit of the steel requires
than low-speed turbines. The same is true of high- the manufacturer to limit the diameter to a maxi-
speed synchronous generators. However, to gener- mum of 1.2 m. On the other hand. to build the pow-
ate the required frequency we cannot use less than erful IOOO MVA to 1500 MVA generators the vol-
2 poles, and this fixes the highest possible speed. ume of the rotors has to be large. It follows that
On a 60 Hz system it is 3600 r/min. The next lower high-power, high-speed rotors have to be very long.
speed is 1800 r/min, corresponding to a 4-pole ma-
chine. Consequently, these stea111-turhi11e f?enera- 16.5 Field excitation and exciters
tors possess either 2 or 4 poles.
The de field excitation of a large synchropous
The rotor of a turbine-generator is a long, solid
generator is an important part of its overall design.
steel cylinder which contains a series of longitudinal
slots milled out of the cylindrical mass (Fig. 16. 7 ).
Concentric field coils, firmly wedged into the slots See Fig. I 1.28 (('hapter 11 ).
 SYNCHRONOUS GENl:RJ\JORS 343

stationary field

~'"~-~
terminals
3 phase
bridge
rectifier
I ,rotor

pilot exciter
exciting coil

........... $ 3-phase stator winding

main exciter
p
alternator

Figure 16.8
Typical brushless exciter system.

The reason is that the field must ensure not only a voltage may have lo rise lo l\vice its normal value in
stable ac terminal voltage, but must also respond as little as 300 to 400 milliseconds. This represents a
to sudden load changes in order to maintain sys- very quick response. considering that the power of the
tem stability. Quickness of response is one of the exciter may be several thousand kilowatts.
important features of the field excitation. In order
to attain it. two de generators are used: a main ex-
16.6 Brushless excitation
citer and a pilot exciter. Static exciters that involve
no rotating parts at all are also employed. Due to brush wear and carbon dust. we constantly
The main exciter feeds the exciting current to the have to clean. repair, and replace brushes. slip-rings,
field of the synchronous generator by way of brushes and commutators on conventional de excitation sys-
and slip-rings. Under normal conditions the exciter tems. To eliminate the problem. lm1shless excitmion
voltage lies between 125 V and 600 Y. It is regulated systems have been developed. Such a system con-
manually or automatically by control signals that vary sists of a 3-phase stationary-field generator whose
the current(, produced by the pilot exciter (Fig. 16.1 ). ac output is rectified by a group of rectifiers. The de
The power rating of the main exciter depends output from the rectifiers is fed directly into the field
upon the capacity of the synchronous generator. of the synchronous generator (Fig. 16.8).
Typically, a 25 kW exciter is needed to excite a The armature of the ac exciter and the rectifiers
1000 kVA alternator (2.5% of its rating) whereas a are mounted on the main shaft and turn together
2500 kW exciter suffices for an alternator of with the synchronous generator. In comparing the
500 MW (only 0.5<1( of its rating). excitation system of Fig. 16.8 with that of Fig. 16. I,
Under normal conditions the excitation is varied we can see they are identical, except that the
automatically. It responds to the load changes so as to 3-phase rectifier replaces the commutator. slip-
maintain a c~mstant ac line voltage or to control the re- rings. and brushes. In other \'v'ords. the commutator
active power delivered to the electric utility system. A (which is really a mechanical rectifier) is replaced
serious disturbance on the system may produce o sud- by an electronic rectifier. The result is that the
den voltage drop across the terminals of the alterna- brushes and slip-rings are no longer needed.
tor. The exciter must then react very quickly to keep The de control current ( from the pilot exciter
the ac voltage from falling. For example. the exciter regulates the main exciter output/,. as in the case of
>44 EU:'CTRIC41. MACHINES ANIJ TRANSFORlvfERS

Figure 16.9
• This brushless exciter provides the de current for
the rotor shown in Fig. 16.7. The exciter consists
of a 7000 kVA generator and two sets of diodes.
Each set, corresponding respectively to the posi-
tive and negative terminals, is housed in the cir-
cular rings mounted on the shaft. as seen in the
center of the photograph. The ac exciter is seen
to the right. The two round conductors protruding
from the center of the shaft (foreground) lead the
exciting current to the 1530 MVA generator.
(Courtesy of Allis-Chalmers Power Systems Inc.,
West Allis, Wisconsin)

a conventional de exciter. The frequency of the

main exciter is generally two to three times the syn-
chronous generator frequency (60 Hz). The in-
crease in frequency is obtained by using more poles
on the exciter than on the synchronous generator.
Fig. 16.9 shows the rotating portion of a typical
brushlcss exciter. Static exciters that involve no ro-
tating: parts at all are also employed.

16.7 Factors affecting the size

of synchronous generators
The prodigious amount of energy generated by elec-
trical utility companies has made them very con-
-;cious about the efficiency of their generators. For
example. if the efficiency of a 1000 MW generating
station improves by only I (Ir. it represents extra rev-
enues of several thousand dollars per In this re-
gard. the size of the generator is particularly impor-
tant because its efficiency automatically improves
as the power increases. For example. if a small 1
kilowatt synchronous generator ha'> an efficiency of
500. a larger. but :-.imilar model having a capacity of
10 MW i11e1·i1ahl\ has an efficiency of about 90(k.
This i mprovcmcnt in efficiency with size is the rea- Figure 16.10
son why synchronous generators of I 000 MW and Partial view of a 3-phase, salient-pole generator rated
87 MVA, 428 r/min. 50 Hz. Both the rotor and stator
up po:-.scss efficienciesor the order of 99(/r.
are water-cooled. The high resistivity of pure water
Another advantage of large machines is that the and the use of insulating plastic tubing enables the
power output per kilogram increases as the pmvcr water to be brought into direct contact with the live
increase:-.. For example. if a I kW generator weighs parts of the machine.
20kg(yielding IOOOW/20kg 50W/kg).a IOMW (Courtesy of ABB)
 STNCHRONOUS GENERATORS 345

generator of similar construction will weigh only ticated cooling techniques (Figs. 16.10 and 16.11 ).
20 000 kg, thus yielding 500 W/kg. From a power Other technological breakthroughs. such as better
standpoint. large machines weigh relatively less than materials. and novel windings have also played a
small machines: consequently, they are cheaper. major part in modifying the design of early ma-
Section 16.24 at the end of this chapter explains chines (Fig. 16.12).
why the efficiency and output per kilogram increase As regards speed. low-speed generators arc al-
with size. ways bigger than high-speed machines of equal
Everything. therefore, favors the large machines. pm:ver. Slow-speed bigness simplifies the cooling
However. as they increase in size. we run into seri- problem: a good air-cooling system. completed with
ous cooling problems. In effect. large machines in- a heat exchanger. usually suffices. For example. the
herently produce high power losses per unit surface large. slow-speed 500 MVA. 200 r/min synchronous
area (W/m 2 ): consequently, they tend to overheat. generators installed in a typical hydropower plant
To prevent an unacceptable temperature rise. we are air-cooled whereas the much smaller high-speed
must design efficient cooling systems that become 500 MVA. 1800 r/min units installed in a steam plant
ever more elaborate as the power increases. For ex- have to be hydrogen-cooled.
ample, a circulating cold-air system is adequate to
cool synchronous generators whose rating is below
16.8 No-load saturation curve
50 MW. but between 50 MW and 300 MW. we have
lo resort to hydrogen cooling. Very big generators 16.1 Ja shows a 2-pole synchronous generator
in the I 000 MW range have to be equipped with operating at no-load. It is driven at constant speed
hollow. water-cooled conductors. Ultimately. a by a turbine (not shown). The leads from the
point is reached where the increased cost of cooling 3-phase. wye-connected stator are brought out to
exceeds the savings made elsewhere. and this fixes terminals A. B. C. N. and a variable exciting current
the upper limit to size. I, produces the t1 ux in the air gap.
To sum up. the evolution of big alternators has Let us gradually increase the exciting current
mainly been determined by the evolution of sophis- while observing the ac voltage £ 0 between terminal

alternator hydraui1c motor

Figure 16.11
The electricai energy needed on board the Concord aircraft is supplied by four 3-phase generators rated 60 kVA,
200/115 V, 12 000 r/min, 400 Hz. Each generator is driven by a hydraulic motor, which absorbs a small portion of
the enormous power developed by the turboreactor engines. The hydraulic fluid streaming from the hydraulic motor
is used to cool the generator and is then recycled. The generator itself weighs only 54.5 kg.
(Courtesy of Air France)
346 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORlvtERS

Figure 16.12
This rotating-field generator was first installed in North America in 1888. It was used in a 1000-lamp street lighting
system. The alternator was driven by an 1100 r/min steam engine and had a rated output of 2000 V, 30 A at a fre-
quency of 110 Hz. It weighed 2320 kg, which represents 26 W/kg. A modern generator of equal speed and power
produces about 140 W/kg and occupies only one-third the floor space.

A. say. and the neutral N. For small values of Ix. the Fig. l 6. l 3c is a schematic diagram of the gener-
voltage increases in direct proportion to the excit- ator showing the revolving rotor and the three
ing current. However, as the iron begins to saturate, phases on the stator.
the voltage rises much less for the same increase in
r,. If we plot the curve of £ 0 versus Ix. we obtain 16.9 Synchronous reactance-
the no-load sat11mtio11 curve of the synchronous eq uivalent circuit of an ac
generator. It is similar to that of a de generator
(Section 4.13 ).
generator
Fig. I 6. I 3b shows the actual no-load saturation Consider a 3-phase synchronous generator having
curve of a 36 MW. 3-phase generator having a terminals A, B, C feeding a balanced 3-phase load
nominal voltage of 12 kV (line to neutral). Up to (Fig. 16.14). The generator is driven by a turbine (not
about 9 kV, the voltage increases in proportion to shown). and is excited by a de current Ix. The ma-
the current. but then the iron begins to saturate. chine and its load are both connected in wye. yield-
Thus. an exciting current of 100 A produces an out- ing the circuit of Fig. 16.15. Although neutrals N 1
put of 12 kV. but if the current is doubled, the volt- and N 2 are not connected. they are at the same po-
age rises only to 15 kV. tential because the load is balanced. Consequently.
 SYNCHRONOUS GENERATORS 347

N
(al

Figure 16.13c
16
Electric circuit representing the generator of
Fig. 16.13a.
14

is an alternating-current machine, the inductance

manifests itself as a reactance X,. given by
F0 10 •······--~-+--+---·
X, = 2TifL
•
where

+-- X,
f
synchronous reactance. per phase
=generator frequency [Hz]
IHI

L apparent inductance of the stator wind-

{bl
ing, per phase I HJ
The synchronous reactance of a generator is an in-
A ternal impedance. just like its internal resistance R.
---+-/)(
The impedance is there, but it can neither be seen
nor touched. The value of X., is typically I 0 to I 00
Figure 16.13
times greater than R; consequently, we can always
a. Generator operating at no-load.
b. No-load saturation curve of a 36 MVA, 21 kV, neglect the resistance. unless we are interested in
3-phase generator. efficiency or heating effects.
We can simplify the schematic diagram of Fig.
16.16 by showing on! y one phase of the stator. In ef-
we could connect them together (as indicated by the fect, the two other phases are identical, except that
short dash line) without affecting the behavior of the their respective voltages (and currents) are out of
voltages or currents in the circuit. phase by 120° Frnthermore. if we neglect the resis-
The field carries an exciting current which pro- tance of the windings, we obtain the very simple cir-
duces a flux <P. As the field revolves. the flux in- cuit of Fig. 16.17. A synchronous generator can there-
<..luces in th~ stator three equal voltages E0 that are fore be represented by an equivalent circuit composed
120° out of phase 16. J 6). of an induced voltage E 0 in series with a reactance X,.
Each phase of the stator winding possesses a re- In this circuit the exciting current Ix produces the
sistance R and a certain inductance L. Because this flux <P which induces the internal voltage E0 • For a
348 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORl'vfERS

A
+ B
load
c +
alternator E - 7- load

Figure 16.14
Generator connected to a load.
Figure 16.17
Equivalent circuit of a 3-phase generator, showing
only one phase.

given synchronous reactance. the voltage E at the

terminals of the generator depends upon £ 0 and the
load Z Note that and E are line-to-neutral volt-
ages and I is the line current.

'l, 16.10 Determining the value of X<;

We can determine the unsaturated value of X, by the
following open-circuit and short-circuit test.
During the open-circuit test the generator is driven
at rated speed and the exciting cu1Tent is raised until
Figure 16.15
the rated line-to-line voltage is attained. The corre-
Electric circuit representing the installation of Fig. 16.14. sponding exciting current lxn and line-to-neutral volt-
age are recorded.
The excitation is then reduced to zero and the
three stator terminals are short-circuited together.
With the generator again running at rated speed, the
exciting current is gradually raised to its original
value/,"'.
The resulting short-circuit current l.,c in the sta-
tor windings is measured and X, is calculated by us-
the expression
( 16.2)
where
X, synchronous reactance, per phase rnl*
£ 11 = rated open-circuit line-to-neutral voltage
lYJ

Figure 16.16 " This value of X, corrcsponJs to the JirccH1xis synchronous

Voltages and impedances in a 3-phase generator and rcactancc. It i-; \viJcly uscJ to Jescrihc sym.:hronoth machine
its connected load. behavior.
 SYNCHRONOUS GENERATORS 349

/". short-circuit current per phase, using When the terminals are short-circuite<l, the only
the same exciting current/ , 11 that was impedance limiting the current flow is that due
require<l to pro<luce En [A I to the synchronous reactance. Consequently.
The synchronous reactance is not constant but = 4000/800
varies with the degree of saturation. When the iron
is heavily saturated. the value of X, may be only half
sn
its unsaturate<l value. Despite this broa<l range we The synchronous reactance per phase is there-
usually take the unsaturated value for X, because it fore 5 !!.
yields sufficient accuracy in most cases of interest. b. The equivalent circuit per phase is shown in
Fig. I 6.18a.
Example 16-2 The impe<lance of the circuit is
A 3-phase synchronous generator produces an
open-circuit line voltage of 6928 V when the de ex-
z \ (2.12)

citing current is 50 A. The ac terminals are then \'I + S2

short-circuited, and the three line currents are found 13!!
to be 800 A.
The current is
a. Calculate the synchronous reactance per phase.
b. Calculate the terminal voltage if three 12 !l I 4000/13 = 308 A
resistors are connected in wye across the ter- The voltage across the load resistor is
minals.
E =JR 308 X 12 = 3696 V
Solution
a. The line-to-neutral induced voltage is The line voltage un<ler load is

E = ErJ-J3 (8.4)
'13E
0

= 6928N3 ,,,)3 x 3696

= 4000 v 6402 v
The :-,chernatic diagram of Fig. I 6. l 8b helps us vi-
sualize what is happening in the actual circuit.

16.11 Base impedance, per-unit X.. .

(a) 4000 v 12 n We recall that when using the per-unit system we
first select a base voltage and a base power. In the
case of a synchronous generator, we use the rated
line-to-neutral voltage as the base voltage EB and
the rated power perplwse as the ba:-,e power.':' It fol-
-308A lows that the base impedance ZB is given by
-308A
(b) 0 load ( 16.3)
-308A
.....__ __,line voltage 6394 v
alternator
In many power -,rmlies the base power is >elected lO he eyual
Figure 16.18 to the rated power of the generator and the ba>e voltage is
a. See Example 16-2. the line-to-line voltage. Thi> yiekb the same value /'.n for the
b. Actual line voltages and currents. b~1>e impedance.
350 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS

where 0.02 = 0.02 x 7 .5

Z13 =base impedance (line-to-neutral) of 0.15 n
the generator ln I Note that all impedance values are (rom line to
EH = base voltage (line-to-neutral) fVl neutral.
S 13 = base power per phase [VAJ
d. The per-unit copper losses at full-load arc
The base impedance is used as a basis of comparison
P(pu) P(pu) R(pu)
for other impedances that the generator possesses.
2
Thus. the synchronous rcactance may be expressed as 1 x 0.02 = 0.02
a per-unit value of ZH. In general. XJpu) lies between Note that at full-load the per-unit value of I is
0.8 and 2. depending upon the design of the machine. equal to I.
The copper losses for all 3 phases are
Example/6-3 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~ p = 0.02 SB 0.02 x 30 = 0.6 MW
A 30 MYA, 15 kV. 60 Hz ac generator has a sy nchro- = 600 kW
nous reactance of 1.2 pu and a resistance of 0.02 pu.
16.12 Short-circuit ratio
Calculate
a. The base voltage. base power and base imped- Instead of expressing the synchronous reactance as
ance of the generator a per-unit value of the short-circuit ratio is
b. The actual value of the synchronous reactance sometimes used. It is the ratio of the field current /x 1
c. The actual winding resistance, per phase needed to generate rated open-circuit armature volt-
d. The total full-load copper losses age EH to the field current I,~ needed to produce
rated current /H, on a sustained short-circuit. The
Solution short-circuit ratio (l.jl,d is exactly equal to the
a. The base voltage is reciprocal of the per-unit value of X, as defined in
E 1lV 3 15 0001-V 3 Eq. 16.2. Thus. if the per-unit value of X. is 1.2. the
short-circuit ratio is 1/1.2 or 0.833.
8660V
The base power is 16.13 Synchronous generator
SH 30 MVA/3 10 MVA under load
7
10 VA The behavior of a synchronous generator depends
upon the type of load it has to supply. There are
The base impedance is
many types of loads. but they can all be reduced to
ZH EH ( 16.3) two basic categories:
7
= 8660 2/10
1.s n
b. The synchronous reactance is

= 1.2 1.2 x 7.5

=9!1
c. The resistance per phase is
Figure 16.19
R = R(pu) X ZH Equivalent circuit of a generator under load.
 SYNCHRONOUS GENERATORS 35 I

I. Isolated loads. supplied by a single generator The resulting phasor diagram is given in Fig.
2. The infinite bus 16.20. Note that £ 0 leads E by 6 degrees.
Furthermore, the internally-generated voltage £ 0 is
We begin our study with isolated loads, leaving
greater than the terminal voltage, as we would expect.
the discussion of the infinite bus to Section 16.16.
In some cases the load is somewhat capacitive. so
Consider a 3-phase generator that supplies power
that current/ leads the termin::il voltage by an angle 0.
to a load having a lagging power factor. Fig. 16.19
What effect does this have on the phasor diagram?
represents the equivalent circuit for one phase. In or-
The answer is found in Fig. 16.21. The voltage £,
der to construct the phasor diagram for this circuit
across the synchronous reactance is still 90° ahead of
we list the following facts:
the current. Furthermore. £" is again equal to the pha-
I. Current / lags behind terminal voltage Eby an
sor sum of E' and However. the terminal voltage is
angle 8.
now greater than the induced voltage which is a
') Cosine 0 power factor of the load. very surprising result. In effect, the inductive reac-
3. Voltage across the synchronous reactance tance X, enters into partial resonance with the capac-
leads current I by 90°. It is by the expres- itive reactance of the load. Although it may appear we
sion j/X,. are getting something for nothing. the higher terminal
4. Voltage generated by the flux <I) is equal to voltage does not yield any more power.
the phasor sum of E plus If the load is entirely capacitive. a very high ter-
minal voltage can be produced with a small excit-
5. Both and £, are voltages that exist inside
ing current. However. in later chapters. we will see
the synchronous generator windings and cannot
that such under-excitation is undesirable.
be measured directly.
6. Flux <J> is that produced by the de exciting cur-
rent/,. Example 16-4
A 36 MVA. 20.8 kV. 3-phase alternator has a syn-
chronous reactance of 9 n and a nominal current of
I kA. The no-load saturation curve giving the rela-
tionship between and/, is given in I 6. I 3b.
If the excitation is adjusted so that the terminal volt-
age remains fixed at 21 kV. calculate the exciting
current required and draw the phasor diagram for
the following conditions:
a. No-load
b. Resistive load of 36 MW
Figure 16.20
Phasor diagram for a lagging power factor load.
c. Capacitive load of 12 Mvar
Solution
We shall immediately simplify the circuit to show
only one phase. The Iinc-to-neutral terminal voltage
for all cases is fixed at
E 20.8/.J 3 12 kV
E a. At no-load there is no voltage drop in the syn-
chronous reactance; consequently.
Figure 16.21
Phasor diagram for a leading power factor load.
352 F/,t-CTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS

Q 12/3 4 Mvar

The line current is

Figure 16.22a
Phasor diagram at no-load.
I QIE 4 X 106 /12 OOQ
333 A
The voltage across X, is
The exciting current is E., j/X, j333 X 9 3 kV L90°
I, JOO (see Fig. 16.13b) As before leads I by 90° (Fig. I 6.22c ).
The phasor diagram is given in Fig. l 6.22a. 1
With a resistive load of 36 MW:
....1--_.f._3_3_3_A_ _ _ _, __., E
b. The power per phase is
Ex Eo 12 kV
P = 36/3 = 12 MW 3kV 9kV

The full-load line current is Figure 16.22c

6 Phasor diagram with a capacitive load.
Pih'. 12 x 10 /12 000 I 000 A
The current is in phase with the terminal voltage. The voltage generated by I, is equal to the
The voltage across X, is phasor sum of E and

E, jlx, .nooo x 9 9 kV L90° £0 E + Ex 12 +( 3)

This voltage is 90" ahead of/. 9 kV

The voltage E0 generated by I, is equal to the The corresponding exciting current is
phasor sum of E and E,. Referring to the pha-
sor diagram. its value is given by
I.- 70A (see Fig. 16.13b)

=\ =\I = 15 kV Note that is again less than the terminal volt-

age E.
The required exciting current is
The phasor diagram for this capacitive load is
I, 200A (see 16.13b) given in Fig. I 6.22c.
The phasor diagram is given in Fig. I 6.22b.
With a capacitive load of 12 Mvar: 16.14 Regulation curves
c. The reactive power per phase is
When a single synchronous generator feeds a variable
load. we are interested in knowing how the te1111inal
Ex voltage E changes as a function of the load cu1Tent /.
9kV The relationship between E and I is called the regula-
tion curve. Regulation curves are plotted with the field
excitation fixed and for a given load power factor.
Fig. 16.23 shows the regulation curves for the 36
MVA, 21 kV, 3-phase generator discussed in
1 E Example 16-4. They are given for loads having
1 kA 12 kV
unity power factor. 0.9 power factor lagging. and
Figure 16.22b 0.9 power factor leading. respectively. These curves
Phasor diagram with a unity power factor load. were derived using the method of Example 16-4.
 SYNCHRONOUS GENERATORS 353

v The percent regulation is

f~cto~ "'..
~ 18 ..._..power
_...
'5 """· 0.9 lagging E1·
QI
c; 16
... J

-.... ....... c1c. regulation 'X JOO

sa, 14
.....
rated load
12 kV, 1000 A-
...... ..... ~ ,.,_ /
1:0 -.......;
~ ( 15 12)
:§.
~
12 -;;an •
0.9 leading . .... ~. 12
x 100
QI
CJ)
10
!! We note that the percent regulation of a synchro-
i5 8
>
iii 6
nous generator is much greater than that of a de gen-
c;
·e 4
! erator. The reason is the high impedance of the syn-
t
I-
chronous reactance.
2

0
0 250 500 750 1000 1250 A
16.15 Synchronization
Load current I
of a generator
Figure 16.23 We often have to connect two or more generators in
Regulation curves of a synchronous generator at
parallel to supply a common load. For example. as
three different load power factors.
the power requirements of a large utility system
except that E 0 was kept fixed instead of E. In each build up during the day. generators are successively
of the three cases. the value of E0 was set so that the connected to the system to provide the extra power.
starting point for all the curves was the rated line- Later. when the power demand falls. selected gen-
to-neutral terminal voltage ( 12 kV) at rated line cur- erators are temporarily disconnected from the sys-
rent ( 1000 A). tem until power again builds up the following day.
The change in voltage between no-load and full- Synchronous generators are therefore regularly be-
load is expressed as a percent of the rated terminal ing connected and disconnected from a large power
voltage. The percent regulation is given by the grid in response to customer demand. Such a grid is
equation said to be an infinite bus because it contains so
many generators essentially connected in parallel
0( regulation that neither the voltage nor the frequency of the grid
can be altered.
where Before connecting a generator to an infinite bus
(or in parallel with another generator). it must be
ENL =no-load voltage [VJ
synchroni;ed. A generator is said to he synchro-
£ 8 = rated voltage [Yl nized when it meets all the following conditions:

Example I 6-5 I. The generator frequency is equal to the system

Calculate the percent regulation corresponding to frequency.
the unity power factor curve in Fig. 16.23. 2. The generator voltage is equal to the system
voltage.
Solution
The rated line-to-neutral voltage at full-load is 3. The generator voltage is in phase with the sys-
tem voltage.
EB= 12 kV
4. The phase sequence of the generator is the
The no-load terminal voltage is same as that of the system.

15 kV To synchronize an alternator. we proceed as follows:

J54 ELECTRICAL MACH!Nf,·s AND TRANSFORA1ERS

I. Adjust the speed regulator of the turbine so that 3. Observe the phase angle between £ 0 and Eby
the generator frequency is close to the system means of a synchroscupe (Fig. 16.24 ). This instru-
frequency. ment has a pointer that continually indicates the
2. Adjust the excitation so that the generator volt- phase angle between the two voltages.. covering
age is equal to the system voltage £. the entire range from zero to 360 degrees.
Although the are not shown. the dial has a
zero marker to indicate when the voltages are in
phase. In practice, when we synchronize an alter-
nator. the pointer rotates slowly as it tracks the
phase angle between the alternator and system
voltages. If the generator frequency is slightly
higher than the system frequency, the pointer ro-
tates clockwise. indicating that the generator has a
tendency to lead the system frequency.
Conversely. if the generator frequency is slightly
low, the pointer rotates counterclockwise. The tur-
bine speed regulator is fine-tuned accordingly. so
that the pointer barely creeps across the dial. A fi-
nal check is made to see that the alternator voltage
is still equal to the system voltage. Then. at the
moment the pointer crosses the zero marker ...
Figure 16.24
Synchroscope. 4. The line circuit breaker is closed, connecting
(Courtesy of Lab-Volt) the generator to the system.

Figure 16.25
This floating oil derrick provides its own energy needs. Four diesel-driven generators rated 1200 kVA, 440 V, 900
r/min, 60 Hz supply all the electrical energy. Although ac power is generated and distributed, all the motors on ~
board are thyristor-controlled de motors.
(Courtesy of Siemens)
 SYNCHRONOUS G/:NERATORS 355

In modern stations, synchronization If we now increase the exciting current, the volt-
is usually done automatically. age £ 0 will increase and the synchronous reactance X,
will experience a difference of potential£, given by

16.16 Synchronous generator

on an infinite bus A current I will therefore circulate in the circuit
We seldom have to connect only two generators in given by
parallel except in isolated locations 16.25 ).
As mentioned previously, it is much more common
Because the synchronous reactance is inductive.
to connect a generator to a power system
the current lags 90° behind£, (Fig. 16.26h). The
(infinite bus) that already has many alternators
current is therefore 90° behind E. which means that
connected to it.
the generator sees the system as if it were an induc-
An infinite bus is a system so powerful that it
tive reactance. Consequently. when we over-excite
imposes its own voltage and frequency upon any
a synchronous generator. it supplies reactive power
apparatus connected to its terminals. Once con-
to the infinite bus. The reactive power increases as
nected to a large system (infinite bus). a synchro-
we raise the de exciting current. Contrary to \vhat
nous generator becomes part of a network compris-
we might expect. it is impossible to make a genera-
ing hundreds of other generators that deliver power
tor deliver active power by raising its excitation.
to thousands of loads. It is impossible, therefore, to
Let us now decrease the exciting current so that
specify the nature of the load (large or small, resis-
becomes smaller than E. As a result. phasor £, =
tive or capacitive) connected to the terminals of this
particular generator. What, then, determines the
E becomes negative and therefore points to the
left I 6.26c). As always. current I= EjX, lags
power the machine delivers? To answer this ques-
90° behind However. this puts I 90° ahead of£.
tion, we must remember that both the value and the
which means that the alternator sees the system as if
frequency of the terminal voltage across the gener-
it were a capacitor. Consequently, when we under-
ator are fixed. Consequently, we can vary only two
excite an alternator, it draws reactive power from the
machine parameters:
system. This reactive power produces part of the
I. The exciting current /x magnetic field required by the machine: the remain-
2. The mechanical torque exerted by the turbine der is supplied by exciting current/,.

Let us see how a change in these parameters af-

fects the performance of the machine.
16.18 Infinite bus-effect of varying
the mechanical torque
16.17 Infinite bus-effect of varying
Let us return to the situation with the synchronous
the exciting current
generator floating on the line. and E being equal
Immediately after we synchronize a generator and and in phase. If we open the steam valve of the tur-
connect it to an infinite bus. the induced voltage £., hine driving the generator. the immediate result is
is equal to, and in phase with, the terminal voltage an increase in mechanical torque I 6.27a). The
E of the syst~m (Fig. I6.26a). There is no difference rotor will accelerate and, consequently, will at-
of potential across the synchronous reactance and. tain its maximum value a little sooner than hefore.
con."lequently, the load current I is zero. Although Phasor E0 will slip ahead of phasor !:'. leading it by
the generator is connected to the system. it delivers a phase angle o. Although both voltages have the
no power: it is said tojloat on the line. same value. the phase angle produces a difference
 12 kV
F infinite bus

Figure 16.26a
Generator floating on an infinite bus.

!:.,. E

~ + • •

f
4 kV 12 kV 16 kV
90°
12 ~V
16 k V . 1 infinite bus
800A
Q
I

Figure 16.26b
Over-excited generator on an infinite bus.

d800A
infinite bus
90°
E
4 kV 8 kV
•
12 kV

Figure 16.26c
Under-excited generator on an infinite bus.

+
infinite bus

F.
12 kV
(a) (b)

Figure 16.27
a. Turbine driving the generator.
b. Phasor diagram showing the torque angle o.

356
 SYNCHRONOUS GENERATORS 357

of potential Ex = £ 0 E across the synchronous re- power delivered by the generator also increases. To
actance (Fig. 16.27b). understand the physical meaning of the diagram, let
A current I will flow (again lagging 90° behind us examine the currents. fluxes. and position of the
Ex), but this time it is almost in phase with E. It fol- poles inside the machine.
lows that the generator feeds active power into the Whenever 3-phase currents flow in the stator of a
system. Under the driving force of the turbine, the ro- generator, they produce a rotating magnetic field
tor will continue to accelerate, the angle b will con- identical to that in an induction motor. In a synchro-
tinue to diverge, and the electrical power delivered to nous generator this field rotates at the same speed
the system will gradually build up. However, as soon and in the same direction as the rotor. Furthermore.
as the electrical power delivered to the system is it has the same number of poles. The respective
equal to the mechanical power supplied by the tur- fields produced by the rotor and stator are. therefore,
bine, the rotor will cease to accelerate. The generator stationary with respect to each other. Depending on
will again run at synchronous speed, and the torque the relative position of the stator poles on the one
angle b between £ 0 and E will remain constant. hand and the rotor poles on the other hand. powerful
It is important to understand that a difference of forces of attraction and repulsion may be set up be-
potential is created when two equal voltages are out tween them. When the generator floats on the line,
of phase. Thus, in Fig. 16.27, a potential difference the stator current I is zero and so no forces are de-
of 4 kV exists between £ 0 and £, although both veloped. The only flux is that created by the rotor.
voltages have a value of 12 kV. and it induces the voltage £ 0 (Fig. I 6.28a).
If a mechanical torque is applied to the gener-
16.19 Physical interpretation ator (by admitting more steam to the turbine). the
rotor accelerates and gradually advances by a
of alternator behavior mechanical angle a. compared to its original po-
The phasor diagram of Fig. l 6.27b shows that when sition (Fig. l 6.28b ). Stator currents immediately
the phase angle between £ 0 and E increases, the begin to flow, owing to the electrical phase angle
value of increases and, hence, the value of I in- o between induced voltage £ 0 and terminal volt-
creases. But a larger current means that the active age£. The stator currents create a revolving field

Figure 16.28a Figure 16.28b

The N poles of the rotor are lined up with the S poles The N poles of the rotor are ahead of the S poles of
of the stator. the stator.
3."iX ULCIR!CAJ, M"\CH!Nl:S AND TRANSFORMERS

and a corn.~sponding set of N and S poles. Forces

of attraction and repulsion are developed be- p (16.5)
tween the stator poles and rotor poles, and these
where
magnetic forces produce a torque that opposes
the mechanical torque exerted by the turbine. P = active power, per phase [W l
When the electromagnetic torque is equal to the £ 0 = induced voltage, per phase l YI
mechanical torque. the mechanical angle will no
E terminal voltage, per phase [Vl
longer increase but will remain at a constant
value Cl'.. X, = synchronous reactance per phase !HI
There is a direct relationship between the me- o torque angle between £ 0 and E l I 0

chanical angle ex and the torque angle o. given by This equation can be used under all load condi-
o pcx/2 ( 16.4) tions, including the case when the generator is con-
nected to an infinite bus.
where To understand its meaning, suppose a generator
o = torque angle between the terminal is connected to an infinite bus having a voltage E.
voltage E and the excitation voltage Furthermore, suppose that the de excitation of the
£ 0 [electrical degrees! generator is kept constant so that £ 0 is constant.
p number of poles on the generator The term £ 0 £/X, is then fixed. and the active
power which the alternator delivers to the bus will
ex mechanical angle between the centers
vary directly with sin o, the sine of the torque an-
of the stator and rotor poles I mechan-
ical degrees]
gle. Thus. as we admit more steam, will increase o
and so. too, will the active power output. The rela-
tionship between the two is shown graphically in
Example 16-6
Fig. 16.29. Note that between zero and 30° the
The rotor poles of an 8-pole synchronous generator
power increases almost linearly with the torque
shift by 10 mechanical degrees from no-load to full-
angle. Rated power is typically attained at an an-
load.
gle of 30°.
a. Calculate the torque angle between £,, and the
terminal voltage Eat full-load. E.,E
b. Which voltage. E or £ 0 , is leading? ~Pmox =-
I x,
2.0
Solution ,,.,v -.... ......
I
a. The torque angle is:
p
1.5 /
/
' f\.
~ I'.
o pcx/2 8 X 10/2
I/

40° r 1.0 v \
J I I\
'
h. When a generator delivers active power. £ 0 o/- 0.5 /I \
11·ars leads E. ) !\
/ \
30 60 90 120 150 180
16.20 Active power delivered -angles degrees
by the generator
Figure 16.29
We can prove (see Section 16.23) that the active Graph showing the relationship between the acti\te
power delivered by a synchronous generator is power delivered by a synchronous generator and the
gi\en by the equation torque angle.
 SYNCHRONOUS GENERATONS 359

However, there is an upper limit to the active 13.3MW

pow~r the generator can deliver. This limit is
The peak power output of the alternator is,
reached when o is 90°. The peak power output is
therefore.
then Pmax = £ 0 £/X" If we try to exceed this limit
(such as by admitting more steam to the turbine). (3 X 13.3) = 40 MW
the rotor will accelerate and lose synchronism with
the infinite bus. The rotor will turn faster than the
rotating field of the stator, and large. pulsating cur-
16.21 Control of active power
rents will flow in the stator. In practice. this comli- When a synchronous generator is connected to a
tion is never reached because the circuit breakers system. its speed is kept constant by an extremely
trip as soon as synchronism is lost. We then have to sensitive governor. This device can detect speed
resynchronize the generator before it can again de- changes as small as 0.01 %. An automatic control
liver power to the grid. system sensitive to such small speed changes im-
mediately modifies the valve (or gate) opening of
Example 16-7 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ the turbine so as to maintain a constant speed and
A 36 MVA, 21 kV, 1800 r/min. 3-phase generator constant power output.
connected to a power grid has a synchronous reac- On a big utility network. the power delivered by
tance of 9 n per phase. If the exciting voltage is each generator depends upon a program established
12 kV (line-to-neutral), and the system voltage is in advance between the various generating stations.
17.3 kV (line-to-line), calculate the following: The station operators communicate with each other
to modify the power delivered by each station so that
a. The active power which the machine delivers the generation and transmission of energy is done as
when the torque angle 8 is 30° (electrical) efficiently as possible. In more elaborate systems
b. The peak power that the generator can deliver the entire network is under the control of a computer.
before it falls out of step (loses synchronism) In addition, individual overspeed detectors are
Solution always ready to respond to a large speed change,
a. We have particularly if a generator. for one reason or another.
should suddenly become disconnected from the
£ 0 = 12 kV system. Because the steam valves are still wide
E 17.3 kV/'13 IOkV open, the generator will rapidly accelerate and may
0 30° attain a speed 50 percent above normal in 4 to 5 sec-
onds. The centrifugal forces at synchronous speed
The active power delivered to the power grid is are already close to the limit the materials can with-
P (£0 £/XJ sin o stand. so any excess speed can quickly create a very
dangerous situation. Consequently, steam valves
(12X 10/9)X0.5
must immediately be closed off during such emer-
= 6.67 MW gencies. At the same time, the pressure build-up in
The total power delivered by all three phases is the steam boilers must be relieved and the fuel
burners must be shut off.
(3 X 6.67) 20 MW
b. The maximum power. per phase. is attained 16.22 Transient reactance
when o 90°.
A synchronous generator connected to a system is
P (£0 £/XJ sin 90 subject to unpredictable load changes that some-
(12 x 10/9) X I times occur very quickly. In such cases the simple
360 l:LECTRJC1L l'v!ACHINE.5 ANJ) TRANSFORtvll:RS

short· direct bearing on the capacity of the circuit breakers

circuit at the generator output. In effect. because they must
intetTupt a short-circuit in three to six
cycles, it follows that they have to interrupt a very
normal
load high current.
On the other hand, the low transient reactancc
simplifies the voltage regulation problem when the
load on the generator increases rapidly. First the in-
normal ternal voltage drop due to X'd is smaller than it
- load ·---!---short-circuit-·--·---
would be if the synchronous reactance X., were act-
fx, ing. Second. X' stays at a value far below X, for a
sufficiently long time to quickly raise the exciting
current /x. Raising the excitation increases £ 0 •
which helps to stabilize the terminal voltage.

1• - r -------·1
I Example 16-8 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
-tirne A 250 MVA, 25 kV. 3-phase steam-turbine gener-
ator has a synchronous reactance of 1.6 pu and a
Figure 16.30
transient reactance X'c1 of 0.23 pu. It delivers its
Variation of generator reactance following a short-
circuit.
rated output at a power factor of IOOCk. A short-
circuit suddenly occurs on the line. close to the
generating station.
equivalent circuit shown in Fig. I 6.17 does not re-
flect the hehavior of the machine. This circuit is Cairn/ate
only valid under steady-state eonditions or when a. The induced voltage £"prior to the short-circuit
the load changes gradually. b. The initial value of the short-circuit current
For sudden load current changes. the synchro- c. The final value of the short-circuit current if
nous reactance X, must be replaced by another reac- the circuit breakers should fail to open
tance X' whose value varies as a function of time.
Fig. 16.30 shows how X' varies when a generator is Solution
suddenly short-circuited. Prior to the short-circuit. a. The base impedance of the generator is
the synchronous reactance is simply X,_ However. at 2
ZB £13 /SB
the instant of shrnt-circuit. the reactance immedi-
ately falls to a much lower value X'.i. It then in- 25 000 2 /(250 x I(l1)
creases gradually until it is again equal to X, after a = 2.5 n
time interval T. The duration of the interval depends
The synchronous reactance is
upon the size of the generator. For machines below
100 kVA it only lasts a fraction of a second. but for X, = X,{pu) ZB
machines in the l 000 MVA range it may last as long 1.6 x 2.5
as I 0 seconds.
The reactance X'.i is called the transient reacwnce
4n
of the alternator. It may be as low as 15 percent of the The rated line-to-neutral voltage per phase is
synchronous reactancc. Consequently. the initial
E 25/\/ 3 = 14.4 kV
short-circuit current is much higher than that corre-
sponding to the synchronous reactance X,. This has a The rated load current per phase is
 SYNCHRONOUS GENERATORS 361

Ex rated
Fa 23.1 kV load-.f------short-circuit
27.2 kV 47.3 kA

578 kA 6.8 kA

0 2 3 4 5 6 s
-..time
_ _ _ _ _ _., 14.4EkV
5780 A Figure 16.32
Change in current when a short-circuit occurs across
Figure 16.31 the terminals of a generator. See Example 16-8.
See Example 16-8.

I = Ej)( = 27 .2/4
I S/-J 3 E
= 6.8 kA
250 x 10
6
/( 1.73 x 25 000)
which is only 1.2 times rated current.
5774A Fig. 16.32 shows the generator current prior to.
The internal voltage drop £" is and during the short-circuit. We assume a time in-
terval T of 5 seconds. Note that in practice the cir-
IX,= 5774 X 4
cuit breakers would certainly trip within 0.1 s after
= 23.1 kV the short-circuit occurs. Consequently. they have to
The current is in phase with E because the interrupt a current of about 4 7 kA.
power factor of the load is unity. Thus. refer-
ring to the phasor diagram (Fig. 16.31 ). £ 0 is
16.23 Power transfer between
two sources
=\I + 23. I The circuit of Fig. l 6.33a is particularly important
= 27.2 kV because it is encountered in the study of generators.
b. The transient reactance is synchronous motors. and transmission lines. In
such circuits we are often interested in the active
X'd = X'c1(pu) Z 8
power transmitted from a source A to a source IJ or
= 0.23 x 2.5 vice versa. The magnitude of voltages E 1 and L'2 • as
= o.575 n well as the phase angle between them. arc quite ar-
bitrary. Applying Kirchhoff·s voltage law to this
The initial short-circuit current is
circuit. we obtain the equation

j/X
27.2/0.575
47.3 kA If we assume that I lags behind by an arbitrary
angle fl and £ 1 leads by an angle 8, we obtain the
which is 8.2 times rated current. phasor diagram shown 16.'.Dh ). Phasor IX
c. If the short-circuit is sustained and the excita- leads I by 90°. The active power absorbed by Bis
tion is unchanged. the current will eventually
level off at a steady-state value: p cos fl ( 16.6)
362 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFOR1\!/ERS

The active power always flows from the leading to

the lagging voltage. In Fig. 16.33. it is obvious that 1:.· 1
JX
leads £ 2 : hence power flows from left to right.

A B Example 16-9_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
Referring to Fig. I 6.33a. source A generates a volt-
age E 1 = 20 kV L. 5° and source B generates a volt-
(a)
age £ 2 15 kV L. 42°. The transmission line con-
necting them has an inductive reactance of 14 !l.
Calculate the active power that flows over the line
IX and specify which source is actually a load.

Solution
The phase angle between the two sources is 42"
5" 37°. The voltage of source B leads that of
source A because its phase angle is more positive.
Consequently. power flows frorn B to A and so A is
(b)
actually a load. The active power is given by:

£ £, . ~
P= 1
·~·smo (16.8)
Figure 16.33 x
Power flow between two voltage sources.
20 kV x 15 kV
sin 3T
14
From the sine law for triangles. we have
20 000 x 15 000
/X/sin o £ 1/sin tµ 0.602 = 12.9 x Hi'
14
= E 1/sin (90 + tl) 12.9MW
£ 1/cos 8
Note that strange as it may seem. power flows
Consequently. I cos 8 E sin o/X1
( 16.7) from the source having the lower voltage ( 15 kV) to
Substituting ( 16.7) in Eq. 16.6. we find the one having the higher voltage (20 kV).
£ £,.
P = 1
- sm o <16.8)
16.24 Efficiency, power, and size of
x
where electrical machines
P =active power transmitted [W] The physical size of an electrical machine has a pro-
£1 voltage of source I [ V j found effect upon its efficiency. power output. rela-
tive cost and temperature rise. The following
= voltage of source 2 IV I
analysis reveals why these characteristics are inti-
o phase angle between £ 1 and E2 [
0
1 mately related.
X = rcactance connecting the sources [f1] Let us consider a small ac generator having the
following characteristics:
The active power P received by B is equal to that
delivered by A. because the reactance consumes no power output I kW
active power. The magnitude of Pis determined by rated voltage 120 V. 3 phase
the phase angle between £ 1 and £ 2 : the angle 8 be- rated current 4.8 A
t\veen E 2 and I does not have to be specified. rated speed 1800 r/min
 SYNCHRONOUS GENERAJVRS 363

efficiency 73% Under these conditions. we can predict the prop-

input torque 7.27 N·m erties of the generator as its size is increased.
2
morhent of inertia 0.0075 kg·m For example, suppose that all the linear dimen-
external diameter 0.180 m sions are tripled. The volume will therefore in-
external length 0.15 m crease by a factor of 3 3 27. Consequently, the
mass 20 kg mass will increase by a factor of 27 and so. too. will
power output/mass 50 W/kg the losses. The mass of the bigger machine will
therefore be 27 X 20 kg = 540 kg. The losses will
Using this information, we can calculate the losses
rise to 27 X 0.37 kW = I 0 kW.
of the machine:
The slots are 3 times wider and 3 times deeper.
pl! x 100 eq. 3.6 As a result. the cross section of the conductors is 9
P, times greater which means they can carry 9 times
I kW more current. The larger machine can therefore de-
73 = x 100 liver a current of 9 X 4.8 A 43.2 A.
P,
As regards the generated voltage per conductor, it
input power P; = 1.37 kW is determined by equation (2.25) E Bh~ We recall
that B is the flux density, I is the length of the conduc-
losses= 1.37 kW 1.0 kW 0.37 kW
tor and v is the speed at which the flux cuts across it.
The losses comprise the 12 R losses in the windings, The flux density in the larger machine is the same
the hysteresis and eddy-current losses in the iron as before. However, the length I has tripled.
and the windage and friction losses. Furthermore. the peripheral speed v has increased 3
Let us increase the size of the machine in such times because the diameter of the rotor has tripled. As
a way that its linear dimensions are raised in ex- a result, the voltage generated per conductor also in-
actly the same proportion, while keeping the same creases by a factor of 9. Because the larger generator
materials throughout. Thus, if a particular type of has the same number of conductors as before and be-
iron lamination was used in the stator, the same cause they are connected the same way. the genera-
type is used in the larger machine. The same type tor will produce a voltage of 9 X 120 V I 080 Y.
of insulation is also used. thereby duplicating and Thus. by tripling the linear dimensions. the volt-
magnifying everything, including the bearings, age and current both increase by a factor of 9. This
nuts and bolts. means that the power output increases 9 X 9 81
In this larger generator we will keep the same times. The power output of the new generator is
current densities (A/m 2) as in the original machine. therefore 81 x I kW 81 kW.
We will also maintain the same flux densities (tes- The power input needed to drive the ac genera-
las) in the various parts of the magnetic circuit tor is P; 81 kW losses 81 kW -t 10 kW
(core. air gap, stator teeth. etc.). 91 kW. The new efficiency is therefore:
As a result the (2 R losses per cm' and the iron
3 p
losses per cm will be everywhere the same as in the 1) = ,, x 100 eq. 3.6
original machine. It follows that the copper losses pi
and iron losses will increase in proportion to its vol- 81 kW
ume. Let's assume that the windage and friction
x 100
91 kW
losses also increase the same way.
0.89 89%
We furthei· assume that the number of slots. con-
ductors and interconnections remain the same as The efficiency has increased from 73% to 89%
before and that the speed of rotation ( 1800 r/min) is which is a dramatic improvement. The reason is that
left unchanged. the power output has increased 81 times, while the
>64 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORlvfERS

losses increased only 27 times. Consequently. the effi- about 200°C. Consequently. the cooling of large
ciency of the machine was hound to increase with size. machines is a very important matter.
The original machine produced an output of 50 In conclusion. the general principles covered here
W/kg. The larger machine has a mass of 540 kg and regarding physical size. power outpu,t efficiency.
produces 81 kW. Consequently. it produces 81 temperature rise and so forth. apply to all machines.
kW/540 kg 150 W/kg which is 3 times greater including ac and de motors and transformers.
than before.
The larger generator is therefore relatively Questions and Problems
lighter and cheaper than the smalkr machine. As
Practirnl lerel
proof. if eighty-one I kW generators were used to
produce 81 kW, their combined mass would be 81 16-1 What are the advantages of using a stationary
X 20 kg 1620 kg. This generating center would armature in large synchronous generators?
obviously be more costly and take up more floor Why is the stator always connected in wye?
space than the single 81 kW generator. 16-2 State the main differences between steam-
As another matter of interest we recall that the turbine generators and salient-pole gener-
moment of inertia J of a rotor is proportional to its ators. For a given power output which of
mass and the square of its radius (see Table 3A). these machines is the larger'?
Hence, when linear dimensions are tripled. J will 16-3 In analyzing a hydropower site, it is found
2 2
increase by a factor of J = mr 27 X 3 35 = that the turbines should turn at close to
243. The moment of inertia of the larQer machine is 350 r/min. If the directly-coupled genera-
2
therefore 243 X 0.0075 kg·m I .8\g·m 2 . tors must generate a frequency of 60 Hz.
The characteristics of the larger generator are calculate the following:
summarized below. They are in striking contrast to a. The number of poles on the rotor
the original 1 kW machine. b. The exac1 turbine speed

power output 81 kW 16-4 An isolated 3-phase generator produces a

rated voltage l 080 V, 3 phase no-load line voltage of 13.2 kV. If a load
rated current 43.2 A having a lagging power factor of 0.8 is
rated speed 1800 r/min connected to the machine. must the exci-
efficiency 89'/c tation be increased or decreased in order
input torque 483 N·m to maintain the same line voltage?
2
moment of inertia 1.8 kg·m 16-5 What conditions must be met before a gener-
external diameter 0.54 111 ator can be connected to a 3-phase system?
external length 0.45 m 16-6 Calculate the number of poles on the genera-
mass 540 kg tor in Fig. 16.12 using the information given.
power output/mass 150 W/kg
16-7 Calculate the number of poles on the air-
The one big problem is temperature rise. When craft generator shown in Fig. 16.11.
linear dimensions are tripled, the heat-dissipating 16-8 A 3-phase generator turning at 1200 r/min
surface area of the machine increases 9 times but generates a no-load voltage of 9 kV, 60
the losses increase 27 times. Hence, the power dis- Hz. How will the terminal voltage be af-
sipated per square meter increases by a factor of 3. fected if the following loads are connected
Consequently, unless better cooling means are to its terminals?
used. the larger machine is bound to be hotter. To a. Resistive load
prevent damage to the insulating materials. the tem- b. Inducti vc load
perature rise has to be limited to a maximum of c. Capacitive load
 SYNCHRONOUS GENERATORS 365

16-9 In Problem 16-8, if the field current is Calculate

kept constant, calculate the no-load volt- a. The synchronous impedance Z, per phase
age and frequency if the speed is b. The total resistance of the circuit, per
a. l 000 r/min phase
b. 5 r/min. c. The total reactance of the circuit. per
phase
Intermediate level d. The line current
16-10 What is meant by the synchronous reac- e. The line-to-neutral voltage across the load
tance of a 3-phase generator? Draw the f. The line voltage across the load
g. The power of the turbine driving the alter-
equivalent circuit of a generator and ex-
nator
plain the meaning of all the parameters.
h. The phase angle between E" and the volt-
16-11 State the advantages of brush less excita- age across the load
tion systems over conventional systems.
16-17 A 3-phase generator rated 3000 K VA,
Using a schematic circuit diagram, show
20 kV, 900 r/min, 60 Hz delivers power to
how the rotor in 16.7 is excited.
a 2400 KVA. 16 kV load having a lagging
16-12 Referring to 16.13. calculate the ex- power factor of 0.8. If the synchronous re-
citing current needed to generate a no- actance is I 00 !1, calculate the value of
load line voltage of E0 , per phase.
a. 24.2 kV
b. 12.I kV
16-18 The generator in 16.2 has a synchro-
nous reactance of 0.4 n, per phase. It is
16-13 A 3-phase generator possesses a synchro-
connected to an infinite bus having a line
nous reactance of 6 !1 and the excitation
voltage of 14 kV, and the excitation volt-
voltage is 3 kV per phase (ref. Fig.
age is adjusted to 1.14 pu.
16.19). Calculate the line-to-neutral volt-
age E for a resistive load of 8 n and draw Calculate
the phasor diagram. a. The torque angle 8 when the generator de-
16-14 a. In Problem 16-13. draw the curve of Ever- livers 420 MW
sus I for the following resistive loads: infin- b. The mechanical displacement angle a
ity. 24. 12, 6, 3, 0 ohms. c. The linear pole shift (measured along the
b. Calculate the active power P per phase in inside stator circumference) corresponding
each case. to this displacement angle !in!.
c. Draw the curve of E versus P. For what
16-19 A test taken on the 500 MVA alternator of
value of load resistance is the power output
Fig. 16.2 yields the following results:
a maximum'?
l. Open-circuit line voltage is 15 kV for a de
16-15 Referring to Fig. 16.2. calculate the length current of 1400 A.
of one pole-pitch measured along the in- 2. Using the same de current, with the arma-
ternal circumference of the stator. ture short-circuited the resulting ac line cur-
16-16 The 3-phase generator shown in rent is 21 000 A.
16.16 has the following characteristics:
Calculate
E0 = 2440 V
a. The base impedance of the generator. per
X, = 144!1 phase
R = 17!1 b. The value of the synchronous reactance
c. The per-unit value of X,
load impedance z= 175 n (resistive) d. The short-circuit ratio
366 FU:CTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS

Adrnnced /en'! 16-25 The generator in Problem 16-20 is driven

16-20 The synchronous generator in Fig. 16.2 by a hydraulic turbine whose moment of
6 2
has an efficiency of 98.4% when it deliv- inertia is 54 X I 0 lb·ft . The rotor has a J
6 2
ers an output of 500 MW. Knowing that of 4.14 x 10 kg·m .
the de exciting current is 2400 A at a de a. If the line circuit breakers suddenly trip. cal-
culate the speed of the generating unit (tur-
voltage of 300 V. calculate the following:
bine and alternator) I second later. assum-
a. The total losses in the machine
ing that the wicket gates remain wide open.
h. The copper los:-.es in the rotor
b. By how many mechanical degrees do the
c. The torque developed by the turbine
poles advance (with respect to their normal
d. The average difference in temperature be-
position) during the I -second interval? By
tween the cool incoming air and warm out-
how many electrical degrees?
going air. if the air tlO\v is 280 m'/s
16-21 Referring to Fig. 16.4, each coil on the ro- 16-26 A 400 Hz alternator has a 2-hour rating of
tor has 21.5 turns, and carries a de current 75 kVA, 1200 r/min. 3-phase, 450 V, 80
of 500 A. Knowing that the air gap length percent power factor l 6.34a). The
is 1.3 inches. calculate the tlux density in stator possesses 180 slots and has an inter-
the air gap at no-load. Neglect the mmf re- nal diameter of 22 inches and an axial
quired for the iron portion of the magnetic length of 9.5 in. The rotor is designated
circuit. (See Section 2.17). for a field current of 31 A at 115 V.
16-22 Referring to 16.17. the following in-
Calculate
formation is given about a generator:
a. The number of poles on the rotor
£ 0 = 12 kV b. The number of coils on the stator
c. The number of coils per phase group on
E 14kV
the stator
X, 2H d. The length of one pole pitch. measured
leads E by 30° along the circumference of the stator
e. The resistance of the de winding on the ro-
a. Calculate the total active power output of tor and the power needed to excite it
the generator.
h. Draw the phasor diagram for one phase. Industrial application
c. Calculate the power factor of the load. 16-27 A 33.8 kVA. 480 V. 3-phase, 60 Hz diesel-
16-23 The steam-turbine generator shown in Fig. driven emergency alternator is designed to
16.3 has a synchronous reactance of 1.3 pu. operate at a power factor of 80 percent. The
The excitation voltage £" is adjusted to 1.2 following additional information is given:
pu and the machine is connected to an infi-
Efficiency: 83.4%
nite bus of 19 kV. If the torque angle 8 is
20°, calculate the following: Weight: 730 lb
a. The active power output Wk 2 (moment of inertia): 15.7 lb.ft 2
b. The line current
Insulation: class B
c. Draw the phasor diagram, for one phase
16-24 In Problem 16-23. calculate the active Calculate
power output of the generator if the steam a. The minimum horsepower rating of the
valves are closed. Does the alternator re- diesel engine lo drive the generator
ceive or deliver reactive power and how h. The maximum allowable temperature of the
much·.i windings. using the resistance method
 Si'NCHRONOUS GENERATORS 7'67

16-28 A 220 MVA, 500 r/min, 13.8 kV, 50 Hz. Efficiency at full-load. unity power factor:
0.9 power factor. water-turbine synchro- 98.95%
nous generator, manufactured by Siemens, Unsaturated synchronous reactance: 1.27 pu
has the following properties: Transient reactance: 0.37 pu
Insulation class: F Runaway speed in generator mode:
Moment of inertia: 525 t·m 2 890 r/min
Total mass of stator: 158 t Static excitation is used and the excitation
(t metric ton) current is 2980 A under an excitation volt-
Total mass of rotor: 270 t age of 258 V.

Figure 16.34a
Rotor and stator of a 75 kVA, 1200 r/min, 3-phase, 450 V, 400 Hz alternator for shipboard use. The alternator is
driven by a 100 hp, 1200 r/min synchronous motor.

Figure 16.34b
Stator and rotor of the 100 hp, 1200 r/min, 60 Hz synchronous motor. The stator is mounted on a bedplate that also
serves as a base for the alternator. The rotor is equipped with a squirrel cage winding to permit starting as an in-
duction motor. (Courtesy of Electro-Mecanik)
368 EU:'CTR/CAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS

The generator is also designed to oper- 16-29 In industry application Problem 16-28.
ate as a motor, driving the turbine as a calculate the following:
pump. Under these conditions. the motor a. The horsepower rating of the generator
develops an output of 145 MW. when it runs as a pump motoi:
Both the stator and rotor are water- b. The kinetic energy of the rotor when it runs
at rated speed
coo1ed by passing the water through the
c. The kinetic energy of the rotor when it
hollow current-carrying conductors. The
reaches its maximum allowable runaway
water is treated so that its conductivity is
speed
less than 5 µSiem. The pure water flows d. The time to reach the runaway speed in the
through the stator at a rate of 8.9 liters per event that a short-circuit occurs when the gen-
second and through the rotor at 5.9 liters erator is delivering its rated load. and assum-
per second. Given the above information, ing that the water continues to flow unchecked
make the following calculations: through the turbine wide open)
a. The rated active power output. in MW at 16-30 In Problem 16-28 calculate the power dis-
unity power factor and at 0.9 lagging power sipated in the rotor windings and the
factor power loss per pole. Knmving the rate of
b. The rated reactive power output, in Mvar
water flow and that the inlet temperature
c. The short circuit ratio
is 26°C, calculate the temperature of the
d. The value of the line-to-neutral synchro-
nous reactance. per phase water flowing out of the rotor windings.
e. the total losses of the generator at full load What is the minimum resistivity (fl·m) of
and unity power factor the circulating water?
 CHAPTER 17
Synchronous Motors

17.0 Introduction fixed. the motor speed stays constant, irrespective

of the load or voltage of the 3-phase line. However.
he synchronous generators d~scribed in the pre-
T vious chapter can operate either as generators
or as motors. When operating as motors (by con-
svnchronous motors are used not so much because
they run at constant speed but because they posse<>s
other unique electrical properties. We will study
necting them to a 3-phase source), they are called these features in this chapter.
srnchronous motors. As the name implies. synchro- Most synchronous motors are rated between
~ous motors run in synchronism with the revolving 150 kW (200 hp) and 15 MW (20 000 hp) and turn at
field. The speed of rotation is therefore tied to the speeds ranging from 150 to 1800 r/min. Consequently,
frequency of the source. Because the frequency is these machines are mainly used in heavy industry

Figure 17.1
Three-phase, unity power factor synchro-
nous motor rated 3000 hp (2200 kW), 327
r/min, 4000 V, 60 Hz driving a compressor
used in a pumping station on the Trans-
Canada pipeline. Brushless excitation is
provided by a 21 kW, 250 V alternator/recti-
fier, which is mounted on the shaft between
the bearing pedestal and the main rotor.
(Courtesy of General Electric)

369
370 ELECTRICAL iWACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS

(Fig. 17. I). At the other end of the power spectrum, rent is fed into the winding from an external exciter.
we find tiny single-phase synchronous motors used Slots arc also punched out along the circumference
in control devices and electric clocks. They are dis- of the salient poles. They caJTy a squiJTel-cage wind-
cussed in Chapter 18. ing similar to that in a 3-phase induction motor. This
damper winding serves to start the motor.
17.1 Construction Modern synchronous motors often employ brush-
less excitation, similar to that used in synchronous
Synchronous motors are identical in construction to generators. RefeJTing to Fig. 17.3. a relatively small
salient-pole ac generators. The stator is composed 3-phase generator, called excito; and a 3-phase recti-
of a slotted magnetic core. which carries a 3-phase fier are mounted at one end of the motor shaft. The
lap winding. Consequently. the winding is also de current Ix from the rectifier is fed directly into the
identical to that of a 3-phase induction motor. salient-pole windings, without going through
The rotor has a set of salient poles that are excited brushes and slip-rings. The cuJTent can be varied by
by a de current (Fig. 17.2). The exciting coils are controlling the small exciting current le that flows in
connected in series to two slip-rings. and the de cur- the stationary field winding of the exciter. Fig. 17.4

Figure 17.2
Rotor of a 50 Hz to 16 2/3 Hz frequency
converter used to power an electric railway.
The 4-pole rotor at the left is associated
with a single-phase alternator rated 7000
kVA, 16 2/3 Hz, PF 85%. The rotor on the
right is for a 6900 kVA, 50 Hz, 90% PF
synchronous motor which drives the sin-
gle-phase alternator. Both rotors are
equipped with squirrel-cage windings.
(Courtesy of ABB)

1 · de control source
2 stationary exciter poles
3 alternator (3-phase exciter)
4 3-phase connection
5 bridge rectifier
6 ·de line
7 rotor of synchronous motor
8 stator of synchronous motor
9 · 3-phase input to stator

Figure 17.3
Diagram showing the main components of a brush less exciter for a synchronous motor. It is similar to that of a syn-
chronous generator.
 SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS 37 J

shows how the exciter, rectifier, and salient pole-. are Example 17-1
mounted in a 3000 kW synchronous motor. Calculate the number of salient poles on the rotor of
The rotor and stator always have the same num- the synchronous motor shown in Fig. 17.4a.
ber of poles. As in the case of an induction motor,
the number of poles determines the synchronous Solution
speed of the motor: The motor operates at 60 Hz and runs at 200 r/rnin;
consequently,
120/: ( 17.1)
n, = 120.flp
where
200 = ( 120 x 60)/p
n, motor speed fr/mini
p = 36 poles
f frequency of the source [Hzj
p number of poles The rotor possesses 18 north poles and 18 south pole-..

Figure 17.4a
Synchronous motor rated 4000 hp (3000
kW), 200 r/min, 6.9 kV, 60 Hz, 80%
power factor designed to drive an ore
crusher. The brushless exciter (alterna-
tor/rectifier) is mounted on the overhung
shaft and is rated 50 kW, 250 V.
(Courtesy of General Electric)

Figure 17.4b
Close-up of the 50 kW exciter, showing
the armature winding and 5 of the 6
diodes used to rectify the ac current.
(Courtesy of General Electric)
372 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS

17.2 Starting a synchronous motor ax is of N pole

of rotor
.-J...- axis of S pole
of stator
A synchronous motor cannot start by itself; conse-
quently. the rotor is usually equipped with a squirrel-
cage winding so that it can start up as an induction
motor. When the stator is connected to the 3-phase
line. the motor accelerates until it reaches a speed
slightly below synchronous speed. The de excitation
is suppressed during this staiting period.
While the rotor accelerates, the rotating flux cre-
ated by the stator sweeps across the slower moving
salient poles. Because the coils on the rotor possess
a relatively large number of turns, a high voltage is Figure 17.5
induced in the rotor winding when it turns at low The poles of the rotor are attracted to the opposite
poles on the stator. At no-load the axes of the poles
speeds. This voltage appears between the slip-rings
coincide.
and it decreases as the rotor accelerates, eventually
becoming negligible when the rotor approaches
The pull-in torque of a synchronous motor is
synchronous speed. To limit the voltage. and to im-
powerful, but the de current must be applied at the
prove the starting torque, we either short-circuit the
right moment. For example, if it should happen that
slip-rings or connect them to an auxiliary resistor
the emerging N, S poles of the rotor are opposite the
during the starting period.
N, S poles of the stator, the resulting magnetic re-
If the power capacity of the supply line is lim-
pulsion produces a violent mechanical shock. The
ited, we sometimes have to apply reduced voltage
motor will immediately slow down and the circuit
to the stator. As in the case of induction motors, we
breakers will trip. In practice, starters for synchro-
use either autotransformers or series reactors to
nous motors are designed to detect the precise mo-
limit the starting current (see Chapter 20). Very
ment when excitation should be applied. The motor
large synchronous motors (20 MW and more) are
then pulls automatically and smoothly into step
sometimes brought up to speed by an auxiliary mo-
with the revolving field.
tor, called a pony motm: Finally. in some big instal-
Once the motor turns at synchronous speed. no
lations the motor may be brought up to speed by a
voltage is induced in the squirrel-cage winding and so
variable-frequency electronic source.
it carries no current. Consequently, the behavior of a
synchronous motor is entirely different from that of
17.3 Pull-in torque an induction motor. Basically, a synchronous motor
rotates because of the magnetic attraction between the
As soon as the motor is running at close to syn- poles of the rotor and the opposite poles of the stator.
chronous speed. the rotor is excited with de current. To reverse the direction of rotation, we simply
This produces alternate N and S poles around the interchange any two lines connected to the stator.
circumference of the rotor (Fig. 17.5). If the poles
at this moment happen to be facing poles of oppo-
17 .4 Motor under load-
site polarity on the stator. a strong magnetic attrac-
tion is set up between them. The mutual attraction
genera I description
locks the rotor and stator poles together. and the ro- When a synchronous motor runs at no-load. the ro-
tor is literally yanked into step with the revolving tor poles are directly opposite the stator poles and
field. The torque developed at this moment is ap- their axes coincide (Fig. 17.5). However, if we ap-
propriately called the pull-in torque. ply a mechanical load, the rotor poles fall slightly
 SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS 373

a bigger mechanical load, and the increased power

can only come from the 3-phase ac source.

17 .5 Motor under load-

simple calculations
We can get a better understanding of the operation
of a synchronous motor by referring to the equiva-
lent circuit shown in Fig. I 7.7a. It represents one
phase of a wye-connected motor. It is identical to
the equivalent circuit of an ac generator, because
both machines are built the same way. Thus, the
Figure 17.6 flux <l) created by the rotor induces a voltage E,, in
The rotor poles are displaced with respect to the axes the stator. This flux depends on the de exciting cur-
of the stator poles when the motor delivers mechani- rent Ix. Consequently. £ 0 varies with the excitation.
cal power. As already mentioned, the rotor and stator poles
are lined up at no-load. Under these conditions, in-
duced voltage £ 0 is in phase with the line-to-neutral
behind the stator poles, but the rotor continues to E (Fig. 17. 7b). If, in addition, we adjust the
turn at synchronous speed. The mechanical angle excitation so that E, the motor "floats" on the
a between the poles increases progressively as we line and the line current I is practically zero. In ef-
increase the load (Fig. 17.6). Nevertheless, the the only cutTent needed is to supply the small
magnetic attraction keeps the rotor locked to the windage and friction losses in the motor. and so it is
revolving field, and the motor develops an ever negligible.
more powerful torque as the angle increases. What happens if we apply a mechanical load to
But there is a limit. If the mechanical load ex- the shaft? The motor will begin to slow down.
ceeds the pull-out torque of the motor, the rotor causing the rotor poles to fall behind the stator
poles suddenly pull away from the stator poles and poles by an angle a:. Due to this mechanical shift,
the motor comes to a halt. A motor that pulls out of £ 0 reaches its maximum value a little later than
step creates a major disturbance on the line, and the before. Thus, to Fig. 17. 7c, £ 0 is now o
circuit breakers immediately trip. This protects the electrical behind E. The mechanical dis-
motor because both the squirrel-cage and stator placement ex produces an electrical phase shift o
windings overheat rapidly when the machine ceases between and E.
to run at synchronous speed. The phase shift produces a difference of poten-
The pull-out torque depends upon the magneto- tial across the synchronous reactance X, given by
motive force developed by the rotor and the stator
poles. The mmf of the rotor poles depends upon the E
de excitation IX' while that of the stator depends Consequently, a current I must flow in the circuit.
upon the ac current flowing in the windings. The given by
pull-out torque is usually 1.5 to 2.5 times the nom-
inal full-load torque.
The mechanical angle a between the rotor and from which
stator poles has a direct bearing on the stator current.
As the angle increases, the current increases. This is jExlX,
to be expected because a larger angle corresponds to £ 0 )/X,
374 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORlvfERS

Example 17-2a
A 500 hp. 720 r/min synchronous motor connected to
a 3980 V. 3-phasc line generates an excitation volt-
age £ 0 of 1790 Y (line-to-neutral) when the de excit-
ing current is 25 A. The synchronous reactance is 22
source n and the torque angle between £ 0 and Eis 30°.
Calculate
a. The value of£,
b. The ac line current
Figure 17.7a c. The power factor of the motor
Equivalent circuit of a synchronous motor, showing d. The approximate horsepower developed by the
one phase.
motor
e. The approximate torque developed at the shaft

Solution
This problem can best be solved by using vector no-
Figure 17.7b tation.
Motor at no-load, with adjusted to equal E.
a. The voltage E (line-to-neutral) applied to the
motor has a value
Ex= £-£0
E = E1r\/3 = 3980/\/3

I E
2300V

Let us select E as the reference phasor. whose

angle with respect to the horizontal axis is as-
sumed to be zero. Thus.

5 = pcx/2 I E-Eo
It follows that
E 2300L0°
is given by the phasor

£0 l 790L - 30°

Figure 17.7c The equivalent circuit per phase is given in Fig.

Motor under load E0 has the same value as in Fig. 17.Sa.
17.?b, but it lags behind E. .\!loving clockwise around the circuit and ap-
plying Kirchhoff's voltage law we can write

The current lags 90° behind because X, is in-

ductive. The phasor diagram under load is shown in E- E"
Fig. l 7.7c. Because I is nearly in phase with£, the
2300L0° - 1790L 30°
motor absorbs active power. This power is entirely
transformed into mechanical power, except for the = 2300 (cos 0° + j sin 0°) -
relatively small copper and iron losses in the stator. 1790 (cos - 30° +j sin 30°)
In practice. the excitation voltage is adjusted 2300 - 1550 +j 895
to be greater or less than the supply E. Its
value depends upon the power output of the motor 750 +j 895
and the desired power factor. = 1168L500
 srNCHRONOUS MOTORS 375

Ex
1168 v

- I

E
2300V
Figure 17.8a
Equivalent circuit of a synchronous motor connected
to a source E.

Thus, phasor has a value of 1168 V and it

Eo
leads phasor E by 50°. 1790 v
b. The line current I is given by
Figure 17.8b
j22 I See Example 17-2.
50°
I
90° e. Approximate torque:
53L-40° 9.55 x p 9.55 x 280.1 x 10-'
T
Thus, phasor I has a value of 53 A and it lags fl 720
40° behind phasor £. 3715 N·m
c. The power factor of the motor is given by the
cosine of the angle between the line-to-neutral Example 17-2b - - - - - - - - - - - -
voltage E across the motor terminals and the The motor in Example I 7-2a has a stator resistance
current /. Hence, of 0.64 Q per phase and possesses the following
losses:
power factor cos 0 cos 40°
PR losses in the rotor: 3,2 kW
0.766, or 76.6%
Stator core loss: 3.3kW
The power factor is lagging because the current Windage and friction loss: 1.5 kW
lags behind the voltage.
The complete phasor diagram is shown in Fig. Calculate
a. The actual horsepower developed
17.8b.
b. The actual torque developed at the shaft
d. Total active power input to the stator:
c. The efficiency of the motor
P; = 3 x ELN/Lcos e
Solution
= 3 x 2300 x 53 x cos 4()° a. Power input to the stator is 280.1 kW
= 280 142 W 280. lkW
Stator PR losses= 3 x 53 2 X 0.64 Q 5.4 kW
NeglectiAg the PR losses and iron losses in the Total stator losses= 5.4 + 3.3 8.7 kW
stator, the electrical power transmitted across Power transmitted to the rotor 280.1 8.7
the airgap to the rotor is 280.1 kW. 271.4 kW
Approximate horsepower developed:
The power at the shaft is the power to the rotor
p = 280.1 x 1031746 375 hp minus the windage and friction losses. The rotor
376 l:LECTRIC4L 1'v1ACHINES ANIJ TRANSFORA1ERS

lR losses are supplied by an external de source across the air gap i.-., available in the form of me-
and so they do not affect the mechanical power. chanical power. The mechanical power developed
by a synchronous motor is therefore expressed by
Power available at the shaft: the equation
271.-i - 1.5 269.9 kW £0 £ .
p Sll1 0 ( 17.:2)
1
269.9 x 10
361.8 hp
746 where

This power is very close to the approximate P = mechanical power of the motor. per
value calculated in Example I 7-2a. phase [Wl
b. The corresponding torque is: line-to-neutral voltage induced by I, IV l
E line-to-neutral voltage of the source IYI
9.55 x p 9.55 x 269.9 x 10'
T K. = synchronous reactance per phase fl!l
11 720
= 3580 N·m i3 torque angle between and E
relectrical degrees l
c. Total lo'>ses = 5.4 3.3 + 3.2 1.5 = 13.4 kW
This equation shows that the mechanical
Total power input 280.1 + 3.2 283.3 kW power increases with the torque angle, and its
Total power output 269.9 kW maximum value is reached when 8 is 90° The
Efficiency 269.9/283.3 0.9527 95.3 % poles of the rotor are then midway between the N
Note that the stator resistance of 0.64 Q is very and S poles of the stator. The peak power P 111 " '
small compared to the reactance of 22 n. (per-phase) is given by
Consequently. the true phasor diagram is very
close to the phasor diagram of Fig. 17 .8b. pma\..::::::: ( 17.3)
X,
As far as torque is concerned, it is directly propor-
17.6 Power and torque tional to the mechanical power because the rotor
speed is fixed. The torque is derived from Eq. 3.5:
When a synchronous motor operates under load, it
draws active power from the line. The power is T = 9.55 P ( 17.4)
given by the same equation we previously used for n,
the synchronous generator in Chapter 16: where

(16.5) T torque, per phase [N·ml

P mechanical power. per phase IWI
As in the case of a generator, the active power
11, =synchronous speed [r/min]
absorbed by the motor depends upon the supply
voltage£, the excitation voltage £ 0 , and the phase 9.55 a constant Iexact value 601211']
angle o between them. If we neglect the relatively The maximum torque the motor can develop is
small ! 2 R and iron losses in the stator, all the called the pull-out torque. mentioned previously. It
power is transmitted across the air gap to the rotor. occurs when o 90° (Fig. 17.9).'''
This is analogous to the power P, transmitted
across the air gap of an induction motor (Section
13.13 ). However, in a synchronous motor, the ro- The remarks in tlfr., section apply lo motors having smooth
tor / 2 R losses are entirely supplied by the de rotors. Mmt 'ynchronou-, motor-; have salient pok,: in thi-,
source. Consequently. all the power transmitted case the pull-out ror4ue occurs at an angle of ahout 70'.
 SYNCHRONOUS lv!OTORS 377

kW N-m 0 p T
100 1000
90 100 800
80 800 120 86.6 693
p 60 600 r 150 50 400
180 () ()
r 40 400 f
These values are plotted in Fig. 17.9.
20 200
b. The torque curve can be found by applying Eq.
0
30 60 90 120 150 180 17.4:
-~ angleo degrees
T = 9.55 Pin,
Figure 17.9 = 9.55 P/1200
Power and torque per phase as a function of the torque
P/125
angle o. Synchronous motor rated 150 kW (200 hp),
1200 r/min, 3-phase, 60 Hz. See Example 17-3. c. The pull-out torque Trnax coincides with the
maximum power output:
Example 17-3 = 800 N·m
A 150 kW, 1200 r/min. 460 V. 3-phase synchronous
motor has a synchronous reactance of 0.8 !!, per The actual pull-out torque is 3 times as great (2400
phase. If the excitation voltage£., is fixed at 300 V, N·m) because this is a 3-phase machine. Similarly.
per phase, determine the following: the power and torque values given in Fig. 17.9 must
also be multiplied by 3. Consequently, this 150 kW
a. The power versus 5 curve
motor can develop a maximum output of 300 kW.
b. The torque versus 5 curve
or about 400 hp.
c. The pull out torque of the motor

Solution
a. The line-to-neutral voltage is 17.7 Mechanical and electrical
angles
E = £L/v3 460t\f3
As in the case of synchronous generators. there is a
266 v precise relationship between the mechanical angle
The mechanical power per phase is cL the torque angle 5 and the number of poles p. It
is given by
P = (EnEIXJ sin 5 ( 17.2)
() = pa/2 (I 7.5)
(266 X 300/0.8) sin 5
99 750 sin 5 [W]
Example 17-4 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
100 sin 8 [kWl A 3-phase. 6000 kW, 4 kV. I 80 r/min. 60 Hz mo-
By selecting different values for 5, we can calcu- tor has a synchronous reactance of 1.2 fl. At
late the corresponding values of P and T. per phase. full-load the rotor poles are displaced by a 111e-
clwnicaf angle of 1° from their no-load position. If
0 p T the line-to-neutral excitation £ 0 2.4 kV, calcu-
[.o) [kW] [N•m] late the mechanical power developed.
0 0 0
Solution
30 50 400
The number of poles is
60 86.6 693
(co11ti11ued) p = 120.f/n, = 120 X 60/180 = 40
378 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORA1ERS

The electrical torque angle is axis of N pole

of rotor
--I- axis of S pole
of stator
o pa/2 (40 x I )/2 = 20°
Assuming a wye connection, the voltage E applied
to the motor is
E = 4 kV/\13
2.3 kV
2309 v
and the excitation voltage is
2400V Figure 17.10a
The flux produced by the stator flows across the air
The mechanical power developed per phase is
gap through the salient poles.
P (E E!XJ sin 6
0
(J
(2400 X 230911.2) sin 20° axis of N
of rotor
I 573 300
1573 kW

Total power = 3 X 1573

= 4719 kW (~6300 hp)

17.8 Reluctance torque

If we gradually reduce the excitation of a synchro-
nous motor when it is running at no-load, we find
that the motor continues to run at synchronous Figure 17.10b
speed even when the exciting current is zero. The The salient poles are attracted to the stator poles,
reason is that the flux produced by the stator prefers thus producing a reluctance torque.
to cross the short gap between the salient poles and
the stator rather than the much longer air gap be-
tween the poles. In other words, because the reluc- tract the salient poles in opposite directions (Fig.
tance of the magnetic circuit is less in the axis of the 17 .1 Oc ). Consequently, the reluctance torque is zero
salient poles, the flux is concentrated as shown in precisely at that angle where the regular torque Tat-
17.1 Oa. On account of this phenomenon, the tains its maximum value, namely at o = 90°.
motor develops a reluctance torque. Fig. 17.11 shows the reluctance torque as a furn:-
If a mechanical load is applied to the shaft, the tion of the angle o. The torque reaches a maximum
rotor poles will fall behind the stator poles, and the positive value at 8 = 45°. For larger angles it attains
stator flux will have the shape shown in Fig. 17. IOb. a maximum negative value at o135°. Obviously,
Thus, a considerable reluctance torque can be de- to run as a reluctance-torque motor. the angle must
veloped without any de excitation at all. lie between zero and 45°. Although a positive torque
The reluctance torque becomes zero when the is still developed between 45c and 90°. this is an un-
rotor poles are midway between the stator poles. stable region of operation. The reason is that as the
The reason is that the N and S poles on the stator at- angle increases the power decreases.
 SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS 379

Figure 17.10c Figure 17.12

In a synchronous motor the reluctance torque (1) plus
The reluctance torque is zero when the salient poles
the smooth-rotor torque (2) produce the resultant torque
are midway between the stator poles.
(3). Torque (2) is due to the de excitation of the rotor.

- - ~··

! can be seen in Fig. 17.12. However. the difference

,v- T :
(./ ....
I

I ' r-.... I
is not very great, and for this reason we shall con-
.l..18 0 tinue to use Eqs. 17.2 and 17.5 to describe synchro-
0 45
angle & j 90'"-
~t---.~ I
, ! I
135
I v
I
nous motor behavior.

17.9 Losses and efficiency

Figure 17.11
Reluctance torque versus the torque angle.
of a synchronous motor
In order to give the reader a sense of the order of
magnitude of the pull-out torque. resistance. reac-
As in the case of a conventional synchronous
tance, and losses of a synchronous motor. we have
motor, the mechanical power curve has exactly the
drawn up Table 17 A. It shows the characteristics of
same shape as the torque curve. Thus, in the ab-
a 2000 hp and a 200 hp synchronous motor. respec-
sence of de excitation. the mechanical power
tively labeled Motor A and Motor B.
reaches a peak at 8 45°.
Does the saliency of the poles modify the power The following points should be noted:
and torque curves shown in 17.9? The answer is
I. The torque angle at full-load ranges between
yes. In effect, the curves shown in 17.9 are those
27° and 37°. It corresponds to the electrical an-
of a smooth-rotor synchronous motor. The torque of a
gle 8 mentioned previously.
salient-pole motor is equal to the sum of the smooth-
rotor component and the reluctance-torque compo- "'l The power needed to excite the 2000 hp motor
nent of Fig. 17.11. Thus, the true torque curve of a syn- (4.2 kW) is only about twice that needed for
chronous motor has the shape (3) given in Fig. 17.12. the 200 hp motor (2.1 kW). In general. the
The peak reluctance torque is about 25 percent larger the synchronous motor the smaller is the
of the peak smooth-rotor torque. As a result, the per-unit power needed to excite it.
peak torque of a salient-pole motor is about 8 per- 3. The total losses of Motor A (38 kW) are onlv
cent greater than that of a smooth-rotor motor. as four times those of Motor B (9.5 kW) despi;e the
380 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS

ways neglect the effect of R, as far as motor

TABLE 17A CHARACTERISTICS OF TWO
SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS performance is concerned.

NAMEPLATE RATI'.'-/G MOTOR A MOTORB

17.1 O Excitation and reactive
power lhp] ::woo hp 200 hp power
power [kWI 1492 kW 149kW
line voltage 4000V 440V Consider a wye-connected synchronous motor con-
line current 220A 208A nected to a 3-phase source whose line voltage 1:,·1 is
speed 1800 r/min 900 r/min fixed (Fig. 17.13 ). It follows that the line-to-neutral
frequency 60 Hz 60 Hz voltage E is also fixed. The line currents I produce
phases 3 3 a magnetomotive force Va in the stator. On the other
LOAD CHARACTERISTICS hand, the rotor produces a de magnetomotive force
power factor 1.0 1.0 The total flux <Pis therefore created by the com-
pull-out torque (pu) 1.4 2.2 bined action of Va and Ur.
torque angle at full-load 36.7° 27° Pursuing our reasoning, flux {I) induces a line-to-
connection wye wye neutral voltage Ea in the stator. If we neglect the
de exciter power 4.2kW 2.1 kW very small /R drop in the stator, it follows that Ea =
de exciter voltage 125 v 125 v E. However, because Eis fixed, <Pis also fixed, as
air gap I0 mm 6 mm in the case of a transformer (see Section 9.2).
LOSSES The mmf needed to create the constant tlux <I>
windage and friction 8.5 kW I kW may be produced either by the stator or the rotor or
stator core loss II kW 2kW by both. If the rotor exciting current Ix is zero, all the
stray losses 4kW l kW
stator 12 R I0.3kW 3.5 kW
rotor 12 R 4.2 kW 2kW
total losses 38 kW 9.5 kW
efficiency 97.5% 94.0%
IMPEDANCES AND VOLTAGES (line-to-neutral values)
stator X, 7.77 n 0.62.0
stator resistance R, 0.0638 n 0.0262 n
ratio XJR, 122 23
phase voltage E 2309 v 254 v
phase voltage£., 2873 v 285 v

fact that Motor A is ten times as powerful. This

is another property of motors: the more
horsepower they develop, the smaller the rela-
tive losses are. As a result. the efficiencies im-
prove with increase in power. Compare the effi-
ciencies of the two motors: 97.5% versus 94.0%.
4. The synchronous reactance X, per phase is Figure 17.13
much larger than the resistance of the stator The total flux <P is due to the mmf produced by the ro-
winding. Note that for the 2000 hp motor X, is tor ( U,) plus the mmf produced by the stator ( Ua)· For
122 times larger than R,. As a result, we can al- a given EL, the flux cfJ is essentially fixed.
 SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS 381

flux has to be produced by the stator. The stator must The active power absorbed is equal to the mechan-
then absorb considerable reactive power from the ical power of the motor.
3-pfiase line (see Section 7.9). But if we excite the
rotor with a de current r... the rotor mmf helps pro-
duce part of the flux cl>. Consequently. less reactive
Ip Eab
power is drawn from the ac line. If we gradually
raise the excitation. the rotor will eventually pro-
duce all the required flux by itself. The stator then
draws no more reactive power. with the result that Figure 17.14
the power factor of the motor becomes unity ( 1.0). Unity power factor synchronous motor and phaser di-
agram at full-load.
What happens if we excite the motor above this
critical level? The stator. instead of absorbing reac·
tive power. actually delivers reactive power to the Fig. 17 .15 shows an 80% power factor motor
3-phase line. The motor then behaves like a source also operating at full-load. It develops the same me-
of reactive power, just as if it were a capacitor. chanical power as the motor in Fig. 17.14. The line
Thus. by varying the de excitation we can cause the current/, leads Eah by arcos 0.8 = 36.87°. This cur-
motor to either absorb or deliver reactive power. rent can he broken up into two components /P and
Because of this important property. synchronous /", and it is clear that
motors are sometimes used to correct the power fac-
/p 0.8 I_ ( 17.7)
tor of a plant at the same time as they furnish me-
chanical power to the load they are driving. /'I 0.6 /, (17 .8)

The active power Pis given by

17.11 Power factor rating (17.9)

Most synchronous motors are designed to operate at The reactive power delivered by the motor is
unity power factor. However. if they also have to de- Q 0.6 Eab/s ( 17.10)
liver reactive power. they are usually designed to op-
erate at a full-load power factor of 0.8 (leading). A
+lq
~'
motor designed for a power factor of 0.8 can deliver 1. '·

reactive power equal to 75 percent of its rated me-

chanical load. Thus. the 3000 kW motor shown in
:g-0) Ip
II
Eab
Fig. 17.4 can supply 75C/r X 3000 2250 kvar to
the line at the same time as it develops its rated me- Figure 17.15
chanical output of 3000 kW. ~fotnrs designed to op- 80 percent power factor synchronous motor and pha-
erate at leading power factors are and more ser diagram at full-load.
co-;tly than unity power factor motors are. The rea-
son is that for a given horsepower rating. both the de It follows from Eqs. 17.9 and 17.10 that
exciting current and the stator current arc higher.
This can he explained as follows. Q 0.75 p
Fig. 17 .14 is the schematic diagram of a unity 75% of rated mechanical output
power factor motor operating at full-load. The line-
as was stated previously.
to-neutral voltage is Eab and the line current is / 11 •
If we compare /P with /,. we find that/, = 1.25 /r.
The active power absorbed per phase is. therefore.
Thus, for the same mechanical power output, a mo-
( 17.6) tor designed for a leading power factor of 80% has
382 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS

to carry a line current that is 25% greater than one

that operates at unity power factor.
,
Eab

17.12 V-curves
P = 800 kW
Suppose a synchronous motor is operating at its S 1000 kVA
rated mechanical load. We wish to examine its be- (a) (b)
havior as the excitation is varied. Because a change
in excitation does not affect the speed. the mechan- Figure 17.18
ical power remains fixed. Let us begin by adjusting a. Field excitation raised to 200 A but with same me-
the excitation I, so that the power factor is unity, chanical load. Motor delivers reactive power to the
thus yielding the phasor diagram shown in Fig. line.
b. Phasor diagram shows current leading the voltage.
17.16.Weassume/x IOOAandP 800kW.
If we reduce the excitation to 70 A. the motor
will draw reactive power from the line in addition
crease from /P to I, 1 (Fig. 17 .17). Note that the com-
to the active power. We assume that S increases to
ponent of /, 1 in phase with is the same as before
S IOOO kVA. As a result. the line current will in-
because the motor is still developing the same me-
chanical power.
Ip Current /, 1 lags behind and so the power

:E(0 n1,~.
P: 800 kW
factor of the motor is The field current Ix in
the rotor is smaller than before, but the apparent
power S absorbed by the stator is greater.
S = 800 kVA If we increase the excitation to r, = 200 A. the
(a) (b) motor delii·ers reactive power to the line to which it
is connected (Fig. 17 .18). The apparent power is
Figure 17.16 greater than in the unity power factor case.
a. Synchronous motor operating at unity power factor
We assume S = 1000 kVA. The line current be-
with a mechanical load of 800 kW. Field excitation
comes /<2 and it leads However, the in-phase
is 100 A.
b. Phasor diagram shows current in phase with the component of I, 2 is still equal to / 11 because the me-
voltage. chanical power is the same.
By varying the excitation this way, we can plot
the apparent power of the synchronous motor as a
function of the de exciting current. This yields a
ls1
V-shaped curve (Fig. 17.19). The V-curve is always

:E(0 n1~.~ ,
Eab
displayed for a fixed mechanical load. In our case,
the V-curve corresponds to full-load. The no-load
P = 800 kW V-curve is also shown, to illustrate the large reac-
S = 1000 kVA
tive power that can be absorbed or delivered by
(a) (b) simply changing the excitation.

Figure 17.17
Example 17-5
a. Field excitation reduced to 70 A but with same me-
A 4000 hp ( 3000 kW), 6600 V, 60 Hz, 200 r/min
chanical load. Motor absorbs reactive power from
the line. synchronous motor operates at full-load at a leading
b. Phasor diagram shows current lagging behind the power factor of 0.8. If the synchronous reactance is
voltage. 11 H. calculate the following:
 SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS 383

kVA
1000

+
- I

800
s source E
600

i 400

200 Figure 17.20

Circuit of a synchronous motor connected to a source
0
40 _,)I.
80 120 200 E. Note the arbitrary ( +) polarity marks and arbitrary
direction of current flow. See Example 17-5.

Figure 17.19 E 3815L0°

No-load and full-load V-curves of a 1000 hp synchro-
nous motor. It follows that I is given by
a. The apparent power of the motor, per phase I 328L36.9°
b. The ac line current
Writing the equation for the circuit we find
c. The value and phase of£"
d. Draw the phasor diagram -£ + j/X, + 0
e. Determine the torque angle 6
thus
Solutio11 £0 E - j!X,
We shall immediately change the given values to
correspond to one phase of a wye-connected motor. 381 I LOO j (328L36.9°) I I
= 38 I I L0° - 3608L(36.9° 90°)
a. The active power per phase is
3811(cos0° + j sin 0°)
P 3000/3 I 000 kW 3608 (cos 126.9° + j sin 126.9c)
The apparent power per phase is 3811 + 2166 - j 2885

S Pfcos 8 I 000/0.8 (8.11) 5977 - j 2885

1250 kVA 6637 L-26°

b. The line-to-neutral voltage is d. Consequently, £ 0 lags 26° behind £, and the

complete phasor diagram is shown in 17.21.
E = E1.!V3 6600/V3 3811 V e. The torque angle 8 is 26°.
The line current is
I= SIE 1250 X 1000/3811
17.13 Stopping synchronous
motors
= 328A
Owing to the inertia of the rotor and its load, a large
/leads Eby an angle of arcos 0.8 36.9°.
synchronous motor may take several hours to stop
c. To determine the value and phase of the excita-
after being disconnected from the line. To reduce the
tion voltage £ 0 , we draw the equivalent circuit
time, we use the following braking methods:
of one phase (Fig. 17.20). This will enable us to
write the circuit equations. Furthermore, we se- I. Maintain full de excitation with the armature in
lect E as the reference phasor and so short-circuit.
3t\4 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS

Fx I e. The time required for the speed to fall from

3608V 328 A 600 r/min to 150 r/min

Solution
a. In Fig. l 7.22a the motor has just been discon-
E nected from the line and is now operating as a
3811 v
generator in short-circuit. The speed is still 600
r/min, and the frequency is 60 Hz.
Consequently, the impedance per phase is

(2.X12)
Ex

16 n
Figure 17.21
See Example 17-5. The current per phase is

I EjZ = 2400/16
1
150A
Maintain full de excitation with the armature
connected to three external resistors. The power dissipated in the 3 phases at 600
3. Apply mechanical braking. r/min is
2
In methods I and :2, the motor slows down because P = 3/2 R 3 x 150 x 0.2
it functions as a generator. dissipating its energy in = 13.5 kW
the resistive elemenls of the circuit. Mechanical
b. Because the exciting current is fixed, the in-
braking is usually applied only after the motor has
duced voltage £ 0 is proportional to the speed.
reached half-speed or less. A lower speed prevents
Consequently, when the speed has dropped to
undue wear of the brake shoes.
150 r/min,

Example 17-6 - - - - - - - - - - - - - £() 2400 x ( 150/600) 600 v

A 1500 kW. 4600 V, 600 r/min, 60 Hz synchro-
nous motor possesses a synchronous reactance of The frequency is also propo11ional to the speed,
16 n and a stator resistance of 0.2 n.
per phase. and so
The excitation voltage £ 0 is 2400 V, and the mo-
f=60X(l5/60) 15Hz
ment of inertia of the motor and its load is 275
kg·m='. We wish to stop the motor by short-cir- The synchronous reactance is proportional to
cuiting the armature while keeping the de rotor the frequency; consequently,
current fixed.
16 Q
Calculate
a. The power dissipated in the armature at 600 150 A
2400V
r/min 0.2Q
600 r/min
b. The power dissipated in the armature at 150
r/min

c. The kinetic energy at 600 r/min Figure 17.22a

d. The kinetic energy at 150 r/min Motor turning at 600 r/min (Example 17-6).
 SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS -185

P =Wit (3.4)
13.5 = 508.6/t
150 A
600 v whence t = 37.7 s
0.2Q
150 r/min
Note that the motor would stop much sooner if
external resistors were connected across the sta-
tor terminals.
Figure 17.22b
Motor turning at 150 r/min (Example 17-6).
17 .14 The synchronous motor
versus the induction motor
X, = 16 x (15/60) = 4 n
We have already seen that induction motors have
Referring to Fig. l 7.22b the new impedance per excellent properties for speeds above 600 r/min.
phase at 150 r/min is But at lower speeds they become heavy. costly. and
have relatively low power factors and efficiencies.
z= \ 0.2 2 + 4 2 = 4 n Synchronous motors are particularly attractive
for low-speed drives because the power factor can
The current phase is
always be adjusted to 1.0 and the efficiency is high.
I = EjZ = 600/4 = 150 A Although more complex to build. their weight and
cost are often less than those of induction motors of
Thus. the short-circuit current remains un- equal power and speed. This is particularly true for
changed as the motor decelerates from 600 speeds below 300 r/min.
r/min to 150 r/min. The power dissipated in the A synchronous motor can improve the power fac-
3 phases is therefore the same as before: tor of a plant while carrying its rated load.
P = 13.5 kW Furthermore, its sta11ing torque can be made consid-
erably greater than that of an induction motor. The
c. The kinetic energy at 600 r/min is reason is that the resistance of the squirrel-cage wind-
3 2 ing can be high without affecting the speed or effi-
£"- 1 =5.48 X 10 111 (3.8)
ciency at synchronous speed. Figure 17.23 compares
= 5.48 x 10-> x 275 x 600 2
the properties of a squiITel-cage induction motor and
= 542.5 kJ a synchronous motor having the same nominal rating.
d. The kinetic energy at 150 r/min is The biggest difference is in the starting torque.
High-power electronic converters generating
Ei.. 2 = 5.48 x 10-> x 275 x 1502 very low frequencies enable us to run synchronous
= 33.9 kJ motors at ultra-low speeds. Thus. huge motors in
the 10 MW range drive crushers. rotary kilns. and
e. The loss in kinetic energy in decelerating from
variable-speed ball mills.
600 r/min to 150 r/min is

W = Ei.. 1 - Ei.. 2
17.15 Synchronous capacitor
= 542.5 - 33.9
A synchronous capacitor is essentially a synchronous
= 508.6 kJ
motor running at no-load. Its only purpose is to ab-
This energy is lost as heat in the armature resis- sorb or deliver reactive power on a 3-phase system,
tance. The time for the speed to drop from 600 in order to stabilize the voltage (see Chapter 25). The
r/min to 150 r/min is given by machine acts as an enormous 3-phase capacitor (or
386 ELECTRICAf,MACHINESAND TRANSFORMERS

%
98
I I I
synchronous motor
97 -----r----
> 96
, / induction
motor
u
c:
Q)
95 /I
y
"<::;
(a)
:::
Q)

r 94 '/
93

92

91
0 25 50 75 100 125 %
- mechanical power
Figure 17.24a
% Three-phase, 16 kV, 900 r/min synchronous capacitor
250

I I
synchronous motor
rated -200 Mvar (supplying reactive power) to +300
Mvar (absorbing reactive power). It is used to regulate

Q)
200
/L i----
,,f.
,1
1 I
-..... I I
the voltage of a 735 kV transmission line. Other char-
acteristics: mass of rotor: 143 t; rotor diameter: 2670
mm; axial length of stator iron: 3200 mm; air gap
~ 150 length: 39. 7 mm.
(b) B
,,
I
A
,,
1
/
100 ,... ...........
__
induction motor...... ~

50
_..... -- -----

0o 20 40 60 80 100 %
-speed

Figure 17.23
Comparison between the efficiency (a) and starting
torque (b) of a squirrel-cage induction motor and a
synchronous motor, both rated at 4000 hp, 1800
r/min, 6.9 kV, 60 Hz.

inductor) whose reactive power can be varied by

changing the de excitation.
Most synchronous capacitors have ratings that
range from 20 Mvar to 200 Mvar and many are
hydrogen-cooled (Fig. 17.24 ). They are started up
Figure 17.24b
like synchronous motors. However, if the system
Synchronous capacitor enclosed in its steel housing
cannot furnish the required starting power, a pony containing hydrogen under pressure (300 kPa, or·
motor is used to bring them up to synchronous about 44 lbf/in 2 ).
speed. For example, in one installation, a 160 Mvar (Courtesy of Hydro-Quebec)
 SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS 387

synchronous capacitor is started and brought up to

speed by means of a 1270 kW wound-rotor motor.

Example 17-7 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
A synchronous capacitor 1s rated at 160 Mvar, 14 800 v
16 kV, 1200 r/min, 60 Hz. It has a synchronous re-
actance of 0.8 pu and is connected to a 16 kV line.
Calculate the value of £ 0 so that the machine
Q = 120 Mvar <==:;::;:;:=:;)
a. Absorbs 160 Mvar
b. Delivers 120 Mvar
I
Solution
a. The nominal impedance of the machine is
r335A
Z 11 = £ 11 2/5 11 ( 16.3) E
Ex Ea
= 16 000 /(160
2
x 10
6
) 5550 v 9250 v 14 800 v
= 1.6 !1 Figure 17.25b
Over-excited synchronous capacitor delivers reactive
The synchronous reactance per phase is power (Example 17-7).

X., = Xs(pu) Z11 = 0.8 X 1.6

From Fig. l 7.25a we can write
= 1.28 !1
The line current for a reactive load of 160 Mvar hence
IS
£" = E-j!X,
/n = S,)(\13 En)
= 9250L0° - 5780 X I .28L(90° - 90°)
= 160 x 106 /(1.73 x 16 000) = I 850L0°
= 5780 A Note that the excitation voltage ( 1850 V) is
The drop across the synchronous reactance is much less than the line voltage (9250 V).
b. The load current when the machine is deliver-
Ex= IX,= 5780 X 1.28 ing 120 Mvar is
= 7400 v /n = Q!(\13 En)
The line-to-neutral voltage is = 120 x 106 /(1.73 x 16000)
E = £ 1)\13 = 16000/1.73 = 4335 A
= 9250 v This time /leads Eby 90° and so
Selecting E as the reference phasor, we have I= 4335L 90°
E = 9250L0° From Fig. 17 .25b we can write
The current / lags 90° behind E because the £" = E - j!X,
machine is absorbing reactive power; conse- = 9250L0° - 4335 X I .28L 180°
quently,
= (9250 + 5550)L0°
I= 5780L -90° = 14 800L0°
388 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS

motor fhp l knowing it has an efficiency

-
5780A
of 95%.
17-8 A synchronous motor driving a pump
1850V operates at a power factor of I 00%.
What happens if the de excitation is in-
creased?

f:::::::;:;::j> Q ~ 160 Mvar

17-9 A 3-phase, 225 r/min synchronous motor
connected to a 4 kV, 60 Hz line draws a

----• Ex
7400 V E
9250V
Calculate
current of 320 A and absorbs 2000 kW.

! Eo a. The apparent power supplied to the motor

1850V b. The power factor
c. The reactive power absorbed
5780A d. The number of poles on the rotor
17-10 A synchronous motor draws 150 A from a
Figure 17.25a
Under-excited synchronous capacitor absorbs reac- 3-phase line. If the exciting current is
tive power {Example 17-7). raised, the current drops to 140 A. Was the
motor over- or under-excited before the
excitation was changed?
The excitation voltage ( 14 800 V) is now con-
siderably greater than the line voltage (9250 V). Intermediate level
17-11 a. Calculate the approximate full-load current
Questions and Problems of the 3000 hp motor in Fig. 17. I, if it has
an efficiency of 97%.
Practical level b. What is the value of the field resistance?
I 7-1 Compare the construction of a synchro- 17-12 Referring to Fig. 17 .2, at what speed must
nous generator, a synchronous motor, and the rotor turn to generate the indicated fre-
a squirrel-cage induction motor. quencies?
17-2 Explain how a synchronous motor starts up. 17-13 A 3-phase synchronous motor rated 800
When should the de excitation be applied? hp, 2.4 kV, 60 Hz operates at unity power
17-3 Why does the speed of a synchronous motor factor. The line voltage suddenly drops to
remain constant even under variable load? 1.8 kV, but the exciting current remains
unchanged. Explain how the following
17-4 Name some of the advantages of a syn-
quantities are affected:
chronous motor compared to a squirrel-
a. Motor speed and mechanical power output
cage induction motor.
b. Torque angle o
17-5 What is meant by a synchronous capacitor c. Position of the rotor poles
and what is it used for? d. Power factor
17-6 a. What is meant by an under-excited syn- e. Stator current
chronous motor? 17-14 A synchronous motor has the following
b. If we over-excite a synchronous motor, parameters, per phase (Fig. 17.7a):
does its mechanical power output increase?
17-7 A synchronous motor draws 2000 kVA at E 2.4 kV; £ 0 3 kV
a power factor of 90% leading. Calculate X, 211
the approximate power developed by the I= 900A.
 SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS 389

Draw the phasor diagram and determine: 17-19 A 3-phase, unity power factor synchro-
a. Torque angle o nous motor rated 400 hp, 2300 V, 450
b. Active power, per phase r/min, 80 A, 60 Hz. drives a compressor.
c. Power factor of the motor The stator has a synchronous reactance of
d. Reactive power absorbed (or delivered).
0.88 pu, and the excitation £ 0 is adjusted
per phase
to 1.2 pu.
17-15 a. In Problem 17-14 calculate the line current
and the new torque angle o if the mechani- Calculate
cal load is suddenly removed. a. The value of X, and of £ per phase
0 ,

b. Calculate the new reactive power absorbed b. The pull-out torque [ft-lbf]
(or delivered) by the motor, per phase. c. The line current when the motor is about to
pull out of synchronism
17-16 A 500 hp synchronous motor drives a
compressor and its excitation is adjusted 17-20 The synchronous capacitor in 17.24
so that the power factor is unity. If the ex- possesses a synchronous reactance of
citation is increased without making any 0.6 fl, per phase. The resistance per
other change, what is the effect upon the phase is 0.007 n. If the machine coasts
following: to a stop, it will run for about 3 h. In or-
a. The active power absorbed by the motor der to shorten the stopping time, the sta-
b. The line current tor is connected to three large 0.6 n
c. The reactive power absorbed (or delivered) braking resistors connected in wye. The
by the motor de excitation is fixed at 250 A so that the
d. The torque initial line voltage across the resistors is
one-tenth of its rated value. or 1600 V, at
Advanced level
900 r/min.
17-17 The 4000 hp, 6.9 kV motor shown in Fig.
17.4 possesses a synchronous reactance of Calculate
I 0 !1, per phase. The stator is connected a. The total braking power and braking torque
in wye, and the motor operates at full-load at 900 r/min
(4000 hp) with a leading power factor of b. The braking power and braking torque at
450 r/min
0.89. If the efficiency is 97%, calculate
c. The average braking torque between 900
the following:
r/min and 450 r/min
a. The apparent power
d. The time for the speed to fall from 900 r/min
b. The line current
to 450 r/min, knowing that the moment of
c. The value of £ 0 , per phase
inertia of the rotor is l.7 X ](f
1
lb·ft 2 .
d. The mechanical displacement of the poles
from their no-load position Industrial application
e. The total reactive power supplied to the
17-21 A 500 hp, 3-phase, 2200 V, unity power
electrical system
factor synchronous motor has a rated cur-
f. The approximate maximum power the
motor can develop. without pulling out of
rent of I03 A. It can deliver its rated out-
step fhp] put so long as the air inlet temperature is
40°C or less. The manufacturer states that
17-18 In Problem 17-17 we wish to adjust the
the output of the motor must be decreased
power factor to unity.
by I percent for each degree Celsius
Calculate above 40°C. If the air inlet temperature is
a. The exciting voltage £ 0 required. per phase 46°C, calculate the maximum allowable
b. The new torque angle motor current.
.'90 /:,'J,FCTRJCAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS

17-22 An 8800 kW. 6.0 kV. 1500 r/min. 3-phase. Using the above information. calculate the fol-
50 Hz, 0.9 power factor synchronous mo- lowing:
tor manufactured by Siemens has the fol- a. The total mass of the motor including its
lowing properties: enclosure. in metric tons
L Rated current: 962 A b. The flow of cooling water in gallons (U.S.)
2. Rated torque: 56.0 kN·m per minute
3. Pull-out torque: 1.45 pu c. The maximum total moment of inertia (in
4. Locked-rotor current: 4.9 pu lb·ft 2 ). which the motor can pull into syn-
5. Excitation voltage: 160 V chronism
6. Excitation current: 387 A d. The total losses of the motor at full-load
7. Full-load efficiency. excluding excitation e. The total efficiency of the motor at full-
system losses: 97.8% load
8. Moment of inertia of rotor: 520 kg·m 2 f. The reactive power delivered by the motor
9. Temperature rise of cooling water: 25°C at full-load
to 32°C g. If the iron losses are equal to the stator cop-
IO. Flow of cooling water: 465 Umin per losses. calculate the approximate resis-
I I. Maximum permissible external moment of tance between two terminals of the stator.
inertia: 1370 kg·m 2 h. Calculate the re'iistance of the field circuit.
12. Mass of rotor: 6. IO t (t = metric ton}
] 3. Mass of stator: 7 .50 t
14. Mass of enclosure: 3.97 t
 CHAPTER 18
Single-Phase Motors

18.0 Introduction Fig. 18.2 shows the progressive steps in wind-

ing a 4-pole. 36-slot stator. Starting with the lami-

S ingle-phase motors are the most familiar of all

electric motors because they are used in home
appliances and portable machine tools. In general,
nated iron stator, paper insulators-called slot lin-
ers-are first inserted in the slots. The main

they are employed when 3-phase power is not

available.
There are many kinds of single-phase motors on
the market, each designed to meet a specific appli-
cation. However, we will limit our study to a few
basic types, with particular emphasis on the widely
used split-phase induction motor.

18.1 Construction of a single-

phase induction motor
Single-phase induction motors are very similar to
3-phase induction motors. They are composed of a
squirrel-cage rotor (identical to that in a 3-phase
motor) and a stator (Fig. 18. I). The stator carries a
main winding. which creates a set of N. S poles. It
also carries a smaller auxi/imy winding that only Figure 18.1
operates during the brief period when the motor Cutaway view of a 5 hp, 1725 r/min, 60 Hz single-
starts up. The auxiliary winding has the same num- phase capacitor-start motor.
ber of poles as the main winding has. (Courtesy of Gould)

391
392 ELl:'CTR!CAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORi'vfERS

Figure 18.2a
Bare, laminated stator of a 1/4 hp (187 W), single-phase motor. The 36 slots are insulated with a paper liner. The
squirrel-cage rotor is identical to that of a 3-phase motor.

Figure 18.2b Figure 18.2c

Four poles of the main winding are inserted in the slots. Four poles of the auxiliary winding straddle the main
winding.
(Courtesy of Lab-Volt)

winding is then laid in the slots (Figs. I 8.2a, Each pole of the main winding consists of a
18.2b). Next. the auxiliary winding is embedded so group of four concentric coils, connected in ~eries
that its poles straddle those of the main winding (Fig. l 8.3a). Adjacent poles are connected so as to
(Fig. I 8.2c). The reason for this arrangement will produce alternate N, S polarities. The empty slot in
be explained shortly. the center of each pole (shown as a vertical dash
 SINGLE-PHAS'E MOTORS 393

(a)

Figure 18.4
Main and auxiliary windings in a 2-pole single-phase
motor. The stationary contact in series with the auxil-

I
r===:i I I
r===:i I
iary winding opens when the centrifugal switch,
mounted on the shaft, reaches 75 percent of synchro-
I N I I N I
I s I I s I nous speed.
I I I I
cc::;J cc::;J line) and the partially filled slots on either side of it
are used to lodge the auxiliary winding. The latter
(b)
has only two concentric coils per pole (Fig. I 8.3c).
Fig. 18.4 shows a 2-pole stator: the large main
winding and the smaller auxiliary winding are dis-
placed at right angles to each other.

18.2 Synchronous speed

As in the case of 3-phase motors. the synchronous
speed of all single-phase induction motors is given
by the equation
120.f
( 17.1)
p
where
n, synchronous speed Ir/min I
1900~
center of center of f = frequency of the source I Hz l
main auxiliary
winding winding p number of poles
(c)
The rotor turns at slightly less than synchronous
speed. and the full-load slip is typically 3 percent to
5 percent for fractional horsepower motors.
Figure 18.3
a. Main winding of a 4-pole, 36-slot motor laid out flat,
showing the number of turns per coil.
Example I 8-1
b. Mmfs produced by the main winding. Calculate the speed of the 4-pole single-phase mo-
c. Position of the auxiliary winding with respect to the tor shown in Fig. 18.1 if the slip at full-load is 3.4
main winding. percent. The line frequency is 60 Hz.
 394 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORlvfERS

Solution to the stator. the resulting cu1Tent /, produces an ac

The motor has 4 poles, consequently, flux <l>,. The flux pulsates back and forth but, unlike
the tlux in a 3-phase stator, no revolving field is pro-
n, 120/lp = ( 120 X 60)/4
duced. The flux induces an ac voltage in the station-
1800 r/min ary rotor which, in turn. creates large ac rotor cLments.
The speed 11 is given by: In effect. the rotor behaves like the short-circuited
secondary of a transformer: consequently, the motor
s = (11, - n)ln, ( 17.2) has no tendency to stait by itself (see Fig. 18.6).
0.034 ( 1800 - n)/1800 However, if we spin the rotor in one direction or
n 1739 r/min the other, it will continue to rotate in the direction of
spin. As a matter of fact, the rotor quickly acceler-
18.3 Torque-speed characteristic ates until it reaches a speed slightly below synchro-
nous speed. The acceleration indicates that the mo-
Fig. 18.5 is a schematic diagram of the rotor and main tor develops a positive torque as soon as it begins to
winding of a 2-pole single-phase induction motor. turn. Fig. 18.6 shows the typical torque-speed curve
Suppose the rotor is locked. If an ac voltage is applied when the main winding is excited. Although the
starting torque is zero, the motor develops a power-
rotor current
ful torque as it approaches synchronous speed.

18.4 Principle of operation

The principle of operation of a single-phase induc-
tion motor is quite complex, and may be explained
by the cross-field theory.*
As soon as the rotor begins to turn, a speed emf'
u - - - - - _ , _ 1 2 0 V, 60 Hz _ _ _ _ _ _ _0 Eis induced in the rotor conductors as they cut the
ac source
stator flux (f), (Fig. 18. 7). This voltage increases as
Figure 18.5
Currents in the rotor bars when the rotor is locked. rotatio~/-
current I,
The resulting forces cancel each other and no torque , t<Pr!
is produced.

%
250

200
"'::JO' 150
9
t 100 Figure 18.7
I 50
Currents induced in the rotor bars due to rotation.
They produce a flux <I)r that acts at right angles to the
0 stator flux <l\.
0 20 40 60 80 100 %
--speed
The double revolving field theory (di.,cussed in Section-
Figure 18.6 18.18) is also used to explain the behavior of the single-
Typical torque-speed curve of a single-phase motor. phase motor.
 SINGLE-PHASE MOTORS 395

r = T/4
<Pr

(al
4>s~-----!"--------<Ps

r T/2 r= 0

4>,
r = 3T/4
(f)

Figure 18.8
Instantaneous currents and flux in a single-phase mo-
(b)
tor with the main winding excited. The duration of one
cycle is T seconds, and conditions are shown at suc-
cessive quarter-cycle intervals.

I,=+ 200 A
a. Stator current /8 is maximum, rotor current /, is zero.
b. Stator current is zero, rotor current is maximum;
however, <I>,. is smaller than <1\.
c. Stator current is maximum, but negative.
d. Rotor current is maximum, but negative.
e. After one complete cycle (t 7) the conditions re-
(c) peat.
f. Resulting flux <I> in the air gap rotates ccw at syn-
chronous speed. Its amplitude varies from a maxi-
mum of to a minimum <fl,.

the rotor speed increases. It causes currents / 1 to

flow in the rotor bars facing the stator poles. These
currents produce an ac flux <I), which acts at right
angles to the stator flux <I),. Equally important is the
fact that <I\ does not reach its maximum value at the
(d)
same time as <ll, does. In effect, <1> 1 lags almost 90°
behind (I>,. due to the inductance of the rotor.
The combined action of <I), and <ll, produces a re-
volving magnetic field, similar to that in a 3-phase
motor. The value of cl\ increases with increasing
speed, becoming almost equal to cJ>, at synchronous
speed. This explains in part why the torque in-
creases as the motor speeds up.
We can understand how the revolving field is pro-
(e)
duced by refe1Ting to Fig. 18.8. It gives a snapshot of
the currents and fluxes created respectively by the ro-
tor and stator. at successive intervals of time. We as-
sume that the motor is running far below synchronous
396 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS

speed, and so (I>, is much smaller than (J». By observ- The reader will immediately see that the auxil-
ing the flux in the successive pictures of 18.8. it iary winding produces a strong flux <:P,, during the
is obvious that the combination of <I>, and <J>, produces acceleration period when the rotor flux <fl, (men-
a revolving field. Fu1thennore, the tlux is strong hor- tioned previously) is weak. As a result. <Ila strength-
izontally and relatively weak ve11ically. Thus. the ens <I>,, thereby producing a powerful torque both al
field strength at low speed follows the elliptic pattern standstill and at low speeds. The locked-rotor
shown in Fig. I 8.8f. The flux rotates counterclock- torque is given by
wise in the same direction as the rotor. Furthermore.
T =kl}, sin a ( 18.1)
it rotates at synchronous speed, irrespective of the ac-
tual speed of the rotor. As the motor approaches syn- where
chronous speed. <I\ becomes almost equal to <J>, and
T = locked-rotor t<ff4ue IN·ml
a nearly perfect revolving field is produced.
I" locked-rotor current in the auxiliary
winding lAI
18.5 Locked-rotor torque ( locked-rotor current in the main
To produce a starting tor4ue in a single-phase motor. winding [Al
we must somehow create a revolving field. This is a phase angle between ( and (, l°l
done by adding an auxiliary winding, as shown in k a constant, depending on the design
Fig. 18.9. When the main and auxiliary windings are of the motor
connected to an ac source, the main winding pro-
duces a flux <IJ,. while the auxiliary winding pro- To obtain the desired phase shift between /,and
duces a flux <I> ... If the two fluxes are out of phase, /a (and hence between <I\ and <I\,), we add an im-
so that <I>a either lags or leads <l\, a rotating field is pedance Zin series with the auxiliary winding. The
set up. The 2-phase revolving field is created in a impedance may be resistive. inductive. or capaci-
manner similar to the revolving field of a 3-phase tive. depending upon the desired starting torque.
motor (see Section 13.3). The choice of impedance gives rise to various types
of.\plit-phase motors. In many cases the desired im-
pedance is incorporated in the auxiliary winding it-
~
,-----------1--t--+--+.. auxiliary self, as explained below.
winding A special switch is also connected in series with
z '\otation the auxiliary winding. It disconnects the winding
when the motor reaches about 75 percent of syn-
chronous speed. A speed-sensitive centrifugal
switch mounted on the shaft is often used for this
purpose (Fig. 18.10).

s 18.6 Resistance split-phase motor

The main winding of a single-phase motor is always
made of relatively large wire. to reduce the PR
losses (Fig. 18. I Ia). The winding also has a rela-
ac source
tively large number of turns. Consequently, under
Jocked-rotor conditions. the inductive reactance is
Figure 18.9
Currents and fluxes at standstill when the main and high and the resistance is low. As a result, the
auxiliary windings are energized. An elliptical revolv- locked-rotor current/, lags considerably behind the
ing field is produced. applied voltage E (Fig. 18.11 b).
 SINGLE-PHASE MOTORS 397

Figure 18.1 O
a. Centrifugal switch in the closed, or stopped,
position. The stationary contact is closed.
b. Centrifugal switch in the open, or running,
position. Due to centrifugal force, the rectan-
gular weights have swung out against the re-
straining tension of the springs. This has
caused the plastic collar to move to the left
along the shaft, thus opening the stationary
contact in series with the auxiliary winding.

centrifugal In a resistance .'>plit-plwse motor (often simply

switch called split-phase motor). the auxiliary winding has
auxiliary winding a relatively small number of turns of fine wire. lls
E 70 turns per pole resistance is higher and its reactance lower than that
No. 22 wire of the main winding, with the result that the locked-
~ I rotor current /" is more nearly in phase with £. The

~---- --0-<l>s
resulting phase angle ex between /"and /,produces
the starting torque.
The line current/Lis equal to the phasor sum of
main winding I, and /u. At start-up. it is usually 6 to 7 times the
120 turns per pole
No. 16 wire nominal current of the motor.
Owing to the small wire used on the auxiliary
(a)
winding. the current density is high and the winding
heats up very quickly. If the starting period lasts for
a= 25° more than 5 seconds. the winding begins to smoke
and may burn out, unless the motor is protected by
a built-in thermal relay. This type of split-phase mo-
tor is well suited for infrequent starting of low-
inertia loads.

Example 18-2
A resistance split-phase motor is rated at 1/4 hp
( 187 W ). 1725 r/min, 115 V, 60 Hz. When the rotor
(b)
is locked. a test at reduced voltage on the main and
auxiliary windings yields the following resulls:
Figure 18.11
main auxiliary
a. Resistance split-phase motor (1/4 hp, 115 V, 1725
r/min, 60 Hz) at standstill. winding winding
b. Corresponding phasor diagram. The current in the applied voltage E = 23 V E= 23 V
auxiliary winding leads the current in the main current I, 4A (1 1.5 A
winding by 25°. active power P, 60W Pa 30W
398 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS

Cairn/ate
a. The phase angle between /a and/,
b. The locked-rotor current drawn from the line at V92 2 - 60 2 = 69.7 var
115 v Qa = \
Solutiou 17.0 var
We first calculate the phase angle C)\ between/, and
E of the main winding. The total reactive power absorbed by the motor is

a. The apparent power is Q Q, + Qa

69.7 + 17.0 86.7 var
El 23 x 4 92 VA
' The total apparent power absorbed is
The power factor is

cos d\ = PJS, 60/92 = 0.65

s
= \90 2 + 86.i' = 125 VA
thus.
The locked-rotor current at 23 V is
<!>, = 49.6°
11 SIE 125/23 5.44A
I, lags 49.6° behind the voltage E.
We now calculate the phase angle <I),. between The locked-rotor current drawn at 115 V is
I,, and E of the auxiliary winding.
/L = 5.44 x ( 115/23) 27.2 A
The apparent power is
Due to their low cost, resistance split-phase in-
Sa= Ela= 23 x 1.5 34.5 VA
duction motors are the most popular single-phase
The power factor is motors. They are used where a moderate starting
torque is required and where the starting periods are
cos <b,. P)Sa = 30/34.5 = 0.87 infrequent. They drive fans, pumps. washing ma-
thus, chines, oil burners, small machine toob, and other
devices too numerous to mention. The power rating
©,. 29.6° usually lies between 60 W and 250 W (I 112 hp to
I,. lags 29.6° behind the voltage. 113 hp).
The phase angle between I, and /a is

O' <1» cPa 49.6° - 29.6° 18.7 Capacitor-start motor

= 20.(l° The capacitor-start motor is identical to a split-phase
motor, except that the auxiliary winding has about as
b. To determine the total line current, we first cal-
many turns as the main winding has. Furthermore, a
culate the total value of P and Q drawn by both
capacitor and a centrifugal switch are connected in
windings and then deduce the total apparent
series with the auxiliary winding (Fig. I 8. I 2a).
power S.
The capacitor is chosen so that (, leads ( by about
The total active power absorbed is
80°, which is considerably more than the 25° found in
p = P, +pa a split-phase motor. Consequently, for equal stm1ing
torques, the cmTent in the auxiliary winding is only
60 + 30 90W
about half that in a split-phase motor. It follow.s that
The reactive powers Q, and Q" of the main and during the starting period the auxiliary winding of a
auxiliary windings are capacitor motor heats up less quickly. Furthermore.
 SINGLE-PHASE MOTORS .W9

voltage. electrolytic capacitors are much smaller

and cheaper than paper capacitors. However. elec-
trolytic capacitors can only be used for short peri-
1 auxiliary winding ods in ac circuits whereas paper capacitors can op-
E 100 turns per pole
erate on ac indefinitely. Prior to the development of
No. 22 wire
electrolytic capacitors, repulsion-induction motors
had to be used whenever a high starting torque was
required. Repulsion-induction motors possess a
special commutator and brushes that require con-
siderable maintenance. Most motor manufacturers
main winding have stopped making them.
120 turns per pole Capacitor-start motors are used when a high
No. 16 wire
starting torque is required. They are built in sizes
(a)
ranging from 120Wto7.5kW(~!/6hpto IOhp).
Typical loads are compressors. large fans. pumps,
and high-inertia loads.
Table 18A gives the properties of a eapacitor-stait
motor having a rating of 250 W(l/3 hp),
1760 r/min, 115 V, 60 Hz. Fig. 18.13 shows the
torque-speed curve for the same machine. Note that
during the acceleration phase (0 to 1370 r/min) the
main and auxiliary windings together produce a very
high starting torque. When the rotor reaches 1370
r/min, the centrifugal switch snaps open. causing the
motor to operate along the torque-speed curve of the
(bl main winding. The torque suddenly drops from 9.5
N·m to 2.8 N·m. but the motor continues to accelerate
Figure 18.12 until it reaches 1760 r/min, the rated full-load speed.
a. Capacitor-start motor.
b. Corresponding phasor diagram.
18.8 Efficiency and power factor of
single-phase induction motors
the locked-rotor line current/Lis smaller. being typi-
cally 4 to 5 times the rated full-load current. The efficiency and power factor of fractional horse-
Owing to the high starting torque and the relatively power single-phase motors are usually low. Thus, at
low value of /a the capacitor-start motor is well suited full-load a 186 W motor ( 1/4 hp) has an efficiency
to applications involving either frequent or prolonged and power factor of about 60 percent. The low power
starting periods. Although the starting characteristics factor is mainly due to the magnetmng current.
of this motor are better than those of a split-phase mo- which ranges between 70 percent and 90 percent of
tor, both machines possess the same characteristics full-load current. Consequently, even at no-load
under load. The reason is that the main windings are these motors have substantial temperature rises.
identical and the auxiliary winding is no longer in the The relatively low efficiency and power factor of
circuit when the motor has come up to speed. these motors is a consequence of their fractional
The wide use of capacitor-start motors is a direct horsepower ratings. Integral horsepower ~ingle­
result of the availability of small. reliable, low-cost phase motors can have efficiencies and power fac-
electrolytic capacitors. For given capacitance and tors above 80 percent.
400 ELFCTR!CAL lv!ACHJNES AND TRANSFORlVIERS

9.5 N•m

'
8f-----t---+-----t-,,.__--+---.;.---t---f---t-'T,-
...- \ - + - - - l
h
<ll
::l
E!
£ 51c-----1--~---+-----+---.;.---t---t---t---',-!----4

centrifugal
4 1-----+---switch closes ----;~---+----+---1--
/ I
nominal torque
1.35 N•m

~?
.~/
200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 r/min
- speed11

Figure 18.13
Torque-speed curves of a capacitor-start motor, rated 1/3 hp (250 W), 1760 r/min, 115 V, 60 Hz, class A insulation.

TABLE 18A CHARACTERISTICS OF A CAPACITOR-START MOTOR

Rating: 250 W, 1760 r/min, 115 V, 60 Hz, Insulation Class 105°C

Full-load No-load

voltage 115 v voltage 115 v

power 250W current 4.0A
current 5.3 A losses 105W
P.F. 64%
Locked rotor
efficiency 63.9%
speed 1760 r/min voltage 115V
torque 1.35 N·m current /, 23A
current / 11 19A
Breakdown
current 11. 29A
torque 3.4 N·m torque 6N·m
speed 1600 r/min capacitor 320 µF ·
current. 13A
 SINGLE-PHASE MOTORS -Hl l

18.9 Vibration of single- power is positive. negative. or zero. the mechanical

phase motors power delivered is a steady 250 W.
The motor will slow down during the brief peri-
If we touch the stator of a single-phase motor. we ods when the electric power it receives is less than
note that it vibrates rapidly. whether it operates at 250 W. On the other hand. it wi II accelerate whenever
full-load or no-load. These vibrations do not exist in the electric power exceeds the mechanical output
2-phase or 3-phase motors: conse4uently. single- plus the losses. The acceleration intervals coincide
phase motors are more noisy. with the positive peaks of the power curve. Similarly.
What muses this vibration'? It is due to the fact the deceleration intervals coincide with the negative
that a single-phase motor always receives pul.rnti111-: peaks. Conse4uently, the acceleration/deceleration
electric power whereas it delivers conswnt mechan- intervals occur twice per cycle. or 120 times per sec-
ical power. Consider the 250 W motor having the ond on a 60 Hz system. As a result both the stator
properties given in Table l 8A. The full-load current and rotor vibrate at twice the)ine fre4uency.
is 5.3 A and it lags 50° behind the line voltage. If we The stator vibrations are transmitted to the
draw the waveshapes of voltage and current, we can mounting base which. in turn. generates additional
plot the instantaneous power P supplied to the mo- vibration and noise. To eliminate the problem. the
tor (Fig. 18.14). We find that P oscillates between motor is often cradled in a resilient mounting (Fig.
+ 1000 Wand --218 W. When the power is positive 18.15). It consists of two soft rubber rings placed
the motor receives energy from the line. Conversely, between the end-bells and a supporting metal
when it is negative the motor returns energy to the bracket. Because the rotor also vibrates. a tubular
line. However. whether the instantaneous electric rubber isolator is sometimes placed between the

~
....: mechanical
L:,j power
250W
t
I _/

Figure 18.14
The instantaneous power absorbed by a single-phase motor varies between 1000 W and - 218 W. The power
output is constant at 250 W; consequently. vibrations are produced.
402 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS

shaft and the mechanical load. particularly when

the load is a fan.
Two-phase and 3-phase motors do not vibrate
because the total instantaneous power they receive
from all the phases is constant (see Section 8.7).

18.1 O Capacitor-run motor

The capacitor-run motor is essentially a 2-phase
motor that receives its power from a single-phase
source. It has two windings. one of which is directly
connected to the source. The other winding is also
connected to the source. but in series with a paper
Figure 18.15
capacitor (Fig. 18.16 ). The capacitor-fed winding
Single-phase capacitor-start motor supported in a re- has a large number of turns of relatively small wire,
silient-mount cradle to reduce the vibration and noise compared to the directly connected winding.
transmitted to the mounting surface. Motor rated at 1/3 This particularly quiet motor is used to drive fixed
hp, 1725 r/min, 230 V, 60 Hz has a full-load current of loads in hospitals, studios. and other places where
3.0 A, efficiency of 60 percent, and power factor of 60 silence is important. It has a high power factor on
percent. Other characteristics: no-load current: 2.6 A;
account of the capacitor and no centrifugal switch is
locked-rotor current: 13 A: locked rotor torque: 3. 6 pu;
breakdown torque: 3.0 pu; service factor: 1.35; total
required. However. the starting torque is low.
weight: 10 kg; overall length including shaft: 278 mm; The motor acts as a true 2-phase motor only
overall height: 232 mm. when it operates at full-load (Fig. 18. l6b). Under
(Courtesy of Baldor Electric Company) these conditions, fluxes cl\, and cI)s created by the

paper
capacitor

~\j:.c
Ea= 208 V.

520 turns per pole

E
No. 26 wire

300 turns per pole

No. 24 wire

(a)
(b)
Figure 18.16
a. Capacitor-run motor having a NEMA rating of 30 millihorsepower.
b. Corresponding phasor diagram at full load.
 SINGLE-PHASE MOTOR5; 403

two windings are equal and out of phase by 90°. The 18.12 Shaded-pole motor
motqr is then essentially vibration-free. Capacitor-
run motors are usually rated below 500 W. The shaded-pole motor is very popular for ratings
below 0.05 hp ( ~40 W) because of its extremely
simple construction 18.18). It is basically a
18.11 Reversing the direction small squirrel-cage motor in which the auxiliary
of rotation winding is composed of a copper ring surrounding
In order to reverse the direction of rotation of the a portion of each pole.
motors we have discussed so far, we have to inter- The main winding is a simple coil connected to
change the leads of either the auxiliary winding or the ac source. The coil produces a total tlux <I> that
the main winding. may be considered to be made up of three compo-
However. if a single-phase motor is equipped nents <l> 1, <P 2 • and <I>,. all in phase. Flux <1> 1 links the
with a centrifugal switch. its rotation cannot be re- short-circuited ring on the left-hand pole, inducing a
versed while the motor is running. If the main wind- rather large current (,. This current produces a flux
ing leads are interchanged, the motor will continue <I>" that lags behind <P 1• Consequently. <I>" also
to turn in the same direction. behind <1> 2 and <P,. The combined action of (<I>~ +
In the case of a capacitor-run motor (Fig. 18.16) <1> 3) and <Pa produces a weak revolving field, which
the direction of rotation can be changed while the mo- starts the motor. The direction of rotation is from the
tor is running because both windings are in the circuit unshaded side to the shaded (ring side) of the pole.
at all times. In the case of very small motors, the ro- A similar torque is set up by the pole on the right.
tation can be reversed by using a double-throw switch Flux <1> 2 induces a cmTent /h in the ring, and the re-
as shown in Fig. 18.17. In such a motor, the main and sulting flux <Ph lags behind (jJ:>· As before. the com-
auxiliary windings are identical. When the switch is bined action of (<1) 1 + <I>,) and <I>b produces a weak
in position I. winding A is directly across the line, revolving field that drives the rotor clockwise.
while winding B is in series with the capacitor. With
this connection the motor turns clockwise. When the
switch is thrown to position 2, the role of the windings
is reversed and the motor will come to a halt and then
run up to speed in the opposite direction.

Figure 18.17
Reversible single-phase motor using a 2-pole switch Figure 18.1 Sa
and capacitor. Fluxes in a shaded-pole motor.
404 ULCTR/CAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS

TABLE 188

Properties of a Shaded-Pole Motor, having 2 poles,

Rated 6 W, 115 V, 60 Hz.

No-load
current 0.26 A
input power 15 w
speed 3550 r/min
Locked rotor
current 0.35 A
input power 24 w
torque 10 mN·m
Full-load
current 0.33 A
input power 21 w
speed 2900 r/min
torque 19 mN·m
mechanical power 6 w
breakdown speed 2600 r/min
breakdown torque 21 mN·m
Figure 18.18b
Shaded-pole motor rated at 5 millihorsepower, 115 V,
60 Hz, 2900 r/min. 18.13 Universal motor
(Courtesy of Gould)
The single-phase universal motor is very similar to
Although the starting torque. efficiency. and
a de series motor (Section 5.8). The basic construc-
power factor are very low. the simple construction
tion of a small universal motor is shown in Fig.
and absence of a centrifugal switch give this motor
18.19. The entire magnetic circuit is laminated to re-
a marked advantage in low-power applications. The
direction of rotation cannot be changed. because it
laminated
is fixed by the position of the copper rings. Table
188 gives the typical properties of a 2-pole shaded-
pole motor having a rated output of 6 W.

Example I 8-3
Calculate the full-load efficiency and slip of the
shaded-pole motor whose prope11ies are listed in
Table 188.

Solution
The efficiency is
Tl (PjP;) X I 00 (3.6)
(6/21) x 100
= 28.61/c -··--ac source----efJ

Figure 18.19
= (3600 2900)/3600 Alternating-current series motor, also called universal
0.194 = 19.4<'k motor.
 SINGLE-PHASE MOTORS 405

duce eddy-current losses. Such a motor can operate Series motors are built in many different sizes,
on either ac or de, and the resulting torque-speed is starting from small toy motors to very large traction
about the same in each case. That is why it is called motors formerly used in some electric locomotives.
a universal motor. Fig. 18.20 gives the ac performance curves of a
When the motor is connected to an ac source, the 115 V, 8000 r/min, universal motor rated at 1/100
ac current flows through the armature and the series hp. The full-load current is 175 mA.
field. The field produces an ac flux <fl that reacts
with the current flowing in the armature to produce 18.14 Hysteresis motor
a torque. Because the armature current and the flux
reverse simultaneously, the torque always acts in To understand the operating principle of a hystere-
the same direction. No revolving field is produced sis motor, let us first consider Fig. 18.21. It shows a
in this type of machine; the principle of operation is stationary rotor surrounded by a pair of N, S poles
the same as that of a de series motor and it possesses that can be rotated mechanically in a clockwise di-
the same basic characteristics. rection. The rotor is composed of a ceramic mater-
The main advantage of fractional horsepower ial of high coercive force. Thus. it is a permanent
universal motors is their high speed and high start- magnet material whose resistivity approaches that
ing torque. They can therefore be used to drive of an insulator. Consequently. it is impossible to set
high-speed centrifugal blowers in vacuum cleaners. up eddy currents in such a rotor.
The high speed and corresponding small size for a As the N, S field rotates, it magnetizes the rotor;
given power output is also an advantage in driving consequently. poles of opposite polarity are contin-
portable tools, such as electric saws and drills. No- uously produced under the moving N. S poles. In
load speeds as high as 5000 to 15 000 r/min are pos- effect, the revolving field is continuously reorient-
sible but, as in any series motor, the speed drops ing the magnetic domains in the rotor. Clearly. the
rapidly with increasing load. individual domains go through a complete cycle (or
hysteresis loop) every time the field makes one
complete revolution. Hysteresis losses are therefore
produced in the rotor, proportional to the area of the
rimin
14 000 hysteresis loop (Section 2.26). These losses are dis-
sipated as heat in the rotor.
12 000 Let us assume that the hysteresis loss per revo-
lution is E1i joules and that the field rotates at
%
10 000 50
mA
8000 40 400 rotation
'O
QJ >
(,) stationary rotor
QJ
a. c:
30-·~ /
"' 6000 300
=
11::~11
w E
20 ~
200 :;
4000
0

2000 10 100
- rated torque
0 0 0
0 10 20 30 40
Torque mN·m rotation/

Figure 18.20 Figure 18.21

Characteristics of a small 115 V, 60 Hz universal mo- Permanent magnet rotor and a mechanically-driven
tor having a full-load rating of 1/100 hp at 8000 r/min. revolving field.
406 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS

11revolutions per minute. The energy dissipated in hysteresis

the rotor per minute is motor
%
(a)
W = nE11 160

The corresponding power (dissipated as heat) is

120
Q)
:J
P 11 = Wit (3.4) 0-

= nE /60 [WJ
£ 80
1

However. the power dissipated in the rotor can 40

only come from the mechanical power used to drive
the :"J. S poles. This power is given by 0+-...,.....-,.-__,.~...-.....--.--.-__,.~,.--.,._~-

0 W ~ 00 M 100 %
P = nT/9.55 (3.5) --speed

Because P P 11' we have Figure 18.22

nT/9.55 = nE1/60 Typical torque-speed curves of two capacitor-run
motors:
whence a. Hysteresis motor
b. Induction motor
( 18.2)
where

T torque exerted on the rotor IN·m]

hysteresis energy dissipated in the ro-
tor. per turn [J/rJ
6.28 constant l exact value = 2TI]

Equation 18.2 brings out the remarkable feature

that the torque needed to drive the magnets (Fig.
18.21) is constant. irrespective of the speed of rota-
tion. In other words. whether the poles just barely
creep around the rotor or whether they move at high
speed. the torque exerted on the rotor is always the
same. It is this basic property that distinguishes hys-
Figure 18.23
teresis motors from all other motors.
Single-phase hysteresis clock motor having 32 poles
In practice. the revolving field is produced by a and a ferrite rotor.
3-phase stator. or by a single-phase stator having an
auxiliary winding. When a hysteresis rotor is placed
inside such a stator. it immediately accelerates until It is also used to drive tapedecks, turntables, and
it reaches synchronous speed. The accelerating other precision audio equipment. In such devices
torque is essentially constant as shown by the curve the constant speed is, of course, the feature we are
(a) in Fig. 18.22. This is entirely different from a looking for. However, the hysteresis motor is p~tr­
squirrel-cage induction motor. whose torque falls ticularly well suited to drive such devices because
toward zero as it approaches synchronous speed. of their high inertia. Inertia prevents many synchro-
Thanks to the fixed frequency of large distribution nous motors (such as reluctance motors) from.corn-
systems. the hysteresis motor is employed in electric ing up to speed because to reach synchronism, they
clocks. and other precise timing devices (Fig. 18.23 ). have to suddenly lock in with the revolving field.
 SINGLE-PHASE MOTORS 407

No such abrupt transition occurs in the hysteresis c. When the motor stalls. the rotating field moves
motor because it develops a constant torque right up at 225 r/min with respect to the rotor. The en-
to synchronous speed. ergy loss per minute is. therefore,
In some turntable audio equipment these fea-
tures are further enhanced by designing the motor to
w 225 x 0.8 180 J
function as a vibration-free capacitor-run motor. The power dissipated in the rotor is
While the motor is accelerating, its full torque
P Wit 180/60 3W
is available to carry the mechanical load and to
overcome inertia. Once it reaches synchronous d. There is no energy loss in the rotor when the
speed, the rotor poles are still magnetized and so motor runs at synchronous speed because the
the motor runs like an ordinary permanent-magnet magnetic domains no longer reverse.
sychronous motor. The rotor poles will lag behind
the stator poles by a certain angle, whose magni- 18.15 Synchronous reluctance
tude depends upon the mechanical torque exerted motor
by the load.
We can build a synchronous motor by milling out a
standard squirrel-cage rotor so as to create a number
Example 18-4
of salient poles. The number of poles must be equal
A small 60 Hz hysteresis clock motor possesses 32
to the number of poles on the stator. Fig. 18.24
poles. In making one complete turn with respect to
shows a rotor milled out to create four salient poles.
the revolving field. the hysteresis loss in the rotor
Such a reluctance motor starts up as a standard
amounts to 0. 8 J.
squirrel-cage motor but. when it approaches syn-
chronous speed, the salient poles lock with the re-
Calculate
volving field, and so the motor runs at synchronous
a. The pull-in and pull-out torques
speed. Both the pull-in and pull-out torques are
b. The maximum power output before the motor
stalls weak, compared to those of a hysteresis motor of
equal size. Furthermore. reluctance motors cannot
c. The rotor losses when the motor is stalled
accelerate high-inertia loads to synchronous speed.
d. The rotor losses when the motor runs at syn-
The reason can be seen by referring to Fig. 18.22.
chronous speed
Suppose the motor has reached a speed 11 1 corre-
Solution sponding to foll-load torque (operating point I).
a. The pull-in and pull-out torques are about The stator poles are slipping past the rotor
equal in a hysteresis motor: poles at a rate that corresponds to the slip. If the

T £ 1/6.28 = 0.8/6.28 (18.2)

0.127 N-rn

b. The synchronous speed is

11, = 120.f/p 120 x 60/32

= 225 r/min

The maximum power is

p = 11T/9.55 (225 x 0.127)/9.55

Figure 18.24
= 3W (or 3/746 1/250 hp) Rotor of a synchronous reluctance motor.
408 ELECTRICAL MACHINE'·» AND TRANSFORlvfERS

rotor is to lock with the revolving field, it must do It is particularly well adapted to variable-frequency
so in the time it takes for one stator pole to sweep electronic speed control. Inertia is then no problem
past a rotor pole. If pull-in is not achieved during because the speed of the revolving field always
this interval (.:it). it will never be achieved. The tracks with the speed of the rotor. Three-phase re-
problem is that in going from speed n 1 to syn- luctance motors of several hundred horsepower
chronous speed 11,. the kinetic energy of the re- have been built. using this approach.
volving parts must increase by an amount given
by Eq. 3.8:
18.16 Synchro drive
( 18.3)
In some remote-control systems we may have to
where J is the moment of inertia. move the position of a small rheostat that is one or two
Furthermore, the time interval is given by meters away. This problem is easily solved by using a
( 18.4) flexible shaft. But if the rheostat is 100 m away, the
flexible-shaft solution becomes impractical. We then
Consequently, to reach synchronous speed. the mo- employ an electrical shaft to tie the knob and rheostat
tor must develop an accelerating power Pa of at least together. How does such a shaft work?
P.. 5..E.j.:lr ( 18.5) Consider two conventional wound-rotor induc-
4 tion motors whose 3-phase stators are connected in
1.8 X 10 n,(n, 11 1)='J1>(approx)
parallel 18.25 ). Two phases of the respective
Furthermore, the motor must continue to supply rotors are also connected in parallel and energized
the power P1. demanded by the load. If the sum of from a single-phase source. The remarkable feature
Pa P 1 exceeds the power capacity of the motor, it about this arrangement is that the rotor on one ma-
will never pull into step. In essence. a reluctance chine will automatically track with the rotor on the
motor can only synchronize when the slip speed is other. Thus, if wc slowly turn rotor A clockwise
small and the moment of inertia J is low. through 17°, rotor B will move clockwise through
Despite this drawback, the reluctance motor is 17°. Obviously, such a system enables us to control
cheaper than any other type of synchronous motor. a rheostat from a remote ·location.

a b c

receiver
2 2
3 3

ac source

Figure 18.25
Components and connections of a synchro system.
 SINGLE-PHASE MOTOR-S' 409

Two miniature wound-rotor motors are required. the stator voltages are again in balance (phase by
One (the transmitter) is coupled to a control knob. phase). and the torque-producing cuITents disappear.
and the other (the receiver) is coupled to the rheo- Synchros are often employed to indicate the po-
stat. The 5-conductor cable (conductors a-b-c-1-2) sition of an antenna. a valve, a gun turret. and so on.
linking the transmitter and receiver constitutes the with the result that the torque requirements are
flexible electrical shaft. small. Such transmitters and receivers are built with
The behavior of this selsyn or synclno control watch-like precision to ensure that they will track
system is explained as follows. Assume that the with as little error as possible.
transmitter and receiver arc identical and the rotors
are in identical positions. When the rotors are ex-
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF A
cited, they behave like the primaries of two trans-
SINGLE-PHASE MOTOR
formers, inducing voltages in the respective stator
windings. The voltages induced in the three stator In Chapter I 5 we developed the equivalent circuit
windings of the transmitter are always unequal 15.6) for one phase of a 3-phase induction mo-
because the windings are displaced from each other tor. This circuit is reproduced in Fig. 18.26, with the
by 120°. The same is true for the voltages induced exception that the magnetizing branch has been
in the stator of the receiver. moved to the technically correct position between
Neve11heless. no matter what the respective stator points I and 2. The reason for the change is that
voltages of the transmitter and receiver may be, they most single-phase motors are fractional horsepower
are identical in both synchros (phase by phase) when machines for which the exact circuit diagram is
the rotors occupy the same position. The stator volt- needed to get reasonably accurate results. Using
ages then balance each other and. consequently. no this model, we now develop a similar equivalent
current tlows in the lines connecting the stators. The circuit for a single-phase motor.
rotors. however. caJTy a small exciting crnTent / 0 •
Now if we turn the rotor of the transmitter. its 18.17 Magnetomotive force
three stator voltages will change. They will no
distribution
balance the stator voltages of the receiver: conse-
quently, currents (., / 0 , ( will flow in the lines con- In order to optimize the starting torque, efficiency,
necting the two devices. These currents produce a power factor, and noise level of a single-phase mo-
torque on both rotors. tending to line them up. Since tor. the magnetomotive force produced by each sta-
the rotor of the receiver is free to move. it will line up tor pole must be distributed sinusoidally across the
with the transmitter. As soon as the rotors are aligned. pole face. That is the reason for using the special
number of turns ( 10. 20, 25. and 30) on the four
concentric coils shown in Fig. 18.3(a).
Let us examine the rnrnf created by one of the four
poles when the concentric coils carry a peak current
of, say, 2 amperes. Table I 8C shows the distribution
of the mmf, using the slot numbers as a measure of
distance along the pole. For example, the 25-turn coil
lodged in slots 2 and 8 18.27), produces between
these slots an mmf of 25 X 2 50 amperes (or am-
pere-turns). Similarly. the 10-turn coil in slots 4 and 6
2
produces between these slots an mmf of 20 A.
Figure 18.26 The distribution of these rnmfs is illustrated in
Equivalent circuit of one phase of a 3-phase cage mo- Fig. 18.27. The total mrnf produced in the middle of
tor referred to the primary (stator) side. the pole is 60 50 + 40 20 170 A and it drops
410 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFOR/v!ERS

soidaL but the mmf in the center of the pole will be

TABLE 18C
only 0.4 A X 85 turns 34 A. Subsequently. when
Coil pitch Turns Mmf the current reverses and is equal to. say, 1.2 A. the
mrnf will also reverse. However, the mmf will still
slot 1-9 30 2 x 30 = 60A
be distributed sinusoidally but with a peak value in
slot 28 25 2 x 25 50A the center of 1.2 A X 85 turns I 02 A.
slot 3-7 20 2 x 20 40A We conclude that the ac current produces a pul-
slot 4-6 10 2 x 10 20A sating mmf. which is distributed sinusoidally across
85 turns 170 ampere turns each pole and whose amplitude varies sinusoidally
in time. Thus. unlike the mmf produced by a
3-phase stator. the mmf of a single-phase stator
does not rotate but remains fixed in place.
180
160
18.18 Revolving mmfs in a single-
140
phase motor
120
100 It can be proved mathematically that a stationary pul-
80 50A sating mmf having a peak amplitude M can be re-
placed by two mmfs having a.fixed amplitude M/2 re-
60
volving in opposite directions at synchronous speed.
40
Refen'ing to our previous example. a 4-pole pulsat-
ing mmf that reaches positive and negative peaks of
170 A at a frequency of 60 Hz can be replaced by two
4-pole mmfs having a constant amplitude of 85 Aro-
1 pole pitch tating in opposite directions at 1800 r/min. The re-
volving mmfs are also distributed sinusoidally in
space. As the oppositely moving mmfs take up suc-
Figure 18.27 cessive positions, the sum of their magnitudes at any
Distribution of the magnetomotive force across one point in space is equal to the pulsating mmf at that
pole when current is 2 A. point. This can be seen by referring to 18.28.
which shows a portion of the forward and backward
off in steps on either side of center. Adjacent poles revolving fields (mmfF and mmf8 ), sweeping past
have the same mmf distribution but with opposite the stationary but pulsating mmf.
magnetic polarities. The revolving mmfs respectively produce the
We have superposed upon this figure a smooth same effect as the revolving mmf created by a
mmf having a pe1i'ectly sinusoidal distribution. It 3-phase stator. Consequently, we would expect the
reveals that the stepped mmf produced by the four circuit diagram of a single-phasor motor to resem-
concentric coils tracks the sine wave very closely. ble that of a 3-phase motor. However. since the
Indeed, we could replace the stepped mmf by a sinu- mmfs rotate in opposite directions, their effect on
soidal mmf without introducing a significant error. the rotor will be different. Thus. if the rotor has a
The current flowing in the four coils alternates slip s with respect to the forward-moving mmf, it
sinusoidally (in time) at the line frequency of 60 Hz. will automatically have a slip of (2 s) with re-
Consequently, as the current varies, the mmf varies spect to the bacbvard-moving mmf.
in proportion. For example, when the current is mo- The circuit diagram as regards the forward-rn<w-
mentarily 0.4 A, the mmf distribution remains sinu- ing mmf having a slip s is shown in Fig. I 8.29a.
 SINGLE-PHASE MOTORS 411

fluctuating
mmf

mmt8 mmfF

-90°60 30 0 30 60 +90° (a)

f= 0

++

2-s

\+90°
J
12 -
(b)

Figure 18.29
a. Equivalent circuit as regards the forward-moving
mmf.
b. Equivalent circuit as regards the backward-moving
mmf.

Similarly. the circuit diagram for the backward-

revolving mrnf having a slip (2 s) is shown in
Fig. 18.2%. For the moment we will not define
the physical meaning of r 1, r2 , x 1• x 2 • etc .. except
...............
mmfs~' ·~mmff
to say that they are related to the stator and rotor
resistances and reactances. How should we merge
,,/OA these two diagrams into a single diagram to rep-
-90° ,' 0 " +90° resent the single-phase motor"?
,''t= -~--
,' 4 -
18.19 Deducing the circuit diagram
Figure 18.28 of a single-phase motor
The pulsating mmf having a peak amplitude of 170 A
can be represented by a forward and backward revolv- First, we know that the oppositely rotating mmfs have
ing mmf having a fixed amplitude of 85 A. Shown are the same magnitude. Consequently. the stator currents
successive positions of mmtF and mmf 6 and the corre- / 1Fand/1 8 are identical. which means that the two cir-
sponding amplitude of the stationary, pulsating mmf. cuits can be connected in series. Second. thej(n1rnrd
412 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORlvfERS

2fr2

2 ,.,

/:' 3 2

Figure 18.31
Equivalent circuit of a single-phase motor at standstill.

2-s

In practice we assume x 1 = x 2 .
The above analysis indicates that the imped-
2 ances r 1 • x 1, etc., shown in 18.29 to 18.31 are
equal to one-half of the actual physical quantities.
Figure 18.30
Equivalent circuit of a single-phase motor. Thus, if the stator resistance is I 0 ohms, the value
of r 1 is 5 ohms. and so forth, for the other imped-
stator voltage Eic is associat~d with mmfF. while the ances in the equivalent circuit.
backward voltage is associated with mmf13 •
Because the circuits are in series, the sum of these Example 18-5 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
voltages must be equal to the voltage E applied to the A test on a 1/4 hp, 120 V. 60 Hz. 1725 r/min single-
stator. It follows that the equivalent circuit of the sin- phase motor reveals the following results:
gle-phase motor can be represented by Fig. 18.30 stator resistance: 2 n
To interpret the meaning of the circuit parameters
rotor resistance referred to the stator: 4 n
r 1• r2 , x 1• x2 , etc .. suppose the motor is stationary. in
stator leakage reactance: 3n
which case the slips= I. Under these conditions, the
forward and backward circuits are identical. The cir- rotor leakage reactance referred to the stator:
cuit of Fig. 18.30 therefore reduces to that shown in 3!1
Fig. 18.31 In essence. the motor behaves like a sim- resistance corresponding to the windage. fric-
ple transformer in which the secondary winding (the tion, and iron losses: 600 n
rotor) is in short-circuit. It reveals that the parameters magnetizing reactance: 60 n
r 1• x 1• etc .. represent the following physical elements:
Draw the equivalent circuit diagram and determine
stator resistance
the power output. efficiency, and power factor of
rotor resistance referred to the stator the motor when it turns at 1725 r/min.
?"
-.JX1 stator leakage reactance
= rotor leakage reactance referred to the Solution
stator The equivalent circuit diagram (Fig. 18.32) shows
the values of the listed impedances divided by Jwo.
2R 111 resistance corresponding to the The slip is s ( 1800 - 1725)/1800 = 0.0417.
windage, friction. and iron losses We first determine the impedance of the forward
2jX111 = magnetizing reactance circuit between points 1, 3:
 SINGLE-PHASE MOTORS 413

I + j 1.5
+ +
j 30 300 48 + j 1.5
= I + j 1.5 + 13.89 + j 19.53 2 2
.I .0417
= 14.89 + j 21.03 48
The impedance of the backward circuit between
points 3, 2 is

ZB = I + j 1.5 +
I
+--+
j 30 300 1.02 + j 1.5 2
-
= I j 1.5 + 0.93 j 1.45 2~s

1.02
= 1.93 j 2.95

The current in the stator is

2
I £/(Zr+ 2 8 ) 120/( 16.82 + j 23.98)
= I 20/(29.29L54.95) Figure 18.32
See Example 18-5.
:. I= 4.097 L 54.95
The forward voltage between points 1, 3 is
Backward rotor current:
£ 1. =I (4.097L-54.95) X (14.89 + j 21.03)
= 4.097 L -54.95 X 25.77 L54.7
105.6L-0.25 + +
j 30 300 1.02 j 1.5
The backward voltage between points 3, 2 is 1.02 + j 1.5
EB = I ZB 4.097 L -54.95 x ( 1.93 + j 2.95) 4.097 L 54.95 (0.93 +j I
4.097 L -54.95 X 3.52L56.8
1.81 55.78
14.42L 1.85
4.097 - 54.95 X 1.72 L 57.32
Forward rotor current: 1.81L55.78
3.89 L - 53.4
Ir= I I
+ + Forward power to rotor:
j 30 300 48 + j 1.5
48 + j 1.5 Pi-= t/· x 48 2.044 2 x 48 200.5 W

4.097 - 54.95 ( 13.89 + j 19.53) Forward torque 7'1.:

48.02 L 1.79 9.55 9.55 x 200.5
4.097 L 54.95 X 23.96 L 54.58 n, 1800
48.02 1.79 Backward power to rotor P 8 :
= 2.044L 2.16 /B X 1.02 = 3.89 2 X 1.02 = f 5.4 W
414 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS

Backward torque Tn: such a mounting necessary on 3-phase

motors?
9.55 x 15.4
0.082 N·m 18-7 What is the main advantage of a capacitor-
1800
run motor?
Net torque:
18-8 Which of the motors discussed in this
Tll = 1.064 - 0.082 0.982 N·m chapter is best suited to drive the follow-
Mechanical power output P: loads:
a. A small portable drill
nT 1725 X 0.982 b. A 3/4 hp air compressor
177W
9.55 9.55 c. A vacuum cleaner
d. A 1/100 hp blower
Horsepower: e. A 1/3 hp centrifugal pump
177 f. A 1/4 hp fan for use in a hospital ward
0.24 hp g. An electric timer
746
h. A hi-fi turntable
Active power input to stator:
Intermediate lei·el
El cos (1 120 x 4.097 cos 54.95 = 282.3 w
18-9 Referring to Fig. 18.11, the effective im-
Power factor: pedance of the main and auxiliary wind-
cos 54.95 0.57 = 57% ings under locked-rotor conditions arc
given as follows:
Efficiency:
Effective Effective
177
0.627 = 62.7% resistance reactance
282
Main winding 4!1 7.5 n
Auxiliary winding 7.5 n 4 !}
Questions and Problems
lf the line voltage is 119 V. calculate the
Practical le11ef
following:
18-1 A 6-pole single-phase motor is connected a. The magnitude of(, and /,
to a 60 Hz source. What is its synchronous b. The phase between (, and I,
speed? c. The line current IL
18-2 What is the purpose of the auxiliary wind- d. The power factor under locked-rotor con-
ditions
ing in a single-phase induction motor?
How can we change the rotation of such a 18-10 The palm of the human hand can just
motor? barely tolerate a temperature of I 30°F. If
the full-load temperature of the frame of a
18-3 State the main difference between a split-
1/4 hp motor is 64°C in an ambient tem-
phase motor and a capacitor-start motor.
perature of 76cF,
What are their relative advantages?
a. Can a person keep his hand on the frame?
18-4 Explain briefly how a shaded-pole motor b. Is the motor running too hot')
operates.
18-11 Referring to 18.13, if the motor is
18-5 List some of the properties and advan- connected to a load whose torque is con-
tages of a universal motor. stant at 4 N·m. explain the resulting be-
18-6 Why are some single-phase motors havior of the motor when it is switched
equipped with a resilient mounting? Is on the line.
 S/NGLE-PHASt; MOTORS 415

18-12 a. A single-phase motor vibrates at a fre- Using Table AX3 in the Appendix. calcu-
quem.:y of I 00 Hz. What is the frequency of late the following:
the power line·? a. The resistance of the transmission line
b. A capacitor-run motor does not have to be b. The starting current and the voltage at the
set in a resilient mounting. Why? motor terminals
c. A 4-pole, 60 Hz single-phase hysteresis c. The starting torque IN·ml
motor develops a torque of 6 in·lb when
running at 1600 r/min. Calculate the hys- Industrial applicatio11
teresis loss per revolution [J J.
18-18 A 3 hp. 1725 r/min 230 V, totally-enclosed.
18-13 Referring to the 6 W shaded-pole motor in fan-cooled. capacitor-start capacitor-run.
Table l 8B, calculate the following: single-phase motor manufactured hy
a. The rated power output in millihorsepower Baldor Electric Company has the follow-
b. The full-loa<l power factor
ing properties:
c. The slip at the breakdown torque
d. The per unit no-load current and locked-ro- no-load current: 5 A
tor current
locked-rotor current: 90 A
18-14 Referring again to Fig. 18.13, calculate
full-load current: I 5 A
the following:
a. The locked-rotor torque [ft·lhfl locked-rotor torque: 30 ]bf.ft
b. The per-unit value of the LR torque full-load efficiency: 79c;,
c. The starting torque when only the main
breakdown torque: 20 lbfft
winding is excited
d. The per-unit hreakdown torque full-load power factor: 87'/r
e. How are the torque-speed curves affected if service factor: I. 15
the line voltage falls from 115 V to 100 V'?
full-load torque: 9 lbf·ft
Admnced lei·el mass: 97 lb
18-15 In Table l 8A, calculate the following:
a. The voltage across the capacitor under Using the above information. calculate the
locked-rotor conditions following:
b. The corresponding phase angle hetwecn /, a. The per-unit values of locked-rotor torque.
and (, locked-rotor current, and breakdown torque
18-16 Referring to Fig. 18.16, if the capacitor- h. The full-load torque expressed in newton-
meters
run motor operates at full-load. calculate
c. The capacitor that could he added across
the following:
the stator so that the full-load power factor
a. The line current /L
rises from 87 1/r to 9Wk
h. The power factor of the motor
c. The active power absorbed by each winding 18-19 A 3/4 hp. 1725 r/min. 230 Y. totally-
d. The efficiency of the motor enclosed, fan-cooled. capacitor-start,
18-17 The motor descrihed in Table 18A has an single-phase motor manufactured by
LR power factor of 0.9 lagging. It is in- Baldor Electric Company has the fol-
stalled in a workshop situated 600 ft from lowing properties:
a home, where the main service entrance no-load current: 4.4 A
is located. The line is composed of a 2-
locked-rotor current: 30 A
conductor cahle made of No. 12 gauge
copper. The amhient temperature is 25°C full-load current: 5.3 A
and the service entrance voltage is 122 Y. locked-rotor torque: 9.5 lhf.ft
416 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS

locked-rotor power factor: 58CJc long and is fed from the service entrance
full-load efficiency: 66%· where the is 230 V ±5%.
Using the above information. determine
breakdown torque: 6.1 lbf.ft
the following:
full-load power factor: 689. a. The lowest starting torque (newton-meters).
service factor: 1.25 assuming a cable temperature of 25°C
b. We wish to raise the power factor of the
full-load torque: 2.25 !bf.ft
motor to 90o/r· at full-load by installing a ca-
mass: 29 lb pacitor across its terminals. Calculate the
approximate value of the capacitance. in
The motor is fed by a 2-conductor No. 12
microfarads.
copper cable that has a National Electrical
Code rating of 20 A. The cable is 240 feet
 CHAPTER 19
Stepper Motors

19.0 Introduction tinning device in machine tools, X-Y plotters. type-

writers, tapedecks, valves, and printers.
tepper motors are special motors that are used
S when motion and position have to be precisely
controlled. As their name implies, stepper motors
In this chapter we will cover the operating princi-
ple of the more common stepper motors. together with
their properties and limitations. We will also discuss
rotate in discrete steps. each step corresponding to the types of drives used to actuate these machines.
a pulse that is supplied to one of its stator windings.
Depending on its design, a stepper motor can ad-
vance by 90°. 45°, 18°, or by as little as a fraction
19.1 Elementary stepper motor
of a degree per pulse. By varying the pulse rate, the A very simple stepper motor is shown in Fig. 19.1.
motor can be made to advance very slowly, one step It consists of a stator having three salient poles and
at a time. or to rotate stepwise at speeds as high as a 2-pole rotor made of soft iron. The windings can
4000 r/min. be successively connected to a de power supply by
Stepper motors can turn clockwise or counter- means of three switches A, B, C.
clockwise. depending upon the sequence of the When the switches are open, the rotor can take up
pulses that are applied to the windings. any position. However. if switch A is closed, the re-
The behavior of a stepper motor depends greatly sulting magnetic field created by pole I will attract
upon the power supply that drives it. The power sup- the rotor and so it will line up as shown. If we now
ply generates the pulses, which in turn are usually open switch A and simultaneously close switch B,
initiated by a microprocessor. The pulses are the rotor will line up with pole 2. In so doing. it will
counted and stored, clockwise (cw) pulses being ( +) rotate ccw by 60°. Next, if we open switch Band si-
while counterclockwise (ccw) pulses are (- ). As a multaneously close switch C. the rotor will turn ccw
result, the net number of steps is known exactly at all by an additional 60°, this time lining up with pole 3.
times. It follows that the number of revolutions is al- Clearly, we can make the rotor advance ccw in
ways precisely known to an accuracy of one step. 60° steps by closing and opening the switches in
This permits the motor to be used as a precise posi- the sequence A. B. C. A, B. C. .... Furthermore,

417
418 ELECTRICAL MACH/NFS AND TRANSFORIHERS

opposite (cw) direction. Picking up speed, it will

again overshoot the center line of pole 2. where-
upon the magnetic field will exert a pull in the ccw
direction.
The rotor \viii therefore oscillate like a pendu-
power supply
lum around the center line of pole 2. The oscilla-
..=_ E
tions will gradually die out because of bearing

l friction. Fig. 19.2 shows the angular position of

the rotor as a function of time. The rotor starts at
0° (center of pole 1) and reaches 60° (center line
of pole 2) after 2 ms. It overshoots the center line
by 30° before coming lo a halt (at 3 ms). The rotor
now moves in reverse and again crosses the center
Figure 19.1
Simple stepper motor in which each step moves the line at t 4 ms.
rotor by 60°. The oscillations continue this way, gradually di-
we can reverse the rotation by operating the minishing in amplitude until the rotor comes to rest
switches in the reverse sequence A. C B. A. C. B at t 10 ms.
.... In order to fix the final position of the rotor, The reader will note that in 19.2 we have
the last switch that was closed in a switching se- also drawn the instantaneous speed of the rotor as a
quence must remain closed. This holds the rotor in function of time. The speed can be given in revolu-
its last position and prevents it from moving under tions per second, but for stepper motors it is more
the influence of external torques. In this stationary meaningful to speak of degrees per second. The
state the motor will remain locked provided the speed is momentarily zero at t 3 ms. 5 ms, 7 ms,
external torque does not exceed the holding torque and becomes permanently zero at t I 0 ms. The
of the motor. speed is greatest whenever the rotor crosses the cen-
In moving from one position to the next, the mo- ter line of pole 2. Clearly, the oscillations last a rel-
tion of the rotor will be influenced by the inertia and atively long time before the rotor settles down.
the frictional forces that come into play. We now ex- Without making any other changes, suppose we
amine the nature of these forces. increase the inertia of the rotor by mounting a fly-
wheel on the shaft. We discover that both the pe-
riod and the amplitude of the oscillations increase
19.2 Effect of inertia
when the inertia increases. In 19.3, for exam-
Suppose the motor operates at no-load and that the ple, the time to reach the 60° position has in-
rotor has a lmv inertia and a small amount of bear- creased from 2 ms to 4 ms. Furthermore, the am-
ing friction. It is initially facing pole l. Let this cor- plitude of the oscillations has increased. The rotor
respond to the zero degree (0°) angular position. At also takes a longer time to settle down (20 ms in-
the moment switch A opens and switch B closes. the stead of I 0 ms).
rotor will start accelerating ccw toward pole 2. It The oscillations can be damped by increasing
rapidly picks up speed and soon reaches the center the friction. For example, if the bearing friction is
line of pole 2. where it should come to rest. raised sufficiently, the oscillations shown in Fig.
However. the rotor is now moving with consider- 19.3 can be suppressed so as to give only a single
able speed and it will overshoot the center line. As overshoot, shown in Fig. 19.4. In practice. the
it does so. the magnetic field of pole 2 will pull it in damping is accomplished by using an eddy-current
the opposite direction. thereby braking the rotor. brake or a viscous damper. A viscous damper uses a
The rotor will come to a halt and start moving in the fluid such as oil or air to brake the rotor whenever
 STEPPER i'v!UJORS 419

it is moving. Viscous damping means that the brak-

ft ~~II..1 LLLD .
ing effect is proportional to speed; it is therefore
zero when the rotor is at rest.

O 2 •••• 6 10 12 14 16 18 ms
19.3 Effect of a mechanical load
-time
Let us return to the condition shown in Fig. 19.2.
Figure 19.2 where the rotor has low inertia and a small amount
In moving from pole 1 to pole 2, the rotor oscillates of viscous damping due to bearing friction. If the
around its 60° position before coming to rest. The rotor is coupled to a mechanical load while it i'>
speed is zero whenever the rotor reaches the limit of moving. the effect is shown in 19.5. As we
its overshoot. would expect, it takes longer for the motor to attain
the 60° position (compare 2 ms in Fig. 19.2 with
deg
4 ms in Fig. 19.5). Furthermore, the overshoot is
~ .9' 90
~ gi smaller and the oscillations are damped rnore
~
(/)
60
quickly.
r r 30 In summary. both the mechanical load and the
0 inertia increase the stepping time. The oscillations
0 2 4 s··········10 12 14 16 18 ms
-time
also prolong the time before the rotor settles down.
Therefore. in order to obtain fast stepping response,
Figure 19.3 the inertia of the rotor (and its load) should be as
Same conditions as in Fig. 19.2, except that the iner- small as possible and the oscillations should be sup-
tia is greater. The overshoot is greater and the rotor pressed by using a viscous damper.
takes longer to settle down. The time to move from one position to the next
deg
can also be reduced bv increasing the current in the
90 winding. However. tl;ermal limitations due to /YR
~ Jl! angular posilion
Q) Ol
a. c:
(/) ~ 60
losses dictate the maximum current that can be
used.
r r 30
Returning to Fig. 19.1. let us excite the wind-
0
0 2 4 6 in succession so that the motor rotates. Fig.
-11me 19.6 shows the current pulses (,. /b. ( and the in-
stantaneous position of the rotor (as well as its
Figure 19.4 speed) when the motor makes one-half revolution.
Same conditions as in Fig. 19.3, except that viscous
We assume that the stepper motor has some inertia
damping has been added.
and that it is driving a mechanical load. Note that
deg the speed of the rotor is zero at the beginning and
at the end of each pulse. In this figure the pulses

:~ Lllfi"~i T'°f
have a duration of 8 ms. Conseyuently. the step-
ping rate is I 000/8 = 125 steps per second. One
r r 11111 revolution requires 6 steps. and so it takes 6 125
O 2 4 6 8 1O 12 14 16 18 ms 0.048 s to complete one turn. The m·croge speed
--time
is, therefore. 60/0.048 1250 revolutions per
Figure 19.5 minute. However, the stepper motor rotates in
Same conditions as in Fig. 19.2, except that the rotor start-stop jumps and not smoothly as an ordinary
is coupled to a mechanical load. motor would.
420 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS

current
/., 'i1 .,..f//,:r,%-,,l/..,..%""://"""';%"""'%..,..://,...,/:1""2 ~ OA
/h Y///////////110A ~
I
'· I V/////////'.%/1_1_o_A_______
I
deg
240
/

m m
',/' ~
(l) 180
Oi I -~

c llT"I ~
OJ 120

l
j -~

60
0
I./
/ '"' - 1
settling time
6 ms
0 8 I I 16 24 ms

_rn,
"O
(l) _,_,_ time

.~
(l)
a. I I I I
"' , ', ., --
-
I

-
.II "
0
0 8 16 "- 24 --
-time

Figure 19.6
Graph of current pulses, angular position, and instantaneous speed of rotor during the first four steps. Three steps
(24 ms) produce one half-revolution.
N·m
When the motor is at rest, a holding current must
5
continue to flow in the last winding that was excited
4 so that the rotor remains locked in place.
(l)
::i
!! 3
.9
a; 19.5 Start-stop stepping rate
> 2
0
::; :--- rated pulse current When the stepping motor inches along in the start-
a.
I stop fashion shown in Fig. 19.6, there is an upper limit
0 to the permissible stepping rate. If the pulse rate of the
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 A current in the windings is too fast, the rotor is unable
to accurately follow the pulses. and steps will be lost.
-current
This defeats the whole purpose of the motor, which is
Figure 19.7 to correlate its instantaneous position (steps) with the
Graph of pull-over torque versus current of a stepper number of net ( + and ) pulses. In order to maintain
motor; diameter: 3.4 inches; length: 3.7 in; weight: 5.2 synchronism, the rotor must settle down before ad-
lbm. vancing to the next position. Referring to 19.6.
this means that the interval between successive steps
19.4 Torque versus current
must be at least 6 ms, which means that the stepping
As mentioned previously. the torque developed by rate is limited to a maximum of 1000/6 167 steps
a stepper motor depends upon the current. per second (sps).
19.7 shows the relationship between the two Bearing in mind what was said in Section 19.2.
for a typical stepper motor. When the current is it is clear that the maximum number of steps per
8 A, the motor develops a torque of 3 K·m. This is second depends upon the load torque and the iner-
the torque that the motor can exert while moving tia of the system. The higher the load and the g1;cater
from one position to the next, so it is called the the inertia, the lower will be the allowable number
pull-orer torque. of steps per second.
 STEPPER MOTORS 42 I

start-stop mode

N·m Q)
er,
3 ~ 1sor--r~+--t~-t->c:..::i-....,.."'t::_+---i--=--+---l
120r--+~+-t'-",...-,,f1L.=--t---+~+---l~-+---l
'-··
\·....·. t
2.2 - .
\
\
-~
·.,•,
\ \
2 \ \
curve 2 \ \. 2 4 6 8 1O 12 14 16 ms
\ \ I

I "'
-time
1.4 -\ I
.:-;.
I' start-stop speed
I\ '\
I\ ',
\
\I
""
'.
\ ·.
\: \ curve 1 curve 3
\I : 14 16 ms
\I :
0 -time
0 200 400 500 600 800 sps
Figure 19.9
speed
a. Angular position versus time curve when the step-
per motor operates in the start-stop mode and the
Figure 19.8
slewing mode. Stepping rate is the same in both
Start-stop and slewing characteristic of a typical step-
cases.
per motor. Each step corresponds to an advance of 1.8
b. Instantaneous speed versus time curve when the
degrees.
stepper motor operates in the start-stop and the
curve 1: start-stop curve with only stepper motor inertia
slewing mode.
curve 2: same conditions as curve 1, but with an addi-
tional load inertia of 2 kg·cm 2
curve 3: slewing curve
ping rate, the motor can cmTy a greater load torque
when it is slewing. Curve 3 in 19.8 shows the re-
The start-stop stepping mode is sometimes re- lationship between the load torque and the steps per
ferred to as the start-without-error mode. A start- second when the motor is slewing. For example. the
without-error characteristic is shown by curve I in motor can develop a torque of 2.2 N·m when it slews
19.8. It shows that if the stepper motor runs at 500 steps per second. However, if the load torque
alone. under a load torque of. say. 1.4 N·m, the max- should exceed 2.2 N·m when the pulse rate is 500
imum possible stepping rate. without losing count. sps, the motor will fall out of step and the position
is 500 steps per second. (steps) of the rotor will no longer correspond to the
But if the motor drives a device having some in- net number of pulses provided to its windings.
ertia, the permissible start-stop rate drops to about Fig. 19. 9 shows the difference between the start-
400 steps per second for the same load torque stop mode and slewing. Suppose the motor is turning
(curve 2). at an average speed of 250 steps per second in both
cases. The motor will therefore cover the same num-
ber of steps per second, namely I step every 4 ms.
19.6 Slew speed However, the angle (position) increases sm(X)thly
A stepper motor can be made to run at uniform speed with time when the motor is slewing, and this is show~
without starting and stopping at every step. When the by the uniform slope of line OA (Fig. I9.9a). The cor-
motor runs this way it is said to be slewing. Because responding slew speed is constant (Fig. 19.9b).
the motor runs essentially at uniform speed, the iner- On the other hand, in the start-stop mode, the an-
tia effect is absent. Consequently. for a given step- gle increases stepwise. Consequently. the speed
411 f:LECTRICAL Ml1CHINES 1\ND TRANSFORMERS

continually oscillates hetween a maximum and zero the pole-faces are also slotted so as to create a num-
and its ai·cmge value is equal to the slew speed ber of teeth. These teeth are the real salient poles on
(Fig. 19.9b). the stator. The typical construction of a toothed
8-pole stator is shmvn in the circular insert of Fig.
19.7 Ramping 19.13. For a given drive system, it is the number of
teeth (salient poles) on the rotor and stator that de-
When a stepper motor is carrying a load, it cannot termines the angular motion per step. Steps of 18°.
suddenly go from zero to a stepping rate of, say, 5000 15°, 7.5°. 5". and 1.8° are common.
sps. In the same way, a motor that is slewing at 5000 Permanent magnet stepper motors are similar
sps cannot he brought to a dead stop in one step. Thus, to variable reluctance motors, except that the rotor
to bring a motor up lo speed, it must be accelerated has permanent N and S poles. Fig. 19.10 shows a
gradually. Similarly. to stop a motor that is running at permanent magnet motor having 4 stator poles and
high speed, il must be decelerated gradually-always 6 rotor poles, the latter being permanent magnets.
subject to the condition that the instantaneous posi- Due to the permanent magnets. the rotor remains
tion of the rotor must correspond to the number of lined up with the last pair of stator poles that were
pulses. The process whereby a motor is accelerated excited by the driver. In effect, the motor develops
and decelerated is called ramping. During the accel- a detent torque which keeps the rotor in place even
eration phase. ramping consists of a progressive in- when no current flows in the stator windings.
crease in the number of driving pulses per second. Coils A I, A2 are connected in series, as are coils
The ramping phase is usually completed in a frac- BI, B2. Starting from the position shown, if coils B
tion of a second. The ramp is generated by the power are excited, the rotor will move through an angle of
supply that drives the stepper motor. Furthermore. it 30°. However, the direction of rotation depends
is programmed to retain precise position control over upon the direction of current flow. Thus. if the cur-
the motor and its load.

19.8 Types of stepper motors

There are 3 main types of stepper motors:
• variable reluctance stepper motors
• permanent magnet stepper motors
• hybrid stepper motors
VariaMc reluctance stepper motors are based
upon the principle illustrated in 19. l. However.
to obtain small angular steps, of the order of 1.8"
(instead of the 60" jumps shown in the figure), the
structure of the stator and rotor has to be modified
to create many more poles. This is done by using a
circular rotor and milling out slots around its pe-
riphery. The teeth created thereby constitute the
salient poles of the rotor. of which there may be as
niany as I 00. Figure 19.10
As to the staror. it often has four, five, or eight Permanent magnet stepper motor that advances'30°
main poles, instead of the three shown. However, per step.
 sn:PPER MOTORS 423

rent in coils B produces N and S poles as shown in

Fig. 19. l 0. the rotor will turn ccw. Stepper motors
that have to develop considerable power are usually
equipped with permanent magnets.
f!vbrid stepper motors have two identical soft-
iron armatures mounted on the same shaft. The ar-
matures are indexed so that the salient poles inter-
lap. Fig. 19.11 a shO\vs two 5-pole armatures that are
driven by a 4-pole stator. This arrangement makes
the motor look like a variable reluctance motor.
However. a permanent magnet PM is sandwiched
between the armatures (Fig. 19.11 b ). It produces a
unidirectional axial magnetic field. with the result
that all the poles on armature I are N poles. while
those on armature 1. are S poles.
Stator coils A I. A::?. are connected in series. and
(a)
so are stator coils BI, 82. The motor develops a
Figure 19.11a small detent torque because of the permanent mag-
Hybrid motor having a 4-pole stator and two 5-pole ar- net and the rotor will remain in the position shown
matures mounted on the same shaft. The salient in 19.11 a. If we now excite coils B. the rotor
poles on the first armature are all N poles, while those will rotate by 18°. thereby lining up with stator
on the second armature are all S poles. Each step poles B. The direction of rotation will again depend
produces an advance of 18°.
upon the direction of current flow in coils B.
19.12 shows an exploded view of a hybrid
stator
stepping motor. 19. l 3 shows the special con-
struction of a stator in which permanent magnets
are embedded in the stator slots. in addition to the
permanent magnet on the rotor.
shaft
s I 9. l 4a shows another type of hybrid motor
and Fig. I 9.14b is a cross-section view of its con-
struction. Figs. 19.14c and 19.14d respectively
show the specifications and torque-speed character-
armature 1 --.
istics of this motor. Note that the pull-out charac-
teristic corresponds to the slewing curve while the
pull-in characteristic corresponds to the start-with-
out-error curve.
It should be noted that the number of poles on
the stator of a stepper motor is never equal to the
(b)
number of poles on the rotor. This feature is totally
different from that in any other type of motor we
Figure 19.11b
Side view of the rotor, showing the permanent magnet have studied so far. Indeed. it is the difference in the
PM sandwiched between the two armatures. The number of poles that enables the motors to step as
4-pole stator is common to both armatures. they do.
-1-~..J. ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS

Figure 19.12
Exploded view of a standard hybrid stepping motor. The rotor is composed of two soft-iron armatures having 50
salient poles each. A short permanent magnet is sandwiched between the armatures. The stator has 8 poles, each
of which has 5 salient poles in the pole face. Outside diameter of motor: 2.2 in; axial length: 1.5 in; weight: 0.8 lb.
(Courtesy of Pacific Scientific, Motor and Control Division. Rockford. IL)

19.9 Motor windings are represented by the contacts QI to Q8. In practice,

and associated drives transistors are used as switches because they can turn
the current on and off at precise instants of time.
Stepper motors use either a bipolar or a unipolar The coils can be excited sequentially in three dif-
winding on the stator. ferent ways: (I) wave drive, (2) normal drive, and
Bipolar Winding. In a 4-pole stator, the bipolar wind- (3) half-step drive.
ing consists of the two coil sets A I. A2 and BI, B2 In the wave dril'e only one set of coils is excited at
such as shown in Fig. 19.11. They are represented a time. The switching sequence for cw rotation is
schematically in Fig. 19.15. The current(, in coil set A given in Table l 9A and the resulting current pulses(,.
reverses periodically. and the same is true for current / 0 are shown in Fig. 19.16. Note that the flux pro-

/"in coil set B. The coils are excited by a common de duced by (, and / 0 rotates by 90° per step. ·
source. and because the cuJTent pulses la. !" must al- In the 11ormal drii·e. both sets of coils are excited at
ternate, a switching means is required. The switches a time. The switching sequence for cw rotation is given
 STEPPER MOTORS 425

(
POI I I Acr
ANll
I UU I H PHU" LL
llc IAIL

Figure 19.14a
External view of a hybrid stepper motor. It is equipped
with bipolar windings rated to operate at 5 V. External
diameter of motor: 1.65 in; axial length: 0.86 in;
weight: 5.1 oz.
DETAIL
STACK POLE FACE (Courtesy of AIRPAX© Corporate)
WITH
MAGNI IS IN Pl ACI

Figure 19.13
Stator lamination details and construction of an en-
STATOR CUP A
hanced motor stator lamination stack assembly. Rare
earth permanent magnets are fitted into the stator slots in
addition to the permanent magnet of the hybrid rotor. COIL A
(Courtesy of Pacific Scientific, Motor and Control Division)

in Table I 9B, and the resulting current pulses/". /hare COIL B

shown in Fig. 19.17. Note that the flux is oriented mid-
way between the poles at each step. However. it still
rotates by 90° per step. The normal drive develops a STATOR CUP B

slightly greater torque than the wave drive.

The half step drive is obtained by combining the
wave drive and the normal drive. The switching se- Figure 19.14b
Cross-section view of the hybrid stepper motor shown
quence for cw rotation is given in Table I 9C, and
in Fig. 19.14a.
the resulting current pulses (,, /h are shown in Fig. (Courtesy of AIRPAX© Corporate)
19.18. The flux now rotates only 45° per step. The
main advantage of the half-step drive is that it im- set I A, 2A. Consequently. when they are operated in
proves the resolution of position and it tends to re- sequence. an alternating flux is produced. The ad-
duce the problem of resonance. vantage of the unipolar winding is that the numhcr of
Unipolar Winding. The unipolar winding consists switching transistors drops from 8 to 4. and the tran-
of two coils per pole instead of only one (Fig. sient response is slightly faster. Fig. 19.1911 shows
I 9.19a). Unipolar means that the current in a wind- the schematic diagram of the windings and the
ing always flows in the same direction. The coil set switching sequence for a wave drive. The llux rotates
A I. A2 produces flux in the opposite direction to coil in exactly the same way as shown in Fig. 19.16.
 Specifications

Ordering Part No. (Add Suffix)

L82401 L82402
Unipolar Bipolar
Suffix Designation -P1 P2 -P1 -P2
DC Operating Voltage 5 12 5 12
Res. per Winding n 9.1 52.4 9.1 52.4
Ind. per Winding mH 7.5 46.8 14.3 77.9
Holding Torque mN m/oz-in • 73.4110.4 87.5112.4
Rotor Moment of Inertia g • m• 12.5 x 10-·
DetentTorque mNm/oz-in 9.211.3
Step Angle 7.5°
Step Angle Tolerance• .5''
Steps per Rev. 48
Max Operating Temp 100°C
AmblentTemp Range
Operating - 20°C to 70°C
Storage 40°Cto85°C
Bearlngl'(pe -
Insulation Res. at SOOVdc max
Dielectric Withstanding Voltage 650 ~ 50 VRMS 60 Hz for 1 to 2 seconds
Welghtg/oz 14415.1
Lead Wires 26AWG
'Measured with 2 phases energized

Figure 19.14c
Specifications of the hybrid stepper motor shown in Fig. 19.14a. The motor can be built for either unipolar or bipolar
operation at a rated driving voltage of either 5 V or 12 V.
(Courtesy of AIRPAX © Corporate)

UNIPOLAR BIPOLAR

TORQUE vs SPEED

0 ~-~-·~-~-~--~-.-~ 0
O !)0 !00 1~0 2~C 300 3$0 400 100 150 200 ~00 3~0
SPEED SPEED IPPSI

NOTE: The above curves are typical.

Figure 19.14d
Typical torque-speed characteristics of the hybrid stepper motor shown in Fig. 19.14a. The pull-out curve corre-
sponds to the slewing characteristics; the pull-in curve corresponds to the start-without-error characteristic.
(Courtesy of AIRPAX© Corporate)

426
 STEPPER MOTORS 417

19.1 O High-speed operation ductance of the windings. If a winding has an in-

ductance of L henrys and a resistance of R ohms, its
So far, we have assumed that the current pulse in a time constant T,, is equal to LIR seconds.
winding rises immediately to its rated value I at the Let the coil be connected to a de source of E volts
beginning of the pulse and drops immediately to by means of a transistor (Fig. I 9.20b). A diode (D) is
zero at the end of the pulse interval Tr (Fig. I 9.20a). connected across the windings to prevent the high in-
In practice. this does not happen because of the in- duced voltage from destroying the switching transis-
tor at the moment it interrupts the current flow. The
:::r:

J -=-
L
resulting current has the shape given in Fig. 19.20d.
E
I How can we explain this pulse shape? When the
-104 A1 A2
021- transistor is switched on, the transient current i 1
only reaches its rated value I EIR after about 3
time constants, namely 3 1:, seconds. Then, when
the transistor turns the line current off, the transient
current i 2 continues to flow in the coil for about 3 T.,
:r: E
J L
seconds 19.20c). If this current pulse is com-
-==- pared with the ideal current pulse shown in
I
-108 81 82
061- I 9.20a, we observe two important facts:

I. Because the current does not immediately rise to

_,,, its final value when the transistor is turned on,
the initial torque developed by the stepping mo-
Figure 19.15 tor is smaller than normal. As a result, the rotor
Schematic diagram showing how the stator coils A 1, does not move as quickly as we would expect.
A2 and 81, 82 are connected to the common de
source by means of switches 01 to 08. The de source 2. When the transistor is turned off, current i 2
is shown twice to simplify the connection diagram. continues to circulate in the coil/diode loop. As

TABLE 19A WAVE SWITCHING SEQUENCE FOR

CW ROTATION

Step 1 3 4

QI Q2 on on I,, ~
QJ Q4 on ~
Q5 Q6 on
Q7 Q8 on step I 2 3 4

L!!J LJ w LJ
c ~ «{-
E ~
• ---· ~
I

151' n rNl n
step 1 step 2 step 3 step 4

Figure 19.16
Current pulses in a wave drive and the resulting flux positions at each step. See Table 19A for switching sequence.
428 ELfXTR!CAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS

~ w w GU
~ / E 3 ~ E 3 / E 3 ~ E
151 jNl fNl
step 3
fSl
step 4
step 1 step 2

Figure 19.17
Current pulses in a normal drive and resulting flux positions at each step. See Table 198 for switching sequence.

TABLE 198 NORMAL SWITCHING SEQUENCE FOR 1..

CW ROTATION

Step 2 3 4

QI Q2 on on on
I,,
Q3 Q4 on 011
QS Q6 on on on
Q7 Q8 on on

step 2 3 4
a result the effective duration of the pulse is
TP + 3 T., instead of Tw The pulse being thus 19.21. The external resistor has a value 4 times that
prolonged by the component 3 T,, means that
of the coil resistance R. and the de voltage is raised
we cannot switch from one coil to the next as
from E to 5 E volts. As a result the time constant
quickly as we would have thought.
drops by a factor of 5 (L/R to LIS R). This means
The sho1test possible pulse that still permits the that the maximum stepping rate can be increased by
current to rise to its rated value I has a length of the same factor. Thus, stepping rates of the order of
6 T0 seconds (Fig. I 9.20e). It consists of 3 T,, (cur- 1000 per second become feasible.
rent rises to its rated value) plus another 3 T0 (cur-
rent drops from I to zero). It so happens that the The only drawbacks to this solution are the following:
windings of stepper motors have time constants T0 I. The power supply is more expensive because it
ranging from about I ms to 8 ms. Thus, the duration has to deliver 5 times as much power (the volt-
of one step can be no shorter than about 6 X I ms age is 5 E instead of E).
= 6 ms. This corresponds to a maximum stepping
2. A lot of power is wasted in the external resistor,
rate of about I 000/6 166 steps per second. Such
which means that the efficiency of the system
stepping rates are considered to be slow, and vari-
is very low. Low efficiency is not too important
ous means are used to speed them up.
in small stepping motors that develop only a
few watts of mechanical power. But fast-acting
19.11 Modifying the time constant stepper motors in the I00 W range must be
One way to quicken the stepping rate is to reduce driven by other means.
the time constant T0 • This can be done by adding an
external resistance to the motor windings and rai:-.-
19.12 Bilevel drive
ing the de voltage so that the same rated current I Bilevel drives enable us to obtain fast rise and fall
will flow. Such an arrangement is shown in Fig. times of current without using external resistors. The
 STEPPER MOTORS 429

TABLE 19C HALF-STEP SWITCHING SEQUENCE FOR CW ROTATION

'Step 1 4 5 6 7 8

QI Q2 on on on on
Q1 Q4 on on on
Q5 Q6 on on on
Q7 Q8 on on on

1. ~
~
step I 2 3 4 5 6
I 7
I 8

step 1 step 2 step 3 step 4

w w LJ ~
~
i

C ~
/f
~ ~ -·-·- ~ "' "' ~
INl INl n 151
step 5 step 6 step 7 step 8

Figure 19.18
Current pulses in a half-step drive and resulting flux positions at each step. See Table 19C for switching sequence.

principle of a bilevel drive can be understood by re- explain how the circuit behaves. Thus, the winding is
ferring to Fig. l 9.22a. Switches QI and Q2 represent assumed to have a resistance of 0.3 n. an inductance
transistors that open and close the circuit in the man- of 2.4 mH and a rated current of I0 A. The power sup-
ner explained below. Numerical values will be used to ply is 60 V with a tap at 3 V. Thus, if the voltage were
430 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS

---iii-------.
la1
01 A1 A2

02 1A
la2 2A

(a) (b)

'·· -~
..........-----~
............ - TABLE 190 WAVE SWITCHING SEQUENCE FOR
'•2 ----~
................_ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ CW ROTATION

Step 2 3 4
/bl ~
_ _ _ _ _ _................._ _ _ _ _ __
QI on on
Q2 on
hi---------~------ Q3
Q4
on
on
step 2 3 I 4 I

(C)

Figure 19.19
a. Coil arrangement in a 4-pole unipolar winding.
b. Schematic diagram of coils, switches, and power supply in a unipolar drive.
c. Current pulses in a wave drive using a unipolar winding. The flux rotates in the same way as in a bipolar wind-
ing. See Table 190 for switching sequence.

applied permanently. the resulting cu1Tent in the of current corresponds to a straight line OP that
winding would be 60 V /0.3 !1 200 A. This is much reaches 200 A in 8 ms. Thus. the current in the coil
greater than the rated current of I 0 A. rises at a rate of 200 A/8 ms = 25 000 A/s. The time
Switch QI is initially closed. The current pulse to reach I 0 A is, therefore, I 0/25 000 = 0.4 ms
is initiated by closing Q2. Current then starts flow- (Fig. 19 .22c ).
ing as shown in Fig. l 9.22b. As soon as the current reaches this rated value.
The time constant of this electronic circuit is switch QI opens, which forces the current to follow
T0 = 2.4 mH/0.3 H 8 ms. The initial rate of rise the new path shown in Fig. l 9.22d. The current is
 I I
{ {

-time

Figure 19.20a
Figure 19.20d
Ideal current pulse in a winding.
Real current pulse.

D
Figure 19.20e
Shortest possible current pulse that still attains the
rated current /.

external
resistor
Figure 19.20b
Typical circuit of a switching transistor and coil con-
nected to a de source. The diode protects the transis- D
tor against overvoltage.
5E

+ - i = 0
n---------
R
{a)
D

E L
I
(
(b)

0
l
Figure 19.21
Figure 19.20c a. Circuit to increase the rate of growth and decay of
Transient current in coil and diode when transistor is current in the coil.
switched off. b. Resulting current pulse. Compare with Fig. 19.20d.

431
 -U2 ELECTRfCAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS

60 v
57 v
01 p

3V 02 01
200 A
60 v
0.3 n
0.3 n

2.4 mH
;l 2.4 mH

10 A
3V 02

ov T 0 4 8 12 16

(a) (b) (c)

57 v
01
02
02

(d)
10 A! (e)

3V

Figure 19.22
a. Circuit of a bilevel drive when current in coil is zero.
b. Equivalent circuit when current in coil is increasing.
c. Rate of increase of current and time to reach 10 A
d. Equivalent circuit when current in coil is constant.
e. Equivalent circuit when current in coil is decreasing.

now fed by the 3 V source and remains fixed at drive a current through the coil that is opposite to i.
3V/O.Jf! IOA. Consequently, i will decrease. The time constant of the
The current will stay at this value until we want to circuit is again 8 ms, and so the current will decrease
end the pulse. say after 5 ms. To terminate the pulse we at a rate of 57/60 X 25 000 = 23 750 A/s. It win there-
open Q2, which forces the cuffent to follow the path fore become zero after a time interval of 10/23 750 =
shown in Fig. 19.22e. The 57 V source now tries to 0.42 ms. The moment the current reaches zero. QI
 STEPPER MOTORS 433

closes. This forces the current to remain zero until the c10A
next. pulse is initiated. The resulting pulse shape is
shown in Fig. l 9.22t together with the Q l. Q2 switch-
ing sequence that produces it.
In addition to bilevel drives, chopper drives are 0 t1
also used. Their principle of operation is similar to 0.4 ms -J
the bilevel method, except that the current is kept
constant during the flat portion of the pulse by re-
IoI x x
01 0
peated on-off switching of the high voltage (60 V)
02 x 0 0 0

rather than by using a low fixed de voltage (3 V).

Choppers are described in Chapter 21. Figure 19.22f
Pulse waveshape using a bilevel drive. Note the
Electronic drives for stepper motors have be-
switching sequence of 01 and 02 that creates it
come very sophisticated. Some of these circuit- (x = closed, o = open).
board drives are shown in 19.23 and 19.24, to-
gether with the motors they control.

Figure 19.23
Typical electronic drives and the stepper motors they control.
(Courtesy of Pacific Scientific, Motor and Control Division)
434 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS

19.13 Instability and resonance 19-5 Explain what is meant by normal drive,
wave drive, and half-step drive.
When a stepper motor is operating at certain slew-
Intermediate Level
ing speeds, it may become unstable. The rotor may
turn erratically or simply chatter without rotating 19-6 The 2-pole rotor in Fig. 19.1 is replaced
any more. This instability, often called resonance, by a 4-pole rotor. Calculate the new angu-
is due to the natural vibration of the stepper motor, lar motion per pulse.
which manifests itself at one or more range of 19-7 Why is viscous damping employed in
speeds. For example, the range of instability may stepper motors?
lie between 2000 sps and 8000 sps. Nevertheless, it
19-8 When a stepper motor is ramping or
is possible to ramp through this range without los-
slewing properly, every pulse corre-
ing step and thereby attain stable slewing speeds
sponds to a precise angle of rotation.
between 8000 and 15 000 sps.
True or false?

19.14 Stepper motors 19-9 The stepper motor in Fig. 19. l 0 is driven
by a series of pulses having a duration of
and linear drives 20 ms. How long will it take for the rotor
Most stepper motors are coupled to a lead screw of to make one complete revolution?
some kind which permits the rotary motion to be 19-10 A stepper motor rotates 1.8° per step. It
converted to a linear displacement. Suppose, for ex- drives a lead screw having a pitch of 20
ample, that a stepper motor having 200 steps per threads per inch. The lead screw, in turn,
revolution is coupled to a lead screw having a pitch produces a linear motion of a cutting tool.
of 5 threads per inch. The motor has to make 200 X If the motor is pulsed 7 times, by how
5 = l 000 steps to produce a linear motion of I inch. much does the cutting tool move?
Consequently, each step produces a displacement of
19-11 A stepper motor advances 7.5° per pulse.
0.001 in. By counting the pulses precisely, we can
If its torque-speed characteristic is given
position a machine tool, X-Y arm, and so on, to a
by Fig. 19.8, calculate the power [watts] it
precision of one-thousandth of an inch over the full
develops when it is slewing
length of the desired movement.
a. At 500 steps per second
This great precision without feedback is the rea-
b. At 200 steps per second
son why stepper motors are so useful in control
systems. 19-12 A stepper motor similar to that shown in
Fig. 19.14 has a unipolar winding. It oper-
Questions and Problems ates in the start-stop mode at a pulse rate
of 150 per second, (see Fig. l 9.14d).
Practical Level a. What is the maximum torque it can develop?
19-1 What is the main use of stepper motors? b. How much mechanical power (millihorse-
power) does it develop?
19-2 What is the difference between a reluctance
c. How much mechanical energy [J] does it
and a permanent magnet stepper motor?
produce in 3 seconds?
19-3 Describe the construction of a hybrid step- 19-13 For a given load torque, the stepping rate
per motor. can be increased by increasing the rate of
19-4 A stepper motor advances 2.5° per step. rise and rate of fall of the current in the
How many pulses are needed to complete windings. Name two ways this can be ac-
8 revolutions? complished.
 STEPPER MOTORS 435

19-14 Referring to Fig. I 9.14d, what is the The motor is chopper-driven at 65 V and
maximum slew speed of the unipolar it develops a torque of 2.2 N·m at I 0 000
motor, expressed in revolutions per sps. Calculate the following:
minute? a. The speed [r/min] and power [hp I of the
motor when it is running at I0 000 sps
Advanced Level b. The time constant of the windings [ms]
19-15 a. Referring to the stepper motor properties c. The time to reach 13 A when 65 V is ap-
listed in Fig. I9. l 4c, calculate the time con- plied to the winding [µ,S]
stant of a bipolar winding rated at 12 V.
b. If the 12 V are applied to the winding, ap- Industrial application
proximately how long will it take for the
current to reach its final value? 19-19 The holding torque of a stepper motor is
c. What is the final value of the current in the the maximum static torque it can exert
winding? when it is excited. The detent torque is
the maximum torque that a nonexcited
19-16 The two armatures on a hybrid stepper
stepper motor can exert when it is
motor each have 50 salient poles (teeth).
equipped with a permanent magnet. A
Calculate the following:
a. The angle between two successive teeth on stepper motor is known to have a hold-
an armature ing torque of 74 oz·in and a detent
b. The angle between one tooth on one arma- torque of 11 oz·in. Express these values
ture and the next tooth on the other armature in SI units (N·m).
c. The angle of advance per pulse 19-20 The windings of a stepper motor possess a
19-17 Why can a stepper motor develop a larger resistance of 26 n and an inductance of
torque when it is slewing than when it is 33 mH. What value of resistance should
operating in the stop-start mode? be connected in series with each winding
19-18 A powerful permanent magnet stepper so that the time constant becomes 400 mi-
motor used for positioning a valve has the croseconds?
following specifications: 19-21 A unipolar stepper motor is designed to
operate between 0°C and I 00°C. The time
winding: bipolar
constant at 25°C is 1.32 ms. Calculate the
current: 13 A time constant at I 00°C.
winding resistance: 60 mil 19-22 It is proposed to use the 12 V stepper
winding inductance: 0. 77 mH motor L82402, whose characteristics are
shown in Fig. I 9.14c, to drive a metal
detenttorque: 0.16 N·m disc having a moment of inertia of 80 X
holding torque: 9.5 N·m I 0- 6 g·m 2 The desired speed is 250
torque at 50 sps: 8 N·m r/min. The disc rubs against a stationary
member, which exerts a constant friction
steps per revolution: 200 torque TF.
rotor inertia: 0.7 x 10-- 3 kg·m 2 a. How many pulses are required per second
to produce a speed of 250 r/min'?
Motor diameter: 4.2 in b. We want the motor to operate in the start-
stop mode using the pulse rate calculated in
Motor axial length: 7.0 in (a). How much pull-in torque does it de-
Motor weight: 9 kg velop under these conditions'?
436 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS

c. What torque is needed to accelerate the pulses per second. We wish to drive a ma-
metal disc from zero to 250 r/min? chine tool at a speed of 500 r/min. Can
d. What is the largest admissible friction this objective be achieved by coupling the
torque T1/? device directly to the motor? If not, can
19-23 A stepper motor advances 1.8° per im- you suggest a solution?
pulse, and its slew rate is limited to 1200

Figure 19.24
Rotor, stator, and electronic speed controller of a switched reluctance (SR) motor. The 8-pole rotor and 12-pole
stator are used to drive a horizontal washing machine. The SR motor has a nominal rating of 3/4 hp, a peak rating
of 1.5 hp, and can reach speeds of 13 000 r/min.
The stator has an outside diameter of 140 mm and a stacking of 50 mm. The electronic controller supplies pulsed
3-phase power to the stator. The entire unit is designed to operate from a 120 V, 60 Hz, single-phase source.
Switched reluctance motors operate on the same principle as stepper motors. (Courtesy of Emerson Electric)
 PART THREE
Electrical and Electronic Drives

437
 CHAPTER 20
Basics of Industrial Motor Control

20.0 Introduction systems that are very complex. The basic compo-
nents are the following:
ndustrial control, in its broadest sense, encom-
I passes all the methods used to control the perfor-
mance of an electrical system. When applied to ma-
l. Disconnecting switches
2. Manual circuit breakers
chinery, it involves the starting, acceleration,
3. Cam switches
reversal, deceleration, and stopping of a motor and
its load. In this chapter we will study the electrical 4. Pushbuttons
(but not electronic) control of 3-phase alternating- 5. Relays
current motors. Our study is limited to elementary 6. Magnetic contactors
circuits because industrial circuits are usually too
7. Thermal relays and fuses
intricate to explain briefly. However, the basic prin-
ciples covered here apply to any system of control, 8. Pilot lights
no matter how complex it may appear to be. 9. Limit switches and other special switches
I0. Resistors, reactors, transformers, and capacitors
20.1 Control devices
The ensuing list of Basic Components for Control
Every control circuit is composed of a number of Circuits illustrates these devices. and states their
basic components connected together to achieve the main purpose and application. Fuses are not in-
desired performance. The size of the components cluded here because they are protective devices
varies with the power of the motor, but the princi pie rather than control devices. They are discussed in
of operation remains the same. Using only a dozen Chapter 26. The symbols for these and other de-
basic components, it is possible to design control vices are given in Table 20A.

439
440 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC DRIVES

BASIC COMPONENTS FOR CONTROL CIRCUITS

Disconnecting switches
A disconnecting switch isolates the motor from the
power source. It consists of 3 knife-switches and 3 line
fuses enclosed in a metallic box. The knife-switches can
be opened and closed simultaneously by means of an
external handle. An interlocking mechanism prevents
the hinged cover from opening when the switch is
closed. Disconnecting switches (and their fuses) are se-
lected to carry the nominal full-load current of the mo-
tor, and to withstand short-circuit currents for brief in-
tervals.

Figure 20.1
Three-phase, fused disconnecting switch rated
600 V, 30 A.
(Courtesy of Square D)

Manual circuit breakers

A momwl cirrnit bre{{ker opens and closes a circuit, like
a toggle switch. lt trips (opens) automatically when the
current exceeds a predetermined limit. After tripping. it
can be reset manually. Manual circuit breakers are often
used instead of disconnecting switches because no fuses
have to be replaced.

Figure 20.2
Three-phase circuit breaker, 600 V, 100 A.
(Courtesy of Square D)

Cam switches
A cam s1vitch has a group of fixed contacts and an equal
number of moveable contacts. The contacts can be made
to open and close in a preset sequence by rotating a han-
dle or knob. Cam switches are used to control the mo-
tion and position of hoists. callenders. machine tools.
•
and so on.

Figure 20.3
Three-phase surface-mounted cam switch, 230 V,
2 kW.
(Courtesy of Klockner-Moeller)
 BASICS OF INDUSTRIAL MOTOR CONTROL 441

Puslibuttons
A pushbutton is a switch activated by finger pressure.
Two or more contacts open or close when the button is
depressed. Pushbuttons are usually spring loaded so as
to return to their normal position when pressure is re-
moved.

Figure 20.4
Mechanical-interlocked pushbuttons with NO (nor-
mally open) and NC (normally closed) contacts; rated
to interrupt an ac current of 6 A one million times.
(Courtesy of Siemens)

Control relays
A control relay is an electromagnetic switch that opens
and closes a set of contacts when the relay coil is ener-
gized. The relay coil produces a strong magnetic field
which attracts a movable armature bearing the contacts.
Control relays are mainly used in low-power circuits.
They include time-delay relays whose contacts open or
close after a definite time interval. Thus, a time-delay
closing relay actuates its contacts after the relay coil has
been energized. On the other hand, a time-delay open in!!,
relay actuates its contacts some time after the relay coil
has been de-energized.

Figure 20.5
Single-phase relays: 25 A, 115/230 V and 5 A, 115 V.
(Courtesy of Potter and Brumfield)

Thermal relays
A thermal relay (or overload is a temperature-
sensitive device whose contacts open or close when the
motor current exceeds a preset limit. The current flows
through a small. calibrated heating element which raises
the temperature of the relay. Thermal relays are inherent
time-delay devices because the temperature cannot fol-
low the instantaneous changes in current.

Figure 20.6
Three-phase thermal relay with variable current set-
ting, 6 A to 10 A.
(Courtesy of K/ockner-Moeller)
(conti1111ed)
BASIC COMPONENTS FOR CONTROL CIRCUITS

Magnetic contactors
A magnetic contactor is basically a control relay
designed to open and close a power circuit. It possesses a
relay coil and a magnetic plunger. which carries a set of
movable contacts. When the relay coil is energized, it at-
tracts the magnetic plunger, causing it to rise quickly
against the force of gravity. The movable contacts come
in contact with a set of fixed contacts, thereby closing
the power circuit. In addition to the power contacts, one
or more normally open or normally closed auxiliary con-
tacts are usually available, for control purposes. When
the relay coil is de-energized, the plunger falls, thereby
opening and closing the respective contacts. Magnetic
contactors are used to control motors ranging from 0.5
hp to several hundred horsepower. The size, dimensions,
and performance of contactors are standardized.
Figure 20.7
Three-phase magnetic contactor rated 50 hp, 575 V,
60 Hz. Width: 158 mm; height: 155 mm; depth: 107
mm; weight: 3.5 kg.
(Courtesy of Siemens)

Pilot lights
A pilot light indicates the on/off state of a remote com-
ponent in a control system.

Figure 20.8
Pilot light, 120 V, 3 W mounted in a start-stop push-
button station.
(Courtesy of Siemens)

Limit switches and special switches

A limit switch is a low-power snap-action device that
opens or closes a contact, depending upon the position
of a mechanical part. Other limit switches are sensitive
to pressure, temperature, liquid level, direction of rota-
tion, and so on.

Figure 20.9a
Limit switch with one NC contact; rated for ten million
operations; position accuracy: 0.5 mm.
(Courtesy of Square 0)

Figure 20.9b
Liquid level switch.
(Courtesy of Square 0)
(a) (b)
 BASICS OF INDUSTRIAL MOTOR CONTROL 443

Proximity detectors
Proximity detectors are sealed devices that can detect
objects without coming in direct contact with them.
Their service life is independent of the number of opera-
tions. They are wired to an external de source and gen-
erate an alternating magnetic field by mean<. of an inter-
nal oscillator. When a metal object comes within a few
millimeters of the detector, the magnetic field decreases,
which in turn causes a de control current to flow. This
current can be used to activate another control device.
such as a relay or a programmable logic controller.
Capacitive proximity detectors, based on a similar prin-
ciple but generating an ac electric field, are able to de-
tect nonmetallic objects, including liquids.
Figure 20.10
Proximity detector to monitor the loading of a conveyor belt.
(Courtesy of Telemecanique, Groupe Schneider)

In order to understand the sections that follow. the relay coil at the moment it is excited. This
the legends in Table 20A should be read before places a heavier than expected duty on auxiliary
proceeding further. contacts that energize the coil.

20.2 Normally open and normally Example 20-1

closed contacts A 3-phase NEMA size 5 magnetic contactor rated at
270 A, 460 V possesses a 120 V, 60 Hz relay coil.
Control circuit diagrams always show components
The coil absorbs an apparent power of 2970 VA and
in a state of rest, that is, when they are not energized
212 VA. respectively, in the open and closed con-
(electrically) or activated (mechanically). In this
tactor position. Calculate the following:
state, some electrical contacts are open while others
are closed. They are respectively called normally a. The inrush exciting current
open contacts (NO) and normally closed contacts b. The normal, sealed exciting current
(NC) and are designated by the following symbols: c. The control power needed to actuate the relay coil
-1 ~ compared to the power handled by the contactor
normally open contact (NO)
normally closed contact (NC) * Solution
a. The inrush current in the relay coil is
20.3 Relay coil exciting current I S/E = 2970/120 = 24.75 A
When a magnetic contactor is in its de-energized or b. The normal relay coil current when the contac-
open position, the magnetic circuit has a very long tor is sealed (closed) is
air gap, compared to when the contactor is closed.
Consequently, in the case of an ac contactor the in- I= SIE 212/120 = 1.77 A
ductive reactance of the relay coil is much lower c. The steady-state apparent control power needed
when the contactor is open than when it is closed. to actuate the relay coil is 212 VA. The appar-
Because the coil is excited by a fixed ac voltage, ent power that the contactor can handle is
the magnetizing current is much higher in the open
than in the closed contactor position. In other S =El 460 x 270V3
words, a considerable inrush current is drawn by 215 120 VA
444 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC DRIVES

TABLE 20A GRAPHIC SYMBOLS FOR ELECTRICAL DIAGRAMS

1 0

~ ~
=@)::
~
32
2
+ 15 or or

33
~

=@
"'\.A..A..A.T

=©
3
~ ~ or
16 ~ or ~or ~ 34 -t>I- or
8
4 -1-H-

5 ~ >--
17 0 or 'V or jJ 35
8
APPLICATION
6 ~>-- 18 -GJ- or ~
-<f-'i'---"v--+>-
36 -(f-~---"v--+>-
1
7
i i 19 f"VYY"\
-<f-A~>-

~ ~
8 _./ _ 20 _.z.H- 37 ]
9
1
T
or 1- or
\ 21

22
][
~ A:4 Cl
38 0v
10 or
r or
t 23 3t • identified by an appropriate letter

*
_L 24 --j1--
11

12
0 0

,-..,
or
ili
-0-
25 --j1-- or
26
27
..rv-YV\..

~ ____ry"\__
39

-<
13 o-0
0 28 0 © 40

14
0 o-"10
I
~
29 ® --<
0 ~o
30 ® ® 41 D
1. terminal; connection 2. conductors crossing 3. conductors connected 4. three conductors 5. plug; recep-
tacle 6. separable connector 7. ground connection; arrester 8. disconnecting switch 9. normally open con-
tact (NO) 10. normally closed contact (NC) 11. pushbutton NO; NC 12. circuit-breaker 13. single-pole switch;
three-way switch 14. double pole double throw switch 15. fuse 16. thermal overload element 17. relay coil
18. resistor 19. winding, inductor or reactor 20. capacitor; electrolytic capacitor 21. transformer 22. current
transformer; bushing type 23. potential transformer 24. de source (general) 25. cell 26. shunt winding
27. series winding; commutating pole or compensating winding 28. motor; generator (general symbols) 29. de
motor; de generator (general symbols) 30. ac motor; ac generator (general symbols) 32. 3-phase squirrel-cage
induction motor; 3-phase wound-rotor motor 33. synchronous motor; 3-phase alternator 34. diode 35. thyristor
or SCA 36. 3-pole circuit breaker with magnetic overload device, drawout type 37. de shunt motor with commu-
tating winding; permanent magnet de generator 38. magnetic relay with one NO and one NC contact. 39. NPN
transistor 40. PNP transistor 41. pilot light
For a complete list of graphic symbols and references see "IEEE Standard and American National Standard Graphic'
Symbols for Electrical and Electronics Diagrams" (ANSI Y32.2/IEEE No. 315) published by the Institute of Electrical and
Electronics Engineers, Inc., New York, NY 10017. Essentially the same symbols are used in Canada and several other
countries.
 BASICS OF INDUSTRIAL MOTOR CONTROL 445

Thus, the small control power (212 VA) can A block diagram is composed of a set of rectan-
control a load whose power is 215 120/212 = gles, each representing a control device, together
1015 times greater. with a brief description of its function. The rectan-
gles are connected by arrows that indicate the di-
20.4 Control diagrams rection of power or signal flow (Fig. 20. l l ).
A one-line diagram is similar to a block diagram,
A control system can be represented by four types except that the components are shown by their sym-
of circuit diagrams. They are listed as follows, in or- bols rather than by rectangles. The symbols give us
der of increasing detail and completeness: an idea of the nature of the components; conse-
• block diagram quently, one-line diagrams yield more information.
A list of typical symbols is displayed in Table 20A.
• one-line diagram*
The lines connecting the various components repre-
• wiring diagram sent two or more conductors 20.12).
• schematic diagram A wiring diagram shows the connections be-
tween the components, taking into account the
Also called single-line diagram. physical location of the terminals and even the color

pilot light
(motor running)

fused thermal
600V
disconnecting overload motor
3-phases switch relay

pushbutton
station
start-stop

Figure 20.11
Block diagram of a combination starter.

T
thermal
600 V overload
3-phase A elay
()-----<:~~~ ~ M
disconnecting fuse · NO t
switch con1ac
start
pushbutton (A) relay coil
PB2 'f
A
o

auxiliary
. '
,--u.L0-___.__=:J pilot light
stop
pushbutton

contact

Figure 20.12
One-line diagram of a combination starter.
446 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC DRIVES

2 3 L1 L2

disconnecting

AG
starter motor
switch

81 82 83 T1
2 T2 Bo 0
T3 c 0

60 start-stop
7 pushbutton
station
80

Figure 20.13
Wiring diagram of a combination starter.

A T T1 A

s A
600 v 2 T2
3-phase 0----0
A
T3

start
stop
2

Ax
9 T

Figure 20.14
Schematic diagram of a combination starter.

of wire. These diagrams are employed when in- circuit. The symbols used to designate the various
stalling equipment or when troubleshooting a cir- components are given in Table 20B.
cuit (Fig. 20.13).
A schematic diagram shows all the electrical
connections between components, without regard
20.5 Starting methods
to their physical location or terminal arrangement. Three-phase squirrel-cage motors are started either
This type of diagram is indispensable when trou- by connecting them directly across the line or by
bleshooting a circuit or analyzing its mode of oper- applying reduced voltage to the stator. The starting
ation 20.14 ). ln the sections that follow, this is method depends upon the power capacity of the
the kind of diagram we will be using. supply line and the type of load.
The reader should note that the four diagrams in Across-the-line starting is simple and inexpen-
Figs. 20.11 to 20.14 all relate to the same control sive. The main disadvantage is the high starting cur-
 BASICS OF INDUSTRIAL MOTOR CONTROL 447

rent, which is 5 to 6 times the rated full-load current. load current; consequently, they do not protect the
It can produce a significant line voltage drop, which motor against sustained overloads. Their primary
may affect other customers connected to the same function is to protect the motor and supply line
line. Voltage-sensitive devices such as incandescent against catastrophic currents resulting from a short-
lamps. television sets, and high-precision machine circuit in the motor or starter or a failure to start up.
tools respond badly to such voltage dips. Under normal start-up conditions, the fuses do not
Mechanical shock is another problem that should have time to blow, even though the initial current is
not be overlooked. Equipment can be seriously dam- 6 to 7 times full-load current. The fuse rating. in
aged if full-voltage starting produces a hammerblow amperes, must comply with the requirements of the
torque. Conveyor belts are another example where National Electric Code.
sudden starting may not be acceptable. In some cases the disconnecting switch and its
In large industrial installations we can some- fuses are replaced by a manual circuit breaker.
times tolerate across-the-line starting even for mo-
tors rated up to l 0 000 hp. Obviously, the fuses and 20.6 Manual across-the-line starters
circuit breakers must be designed to carry the start-
ing current during the acceleration period. Manual 3-phase starters are composed of a circuit
A motor control circuit contains two basic com- breaker and either two or three thermal relays, all
ponents: a disconnecting switch and a starter. The mounted in an appropriate enclosure. Such starters
disconnecting switch is always placed between the are used for small motors (I 0 hp or less) at voltages
supply line and the starter. The switch and starter ranging from 120 V to 600 V. The thermal relays
are sometimes mounted in the same enclosure to trip the circuit breaker whenever the current in one
make a combination starter. The fuses in the dis- of the phases exceeds the rated value for a signifi-
connecting switch are rated at about 3.5 times full- cant length of time.

Figure 20.15
Manual starters for single-phase motors rated 1 hp (0. 75 kW); left: surface mounted; center: flush mounted; right
waterproof enclosure.
(Courtesy of Siemens)
448 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC DRIVES

Single-phase manual starters (Fig. 20.15) are built 2. The thermal relay T protects the motor against
along the same principles but they contain only one sustained overloads.* The relay comprises
thermal relay. The thermal relays are selected for the three individual heating elements, respectively
particular motor that is connected to the starter. connected in series with the three phases. A

20.7 Magnetic across-the-line * The thermal relay is often designated by the letters OL
starters (overload).

Magnetic across-the-line starters are employed

whenever a motor has to be controlled from a remote
location. They are also used whenever the power rat-
ing exceeds 10 kW.
20.16 shows a typical magnetic starter and
its associated schematic diagram. The disconnect-
ing switch is external to the starter. The starter has
three main components: a magnetic contactor, a
thermal relay, and a control station. We now de-
scribe these components.
l. The magnetic contactor A possesses three heavy
contacts A and one small auxiliary contact Ax. As
can be seen, these contacts are normally open.
Contacts A must be big enough to carry the start-
ing current and the nominal full-load current
without overheating. Contact Ax is much smaller
because it only carries the current of relay coil A.
The relay coil is represented by the same sym- Figure 20.16a
bol (A) as the contacts it controls. Contacts A and Three-phase across-the-line magnetic starter, 30 hp,
600V, 60 Hz.
Ax remain closed as long as the coil is energized.
(Courtesy of Klockner-Moel/er)

T
disconnecting switch contactor thermal overload relay
1 r··-----------------------1 A r-----lT1 A
o-f-o 11-<:-,........_.:>---C~ 1-C---o-i""'
I
I
I
2 :
o---r-o
I
"i:J-~~--<:>--t

I
3 : I
o-+-o t-<>-1,-<;>o-t--o--u--o---<.,.....r

I
L--------------------------J

con!rol
station
0
T---Oreset pushbutton
0

Figure 20.16b
Schematic diagram of a 3-phase across-the-line magnetic starter.
 BASICS OF INDUSTRIAL MOTOR CONTROL 449

min
120

60
30

6
11> \

."''
.§ 2
1 mi n
40 s
\
20
10
5
2
1
1 1.11.5 2 4 6" 10
-multiple of the current setting

Figure 20.17 Figure 20.18

Typical curve of a thermal overload relay, showing trip- Three-phase across-the-line combination starter, 150
ping time versus line current. The tripping time is mea- hp, 575 V, 60 Hz. The protruding knob controls the dis-
sured from cold-start conditions. If the motor has been connecting switch; the pushbutton station is set in the
operating at full-load for one hour or more, the tripping transparent polycarbonate cover.
time is reduced about 30 percent. (Courtesy of Klockner-Moelfer)

small, normally closed contact T forms part of the start button. Coil A is immediately energized
the relay assembly. It opens when the thermal causing contacts A and Ax to close. The full line volt-
relay gets too hot and stays open until the relay age appears across the motor and the pilot light is on.
is manually reset. When the pushbutton is released it returns to its nor-
The current rating of the thermal relay is mal position, but the relay coil remains excited be-
chosen to protect the motor against sustained cause auxiliary contact Ax is now closed. Contact Ax
overloads. Contact T opens after a period of is said to be a se(fsealing contact.
time that depends upon the magnitude of the To stop the motor, we simply push the stop but-
overload current. Thus, Fig. 20.17 shows the ton, which opens the circuit to the coil. In case of a
tripping time as a multiple of the rated relay sustained overload, the opening of contact T pro-
current. At rated current (multiple I), the relay duces the same effect.
never trips, but at twice rated current, it trips af- It sometimes happens that a thermal relay will
ter an interval of 40 s. The thermal relay is trip for no apparent reason. This condition can occur
equipped with a reset button enabling us to re- when the ambient temperature around the starter is
close contact T following an overload. It is too high. We can remedy the situation by changing
preferable to wait a few minutes before pushing the location of the starter or by replacing the relay by
the button to allow the relay to cool down. another one having a higher current rating. Care
must be taken before making such a change, because
3. The control station, composed of start-stop push-
if the ambient temperature around the motor is also
buttons, may be located either close to, or far
too high, the occasional tripping may actually serve
away from the starter. The pilot light is optional.
as a warning.
Referring to Fig. 20. l 6b, to start the motor we Fig. 20. l 8 shows a typical combination starter.
first close the disconnecting switch and then depress Fig. 20.19 shows another combination starter
450 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC DRIVES

Figure 20.19
Three-phase across-the-line combination starter rated
100 hp, 575 V, 60 Hz. The isolating circuit breaker is
controlled by an external handle. The magnetic con-
tactor is mounted in the bottom left-hand corner of the
waterproof enclosure. The small 600 V/120 V trans-
former in the lower right-hand corner supplies low-
voltage power for the control circuit.
(Courtesy of Square D) Figure 20.20
Three-phase 5 kV starter for a 2500 hp cage motor.
equipped with a small step-down transformer to ex- The medium- and low-voltage circuits are completely
isolated from each other to ensure safety. The com-
cite the control circuit. Such transformers are always
partment is 2286 mm high, 610 mm wide, and 813
used on high-voltage starters (above 600 V) because mm deep. The entire starter weighs 499 kg.
they permit the use of standard control components, (Courtesy of Square D, Groupe Schneider)
such as pushbuttons and pilot lights while reducing
the shock hazard to operating personnel. fuses. The contactor acts also as a disconnecting
Fig. 20.20 shows a medium-voltage across-the- switch and consequently the overall size is much
line starter for a 2500 hp, 4160 V, 3-phase, 60 Hz smaller than more conventional combination starters.
squirrel-cage motor. The metal compartment
houses three fuses and a 3-phase vacuum contactor.
The contactor can perform 250 000 operations at
20.8 Inching and jogging
full-load before maintenance is required. The 120 V In some mechanical systems, we have to adjust the
holding coil draws 21.7 A during pull-in, and the position of a motorized part very precisely. To ac-
current drops to 0.4 A during normal operation. complish this. we energize the motor in short spurts
Closing and opening times of the main contactor are so that it barely starts before it again comes to a halt.
respectively 65 ms and 130 ms. A double-contact pushbutton J is added to the usual
Fig. 20.21 shows a special combination starter that start/stop circuit, as shown in Fig. 20.22. This
can be reset remotely following a short-circuit. Its arrangement permits conventional start-stop con-
distinguishing feature is that it is programmable and trol as well as jogging. or inching. The following
requires no fuses. The sophisticated contactor is de- description shows how the control circuit operates.
signed to inte1mpt short-circuit currents in less than If the jog button J is in its normal position (not de-
3 ms, which is comparable to that offered by HRC pressed) relay coi I A is excited as soon as the start but-
 BASICS OF INDUSTRIAL MOTOR CONTROL 451

stop _Ltart

bb;-Ax1
80....--ili,1..L.1....Ju--.. J 2

T 3 4

Figure 20.22
Control circuit and pushbutton station for start-stop job
operation. Terminals 8, L3 correspond to terminals 8,
L3 in Fig. 20.13.

It is estimated that each impulse corresponds to 30

normal start-stop operations. Thus, a contactor that
can normally start and stop a motor 3 million times,
can only jog the motor 100 000 times, because the
contacts have to be replaced.* Fu11hermore, jog-
ging should not be repeated too quickly, because the
intense heat of the breaking arc may cause the main
contacts to weld together. Repeated jogging will
Figure 20.21 also overheat the motor. When is required,
Special self-protected starter rated at 40 hp, 460 V, 60 the contactor is usually selected to be one NEMA
Hz. In addition to a short-circuit capability of 42 kA at size larger than that for normal duty.
460 V, it features adjustable thermal and magnetic trip
settings. Overall dimensions: 243 mm high, 90 mm 20.9 Reversing the direction
wide, 179 mm deep.
(Courtesy of Te/emecanique, Groupe Schneider) of rotation
We can reverse the direction of rotation of a 3-phase
ton is depressed. S€aling contact Ax in the main con- motor by interchanging any two lines. This can be
tactor closes and so the motor will continue to tum af- done by using two magnetic contactors A and B and a
ter the start button is released. Thus, the control cir- ·manual 3-position cam switch as shown in Fig. 20.23.
cuit operates in the same way as in Fig. 20.16b. When contactor A is closed, lines LI, and L3 are
Suppose now that the motor is stopped and we connected to terminals A, B, C of the motor. But when
depress the jog button. This closes contacts 3, 4 and contactor B is closed. the same lines are connected to
relay coil A is excited. Contact Ax closes, but con- motor terminals C, B, A.
tacts I, 2 are now open and the closure of Ax has no In the forward direction, the cam switch engages
effect. The motor will pick up speed so long as the contact 1, which energizes relay coil A, causing
jog button is depressed. However, when it is re- contactor A to close.**
leased, coil A will become de-energized and contac-
tor A will drop out, causing Ax to open. Thus, when A magnetic coniact has an e~timated mechanical life of
contacts 1, 2 are again bridged, the motor will come about 20 million open/close cycles. but the electrical con-
to a halt. Thus, by momentarily depressing the jog tacts should be replaced after 3 million normal cycles.
button we can briefly apply power to the motor. The contacts and rehly coils may be designated by any ap-
propriate letters. Thus, the letters F and Rare often used to
Jogging imposes severe duty on the main power
designatef(1rward and reverse operating components. In
contacts A because they continually make and this book we have adopted the lelters A and B mainly for
break currents that are 6 times greater than normal. reasons of continuity from one circuit to the next.
452 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC DRIVES

L1
A T

2 A
disconnecting _._.L,_2_ _ _ _ _ _'""-......., i......-----'---r'--'
switch
3 A
L3

forward

emergency reverse
pushbutton
T

Figure 20.23a
Simplified schematic diagram of a reversible magnetic starter.

Figure 20.23b Figure 20.23c

Three-position cam switch in Fig. 20.23a. Emergency stop pushbutton in Fig. 20.23a.
{Courtesy of Siemens) (Courtesy of Square D)

To reverse the rotation, we move the cam switch because when the other contactor closes, a short-
to position 2. However, in doing so, we have to move circuit results across the line. The short-circuit
past the off position (0). Consequently, it is impossi- current could easily be 50 to 500 times greater than
ble to energize coils A and B simultaneously. normal, and both contactors could be severely dam-
Occasionally, however, a mechanical defect may aged. To eliminate this danger, the contactors are
prevent a contactor from dropping out, even after its mounted side by side and mechanically interlocked,
relay coil is de-energized. This is a serious situation, so as to make it physically impossible for both to be
 BASICS OF INDUSTRIAL MOTOR CONTROL 453

A
T1

A
L2 disconnecting 1-11--------1--<:>-1 ........-:---+--o-..r
switch
A
L3

B
stop

1 7 8 zero
: sp~ed
1 switch
l -J_ ,~-..,

'--~LL.l.r4~~--:5~ -~~ .-1----cl-V'I-<">--<

~e:, J ~TF _JI

1-_ _

Figure 20.24a
Simplified schematic diagram of a starter with plugging control.

closed at the same time. The interlock is a simple 2. The start pushbutton has one NO contact I, 2 and
steel bar, pivoted at the center, whose extremities are one NC contact 3, 4 which operate together. Thus,
tied to the movable armature of each contactor. contact 3, 4 opens before contact I, 2 closes.
During an emergency, pushbutton U, equipped 3. Contactor B is used to stop the motor. It is
with a large red bull's-eye, can be used to stop the identical to contactor A, having 2 auxiliary
motor (Fig. 20.23c ). In practice, operators find it contacts Bxi and Bx 2 in addition to the 3 main
easier to hit a large button than to tum a cam switch contacts B.
to the off position. 4. The stop pushbutton is identical to the start
pushbutton. Thus, when it is depressed contact
7, 8 opens before contact 5, 6 closes.
20.1 O Plugging
5. Contact F-C of the zero-speed switch is normally
We have already seen that an induction motor can be open, but it closes as soon as the motor turns in
brought to a rapid stop by reversing two of the lines the forward direction. This prepares the plugging
(Section 14.8). However, to prevent the motor from circuit for the eventual operation of coil B.
running in reverse, a zero-speed switch must open the 6. Contacts Ax 1 and Bx 1 are sealing contacts so
line as soon as the machine has come to rest. The cir- that pushbuttons A and B have only to be
cuit of Fig. 20.24a shows the basic elements of such pressed momentarily to start or stop the motor.
a plugging circuit. The circuit operates as follows:
7. Contacts A,. 2 and Bx 2 are electrical interlocks to
I. Contactor A is used to start the motor. In addi- prevent the relay coils A and B from being ex-
tion to its 3 main contacts A, it has 2 small aux- cited at the same time. Thus, when the motor is
iliary contacts Ax 1 and running. contact Ax 2 is open. Consequently,
454 ELECTRICAL ,4ND ELECTRONIC DRIVES

relay coil B cannot become excited by de-

pressing pushbutton B until such time as con-
tactor A has dropped out, causing contact Ax 1
to reclose.
Several types of zero-speed switches are on the
market and Fig. 20.24b shows one that operates on
the principle of an induction motor. It consists of a
small permanent magnet rotor N, S and a bronze
ring or cup supported on bearings, which is free to
pivot between stationary contacts F and R. The per-
manent magnet is coupled to the shaft of the main
motor. As soon as the motor turns clockwise, the
permanent magnet drags the ring along in the same
direction, thereby closing contacts F-C. When the
drag cup motor stops turning, the brass ring returns to the (df

bearing __fNl beanng

position. Because of its function and shape, the ring
is often called a drag-cup.

~):.......--~
Fig. 20.24c shows another zero-speed switch
that operates on the principle of centrifugal force.

20.11 Reduced-voltage starting

0 contact c
Some industrial loads have to be started very
Figure 20.24b
gradually. Examples are coil winders, printing
Typical zero-speed switch for use in Fig. 20.24a. presses, conveyor belts, and machines that
process fragile products. In other industrial appli-
cations, a motor cannot be directly connected to
the line because the starting current is too high. In
all these cases we have to reduce the voltage ap-
plied to the motor either by connecting resistors
(or reactors) in series with the line or by employ-
ing an autotransformer. In reducing the voltage,
we recall the following:
I. The locked-rotor current is proportional to the
voltage: reducing the voltage by half reduces
the current by half.
2. The locked-rotor torque is proportional to the
square of the voltage: reducing the voltage by
half reduces the torque by a factor of four.

20.12 Primary resistance starting

Figure 20.24c Primary resistance starting consists of placing three
Zero-speed switch, centrifugal type. resistors in series with the motor during the start-up
(Courtesy of Hubbel) period (Fig. 20.25a). Contactor A closes first and
 BASICS OF INDUSTRIAL MOTOR CONTROL 455

Figure 20.25a
Simplified schematic diagram of the power section of a reduced-voltage primary resistor stator.

L1 stop _r_tart T
L3 RA
L3

~
D-----i A ._._--f RA

o------f B ,___.........

Figure 20.25b
Figure 20.25c
Control circuit of Fig. 20.25a.
Control circuit of Fig. 20.25a using an auxiliary relay RA.

when the motor has nearly reached synchronous As soon as the start pushbutton is depressed, relay
speed, a second contact B short-circuits the resistors. coils A and RT are excited. This causes the contacts A
This method gives a very smooth start with complete and Ax to close immediately. However, the contact RT
absence of mechanical shock. The voltage drop only closes after a certain time delay and so the relay
across the resistors is high at first, but gradually di- coil of contactor Bis only excited a few seconds later.
minishes as the motor picks up speed and the current If the magnetic contactors A, B are particularly
falls. Consequently, the voltage across the motor ter- large, the inrush exciting currents could damage the
minals increases with speed, and so the electrical and start pushbutton contacts if they are connected as
mechanical shock is negligible when full voltage is shown in Fig. 20.25b. ln such cases, it is better to
finally applied (closure of contactor B). The resistors add an auxiliary relay having more robust contacts.
are short-circuited after a delay that depends upon Thus, in Fig. 20.25c. the purpose of auxiliary relay
the setting of a time-delay relay. RA is to carry the exciting currents of relay coils A
The schematic control diagram 20.25b) re- and B. Note that the start pushbutton contacts carry
veals the following circuit elements: only the exciting current of relay coils RA and RT.
Other circuit components are straightforward, and
A, B: magnetic contactor relay coils the reader should have no difficulty in analyzing the
A,: auxiliary contact associated with A operation of the circuit.
RT: time-delay relay that closes the circuit How are the starting characteristics affected
of coil B after a preset interval of time when resistors are inserted in series with the stator?
456 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC DRIVES

p.u p.u _.J

3 6

I
/I\ ' ~
"'er
;::)
11 \ 2
\
8 2
I I v I 4 r-
r--
" \
I ~L-"'
v
I--
7
./\ 2
I\\
~
~
1
0 0
0 400 800 1200 16001800 r/min 0 400 800 1200 16001800 r/min
-speed -speed

Figure 20.26a Figure 20.26b

Typical torque-speed curves of a 3-phase squirrel-cage Typical current-speed curves of a 3-phase squirrel-cage
induction motor: (1) full-voltage starting; (2) primary re- induction motor: (1) full-voltage starting; (2) primary re-
sistance starting with voltage reduced to 0.65 pu. sistance starting with voltage reduced to 0.65 pu.

Fig. 20.26a shows the torque-speed curve I when

full voltage is applied to a typical 3-phase, 1800 c. The apparent power drawn from the line, with
r/min induction motor. Corresponding curve 2 the resistors in the circuit
shows what happens when resistors are inserted in d. The locked-rotor torque developed by the motor
series with the line. The resistors are chosen so that
Solution
the locked-rotor voltage across the stator is 0.65 pu.
a. At full voltage the locked-rotor apparent power is
The locked-rotor torque is. therefore, (0.65) 1
0.42 pu or only 42 percent of full-load torque. This S V3 EI (8.9)
means that the motor must be started at light load.
Fig. 20.26b shows the CUITent versus speed curve
= \/3 x 460 x 1400
I when full voltage is applied to the stator. Curve 2 1114kVA
shows the current when the resistors are in the circuit. b. The voltage across the motor at 0.65 pu is
When the speed reaches about 1700 r/min, the resis-
tors are short-circuited. The current jumps from about E 0.65 X 460 = 299 V
1.8 pu to 2.5 pu, which is a very moderate jump. The current drawn by the motor decreases in
proportion to the voltage:
Example 20-2 - - - - - - - - - - - - I= 0.65 x 1400 910A
A 150 kW (200 hp). 460 V, 3-phase 3520 r/min, 60
Hz induction motor has a locked-rotor torque of The apparent power drawn by the motor is
600 N·m and a locked-rotor current of 1400 A. S111 = V3 El
Three resistors are connected in series with the
line so as to reduce the voltage across the motor to V3 x 299 x 910
0.65 pu. = 471 kVA
Calculate c. The apparent power drawn from the line is
a. The apparent power absorbed by the motor un- ;-

SL= V3 El
der full-voltage. locked-rotor conditions
b. The apparent power absorbed by the motor x 460 x 910
when the resistors are in the circuit = 724 kYA
 BASICS OF INDUSTRIAL MOTOR CONTROL 457

SL 724 kVA Sm= 471 kVA 5\ = 724 kVA Sm 471 kVA

locked
series rotor PL= 574 kW Pm= 165 kW
460V resistors QL = 441 kvar Qm = 441 kvar locked

-
9 10A
R
460 v
series
resistors
R
rotor

910 A
Figure 20.27
See Example 20-2.
Figure 20.28
See Example 20-3.

Thus, percentagewise, the apparent power is

only 724 kVA/1114 kVA = 65% of the appar-
ent power under full-voltage conditions.
The resistors can only absorb active power in the cir-
d. The torque varies as the square of the voltage:
cuit. Consequently, the reactive power supplied by
2 the line must be equal to that absorbed by the motor:
T = 0.65 x 600
0.42 x 600 QL 441 kvar
= 252 N·m ( ~ 186 ft·lbf) The active power supplied by the line is
The results of these calculations are summarized in
PL
20.27.
574 kW
Example 20-3 The active power absorbed by the three resistors is
In Example 20-2, if the locked-rotor power factor
of the motor alone is 0.35, calculate the value of
the series resistors and the power they dissipate. 574 - 165
409kW
Solution
We will solve this problem by considering active and The active power per resistor is
reactive powers and using the power triangle method. p PR/3 409/3 = 136 kW
The apparent power drawn by the motor at reduced
voltage is The current in each resistor is
I 910 A (from Example 20-2)
Sm= 471 kVA (from Example 20-2)
The value of each resistor is
The corresponding apparent power drawn by the
line is p =PR
136 000 = 910 2 R
SL= 724 kVA (from Example 20-2)
R = 0.164 n
The active power drawn by the motor is The three resistors must therefore each have a resis-
P 111 =Sm cos El 471 x 0.35 tance of 0.164 !land a short-term rating of 136 kW.
The physical size of these resistors is much smaller
165 kW
than if they were designed for continuous duty.
The reactive power absorbed by the motor is This is an interesting example of the usefulness
of the power triangle method in solving a relatively
Qin difficult problem. The results are summarized in
441 kvar Fig. 20.28.
458 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC DRIVES

20.13 Autotransformer starting

Compared to a resistance starter, the advantage of
an autotransformer starter is that for a given torque
it draws a much lower line current. The disadvan-
tage is that autotransformers cost more, and the
transition from reduced-voltage to full-voltage is
not quite as smooth.
Autotransformers usually have taps to give out-
put voltages of 0.8, 0.65, and 0.5 pu. The corre-
sponding starting torques are respectively 0.64,
0.42, and 0.25 of the full-voltage starting torque.
Furthermore, the starting currents on the line side
are also reduced to 0.64, 0.42, and 0.25 of the full-
voltage locked-rotor current.
Fig. 20.29 shows a starter using two autotrans-
formers connected in open delta. A simplified cir-
cuit diagram of such a starter is given in Fig. 20.30.
It has two contactors A and B. Contactor A has five
NO contacts A and one small NO contact Ax. This
contactor is in operation only during the brief pe- Figure 20.29
riod when the motor is starting up. Reduced-voltage autotransformer starter, 100 hp,
575 V, 60 Hz.
(Courtesy of Square D)

Figure 20.30
Simplified schematic diagram of an autotransformer starter.
 BASICS OF INDUSTRIAL MOTOR CONTROL 459

Contactor B has 3 NO contacts B. It is in service Figs. 20.31 a and 20.31 b compare the torque and
while the motor is running. line current when autotransformer starting (3) and
The autotransformers are set on the 65 percent resistance starting (2) is used. The locked-rotor
tap. The time-delay relay RT possesses three con- voltage in each case is 0.65 pu. The reader will note
tacts RTL RT2, RT3. The contact RTI in parallel that the locked-rotor torques are identical, but the
with the start button closes as soon as coil RT is en- locked-rotor line current is much lower using an au-
ergized. The other two contacts RT2, RT3 operate totransformer (2.7 versus 4.2 pu).
after a delay that depends upon the RT relay setting. However, when the motor reaches about 90 percent
Contactors A and B are mechanically interlocked to of synchronous speed, resistance starting produces a
prevent them from closing simultaneously. higher torque because the terminal voltage is slightly
Contactor A closes as soon as the start button is higher than the 65 percent value that existed at the mo-
depressed. This excites the autotransformer and re- ment of start-up. On the other hand, the line current at
duced voltage appears across the motor terminals. all speeds is smaller when using an autotransformer.
A few seconds later, contact RT2 in series with coil Because the autotransformers operate for very
A opens, causing contactor A to open. At the same short periods, they can be wound with much smaller
time, contact RT3 causes contactor B to close. wire than continuously rated devices. This enables
Thus, contactor A drops out, followed almost im- us to drastically reduce the size, weight, and cost of
mediately by the closure of contactor B. This action these components.
applies full voltage to the motor and simultaneously
disconnects the autotransformer from the line. Example 20-4 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
In transferring from contactor A to contactor B, A 200 hp ( 150 kW), 460 V, 3-phase, 3520 r/min,
the motor is disconnected from the line for a frac- 60 Hz induction motor has a locked-rotor torque of
tion of a second. This creates a problem because 600 N·m and a locked-rotor current of 1400 A (same
when contactor B closes, a large transient current is motor as in Example 20-2). Two autotransformers,
drawn from the line. This transient surge is hard on connected in open delta, and having a 65 percent tap,
the contacts and also produces a mechanical shock. are employed to provide reduced-voltage starting.
For this reason, we sometimes employ more elabo-
Calculate
rate circuits in which the motor is never completely
a. The apparent power absorbed by the motor
disconnected from the line.
b. The apparent power supplied by the 460 V line

p.u.
61---+---t~-1---+~+--t-~t---t---t

p.u.
2 4 --- --- --- 2
QJ
:I

,
Ci

s ,,.,.. ...~ r--i---r~i-::3:--+--+--i. ___ 1........ \

--- ---
21---+---t~-1---+~+--+-~+-'"r!-+-f

3\\ ~\
--- --- v \)
0 O=--~~-=--~....,......~~,...,,..,.-=--~~~
0 400 800 1200 1600 1800 r/min 0 400 800 1200 1600 1800 r/min
- - - speed -speed

Figure 20.31 a Figure 20.31 b

Typical reduced voltage (0.65 pu) torque-speed curves Typical reduced voltage (0.65 pu) current-speed curves
of a 3-phase squirrel-cage induction motor: (2) primary of a 3-phase squirrel-cage induction motor: (2) primary
resistance starting; (3) autotransformer starting. resistance starting; (3) autotransformer starting.
460 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC DRIVES

c. The current supplied by the 460 V line The results of these calculations are summa-
d. The locked-rotor torque rized in Fig. 20.32. It is worthwhile comparing
them with the results in Fig. 20.27.
Solution
a. The voltage across the motor is
E 0.65 X 460 299 V 20.14 Other starting methods
The current drawn by the motor is In addition to resistors and autotransformers, sev-
eral other methods are employed to limit the current
I 0.65 X 1400 910 A
and torque when starting induction motors. Some
The apparent power drawn by the motor is only require a change in the stator winding connec-
5 VJ El tions. The part-winding starting method can be used
111
when the induction motor has two identical 3-phase
x 299 x 910 windings that operate in parallel when the motor is
471 kVA running. During the starting phase, only one of
b. The apparent power supplied by the line is these 3-phase windings is used. As a result the im-
equal to that absorbed by the motor because the pedance is higher than if the two windings were
active and reactive power consumed by the connected in parallel. After the motor has picked up
autotransformers is negligible (Section 12.1 ). speed, the second 3-phase winding is brought into
Consequent! y, service so that the two windings operate in parallel.
Fig. 20.33 shows how two 3-pole contactors A and
S1, 5 111 471 kVA
B can be arranged for part-winding starting.
c. The current drawn from the line is Contactor A closes first thus energizing windings
I, 2. 3. Shortly after, contactor B closes, bringing
I SL I (VJ E) (8.9)
windings 7, 8, 9 in parallel with windings I, 2, 3.
= 4 71 000/( 1.73 x 460)
592A A

Note that this current is considerably smaller L1 u---------t - - - -

than the line current (910 A) with resistance
A 2
starting.
L2 o--+--111----""""'1 - - - -
d. The locked-rotor torque varies as the square of
the motor voltage:
A
T = 0.65 2 X 600
= 0.42 x 600
252 N·m

SL= 471 kVA Sm = 471 kVA

locked B 8
rotor
460V 299V

592 A 910 A B 9
autotransformer

Figure 20.32 Figure 20.33

See Example 20-4. Part-winding starting of an induction motor.
 BASICS OF INDUSTRIAL MOTOR CONTROL 461

There are many different types of part-winding forward stop reverse

connections and some larger motors have specially
J3
desi~ned windings so that the starting performance L1 Tl
is optimized.
In wye-delta starting, all six stator leads are
brought out to the terminal box. The windings are ---.)i(,....--c" jumper
J4 /
connected in wye during start-up, and in delta dur- L2
ing normal running conditions. This starting method
4
gives the same results as an autotransformer starter
~~~----4-~~~~
having a 58 percent tap. The reason is that the volt-
5
each wye-connected winding is only
( = 0.58) of its rated value. Figure 20.35
Finally. to start wound-rotor motors, we pro- Schematic diagram of a cam switch permitting for-
gressively short-circuit the external rotor resistors ward-reverse and stop operation of a 3-phase motor.
in one. two. or more steps. The number of steps de-
pends upon the size of the machine and the nature
of the load (see Fig. 13.19). knob. some contacts are closed while others are open.
This information is given in a table, usually glued to
the side of the switch. A cross (X) designates a closed
20.15 Cam switches
contact while a blank space is an open contact. In the
Some industrial operations have to be under the forward position, for example. contacts 2, 4, and 5 are
continuous control of an operator. In hoists. for ex- closed and contacts I and 3 are open. When the knob
ample. an operator has to vary the lifting and low- is turned to the stop position, all contacts are open.
ering rate. and the load has to be carefully set down Fig. 20.34b shows the shape of the cam that controls
at the proper place. Such a supervised control se- the opening and closing of contact I.
quence can be done with cam switches. The schematic diagram (Fig. 20.35) shows how
20.34 shows a 3-position cam switch de- to connect the cam switch to a 3-phase motor. The
signed for the forward, reverse, and stop operation of state of the contacts (open or closed) is shown di-
a 3-phase induction motor. For each position of the rectly on the diagram for each position of the knob.

contact forward stop reverse

0 1 x
x
00
Tersy ~\orw>ard 2
(cl x
lb)~
3
4 x
5 x x
cam shown in off position

Figure 20.34
a. Cam switch external appearance.
b. Detail of the cam controlling contact 1 in the stop position.
c. Table listing the on-off state of the five contacts.
462 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC DRIVES

The 3-phase line and motor are connected to the +

appropriate cam-switch terminals. Note that generator or brake motor
jumpers JI, J2, J3, J4 are also required to complete QI
::I
quadrant 2 ~ quadrant 1
the connections. The reader should analyze the cir- s
cuit connections and resulting current flow for
each position of the switch. For example, when the
0 +
switch is in the forward position, contacts 2, 4, 5 -speed
are closed and LI is connected to TI, L2 to T2, and
L3 to T3.
Some cam switches are designed to carry several
hundred amperes, but we often prefer to use mag-
I quadrant 3 I quadrant 4

motor generator or brake

netic contactors to handle large currents. In such
cases a small cam switch is employed to control the
relay coils of the contactors. Very elaborate control
Figure 20.36
schemes can be designed with multicontact cam
Electric drives can operate in four distinct quadrants.
switches.

20.16 Computers and controls However, some industrial drives require a motor to
function at various torques and speeds, both in for-
The control devices we have covered in this chapter ward and reverse. In addition to operating as a motor,
are used throughout the industry. However, with the the machine often has to function for brief periods as
advent of computers, it is now possible to simulate a generator or brake. In electric locomotives, for ex-
the behavior of many relay coils and relay contacts. ample, the motor may run clockwise or counter-
Furthermore, the connections between these devices clockwise, and the torque may act either with or
can also be simulated. As a result, it is possible to against the direction of rotation. In other words, the
make very complex control circuits by simply using speed and torque may be positive or negative.
a keyboard, a monitor, and a computer. Thus. instead In describing industrial drives, the various operat-
of using real relays, contacts, and time-delay dash- ing modes can best be shown in graphical form. The
pots, we simply program these devices (and their positive and negative speeds are plotted on a hori-
wiring) on a computer. The computers used for this zontal axis, and the positive and negative torques on
purpose are called Programmable Logic Controllers a vertical axis (Fig. 20.36 ). This gives rise to four op-
(PLCs). Their construction and basic principle of erating quadrants, labelled respectively quadrants I,
operation are covered in Chapter 31. 2, 3, and 4.
If a machine operates in quadrant I, both the
ELECTRIC DRIVES torque and speed are positive, meaning that they act
in the same direction. Consequently, a machine op-
20.17 Fundamentals of electric erating in this quadrant functions as a motor. As
drives* such, it delivers mechanical power to the load. The
machine also operates as a motor in quadrant 3, ex-
In this chapter we have seen the basic control equip-
cept that both the torque and speed are reversed.
ment that is used to start and stop induction motors.
A machine that operates in quadrant 2 develops
a positive torque but its speed is negative. In other
An electric drive is a system consisting of one or several
electric motors and of the entire electric control equipment words, the torque acts clockwise while the ma~hine
designed to govern the performance of these motors. (IEEE turns counterclockwise. In this quadrant, the ma-
Standard Dictionarr o/1:.lectrical a111/ Electronics Terms) chine absorbs mechanical power from the load:
 BASICS OF INDUSTRIAL MOTOR CONTROL 463

consequently, it functions basically as a generator.

The mechanical power is converted into electric +
pow'er and the latter is usually fed back into the line.
However, the electric power may be dissipated in an
external resistor, such as in dynamic braking.
Depending on the way it is connected, a machine +
may also function as a brake when operating in
quadrant 2. The mechanical power absorbed is again
converted to electric power, but the latter is immedi-
ately and unavoidably converted into heat. In effect,
when a machine functions as a brake, it absorbs elec-
tric power from the supply line at the same time as it
absorbs mechanical power from the shaft. Both Figure 20.37
power inputs are dissipated as heat--often inside the Typical torque-speed curve of a squirrel-cage induc-
machine itself. For example, whenever a machine is tion motor operating at fixed voltage and frequency.
plugged, it operates as a brake. In larger power
drives we seldom favor the brake mode of operation +
because it is very inefficient. Consequently, the cir-
brake
cuit is usually arranged so that the machine func- \

tions as a generator when operating in quadrant 2. \@ CD

Quadrant 4 is identical to quadrant 2, except that \
the torque and speed are reversed; consequently, the generator~\
same remarks apply.
\ +
motor__...)..\
20.18 Typical torque-speed curves
@
The torque-speed curve of a 3-phase induction motor
is an excellent example of the motor-generator-brake
behavior of an electrical machine. We first examined
it in Chapter 14, Section 14.16. The reader is encour-
Figure 20.38
aged to take a few moments to review this section,
Typical torque-speed curve of a de motor.
with particular attention to Fig. I 4.16.
Referring now to the solid curve in Fig. 20.37, the
machine acts as a motor in quadrant 1, as a brake in generator-brake modes are again apparent. If the
quadrant 2, and as a generator in quadrant 4 (Section armature leads are reversed, we obtain the dotted
14.16). If the stator leads are reversed, another torque- torque-speed curve.
speed curve is obtained. This dash-line curve shows In designing variable-speed electric drives, we
that the machine now operates as a motor in quadrant try to vary the speed and torque in a smooth, contin-
3, as a generator in quadrant 2, and as a brake in quad- uous way to satisfy the load requirements. This is
rant 4. Note that the machine can function either as a usually done by shifting the entire torque-speed
generator or brake in quadrants 2 and 4. On the other characteristic back and forth along the horizontal
hand, it always runs as a motor in quadrants I and 3. axis. For example, the torque-speed curve of the de
To give another example, Fig. 20.38 shows the motor (Fig. 20.38) may be shifted back and forth by
complete torque-speed curve of a de shunt motor varying the armature voltage. Similarly, we can shift
when the armature voltage is fixed. The motor- the curve of an induction motor by simultaneously
464 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC DRIVES

varying the voltage and frequency applied to the Varying the voltage and frequency in the same
stator. proportion has given rise to the ''volts per hertz
To better understand the basic principles of vari- rule" of motor operation. By keeping the volts per
able speed control, we will first show how variable hertz at the same level while the frequency is var-
frequency affects the behavior of a squirrel-cage ied, we ensure that the flux in the motor is always
induction motor. close to its rated value. However. at frequencies be-
low about 20% of rated frequency, the volts per
20.19 Shape of the torque-speed hertz ratio has to be progressively increased to com-
pensate for the IR drop in the stator.
curve Fig. 20.39 shows the torque-speed curve of a 15 hp,
The torque-speed curve of a 3-phase squirrel-cage ( 11 kW) 3-phase, 460 V, 60 Hz squirrel-cage induc-
induction motor depends upon the voltage and fre- tion motor. The full-load speed and torque are respec-
quency applied to the stator. We already know that tively 1725 r/min and 60 N·m; the breakdown torque
if the frequency is fixed, the torque varies as the is 160 N·m and the locked-rotor torque is 80 N·m.
square of the applied voltage. We also know that the If we reduce both the voltage and frequency to
synchronous speed depends on the frequency. The one-fourth their original value (115 V and 15 Hz),
question now arises. how is the torque-speed curve the new torque-speed curve is shifted toward the
affected when both the voltage and frequency are left. The curve retains the same shape, but crosses
varied? In practice, they are varied in the same pro- the axis at a synchronous speed of 1800/4 = 450
portion so as to maintain a constant flux in the air r/min (Fig. 20.40). Similarly, if we raise the voltage
gap. Thus, when the frequency is doubled, the sta- and frequency by 50 percent (690 V. 90 Hz), the
tor voltage is doubled. Under these conditions, the curve is shifted to the right and the new synchro-
shape of the torque-speed curve remains the same, nous speed is 2700 r/min.
but its position along the speed axis shifts with the Even if we bring the frequency down to zero (de).
frequency. the torque-speed curve retains essentially the same

N·m
1160
./
I ~/ \
1120 _,,V
<ll I
' !
rated load
:::i
cr ::=ro ~v
,,,,,, 60 N-m, 1725 r/min
I - -Ci
+; I
40
I
I \
I
2100 1800 1500 1200 900 600 300 0 300 600 900 1200 1500 1800 2100 2400 2700 3000 3300 3600 3900
--speed \ r/min

-
-~

140 \
1 \ ~'--
80 .,,,... ....
I \
I ,,,/
1,20 /
1~0 \ /
I \ J
I \.. ,/
200

Figure 20.39
Torque-speed curve of a 15 hp, 460 V, 60 Hz, 3-phase squirrel-cage induction motor.
 BASICS OF INDUSTRIAL MOTOR CONTROL 465

N-m 115 V, 15 Hz 460 V, 60 Hz 690 V, 90 Hz

_....,160 " I/ /""'"
....
I/ I/
....
J
,,,v 1~0 '( ~v '( ~ . / '(
~v I ~[....- ~!,..-' 1
v- "'::J I ..... ~ ..... _v I
....- i! r::::~O
i.--
-B Li- i.-- \ \
40 \I \ \
I
2100 1800 1500 1200 9 0 600 300
I
0 300 600 9 0 1200 1500 1800 2100 2400 2700 3000 3300 3600 3900
' 1

40
I -~ ~
~speed I\ I\ r/min
I \ \ \
~o \ i.--
\ _i..- i-- \ ~I-

\ \i...--- _,,.v _v
I
I
1~0 I /
_,,v
I I/
' ,,,_/
v
_,,/

1~" \ I/ \ I/ \ v
,·~ \ / \ / \ /
r\.
' r--..
,) ,) ./
2bo

Figure 20.40
Torque-speed curve at three different frequencies and voltages.

N·m
Because the shape of the torque-speed curve is
160
the same at all frequencies. it follows that the torque
I developed by an induction motor is the same when-

•oc=Q ever the slip speed (in r/min) is the same.

Example 20-5 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
A standard 3-phase, I 0 hp, 575 V, 1750 r/min. 60 Hz
NEMA class D squirrel-cage induction motor de-
1200 600 600 1200 r/min velops a torque of 110 N · m at a speed of 1440 r/min.
-speed
If the motor is excited at a frequency of 25 Hz, cal-
culate the following:
a. The required voltage to maintain the same flux
in the machine
160 b. The new speed at a torque of 110 N·m
Solution
Figure 20.41 a. To keep the same flux, the voltage must be re-
Stator excited by de current. duced in proportion to the frequency:

shape. Current can be circulated in any two lines of E = (25/60) X 575 = 240 V
the stator while leaving the third line open. The mo- b. The synchronous speed of the 4-pole, 60 Hz
tor develops a symmetrical braking torque that in- motor is obviously 1800 r/min. Consequently,
creases with increasing speed, reaching a maximum the slip speed at a torque of 110 N·m is .
in both directions, as shown in Fig. 20.41. In this fig-
ure. the de current in the windings is adjusted to pro- 11 1 = n, - /1

duce the rated breakdown torque. = 1800 - 1440 = 360 r/min

466 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC DRIVES

The slip speed is the same for the same torque, current-speed curve retains the same shape, no mat-
irrespective of the frequency. The synchronous ter what the synchronous speed happens to be.
speed at 25 Hz is Thus, as the synchronous speed is varied, the cur-
rent-speed curve shifts along the horizontal axis
n, (25/60) X 1800 = 750 r/min with the minimum current following the synchro-
The new speed at 110 N·m is nous speed. In effect, the torque-speed and current-
speed curves move back and forth in unison as the
n = 750 360 = 390 r/min frequency is varied.
Suppose, for example, that the voltage and fre-
quency are reduced by 75 percent to 115 V, 15 Hz.
20.20 Current-speed curves
The locked-rotor current decreases to 80 A, but the
The current-speed characteristic of an induction mo- corresponding torque 20.40) increases to 160
tor is a V-shaped curve having a minimum value at N·m, equal to the full breakdown torque. Thus, by
synchronous speed. The minimum current is equal to reducing the frequency, we obtain a larger torque
the magnetizing current needed to create the flux in with a smaller current (Fig. 20.43 ). This is one of
the machine. Because the stator flux is kept constant, the big advantages of frequency control. In effect.
the magnetizing current is the same at all speeds. we can gradually accelerate a motor and its load by
20.42 shows the current-speed curve of the progressively increasing the voltage and frequency.
15 hp, 460 V, 60 Hz squirrel-cage induction motor During the start-up period, the voltage and fre-
mentioned previously. We have plotted the effective quency can be varied automatically so that the mo-
values of current for all speeds; consequently, the tor develops close to its breakdown torque all the
current is always positive. The locked-rotor current way from zero to rated speed. This ensures a rapid
is 120 A and the corresponding torque is 80 N·m. acceleration at practically constant current.
As in the case of the torque-speed curve, it can In conclusion, an induction motor has excellent
be shown that if the stator flux is held constant, the characteristics under variable frequency conditions.

N.m
A
1ro _,,

-
brake (60)....... ..., I I I I
' T"o I I I I I I I I I -
c: motor (60)

-- - --
1,.-generator (15)
I I I
I IJ I ~·"'- \ 1,...-generator (60)
~-
I
I I I I - r-- 3~
•120
brake (15)""" r-
- B- "' ::>
O'
-ro
I
-.......J.. ~ ·-I
motor (15)
~-
I ,,,-' ,_....._
~ ~,
~.,,.

t;.f=..:: £ I I i I

•I •I 4o '\/ I i
I I
\
'/
/ 115 V, 15 Hz
' ,'
\.\ I 460 V, 60 Hz
2100 1800 1500 1200 900 600 300 0 300 600 900 1200 1500 1800 2100 2400 2700 3000 3300 3600 3900
450 I r/min
~o peed

ko
\
i ~'--' - :
f I ~·-·-
: ,, "',...
I
' 1~0
I /
I 1~0 \ /
I i \ /
I 2bo '~ ./

Figure 20.42
Current-speed curve at 60 Hz and 15 Hz. Also T-n curve at 460 V, 60 Hz.
 BASICS OF INDUSTRIAL MOTOR CONTROL 467

The corresponding stator voltage is

N·m
E (l 11.7/60) x 460 = 856 V
c2!
:;
A
160 ,-;60 The 60 Hz current-speed and torque-speed curves
(,,) \ (Fig. 20.42) show that the stator current is 40 A when
s"' ;::::'"°'
~
:; 120
\
\ the torque is 100 N·m. Because the current-speed
80 \ curve shifts along with the torque-speed curve, the
\ current is again 40 A at 3200 r/min and I 00 N·m.
r r 40 \
OO 300 600 900 1200 1500 1800 r/min 20.21 Regenerative braking
-speed
A further advantage of frequency control is that it
Figure 20.43 permits regenerative braking. Referring to Fig.
The starting torque increases and the current de- 20.44, suppose the motor is connected to a 460 V, 60
creases with decreasing frequency. Hz line. It is running at 1650 r/min, driving a load of
constant torque T1, 100 N·m (operating point 1). If
For a given frequency the speed changes very little we suddenly reduce the frequency and voltage by 50
with increasing load. In many ways, the torque- percent, the motor will immediately operate along
speed characteristic resembles that of a de shunt the 30 Hz, 230 V torque-speed curve. Because the
motor with variable armature-voltage control. speed cannot change instantaneously (due to inertia),
we suddenly find ourselves at operating point 2 on .
Example 20-6 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ the new torque-speed curve. The motor torque is neg-
Using the information revealed by the 60 Hz ative; consequently, the speed will drop very quickly,
torque-speed and current-speed curves of following the 50-percent curve until we reach torque
20.42, calculate the voltage and frequency required (operating point 4) The interesting feature is that
so that the machine will run at 3200 r/min while de-
veloping a torque of 100 N·m. What is the corre-
N·m 230 V, 30 Hz 460 V, 60 Hz
sponding stator current?
1~0 ,....
/ r-.. y /"" " y
Solution I / \ _,,, / I \
We first have to find the slip speed corresponding to
a torque of 100 N·m.
According to Fig. 20.42, when the motor operates at
---
-
~
_....,•.JfO
°'' 100
:::JI
o--80
~ 5 -i
...,
•
I
I

40
~~
---~
'(
\
\
.-h .>:-..
,1 ...

\
\
60 Hz and a torque of 100 N·m, the speed is 1650
r/min. Consequently, the slip speed is
I
I
1

'3'
'
0 300 600 1200 1500 1800 r/min
600 300
9op \
fO -- - ~speed \ '
1800 1650 150r/min \
koI \ ~

The slip speed is the same when the motor develops

I 00 N·m at 3200 r/min. Consequently, the synchro-
I
120
I v _,,/ =
nous speed must be I
160
\ 2-<'
I \ !Jt'
n, 3200 150 3350 r/min ,I
2ho '
The corresponding frequency is, therefore,
Figure 20.44
f (3350/1800) x 60 111.7 Hz Effect of suddenly changing the stator frequency.
468 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC DRIVES

in moving along the curve from point 2 to point 3, en- 20-11 Referring to 20.39, calculate the me-
ergy is returned to the ac line, because the motor acts chanical power [hp] of the motor when it
as an asynchronous generator during this interval. runs at 450 r/min.
The ability to develop a high torque from zero to 20-12 A standard 3-phase, 4-pole squirrel-cage
full speed, together with the economy of regenera- induction motor is rated at 208 V, 60 Hz.
tive braking, is the main reason why frequency- We want the motor to turn at a no-load
controlled induction motor drives are becoming so speed of about 225 r/min while maintain-
popular. These electronically-controlled drives are ing the same flux in the air gap. Calculate
covered in Chapter 23. the required voltage and frequency to be
applied to the stator.
Questions and Problems
20-13 Referring to 20.42. what is the cur-
Practical level rent in the stator under the following
20-1 Name four types of circuit diagrams and conditions, knowing that the stator is en-
describe the purpose of each. ergized at 460 V, 60 Hz?
a. Machine running as a motor at 1650 r/min
20-2 Without referring to the text, describe the
and developing a torque of 100 N·m
operation of the starter shown in
b. Machine running as a brake at 300 r/rnin
20. I 6b, and state the use of each component. c. Machine driven as an asynchronous genera-
20-3 Give the symbols for a NO and a NC con- tor at a torque of 120 N·rn
tact, and for a thermal relay. 20-14 State in which quadrants a machine operates
20-4 Identify all the components shown in a. As a brake
20.23a using the equipment list given in b. As a motor
c. As a generator
Table 20A. Where are contact T and coil
A situated physically? 20-15 A machine is turning clockwise in quad-
20-5 If the start and stop pushbuttons in Fig. rant 3. Does it develop a clockwise or
20.24a are pushed simultaneously, what counterclockwise torque?
will happen? Intermediate level
20-6 Referring to 20.14, if contact Ax in 20-l 6 A thermal relay having the tripping curve
parallel with the start pushbutton were re- given in 20.17 has to protect a 40 hp,
moved, what effect would it have on the 575 V, 3-phase, 720 r/min induction motor
operation of the starter? having a nominal current rating of 40 A. If
20-7 If a short-circuit occurs in motor M of Fig. the relay is set to 40 A, how long will it
20.14, which device will open the circuit? take to trip if the motor current is
a. 60 A?
20-8 A partial short-circuit between the turns of
b. 240 A?
the stator winding of motor M in Fig. 20.14
20-17 a. lf the control circuit of Fig. 20.22 is used in
produces a 50% increase in the line current place of that shown in 20. l 4, show that
of one phase. Which device will shut down the motor will start and continue to run if
the motor? we momentarily press the start button.
20-9 Under what circumstances is reduced- b. Show that if we press the jog button, the
voltage starting required? motor only runs for as long as the button is
depressed.
20-10 Referring to Fig. 20.39, in which quad-
rants do the following torque-speed oper- 20-18 A magnetic contactor can make 3 mill;on
ating points occur? normal circuit interruptions before its con-
a. +1650r/rnin. IOON·rn tacts need to be replaced. If an operator
b. +3150r/min, - IOON·rn the motor so that it starts and stops
 BASICS OF INDUSTRIAL MOTOR CONTROL 469

once per minute. after approximately how the machine so that it runs as a relatively
many working days will the contacts have high-efficiency motor;
to be replaced, assuming the operator a. At a speed of 1200 r/min. developing a
works an 8-hour day? torque of 100 N·m
b. At a speed of 2400 r/min. developing a
20-19 a. Referring to Fig. 20.24a and assuming that
torque of 60 N·m
the motor is initially at rest, explain the op-
eration of the circuit when the start button is 20-26 Referring to Fig. 20.42, calculate the volt-
momentarily depressed. age and frequency to be applied to the sta-
b. If the motor is running normally, what tor so that the locked-rotor torque is l 00
happens if we momentarily press the stop N·m at a current of 40 A.
button'? 20-27 a. It is impossible for a machine to instanta-
20-20 a. Explain the sequence of events that takes neously change from a point in quadrant I
place when the start button in 20.25c is to point in quadrant 2. Why'?
momentarily depressed, knowing that relay b. Can it move instantaneously from quadrant
RT is adjusted for a delay of I 0 s. l to a quadrant 4?
b. With the motor running, explain what hap- 20-28 A 4-pole, shunt-wound de motor has an
pens when the stop button is depressed. armature circuit resistance of 4 f!. It is
20-21 Referring to 20.30, describe the se- connected to a 240 V de source, and the
quence of events that takes place when the no-load speed is 1800 r/min; the corre-
start button is momentarily depressed, sponding armature current is negligible.
knowing that relay RT is set for a delay of Assuming constant field excitation and as-
5 s. Draw the actual circuit connections, suming that armature reaction effects can
in sequence, until the motor reaches its fi- be neglected, calculate the following:
nal speed. a. The armature current at 900 r/min
b. The mechanical power output [hp] at
20-22 A I 00 hp, 460 V, 3-phase induction motor 1200 r/min
possesses the characteristics given by c. The torque [N·m] at 300 r/min
curve I in Figs. 20.26a and 20.26b. The d. The starting torque [fHbf]
full-load current is 120 A, and the thermal e. Draw the torque-speed curve that passes
relays are set to this value. If the relay through quadrants l. 2, and 4 (see
tripping curve is given by Fig. 20.17, cal- 20.38)
culate the approximate tripping time if the 20-29 a. In Problem 20-28 draw the torque-speed
load current suddenly rises to 240 A. curve if 60 V is applied to the armature, while
(Assume that the motor had been running maintaining the same field excitation.
for several hours at full-load). b. What is the frequency of the current in the
armature coils at a speed of 300 r/min?
20-23 Referring to Fig. 20.39 and neglecting
Advanced level
windage and friction losses, calculate the
power Pr supplied to the rotor when the 20-30 a. The curves in Fig. 20.26 relate to a 100 hp.
460 V, 1765 r/min, 3-phase, 60 Hz induc-
machine runs
tion motor, whose full-load current is
a. As a motor at 1650 r/min
120 A. Calculate the breakdown torque for
b. As a brake at 750 r/min
curves l and 2 Ift· lbtl
c. As a generator at 2550 r/min
b. Calculate the torque developed when the
20-24 In Problem 20-23, calculate the value of resistors are in the circuit and the line cur-
the rotor PR losses in each case. rent is 480 A [ft·lbf].
20-25 Referring to Fig. 20.39, calculate the volt- 20-31 The motor having the T-n characteristic
age and frequency that must be applied to given in Fig. 20.39 is running at a no-load
-1-70 ELEC7RICAL AND ELECTRONIC DRIVES

speed of 1800 r/min. The total moment of

inertia of the rotor and its load is 90 lb·ft:!. 64 min.--,.- . . . ,~-.,---- .......--,------. ..........

The speed has to be reduced to a no-load 32 min r..~-+---t ...... ; . - - - + -.......-1-----+---t-

value of 1200 r/min by suddenly changing 16 min ,.........~~____,_,-..-

the voltage and frequency applied to the 8 min 1--- .. ·t\---t---T-+-- 1---·t--+ t------t~:---1-.,....-j
stator. 4 min 1-----+-......,,,---~----'---r--+----+--t--+-ii1

Calculate 2 min
(].)
a. The voltage and frequency required E 1 min 1--- -+------+---''k-- -'k:---+-1------+ -+----"-+--+--+--·
i=
b. The initial kinetic energy stored in the 32 s l----·-+----t---·--"1<-""""",----+----t--t----t---t-1
moving parts
c. The final kinetic energy in the moving parts
d. ls all the lost kinetic energy returned to the
I 16S1------t-----+--+---+--"""""1----_,,,._--t. -~----t---r---t-1
8s t-, --,----r-
curve
45>-----+---+----+-~'-----+------+--+-----P~~
1
3-phase line? Explain.
2St----1--+----+--..,--.. +...........,---1----+-+•
20-32 A 15 hp, 460 V, 3-phase, 60 Hz induction
motor has the torque-speed characteristic 1 S'----'........J---'------'-----'---'-~~'--'-..~
0.6 0.8 1 1.5 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 910
given in Fig. 20.39.
Multiple of current setting
a. What is the new shape of the curve if we
Figure 20.45
apply 230 V. 60 Hz to the stator?
See Problem 20-34.
b. Calculate the new breakdown torque [ft.lbf].
20-33 In Problem 20-32 calculate the stator volt-
age needed to reduce the breakdown
tactor? (The thermal characteristic corre-
torque to 60 N·m.
sponds to cold start conditions.)
btdustrial application 20-35 According to the manufacturer's specifi-
20-34 A 30 hp. 1780 r/min, 200 V, 3-phase cage cations, it is known that the motor in
motor driving a compressor is protected by Problem 20-34 draws a locked-rotor cur-
a thermal relay having the time/current rent of 465 A at 200 Y, 3-phase. The per-
characteristic shown in Fig. 20.45. Curve 3 unit starting torque is 2.20.
relates to normal 3-phase operation. and The motor is started during a particu-
curve 2 applies when the motor runs single- larly low voltage-sag in the electric util-
phase. ity system. This sag, combined with the
The plant electrician set the relay at line voltage drop caused by the large
82 A, which corresponds to the rated full- starting current, causes the voltage
load current of the motor. Under normal across the motor terminals to fall to 155
operating conditions. a hook-on ammeter Y. In turn, the reduced torque causes the
indicated that the motor draws a current motor to accelerate very slowly and it
of 71 A from the 200 V line. doesn't reach full speed before the ther-
Due to a fault on another circuit, the mal relay trips out.
fuse in the distribution panel associated a. What is the per-unit starting current and
with phase C of the compressor motor sud- per-unit starting torque under these abnor-
denly blew, causing it to run as a single- mal conditions?
phase motor. As a result, the current in b. Estimate the time it took for the relay to trip.
phases A and B rose to 135 A. 20-36 The stator winding of the motor in
What is the maximum possible time it Problem 20-34 has a line-to-neutral resis-
took for the thermal relay to trip the con- tance of 23 mfl
 BASICS OF INDUSTRIAL MOTOR CONTROL 471

a. Calculate the stator copper losses when the position, the coil draws I 00 VA at a power
motor runs normally on the 3-phase line, factor of 0.75. In the holding position. the
driving the compressor. coil absorbs 3 Wand 11.5 VA.
b. Calculate the stator copper losses when the We want to excite the coil directly off
motor runs as a single-phase motor. Does
the 230 V line. To achieve this result, cal-
single-phasing tend to overheat the motor?
culate the resistance and power rating of
20-37 The holding coil of a 13 kW, 230 V, the resistor that should be connected in
3-phase 60 Hz contactor has a rating of series with the coil a) when the contactor
120 Y. According to the manufacturer's is open and b) when the contactor is
catalog, when the contactor is in the open closed.
 CHAPTER 21
Fundamental Elements of Power
Electronics

21.0 Introduction taining these components and devices are simple-

they are not-but their behavior can be understood
lectronic systems and controls have gained wide
E acceptance in power technology: consequently, it
has become almost indispensable to know something
without having an extensive background in semi-
conductor theory.

about power electronics. Naturally. we cannot cover

all aspects of this broad subject in a single chapter.
21.1 Potential level
Nevertheless, we can explain in simple terms the be- In Chapter 2, Sections 2.4 and we described two
havior of a number of electronic power circuits, ways of representing voltages in a circuit. We now
including those most commonly used today. introduce a third method that is particularly useful in
As far as electronic devices are concerned, we circuits dealing with power electronics. The method
will first cover diodes and thyristors. They are found is based upon the concept of potential levels.
in all electronic systems that involve the conversion To understand the operation of electronic cir-
of ac power to de power and vice versa. We then go cuits, it is useful to imagine that individual terminals
on to discuss the application of more recent devices have a potential level with respect to a reference ter-
such as gate turn-off thyristors (GTOs), bipolar minal. The reference terminal is any convenient
junction transistors (BJTs), metal oxide semicon- point chosen in a circuit it is assumed to have zero
ductor field effect transistors (power MOSFETs), electric potential. The potential level of all other
and insulated gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs). Their points is then measured with respect to this zero ref-
action on a circuit is basically no different from that erence terminal. In graphs, the reference level is
of a thyristor and its associated switching circuitry. shown as a horizontal line having a potential of 0 V.
In power electronics all these devices act basically Consider, for example, the circuit of Fig. 21. l,
as high-speed switches; so much so, that much of composed of an 80 V battery connected in series
power electronics can be explained by the opening with an ac source E having a peak voltage of 100 V.
and closing of circuits at precise instants of time. Of the three possible terminals, let us choose termi-
However, we should not conclude that circuits con- nal I as the reference point. The potential level of

472
 FUNDAMENTAL ELEMENTS OF POWER ELECTRONICS 473

2 3 v 100 V peak

8ov1 100 v
+100
80

peak
E

reference
r 0Q ).-.....,{!'----'---<

_JJ
potential -time

Figure 21.1
Potential level method of representing voltages. 3

Figure 21.2
this terminal is therefore shown by a horizontal line, Potential levels of terminals 1, 2, and 3.
designated 1 in Fig. 21.2.
Consider now the potential level of terminal 2. We could have chosen another terminal as a ref-
The difference of potential between terminals I and erence terminal. Thus, in Fig. 21.3 we chose terminal
2 is always 80 V, and terminal 2 is positive with re- 3 and, as before, we represent the zero potential of
spect to terminal I. The level of this terminal is this reference terminal by a horizontal line 3
therefore indicated by a second horizontal line 2 21.4). Knowing that Eis an alternating voltage and
placed 80 V above line 1. that terminal 3 is initially I 00 V negative with respect
Now consider terminal 3. Voltage E between ter- to terminal I (as in Fig. 21.2), we can draw curve 1.
minals 1 and 3 is alternating and we assume that its To determine the level of terminal 2, we know
initial value is I 00 V, with terminal 3 negative with that it is always 80 V positive with respect to termi-
respect to terminal I. Because E is alternating, the nal I. Consequently, we draw curve 2 so that it is al-
potential of terminal 3 is first negative, then positive, ways 80 V above curve 1. By so doing, we auto-
with respect to terminal I. The changing level is matically establish the level of terminal 2 with
shown by curve 3. Thus, during the interval from 0 to respect to terminal 3.
t 1, the level of point 3 is below the level of point 1, Figs. 21.2 and 21.4 do not have the same ap-
which indicates that terminal 3 is negative with re- pearance; however, at every instant, the relative po-
spect to terminal 1. During the interval t 1 to t4 , the po- larities and potential differences between terminals
larity reverses, and so the level of curve 3 is now are identical. From an electrical point of view, the
above line 1. Terminal I is therefore negative with re- two figures are identical. We invite the reader to
spect to terminal 3, because line 1 is below curve 3. check by comparing the voltages and their relative
This potential-level method now enables us to polarities at various instants in the two figures.
determine the instantaneous voltages between any
two terminals in a circuit as well as their relative
polarities. For example, during the interval from t2
j_
80 v-=-
to t3 , terminal 3 is positive with respect to terminal
100 v
2, because curve 3 is above line 2. The voltage be- peak
tween these terminals reaches a maximum of 20 Y
during this interval. Then, from t3 to t 6 , terminal 3
is negative with respect to terminal 2 and the volt-
age between them reaches a maximum value of Figure 21.3
180 Vat instant t 5 • Changing the reference terminal.
474 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC DRIVES

Figure 21.4
The relative potential levels are the same as in Fig. 21.2.

In analyzing electronic circuits the reference termi-

nal may be selected anywhere; however. it should be
easy to observe the waveshapes of the voltages we are Figure 21.5
interested in. Potential across a switch.

must be the same. Thus, if we happen to know the

21.2 Voltage across some level of terminal 2, then the level of terminal 1 is
circuit elements also known. This simple rule also applies to ideal-
Let us first look at the voltage levels that appear across ized thyristors and diodes, because they behave like
some active and passive circuit elements commonly perfect (albeit one-way) switches.
found in electronic circuits. Specifically, we examine 3. Potential Across a Resistor. If no current flows
sources, switches, resistors, coils, and capacitors. in a resistor, its terminals 3, 4 must be at the same
1. Sources. By definition, ideal ac and de voltage potential, because the IR drop is zero (Fig. 21.6).
sources have zero internal impedance. Consequently, Consequently, if we happen to know the potential
they impose rigid potential levels; nothing that hap- level of one of the terminals, the level of the other
pens in a circuit can modify these levels. On the other is also known. On the other hand, if the resistor car-
hand, ac and de current sources have infinite internal ries a current I, the IR drop produces a correspond-
impedance. Consequently, they deliver a constant ing potential difference between the terminals. For
current, and the voltage levels in the circuit must example, if current actually flows in the direction
adapt themselves accordingly.
2. Potential Across a Switch. When a switch is I
3 - 4
open (Fig. 21.5), the voltage across its terminals de-
pends exclusively upon the external elements that
~
make up the circuit. On the other hand, when the Figure 21.6
switch is closed the potential level of both terminals Potential across a resistor.
 FUNDAMENTAL ELEMENTS OF POWER ELECTRONICS 475

shown in Fig. 21.6, the potential of terminal 3 is THE DIODE AND DIODE CIRCUITS
abo~e that of terminal 4, by an amount equal to IR.
4. Potential Across a Coil or Inductance. The ter- 21.3 The diode
minals of a coil are at the same potential only during
those moments when the current is not changing. If A diode is an electronic device possessing two ter-
the current varies, the potential difference is given by minals, respectively called anode (A) and cathode
(K) (Fig. 21.9). Although it has no moving parts, a
E L (M/!11) (2.27) diode acts like a high-speed switch whose contacts
Thus, if the current in Fig. 21.7 is increasing while open and close according to the following rules:
flowing in the direction shown, the potential level Rule 1. When no voltage is applied across a diode.
of terminal 5 is above that of terminal 6 by an it acts like an open switch. The circuit is therefore
amount equal to L !11/!it. Conversely, if I is de- open between terminals A and K (Fig. 2 l .9a).
creasi1115 while flowing in the direction shown, the Rule 2. If we apply an im·erse voltage E 2 across the
potential of terminal 5 is below that of terminal 6. diode so that the anode is negative with respect to
the cathode, the diode continues to act as an open
I
switch (Fig. 21. 9b ). We say that the diode is reverse
5 - 6 biased.
~
L Rule 3. If a momentary fonrn rd voltage E of 0. 7 V
1

or more is applied across the terminals so that anode

Figure 21.7
A is slightly positive with respect to the cathode, the
Potential across an inductor.
terminals become short-circuited. The diode acts
5. Potential Across a Capacitor. The terminals of like a closed switch and a current I immediately be-
a capacitor are at the same potential only when the gins to flow from anode to cathode (Fig. 2 l.9c). We
capacitor is completely discharged. Furthermore. say that the diode is forward biased.
the potential difference between the terminals re-
mains unchanged during those intervals when the
current I is zero (Fig. 21.8). E 0
(a) AWK A_J -K rule 1
c
~µ
I
(b} A ~K +
A_J -K rule 2
Figure 21.8

@ K AJ,\-K
l
Potential across a capacitor.
A+
6. Initial Potential Level. A final rule regarding
(c)
potential levels is worth remembering. Unless we rul• 3
know otherwise. we assume the following initial
conditions: A @
+
K A• "'IF- K
~
a. All currents in the circuit are zero and none are
in the process of changing.
b. All capacitors are discharged. (d) A---Ji+-K A~':0..,_K rule 4
~
These assumed starting conditions enable us to an-
alyze the behavior of any circuit from the moment Figure 21.9
power is applied. Basic rules governing diode behavior.
476 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC DRIVES

In practice, while the diode conducts, a small loss which is entirely converted into heat. The re-
voltage drop appears across its terminals. sulting temperature rise of the diode must never ex-
However, the voltage drop has an upper value of ceed the permissible limits, otherwise the diode will
about 1.5 V, so it can be neglected in most elec- be destroyed. Most silicon diodes can operate satis-
tronic circuits. It is precisely because the voltage factorily provided their internal temperature lies be-
drop is small with respect to other circuit voltages tween - 50°C and + 200°C. The temperature of a
that we can assume the diode is essentially a closed diode can change very quickly, due to its small size
switch when it conducts. and small mass. To improve heat transfer. diodes
Rule 4. As long as current flows, the diode acts are usually mounted on thick metallic supports,
like a closed switch. However, if it stops flowing for called heat sinks. Furthermore, in large installa-
even as little as 10 µs, the ideal diode immediately tions, the diodes may be cooled by fans, by oil, or
returns to its original open state 2 I .9d). by a continuous flow of deionized water. Table 21 A
Conduction will only resume when the anode again gives the specifications of some typical diodes. Fig.
becomes slightly positive with respect to the cath- 21.10 shows a range of low power to very high
ode (Rule 3 ). power diodes.
In conclusion, a perfect diode behaves like a nor- Diodes have many applications, some of which
mally open switch whose contacts close as soon as are found again and again, in one form or another,
the anode voltage becomes slightly positive with re- in electronic power circuits. In the sections that
spect to the cathode. Its contacts only reopen when follow, we will analyze a few circuits that involve
the current (not the voltage) has fallen to zero. This only diodes. They will illustrate the methodology
simple rule is crucially important to an understand- of power circuit analysis while revealing some ba-
ing of circuits involving diodes and thyristors. sic principles common to many industrial applica-
Symbol For a Diode. The symbol for a diode tions. Sections 21.5 to 21.14 cover the following
21.9) bears an arrow that indicates the direction of topics:
conventional current tlow when the diode conducts. 21.5 Battery charger with series resistor
21.6 Battery charger with series inductor
21.4 Main characteristics of a diode 21. 7 Single-phase bridge rectifier
Peak Inverse Voltage. A diode can withstand only 21.8 Filters
so much inverse voltage before it breaks down. The 21.9 Three-phase, 3-pulse diode rectifier
peak inverse voltage (PIV) ranges from 50 V to 21.10 Three-phase, 6-pulse diode rectifier
4000 V, depending on the construction. If the rated
21.11 Effective line current: fundamental line
PIV is exceeded, the diode begins to conduct in re-
current
verse and, in many cases, is immediately destroyed.
21.12 Distortion power factor
Maximum Average Current. There is also a limit
to the average current a diode can carry. The maxi- 21.13 Displacement power factor
mum current may range from a few hundred mil- 21.14 Harmonic content
liamperes to over 4000 A, depending on the con-
struction and size of the diode. The nominal current
rating depends upon the temperature of the diode. 21.5 Battery charger
which, in turn, depends upon the way it is mounted with series resistor
and how it is cooled. The circuit of 21.11 a represents a simplified
Maximum Temperature. The voltage across a battery charger. Transformer T, connected to a 120 V
diode times the current it carries is equal to a power ac supply, furnishes a sinusoidal secondary volt-
 FUNDAMENTAL ELEMENTS OF POWER ELECTRONICS 477

TABLE 21 A PROPERTIES OF SOME TYPICAL DIODES

power lo IAI E0 jV] (.,IAI E:.!Y] /2 lmAJ T,[°C] dlmm] Imm

low 0.8 30 1000 0.05 175 3.8 4.6

medium 12 0.6 240 !000 0.6 200 II 32
high 100 0.6 I 600 1000 4.5 200 25 54
very high 1000 I. I 10000 2000 50 200 47 26
10 - average de current
£ 0 - voltage drop corresponding to 10
(,. - peak value of surge current for one cycle
E2 peak inverse voltage
12 - reverse leakage current corresponding to E2
T 1 - maximum junction temperature (inside the diode)
ti-diameter
I length

(c)

(b)
(a)

(d)

Figure 21.1 O
a. Average current: 4 A; PIV: 400 V; body length: 10 mm; diameter: 5.6 mm.
b. Average current: 15 A; PIV: 500 V; stud type; length less thread: 25 mm; diameter: 17 mm.
c. Average current: 500 A; PIV: 2000 V; length less thread: 244 mm; diameter: 40 mm.
d. Average current: 2600 A: PIV: 2500 V; Hockey Puk; distance between pole-faces: 35 mm; diameter: 98 mm.
(Photos courtesy of International Rectifier)

age having a peak of I 00 V. A 60 V battery, a I n zontal line. The potential of terminal 2 swings sinu-
resistor, and an ideal diode Dare connected in se- soidally above and below point 1, according to
ries across the secondary. whether 2 is positive or negative with respect to 1.
To explain the operation of the circuit, let us The level of terminal 3 is always 60 V above
choose point 1 as the reference terminal. The po- terminal 1. because the battery voltage is constant.
tential of this terminal is, therefore, a straight hori- The potential levels are shown in Fig. 21.11 b.
478 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC DRIVES

v
+100
@ ©
D 60

r
!
1n R

·a~
0
t? I t4
60 Hz --time \ I I
\
\ : I

CD
~i/
,l/
-100
(a) (b)

Figure 21.11
a. Simple battery charger circuit.
b. Corresponding voltage and current waveforms.

Circuit analysis drop in the resistor), the PIV across the diode
a. Prior to t = 0, we assume that all currents are reaches a maximum of 160 Vat instant t3 .
zero. The potential of point 4 is, therefore, at g. Finally, at instant t4 the cycle (a to f above) re-
the same level as point 3, and 2 is at the level of peats itself. The resulting current is a truncated
point 1. sine wave having a peak value of 40 A. Its calcu-
b. During the interval from 0 to t 1, anode 2 is neg- lated average value during one cycle is 7.75 A.
ative with respect to cathode 4; consequently, The pulsating current always flows into the
the diode cannot conduct (Rule 2). positive terminal of the battery. Consequently,
c. At instant t 1 , terminal 2 becomes positive with the latter receives energy and progressively
respect to 4. and the diode begins to conduct charges up.
(Rule 3). From this moment on, the ideal diode
acts like a closed switch. 21.6 Battery charger
Consequently, point 4 must now be at the same with series inductor
level as point 2. The voltage across the re-
sistor gradually builds up, reaching a maximum The current flow in the battery charger of Fig. 21. I I
of 40 V before it falls to zero at instant t 2 • is limited by resistor R. Unfortunately, this pro-
d. From t 1 to t2 the current in the circuit is by duces PR losses and a corresponding poor effi-
ciency. We can get around the problem by replacing
the resistor by an inductor, as shown in Fig. 2 l . l 2a.
Let us analyze the operation of this circuit, bearing
The current reaches a peak of 40 A when
in mind the behavior of an inductor, previously ex-
+40 V. As long as current flows, the diode be-
plained in Section 2.31.
haves like a closed switch;
e. At instant t 2 the current is zero, and the diode a. As in the example of Fig. 21.11, the ideal diode
immediately opens the circuit (Rule 4 ). From begins to conduct at instant t 1 when anode 2 be-
this moment on, point 4 must follow point 3. comes positive with respect to cathode 4. From
f. From t 2 to t4 , point 2 is negative with respect to this moment on, point 4 follows point 2, and
point 3. Because point 4 follows point 3 (no IR voltage £ 43 appears across the inductor (Fig.
 FUNDAMENTAL ELEMENTS OF POWER ELECTRONICS 479

® D © ......

L
li
§~
60 Hz

-100
(a) <D (b)

Figure 21.12
a. Battery charger using a series inductor.
b. Corresponding voltage and current waveforms.

2 l. I 2b ). The latter begins to accumulate volt- point 2 to the level of point 3. It stays at this
seconds, and the current increases gradually un- level until instant t4 , whereupon the whole cy-
til it reaches a maximum given by cle repeats.
This is an interesting example of the use of
(2.28) an inductor to store and release electrical en-
where ergy. During the interval from t 1 to t2 , the in-
ductor stores energy and, from t2 to t 3 • it returns
A(+J dotted area between t 1 and t2 [V·sl it again to the circuit (see Section 2.13 ).
L = inductance lHI
Example 21-1
Note that the current reaches its peak at instant The coil in Fig. 21.12 has an inductance of 3.3 mH
t 2 , whereas it was zero at this moment when a and the battery voltage is 60 V. Calculate the peak
resistor was used. This is consistent with the current if the line frequency is 60 Hz.
fact that current through an inductor is no
longer changing (has reached a maximum) be- Solution
cause the voltage E,n across it is zero. a. To calculate the peak current, we must find the
b. After t 2 the voltage £ 43 across the inductor value of area A(+>· This can be done by integral
becomes negative and so the inductor dis- calculus, but we will employ a much simpler
charges volt-seconds. Consequently, the cur- graphical method. Thus. referring to Fig.
rent decreases between t2 and t:,, becoming 2 I .12c, we have redrawn the voltage levels us-
zero at t 3 when dotted area A, ) is equal to ing graph paper. The 60 Hz voltage cycle is di-
dotted area A( >· vided into 24 equal parts, each representing
c. As soon as the current is zero, the diode opens time interval 6.t equal to
the circuit, whereupon point 4 must jump from 6.t = (1/24) x (1/60) = 111440 s
.+80 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC DRIVES

_I I I I I I 2 during this conduction interval. Conduction

v
+100 $" ~~

/. v
- A(+)
19 squares
ceases when ia falls to zero at instant t 1 (Fig.
2l.l3b). The polarity then reverses and E 21 be-
1:1:% 1,,;, ~/ //f/:: I I I I I I
/; '/// 'i;;; r;;,r>. ~I
comes positive, meaning that terminal 2 is positive
60 J
,7_~101 v '\
I I I I with respect to terminal I. Current ih now flows
area = 10 v x 1/1440 s -
-~ ---~

f--

I ·>:W' \ = 0.006 944 V·s -

-- ~~
through R in the same direction as before, but this
t
I - I \ = 6.944 mV-s
1/1440 s I I
-~ ~~
time by way of diodes Bl and B2. Consequently,
0 -K1 1
\
\
1
I
I
point 3 now follows point 2 while point 4 follows
point 1. Voltage E 34 across the load is, therefore,
1/120 s
composed of a series of half-cycle sine waves that
2 J
are always positive (Fig. 2 I. I 3c). The voltage pul-
\ I
~
\ sates between zero and a maximum value E 111 equal
-- to the peak voltage of the source. The average
Figure 21.12c value of this rectified voltage is given by
See Example 21-1. Ed= 0.90E (21.1)
where
Similarly, the ordinates are scaled off in 10 V
intervals. Consequently, each small square rep- Eu = de voltage of a single-phase bridge recti-
resents an area of ( 1/1440 s) X I 0 V = fier [VJ
0.006944 V·s = 6.944 mV-s.
E = effective value of the ac line voltage [V]
b. By counting squares, we find that A<+> contains
approximately 19 squares; consequently, its area 0.90 = constant [exact value = (2V2) I 7T l
corresponds to Referring to Fig. 2 I. I 3b, in addition to drawing the
A(+>= 19 X 6.944 = 132 mV-s = 0.132 V·s curve E 12 for the source voltage, we have also drawn
curve E 21 • This enables us to use the potential levels
The peak current is, therefore, of either terminals I or 2 as zero reference potentials.
/max= A(+/L = 0.132/0.0033 = 40A Thus, we can select as reference level terminal 2 dur-
ing the first half-cycle, terminal I during the second
Thus, the current reaches the same peak with an in- half-cycle, terminal 2 during the third half-cycle, and
ductor of 3.3 mH as it did with a resistor of I D. so forth, on alternate half-cycles. By using this tech-
However, the big advantage of the inductor is that it nique, terminal 4 always remains at zero potential
has essentially no losses. The conversion of ac power while terminal 3 follows the positive portion of the
to de power is therefore much more efficient. sine waves. It then becomes evident that E 34 across
the load is a pulsating de voltage. Figure 2 I. I 3c shows
21.7 Single-phase bridge rectifier the rectified voltage and current of the load.
In addition to its de value, load voltage E34 con-
The circuit of Fig. 2 l. I 3a enables us to rectify both
tains an ac component whose fundamental fre-
the positive and negative half-cycles of an ac source,
quency is twice the line frequency. In effect, the
to supply de power to a load R. The four diodes to-
voltage across the load pulsates between zero and
gether make up what is called a single-phase bridge
rect!fiei: It is available in a single package.
+ E 111 , twice per cycle. Consequently, the peak-to-
peak ripple is equal to E 111 •
The circuit operates as follows: When source
In the case of a resistive load, the current has the
voltage E 12 is positive, terminal I is positive with
same waveshape as the voltage; its average, o'r de
respect to terminal 2 and current ia flows through
value, is given by
R by way of diodes A 1 and A2. Consequently,
point 3 follows point 1, and point 4 follows point /u = EjR
 FUNDAMENTAL ELEMENTS OF POWER ELECTRONICS 481

(a) (bl

Figure 21.13
a. Single-phase bridge rectifier.
b. Voltage levels.

Figure 21.13c
Voltage and current waveforms in load R.

Example 21-2 b. The de current in the load is known to be 20 A,

The ac source in 2 I - l 3a has an effective voltage but the diodes only carry the current on alter-
of 120 V. 60 Hz. The load draws a de current of 20 A. nate half-cycles. Consequently, the average de
current in each diode is:
Calculate
a. The de voltage across the load I = /d/2 20/2 = I0 A
b. The average de current in each diode
21.8 Filters
Solution
a. The de voltage across the load is given by Eq. The rectifier circuits we have studied so far produce
21.l: pulsating voltages and currents. In some types of
loads, we cannot tolerate such pulsations, and.filters
Et1 = 0.90£
must be used to smooth out the valleys and peaks. The
0.90 x 120 basic purpose of a de filter is to produce a smooth
108 v power flow into a load. Consequently, a filter must
482 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC DRIVES

inductor absorbs energy

/ 3

Figure 21.15
Current and voltage waveforms with inductive filter.

The load current in Fig. 2 l. I4a is much more con-

(a) (b)
stant than in 2 l.l 3a. The voltage between ter-
minals 3 and 4 pulsates between zero and Em as be-
Figure 21.14 fore, but the voltage £ 54 across the load is very
a. Rectifier with inductive filter. smooth (Fig. 21.15). The de voltage across the load
b. Rectifier with capacitive filter. is still given by Eq. 21. l. This is to be expected be-
cause the de IR drop across the inductor is negligi-
absorb energy whenever the de voltage or current
bly small.
tends to rise, and it must release energy whenever
Bridge rectifiers are used to provide de current for
the voltage or current tends to fall. In this way the
relays, electromagnets, motors, and many other mag-
filter tends to maintain a constant voltage and cur-
netic devices. In most cases the self-inductance of the
rent in the load.
coil is sufficient to provide good filtering. Thus, al-
The most common filters are inductors and ca-
though the voltage across a coil may pulsate very
pacitors. Inductors store energy in their magnetic
strongly, the de current can be smooth. Consequently,
field. They tend to maintain a constant current; con-
the magnetic field pulsates very little.
sequently. they are placed in series with the load
(Fig. 2I.14a). Capacitors store energy in their elec-
tric field. They tend to maintain a constant voltage; Example 21-3
consequently, they are placed in parallel with the We wish to build a 135 V, 20 A de power supply us-
load (Fig. 2 I. I 4b ). ing a single-phase bridge rectifier and an inductive
The greater the amount of energy stored in the filter. The peak-to-peak current ripple should be
filter, the better is the filtering action. In the case of about 10%. If a 60 Hz ac source is available, calcu-
a bridge rectifier using an inductor, the peak-to- late the following:
peak ripple in percent is given by a. The effective value of the ac voltage
. p b. The energy stored in the inductor
npple = 5.5 -:W (21.2)
.f L c. The inductance of the inductor
where d. The peak-to-peak current ripple
ripple peak-to-peak current as a percent of Solution
the de current [%] a. The effective ac voltage E can be derived from
WL = de energy stored in the smoothing 21.1:
inductor [JJ
0.9£
P = de power drawn by the load [Wl
f = frequency of the source [Hz] 135 0.9 E
5.5 = coefficient to take care of units E 150V
 FUNDAMENTAL ELEMENTS OF POWER ELECTRONICS 483

b. The de power output of the rectifier is

p = Ed/J
135 x 20 = 2700 w
The energy to be stored in the inductor or "choke"
is given by
5.5 p
WL (21.2)
f ripple
5.5 x 2700
60 x 10
24.75 J
Consequently, to obtain a peak-to-peak current rip-
ple of I0 percent, the inductor must store 24. 75 J
in its magnetic field.
c. The inductance of the choke can be calculated
from
1 L/2 (2.8)
2 d
@
l
24.75 L(20) 2
2 R
L 0.124H
Figure 21.16
d. The peak-to-peak ripple is about I 0 percent of Three-phase, 3-pulse rectifier with inductive filter fed
the de current: by a 3-phase transformer.
/peak-tu-peak = O. J X 20 2A
The de output current therefore pulsates between introduction to 3-phase rectifiers m general. We
19 Aand 21 A. now analyze its behavior.
1. Voltage Across the Load. By choosing the
21.9 Three-phase, 3-pulse transformer neutral as the zero potential reference
point, the secondary terminals follow the voltage
diode rectifier levels l, 2, 3 shown in 21.17. These potential
The simplest 3-phase rectifier is composed of three levels are rigidly fixed by the ac source and they
diodes connected in series with the secondary wind- successively reach a peak value
ings of a 3-phase, delta-wye transformer (Fig. Before the transformer is energized, points K, 4,
21.16 ). The line-to-neutral voltage has a peak value N are at the same level because /d is zero. However,
£ 111 • A filter inductance Lis connected in series the moment we apply power, voltages £,N, £ 2N,
with the load, so that current /d remains essentially £_,,N appear. Consequently, at t 0 the potential of
ripple-free. Although the load is represented by a point 1 suddenly becomes positive with respect to
resistance R, in reality it is always a useful energy- K. This immediately initiates conduction in diode
consuming device and not a heat-dissipating resis- DI (Section 21.3, Rule 3). Current i 1 increases
tor. Thus, the load may be a de motor, a large mag- rapidly, attaining a final value I which depends
net, or an electroplating bath. This simple rectifier upon load R. During this interval K is at the same
has some serious drawbacks, but it provides a good level as point 1 because the diode is conducting.
484 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC DRIVES

• •• # • •• :

·... ..... /
®x.....
............ ../
j<..... ri/-·-....
.................... .............. ··
sl·····.
• ~·

Figure 21.17
Voltage and current waveforms in a 3-phase, 3-pulse rectifier.

As points K and 1 move together in time, they The next critical moment occurs at 18()0, because
eventually reach a critical moment, corresponding terminal 3 then becomes positive with respect to
to an angle 00 of 60° (Fig. 21.17). The moment is point 2 (and point K). Commutation again takes
critical because immediately later, terminal 2 be- place as the load current switches from diode 02 to
comes positive with respect to K and 1. According diode 03. Point K therefore follows the positive
to Rule 3. this initiates conduction in diode 02. so peaks of waves 1, 2, and 3, and each diode carries the
that it begins to carry current /. At the same time full-load current for equal intervals of time ( 120°).
that conduction starts in diode 02, it ceases in diode The diode currents i 1 , ( 1 have rectangular wave-

0 I. Consequently. beyond 60°, point K follows the shapes composed of positive current intervals of
level of point 2. 120° followed by zero current intervals of 240°.
The sudden switchover from one diode to an- Voltage EKN across the load and inductor in Fig.
other is called commutation. When the switchover 21.17 pulsates between 0.5 and Em. The ripple
takes place automatically (as it does in our exam- voltage is therefore smaller than that produced by a
ple), it is called natural commutation, or line com- single-phase bridge rectifier (Fig. 21.15). Moreover,
mutation. In this book we prefer the term line com- the fundamental ripple frequency is three times the
mutation, because it is the line voltage that forces supply frequency, which makes it easier to achieve
the transfer of current from one diode to the next. good filtering. The de voltage across the load 1s
Commutation from one diode to another does not given by
really take place instantaneously, as we have indi-
cated. Owing to transformer leakage reactance, the 0.675 E (21.3)
current gradually increases in diode 02 while it de- where
creases in diode 01. This gradual transition contin-
ues until all the load current is carried by diode 02. = average or de voltage of a 3-pulser rec-
However, the commutation period is very short (typ- tifier LVJ
ically less than 2 ms on a 60 Hz system) and, for our E effective ac line voltage [VJ _
purposes, we will assume it occurs instantaneously. 0.675 =a constant !exact value 3/(Tr V2)]
 FUNDAMENTAL ELEMENTS OF POWER ELECTRON/CS 485

Note that if we reverse the diodes in 21. l 6, the 21.1 O Three-phase, 6-pulse rectifier*
rectifier operates the same way, except that the load
current reverses. Voltage £KN becomes negative Consider the circuit of Fig. 21.18 in which a trans-
and point K follows the negative peaks of waves l, former T (identical to the one shown in Fig. 21.16 ),
2, and 3. supplies power to 6 diodes and their associated de
loads R 1 and R2 . The upper set of diodes together
2. Line Currents Currents i 1, i 2 , i3 that flow in the
with inductor L 1 and load R 1 are identical to the
diodes also flow in the secondary windings of the
3-phase, 3-pulse rectifier we have just studied.
transformer. As we have seen, these currents have
Thus, load current ( 11 flows in the neutral line, as
a chopped rectangular waveshape which is qui.te
shown. The lower set of diodes, together with R1
different from the sinusoidal currents we are famil-
and L", also constitute a 3-phase, 3-pulse rectifier
iar with. Furthermore, the currents flow for only
but with the polarity reversed. The corresponding
one-third of the time in a given winding. Due to
load current Jd 2 flows in the neutral, as shown. The
this intermittent flow, the maximum possible de
two 3-phase rectifiers operate quite independently
output power is less than the nominal rating of the
of each other, K following the positive peaks of
transformer. For example, if the transformer in Fig.
points 1, 2, 3 while A follows the negative peaks.
21.16 has a rating of 100 k VA, we can show that it
All diodes conduct during 120° intervals.
can only deliver 74 kW of de power without over-
If we make R 1 R2 , then ( 11 (12 and the de
heating.
current in the neutral becomes zero. Consequently,
The chopped secondary currents are reflected
we can remove the neutral conductor, yielding the
into the primary windings, with the result that the
circuit of Fig. 21.19. The two loads and the two in-
line currents feeding the transformer also change
ductors are simply combined into one, shown as R
very abruptly. The sudden jumps in currents J", 10,
and L, respectively. The 6 diodes constitute what is
and Jc produce rapid fluctuations in the magnetic
called a 3-phase, 6-pulse rectifier. It is called
field surrounding the feeder. These fluctuations can
6-pulse because the currents flowing in the 6 diodes
induce substantial voltages and noise in nearby tele-
start at 6 different moments during each cycle of the
phone lines. .
line frequency. However. each diode still conducts
Because of these drawbacks, we try to design
for only 120°.
rectifiers so that the transformer windings carry
current for more than one-third of the time. This is
achieved by using 3-phase, 6-pulse rectifier. Also called a 3-phase bridge rectifier.

K
Li

~
<D Ri
3-phase
source T

®
@

A
r:
Figure 21.18
Dual 3-phase, 3-pulse rectifier.
486 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC DRIVES

01 i2 r 02 i1 r 03 f
L
3-phase
T
I
source Ed
@
I R

04 is r 05 i61 06 I
® l
A

Figure 21.19
Three-phase, 6-pulse rectifier with inductive filter.

The line currents /a, /h· le supplied by the trans- ages, E 12 , E 31 (and E 21 , E 13 ) rather than
former are given by Kirchhoff's law: the line-to-neutral voltages used in Fig. 21.20. The
level of K follows the tops of the successive sine
/a = j I i4
waves while A remains at zero potential. The out-
/h = i2 i5 put voltage fluctuates between 1.414 E and
1.225 E, where Eis the effective value of the line
voltage. The average value of £KA is 1.35 E, as
They consist of three identical rectangular waves given by Eq. 21.4.
that are out of phase by 120° (Fig. 21.20). The cur- The peak-to-peak ripple is only ( 1.414 1.225) E
rents now flow for two-thirds of the time in the sec- 0.189 E and the fundamental ripple frequency is
ondary windings. As a result, it can be shown that a six times the line frequency. Consequently, the rip-
100 kVA transformer can deliver 95 kW of de ple is much easier to filter. The approximate peak-
power without overheating. to-peak current ripple in percent is given by
Figs. 21.18 and 21.19 reveal that the average de p
output voltage is twice that of a 3-phase. 3-pulse ripple = 0.17 (21.5)
fWL
rectifier. Its value is given by
where
Ec1 1.35 E (21.4) ripple = peak-to-peak current as a percent of
the de current f% I
where
WL de energy stored in the inductor [J]
Ed = de voltage of a 6-pulse rectifier [Vl P de power drawn by the load l W]

E =effective line voltage fVJ

f = frequency of the 3-phase, 6-pulse
source lHz]
1.35 a constant [exact value 3 V2 /Til
Fig. 21.21 shows that the inductor stores energy
The instantaneous output voltage is equal to the in- whenever the rectifier voltage exceeds the average
tercept between levels K and A in 21.20. value E"J. This energy is then released during the brief
However, it is much easier to visualize the wave- interval when the rectifier voltage is less than Ed.
shape of EKA by using terminal A as a reference The peak inverse voltage across each diod~ is
point. Thus, in 21.21, we show the line volt- equal to the peak value of the line voltage, or \ 2 £.
 FUNDAMENTAL ELEMENTS OF POWER ELECTRON/CS 487

Em
········...

/ \

..../· ........... 360

120 240
N 0 60

':I ;,
~41-----1-·6----'""-----i4______.______ i_s____..._____ i6----~
+ 'do_!rli!il~!m1~1!i!t:_
1'' ' +'HT0a
_ ,d lmrnmrnmmmmmmmrnmm

,'d
+ od+-j ---.l;il1~mmm=rnmm=wmm=·mmm:...._
1t!_b~~~-r_::nr_+::::;::::
- ~ 1m: ,\:.:m:mmm:m::rnrn::m:I

+ Id j m1:mm1:1::m1mrn:1:1:m:1:1rn1:11..:c
-~................................__1'!'11:~wrnm1'li~ui::mi,:!:~::;2rr:m".:·.. ·,
_ , :"""1m,.,.,.:1m::"""'m:::.,.,.,.mw:...,.,.w:=m:w=mmr-1

Figure 21.20
Voltage and current waveforms in Fig. 21.19.

The 3-phase, 6-pulse rectifier is a big improve- terminals to the ac lines. The connections can be
ment over the 3-phase, 3-pulse rectifier. It consti- made in six distinct ways, as shown in Fig. 21.22. It
tutes the basic building block of most large rectifier follows that the output voltage EKA is composed of
installations. segments of the ac line voltages. That is why we draw
Another way of looking at the 3-phase bridge rec- line voltages in 21.21 instead of line-to-neutral
tifier is to imagine the diodes to be in a box (Fig. voltages.
21 The box is fed by three ac lines and it has two Each dotted connection in 21.22 represents
output terminals K and A. The diodes act like a diode that is conducting. The successive 60-de-
automatic switches that successively connect these gree intervals correspond to those in Fig. 21.20. For
488 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC DRIVES

L stores energy

Figure 21.21
Another way of showing EKA using line voltage potentials. Note also the position of E2 N with respect to the line volt-
ages.

(a) (d)

(b) (e)

(c) (f)

Figure 21.22
Successive diode connections between the 3-phase input and de output terminals of a 3-phase, 6-pulse rectifier.
 FUNDAMENTAL ELEMENTS OF POWER ELECTRONICS 489

example, from 300° to 360°, because i 1 and i5 are Fundamental ripple frequency
flowing, diodes D 1 and 05 are conducting. It fol- 6 X 60 Hz = 360 Hz
lows from Fig. 21.19 that K is effectively connected
to line I while A is effectively connected to line 2. Example 21-5
Because the diode voltage drop is small, we can a. Calculate the inductance of the smoothing choke
assume that each dotted line represents a loss-free required in Example 21-4, if the peak-to-peak
connection. The de power absorbed by the load ripple in the current is not to exceed 5 percent.
must therefore be equal to the active power drawn b. Does the presence of the choke modify the
from the 3-phase source. peak-to-peak ripple in the output voltage
..,
Example 21-4 Solution
A 3-phase bridge rectifier has to supply power to a a. Using Eq. 2 I .5, we have
360 kW, 240 V de load. If a 600 V, 3-phase, 60 Hz 0.17 p
feeder is available, calculate the following: ripple = f'W
. L

a. Voltage rating of the 3-phase transformer

5 = 0. 17
--------
x 360 000
b. DC current per diode 60 x WL
c. PIV across each diode WL = 204J
d. Peak-to-peak ripple in the output voltage and
Consequently, the inductor must store 204 J in its
its frequency
magnetic field. The inductance is found from
Solution I .,
a. Secondary line voltage is WL = 2 Ll-:t
E Edll .35 240/1.35 I
204 = L ( 1500) 2
177 v 2
4
Thus, a 3-phase transformer having a line volt- L 1.8 x IO
age ratio of 600 V /177 V would be satisfactory. 0.18 mH
The primary and secondary windings may be b. The presence of the choke does not affect the
connected either in wye or in delta. voltage ripple between Kand A. It remains at
b. de load cuffent /0 = 360 kW/240 1500 A 33 V peak-to-peak.
de current per diode = 1500/3 = 500 A
peak current in each diode = 1500 A 21.11 Effective line current,
fundamental line current
c. PIV across each diode
We saw in Fig. 21.20 that the ac line currents con-
E = 1.414 x 177
sist of 120-degree rectangular waves having an am-
250 v plitude / 0 , where ( 1 is the de current flowing in the
d. The output voltage £KA fluctuates between load. Let us direct our attention to the current /b
1.225 E and 1.414 E (Fig. 21.21 ). Jn other flowing in line 2 and to the corresponding line-to-
words, the voltage fluctuates between neutral voltage E2 r:.;. They are shown in Fig. 21.23
and it can be seen that the rectangular current wave
1.225 x 177 = 217 V and is symmetrically located with respect to the sinu-
1.414 x 177 = 250V soidal voltage maximum. In other words, the center
of the positive current pulse coincides with the peak
The peak-to-peak ripple is, therefore,
of the positive voltage wave. Thus, /h can be con-
sidered to be "in phase" with £ 2 N.
490 ELECTRll'ALAND ELECTRONIC DRIVES

Thus, owing to the presence of harmonics, the

fundamental component fr- is slightly less than the
effective value of the line current/.

0 21.12 Distortion power factor

We have just seen that the fundamental component
his in phase with the corresponding line-to-neutral
voltage (Fig. 21.23). Consequently, we would be in-
Figure 21.23 clined to say that the power factor of the 3-phase,
Line-to-neutral voltage and line current in phase 2 of 6-pulse rectifier is I 00 percent. However, by defin-
Fig. 21.20. ition, power factor is given by the expression
active power
The effective value I of the rectangular line cur- power factor = -~
apparent power
rent can be deduced from the relationship
active power
t2 X 180° = I} X 120°
-- - ---

effective voltage X effective current X V3

therefore
Elr_ /F
I= 20/180 Id EIV3 EI\r3 I
0.816 /d (21.6) But according to Eq. 21.8, Ir 0.955 I. As a result.
This effective current is composed of ajimdame11- power factor = 0.955
tal rms component Ir plus all the harmonic compo- Thus, the actual power factor is not I 00% but only
nents. As we have seen, Ir is in phase with the line-
95.5%. The reason is that the line current is rectan-
to-neutral voltage.
gular and not sinusoidal. Thus, the power factor of
What is the value of Ir? To calculate it we reason
95.5% is due to distortion in the current.
as follows: Although the power factor of our rectifier is less
The de power to the load is
than I 00%. the fundamental component of current
Pct= Ed/d is nevertheless in phase with the line-to-neutral
voltage. Consequently. this ideal rectifier absorbs
The active ac power supplied to the rectifier (and its
no reactive power from the line.
load) is
(8.9)
21.13 Displacement power factor,
Because no power is lost or stored in our ideal recti-
fier, it follows that Pac Pd. We can therefore write
total power factor
In Fig. 21.23, the fundamental component of cur-
Pac pd
rent is in phase with the line-to-neutral voltage.
V3 Elf:'= Eufd However, in later circuits we will discover that the
1.35 Elct rectangular current wave can shift so that it lags be-
hind the line-to-neutral voltage. This causes the
and so /F = 0.78 /d (21.7)
fundamental component /F to shift along wi,th it.
Combining Eqs. 21.6 and 21.7 we find
Ir 0.955 I (21.8) Harmonics <ire discussed in detail in Chapter 30.
 FUNDAMENTAL ELEMENTS OF POWER ELECTRONICS 491

This angular shift of the fundamental component of in which /HA• /HB• /He• etc., are therms values of the
current with respect to the line-to-neutral voltage is harmonic components in the line current.
called displacement, and the cosine of the angle is The rectangular wave in Fig. 21.23 contains the
called displacement power factor. The displace- 5th. 7th, 11th, 13th, 17th, harmonics, and so forth; in
ment power factor in Fig. 21.23 is unity. The total other words, all odd harmonics that are not multiples
power factor of a load or electrical installation is of 3. The remarkable feature of these harmonic com-
given by the expression: ponents is that their respective amplitudes are equal
p to the amplitude of the fundamental IF divided by the
Total power factor (21.9a) order of the harmonic. For example, if the funda-
£/L mental component has an rms value of 1500 A, the
The displacement power factor is given by: 17th harmonic has an rms value of 1500/ 17 88 A.
The degree of distortion of an ac voltage or cur-
p
Displacement power factor (2 l.9b) rent is defined as the ratio of therms value of all the
EIF harmonics divided by the rms value of the funda-
In these equations, mental component. This total harmonic distortion
(THD) is given by the formula
P = active power per phase [W]
E = effective value of voltage per phase [V] THD = /H (21.1 lb)
/L = effective value of line current including /F
the fundamental and harmonics lAJ where IF and /H are defined as before.
/ 1, = effective value of fundamental For more information on harmonics, the reader
component of line current lAJ should refer to Chapter 30.

21.14 Harmonic content and THO Example 21-6

The 3-phase, 6-pulse rectifier in Fig. 21.19 furnishes
The rectangular current wave of Fig. 21.23 occurs
a de current of 400 A to the load. Estimate, for line I:
very frequently in power electronics. It is there-
fore worthwhile to examine it more closely, par- a. The effective value of the line current mea-
ticularly as regards its harmonic content. First, any sured by an rms hook-on ammeter
periodic current in a line can be expressed by the b. The effective value of the fundamental compo-
equation nent of line current
c. The peak value of the 7th harmonic
(
2
I~+ I~ (2 l.10)
d. The rms value of the 7th and 11th harmonics
in which combined

I rms value of the line current Solution

/F rms value of the fundamental com- a. The effective or rms value of the line current is
ponent of line current I 0.816 /d 0.816 X 400 326 A (21.6)
/H rms value of all the harmonic com-
b. The rms value of the fundamental is
ponents combined
h 0.9551 = 0.955 X 326 311 A
It can also be shown that the total harmonic content
I~ is equal to the sum of the squares of the individ- c. The rms value of the 7th harmonic is
ual harmonics. Thus, we can write .

(21.11 a) The peak value of the /H 7 = 44 62A

492 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC DRIVES

d. The rms value of the 11th harmonic /Fil I = pulse to the gate (Fig. 21.25b). In some ap-
311/11 28 A plications, ~t is useful to prolong the pulse for
The rms value of the 7th and 11th harmonics com- several millise<,;~onds.
bined is given by As soon as conduction starts. the gate loses all
further control. Conduction will only stop when an-
/~H7-HI!) = /~7 +/~II
ode current I falls to zero. after which the gate again
44 2 + 28 2 = 2720 exe1ts control.
r:::::=
consequently,/iH?~HllJ = 'v2720 52A Basically, a thyristor behaves the same way a
diode does except that the gate enables us to initiate
THE THYRISTOR AND conduction precisely when we want to. This seem-
THYRISTOR CIRCUITS ingly slight advantage is of profound importance. It
enables us not only to convert ac power into de
21.15 The thyristor* power, but also to do the reverse: convert de power
into ac power. Thanks to the development of reli-
A thyristor is an electronic switch, similar to a able SCRs we have witnessed a fundamental
diode, but wherein the instant of conduction can be change in the control of large blocks of power.
controlled. Like a diode, a thyristor possesses an Table 21 B lists some of the properties of typical
anode and a cathode, plus a third terminal called a thyristors. See also Figure 21.26.
gate (Fig. 21.24). If the gate is connected to the
cathode, the thyristor will not conduct, even if the
1 21.16 Principles of gate firing
anode is positive. - The thyristor is said to be
blocked (Fig. 2 l .25a). To initiate conduction, two Consider Fig. 21.27a in which a thyristor and a re-
conditions have to be met: sistor are connected in series across an ac source. A
number of short positive pulses Eg is applied to the
a. The anode must be positive.
gate. of sufficient amplitude to initiate conduction.
b. A current lg must tlow into the gate for at least
provided the anode is positive. These pulses may be
a few microseconds. In practice, the current is
generated by a manual switch or an electronic con-
injected by applying a short positive voltage
trol circuit.
A Referring to Fig. 2 I .27b, the gate pulses occur at
ga+a J,anode angles 0 1, 0 2 , B,. O_,. and 05 • Table 2 IC explains how
G =-tK
cathode
the circuit reacts to these pulses. The reader should
follow the explanations carefully.

Figure 21.24 A
Symbol of a thyristor, or SCR.
I

Thyristor is a generic term that applies to all 4-layer control-

lable semiconductor devices. However, we use it in this book
to refer specifically to the reverse-blocking triode thyri~tor.
commonly called SCR (semiconductor controlled rectifier).
(al (b)
This is in response to a general trend in the literature to use
the terms SCR and thyri,tor interchangeably.
To simplify the wording. we adopt the following terms: Figure 21.25
I. When the anode i' positive with respect to the cathode. we a. A thyristor does not conduct when the gate is con-
simply say the anode is po;;itive. nected to the cathode.
2. When the gate is po,itive with respect to the cathode, we b. A thyristor conducts when the anode is positive
simply say the gate is positive. and a current pulse is injected into the gate.
 FUNDAMENTAL ELEMENTS OF POWER ELECTRONICS 493

TABLE 218 PROPERTIES OF SOME TYPICAL THYRISTORS

Relative power 11 [A] (,[A] £ 2 [Y] Ep[V] JG [mA] Ec;[YJ TJ [°CJ d[mm] /[mm]

medium 8 60 500 -10 50 2.5 105 II 33

high 110 I 500 1200 -5 50 1.25 125 27 62
very high 1200 10000 1200 -20 50 1.5 125 58 27
11 - maximum effective current during conduction
(-r - peak value of surge current for one cycle
E2 - peak inverse anode voltage
EP - peak inverse gate voltage
EG- positive gate voltage to initiate conduction
le; - gate current corresponding to Ee;
T1 - maximum junction temperature
d - diameter
I - length

(a) (c)

(b)

Figure 21.26
Range of SCRs from medium to very high power capacity.
a. Average current: 50 A; voltage: 400 V; length less thread: 31 mm; diameter: 17 mm.
b. Average current: 285 A; voltage~_1200 V; length less thread: 244 mm; diameter: 37 mm.
c. Average current: 1000 A; voltage: 1~00 V; distance between pole-faces: 27 mm; overall diameter: 73 mm.
(Photos courtesy of International Rectifier)

493
494 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC DRIVES

1):4 o:s

© l l
(a) (b)

Figure 21.27
a. Thyristor and resistor connected to an ac source.
b. Thyristor behavior depends on the timing of the gate pulses.

TABLE 21 C DESCRIPTION OF THYRISTOR BEHAVIOR (SEE FIG. 21.27)

Angle or time interval Explanation of circuit operation

zero to 0 1 Although the anode is positive, conduction is impossible because the gate voltage is zero. The
thyristor behaves like an open switch.
angle 0 1 Conduction starts because both the anode and gate are positive.
0 1 to 180° Conduction continues even though the gate voltage has fallen to zero. Gate pulses have no fur-
ther effect once the thyristor conducts. The anode to cathode voltage drop is less than 1.5 V:
consequently. we can consider that the anode and cathode are shorted. The thyristor behaves like
a closed switch.
angle 180° The thyristor current is zero, conduction ceases. and the gate regains control.
180° to 360° Conduction is impossible because the anode is negative. Although the gate is triggered at angle
0:,, it produces no effect. The thyristor experiences an inverse voltage during this half-cycle.
360° to 540° Conduction starts at 8J and ceases again as soon as the current is zero. The gate pulse is delayed
more than during the first positive half-cycle. Consequently, the anode current flows for a
shorter time.
720° to 900° Conduction starts at angle 85 , but the resulting anode current is very small because of the long
delay in firing the gate.

To summarize Table 21 C, we can control the 21.17 Power gain of a thyristor

current in an ac circuit by delaying the gate pulses
with respect to the start of each positive half-cycle. When a voltage pulse is applied to the gate, a certain
If the pulses occur at the very beginning of each gate current flows. Because the pulses last only a few
half-cycle, conduction lasts for 180°, and the thyris- microseconds, the average power supplied to the gate
tor behaves like an ordinary diode. On the other is very small, in comparison to the average power sup-
hand, with a resistive load-if the pulses are de- plied to the load. The ratio of the two powers, called
layed, say, by 150°-current only flows during the power gain, may exceed one million. Thus, an average
remaining 30° of each half-cycle. gate input of only l W may control a load of I000 kW.
 FUNDAMENTAL ELEMENTS OF POWER ELECTRONICS 495

An SCR does not, of course, have the magical The first two solutions are trivial, so let us ex-
property of turning one watt into a million watts. amine the third method. In Fig. 2 I .28b, a variable
The "large power actually comes from an appropri- current source C delivering a current 12 is connected
ate power source, and the SCR gate only serves to in parallel with thyristor Q 1. As we gradually in-
control the power flow. Thus, in the same way that crease 12 , the net current (1 1 - 12 ) flowing in the
a small power input to the accelerator of an auto- thyristor decreases. However, so long as the net cur-
mobile produces a tremendous increase in motive rent is not zero, the thyristor continues to conduct,
power, so does a small input to the gate of an SCR with the result that the current flowing in the resis-
produce a tremendous increase in electrical power. tor is unchanged. But if we increase 12 until it is
equal to 11, the thyristor stops conducting, and the
21.18 Current interruption gate regains control. In practice, 12 can be a brief
and forced commutation current pulse, usually supplied by triggering a sec-
ond thyristor. For example, in Fig. 2 I .29a, a load R
A thyristor ceases to conduct and the gate regains can be switched on and off by alternately firing
control only after the anode current falls to zero. thyristors QI and Q2.
The current may cease flowing quite naturally (as it To understand how the circuit operates, suppose
did at the end of each cycle in Fig. 21.27) or we can QI is conducting and Q2 is not. We assume that the
force it to zero artificially. Such forced commuta- circuit has been in operation long enough so that the
tion is required in some circuits where the anode voltages and currents have reached their steady-
current has to be interrupted at a specific instant. state values. It follows that capacitor C is charged to
Consider Fig. 2 l .28a in which a thyristor and a the supply voltage £, with polarities as shown in
load resistor R are connected in series across a de 2 l .29a. Neglecting the voltage drop across Q l,
source E. If we apply a single positive pulse to the full voltage appears across load R. Thus, 11 E/R
gate, the resulting de load current 11 will flow in- and l 2 0.
definitely thereafter. However, we can stop conduc- To stop conduction in QI, we trigger thyristor
tion in the SCR in one of 3 ways: Q2 (Fig. 2 I .29b). This causes the capacitor to dis-
charge in the circuit formed by C, QI, and Q2.
I. Momentarily reduce the de supply voltage E to The discharge current le forces QI to stop con-
zero. ducting and produces the condition shown in Fig.
2. Open the load circuit by means of a switch. 2 l .29c. The level of point 1 drops to E volts be-
3. Force the anode current to zero for a brief period. low the level of point K, with the result that 11
reaches a momentary peak of 11 = 2 EIR. Current
11 will quickly charge the capacitor in the oppo-
site way and so point 1 will eventually reach the
R R level of point 3. When the transients have sub-
sided, the circuit appears as shown in Fig. 2 I .29d,
E E
but with 11 0. Current 12 can be made much
® smaller than load current 11 by using a relatively

'i l /I! 01G_ c high resistance R0 •

To restart conduction in the load, we fire QI,
producing the condition shown in Fig. 2 I .29e.
(a) ® (b) © Discharge current le now causes the extinction of
Q2, and the capacitor charges up with the opposite
Figure 21.28 polarity as shown in 2 l .29f. When conditions
a. Thyristor connected to a de source. become stable, the circuit reverts to the one we
b. Forced commutation. started with, namely 2 I .29a.
496 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC DRIVES

® 0 0

01 01
® ® ®
(a) (b) (c)

0 0 0

I, l Ru R R,,

02 01

® ® ®
(d) (e) (t)

Figure 21.29
A discharging capacitor C and an auxiliary thyristor 02 can force-commutate the main thyristor 01. Thus, the cur-
rent in load R can be switched on and off by triggering 01 and 02 in succession.

This type of forced commutation, using a com- listed in Table 21 D. They are labeled circuit t, cir-
mutating capacitor, is employed in some convert- cuit 2, circuit 3, ... circuit 6.
ers* that generate their own frequency. However, To explain the principle of operation of these ba-
the availability of GTOs, MOSFETs, and IGBTs has sic circuits, we will use single-phase sources.
largely eliminated the need to use thyristors in such In practice, 3-phase sources are mainly used, but
force-commutated applications. For this reason, in single-phase examples are less complex, and they
the following discussion of thyristor power circuits, enable us to focus attention on the essential princi-
we consider only those involving line commutation. ples involved.

21.19 Basic thyristor 21.20 Controlled rectifier supplying

power circuits a passive load (Circuit 1,
Table 210)
Thyristors are used in many different ways.
However, in power electronics, six basic circuits By definition, a passive load is one that contains no
cover about 90 percent of all industrial applications. inherent source of energy. The simplest passive
These circuits, and some of their applications, are load is a resistor.
Fig. 2 I .30a shows a resistive load and a thyristor
connected in series across a single-phase source. The
* A converter j, any device that converts power of one fre-
quency into power of another frequency. including zero fre-
source produces a sinusoidal voltage having a peak
quency (de). A converter may be a rectifier. inverter. or even value £ 111 • The gate pulses are synchronized with the
a rotating machine. line frequency and, in our example, they are delayed
 FUNDAMENTAL ELEMENTS OF POWER ELECTRON/CS 497

TABLE 210 SOME BASIC THYRISTOR POWER CIRCUITS

Circuit No. Thyristor circuit Typical applications

Controlled rectifier supplying a passive load Electroplating, de arc welding, electrolysis

2 Controlled rectifier supplying an active load Battery charger, de motor control, de transmis-
sion line
3 Line-commutated inverter supplying an active ac load AC motor control, wound-rotor motor
control, de transmission line
4 AC static switch Spot welding, lighting control, ac motor
control, ac starter
5 Cycloconverter Low-speed synchronous motor control, elec-
troslag refining of metals
6 Three-phase converter High-voltage de transmission, synchronous mo-
tor drive

by an angle of 90°. Conduction is therefore initiated 21.21 Controlled rectifier supplying

every time the ac voltage reaches its maximum posi- an active load (Circuit 2,
tive value. Based upon explanations given in Section
Table 210)
21.16, it is obvious that current will flow for 90°.
In 2 I .30b, it is seen that the current lags be- 21. 31 shows an ac source Em and a de load
hind the voltage because it only flows during the fi- connected by an SCR in series with an inductor. The
nal 90 This lag produces the same effect as load (represented by a battery) receives energy be-
an inductive load. Consequently, the ac source has cause when the thyristor conducts, current I enters
to supply reactive power Qin addition to the active the positive terminal. Smoothing inductor L limits
power P (see Section 7 .13 ). The displacement the peak current to a value within the SCR rating.
power factor decreases as we delay the triggering Gate pulses Eg initiate conduction at an angle 01
pulse. On the other hand. if the SCR is triggered at 21.31b).
zero degrees (the start of the cycle), no reactive
power is absorbed by the rectifier.

® ®"'""'
--~~~--+-~~~·

~
"'terminal@chosen
(a) {b) as reference

Figure 21.30
a. SCR supplying a passive load.
b. Voltage and current waveforms.
498 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC DRIVES

Using terminal I as a zero reference potential, it The current then gradually decreases and becomes
follows that the potential of terminal 2 lies Ed volts zero at anglG ~ 3 • where A 1 _) is equal to At+ 1• As
above it. Furthermore, the potential of terminal A soon as conduction stops, point K jumps from level
oscillates sinusoidally above and below the level of A to the level of point 2 and stays there until the
terminal I. next gate pulse. The level of K is shown by the dot-
If the SCR were replaced by a diode, conduction ted line. As in circuit I (Fig. 21.30), the load current
would begin at angle 00 because this is the instant lags (is displaced) behind voltage Em; conse-
when the anode becomes positive. However, in our quently, the source again has to supply reactive
example, conduction only begins when the gate is power Q as well as active power P. If we reduce the
fired at 0 1 degrees. As soon as conduction starts, firing angle a, area At+ l increases, and so does cur-
point K jumps from level 2 to the level of point A, rent/. We can therefore vary the active power sup-
and voltage appears across the inductor. The plied to the load from zero (a = ai) to a maximum
latter begins storing volt-seconds, and current I in- (a 0), where a is measured starting from 00 .
creases accordingly. The volt-seconds reach a max- From a practical point of view, the circuit could
imum at 02 , where area A(+> is maximum. The cor- be used as a variable battery charger. Another ap-
responding peak current is given by plication is to control the speed and torque of a de
motor. In this case, EJ represents the counter-emf of
/max A(+/L (2.28)
the armature, and L the armature inductance.

21.22 Line-commutated inverter

®
(Circuit 3, Table 21 D)
An invertet; by definition, changes de power into ac
(a) power. It performs the reverse operation of a recti-
fier, which converts ac power into de power. There
are two main types of inverters:
<D l. Self-commutated inverters (also calledforce-
commutated inverters) in which the commutation
means are included within the power inverter
2. Line-commutated inverters, wherein commuta-
tion is effected by virtue of the line voltages on
the ac side of the inverter
In this section we examine the operating principle
of a line-commutated inverter. The circuit of such an
(b) inverter is identical to that of a controlled rectifier,
except that the battery terminals are reversed (Fig.
2 l .32a). Thus, the potential of terminal 2 lies below
that of terminal I (Fig. 2 I .32b). Because current can
only flow from anode to cathode, the de source Ed
potential levels delivers power whenever the thyristor conducts.
Eg-1-~-J..~~-3---~~~~--'-"~
On the other hand, this power P must be ab-
sorbed by the ac terminals because we assume no
Figure 21.31 losses in the inductor or the thyristor: Consequently,
a. SCA supplying an active load. the circuit of Fig. 2 l .32a is potentially able to con-
b. Voltage and current waveforms. vert de power into ac power.
 FUNDAMENTAL ELEMENTS OF POWER ELECTRONICS 499

CD-+-~~--t'i-1----"-----i"--~~~-+----~-r-~

@
®

© (a) (b)

Figure 21.32
a. Line-commutated inverter.
b. Voltage and current waveforms.

The power converter consists therefore of a sim- To increase the current and hence the active
ple thyristor and inductor that connect the de source power flow, We simply advance the firing angle 8 J •
to the ac load. However, it is important to note that This causes to increase. However. this process
the ac side must be an existing ac system that gen- cannot be carried too far. In order for conduction to
erates its own ac voltage, whether or not the inverter cease, A(-J must equal i· However, the maxi-

is in operation. For example, the ac system could be mum area that A(-J can have is that bounded by the
that of an electric utility company composed of trough of the sine wave between 8 0 and 83 , and the
hundreds of generators and thousands of loads that horizontal line of point 2 (Fig. 2 I.32b ). As the fir-
are easily able to absorb the additional power P de- ing angle is advanced, A<, l becomes larger and
livered by the inverter. larger; but if it should exceed the maximum avail-
To achieve power conversion, the peak ac volt- able value of At- J' conduction will never stop. In
age has to be greater than the de voltage, and the essence, current I will not be zero when angle 0 3 is
thyristor has to be triggered within a precisely de- reached. The de current will then build up with
fined range. First, to initiate conduction, anode A each cycle, until the circuit breakers trip. For the
must be positive with respect to K. Since K is ini- same reason, conduction must never be initiated af-
tially at the level of terminal 2, the triggering pulse ter angle 8 3 .
must be applied either prior to 80 or after 8 3 (Fig. Under normal inverter conditions, the current
2 l.32b). For reasons that will soon become clear, peaks lag behind the positive voltage peaks, and so
the gate must be triggered prior to 80 . the ac source still has to supply reactive power Q to
Suppose the SCR is triggered at 8 I degrees. Point the inverter. Consequently, P and Q flow in oppo-
K immediately jumps from level 2 to level A and the site directions in an inverter. In our example, P =
inductor accumulates volt-secon.s!s until angle 80 is E<l /<l where Id is the average value of current I.
reached. Thus, the resulting current .reaches a peak The current pulses flowing into the ac terminals
at 80 , equal to area Ac+/L The current then gradu- are far from sinusoidal and a stiff (low-imped-
ally falls as the negative volt-seconds begin to build ance) ac system is needed so as not to distort the
up. Conduction stops at 8 2 , when A 1 _ i = A1+ J· sinusoidal voltage. However, the pulses do contain
500 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC DRIVES

a fundamental component that is in phase with the current can flow in both directions (Fig. 21.33).
sinusoidal voltage £ 1 A· The effective value of this The ac current flowing in the load resistor R can be
component is given by Ir E0 l,/E, where Eis the precisely controlled by. varying the phase angle o.
effective value of the ac voltage. In practice, ap- of gates gl and g2. Thus, if the gate pulses are syn-
propriate filters are added to ensure that the cur- chronized with the line frequency, a greater or
rent flowing into the ac line is reasonably sinu- lesser ac current will flow in the load. However,
soidal. We should also bear in mind that such delayed firing will draw reactive power from
line-commutated inverters always involve 3-phase the line, even if the load is purely resistive. The
systems and not the simple single-phase circuit of reason is that the current is displaced behind the
Fig. 21.32. voltage.
The well-known triac used in domestic light-
21.23 AC static switch (Circuit 4, dimming controls is an example of such an elec-
Table 210) tronic switch.
If the gates are fired at 0° and 180° respectively,
An ac static switch is composed of two thyristors the static switch is in the fully closed position. On
connected in antiparallel (back-to-back), so that the other hand, if neither gate is fired, the switch is
in the open position. Thus, a static switch can be
used to replace a magnetic contactor. In contrast to
magnetic contactors, an electronic contactor is ab-
solutely silent and its contacts never wear out.
g2
(a)
02

(b) ~"-, 81 (J 2

v@ ~
© I
v potential levels
Figure 21.33c

0® Single-phase, water-cooled contactor composed of

two Hockey Puk thyristors. Continuous current rating:
@ I
v 1200 A (RMS) at 2000 V; cooling water requirements:
4.5 Umin at 35° max. For intermittent (10% duty) spot
welding applications, this unit can handle 2140 A for
Figure 21.33 20 cycles. Width: 175 mm; length: 278 mm; deptt'i: 114
a. Electronic contactor. mm.
b. Waveforms with a resistive load. (Photo Courtesy of International Rectifier)
 FUNDAMENTAL ELEMENTS OF POWER ELECTRONICS 501

21.24 Cycloconverter (Circuit 5, ing). Then, for an interval T. the gates of thyristors
Table 210) Q l, Q2, and Q3 are triggered by 4 successive pulses
g I, g2, g3, g I, in such a way that the thyristors func-
A cycloconverter produces low-frequency ac power tion as if they were ordinary diodes. As a result, the
directly from a higher-frequency ac source. A simple circuit behaves like a 3-pulse rectifier and terminal
cycloconverter is shown in Fig. 21.34. It consists of 4 is positive with respect to N (Fig. 21.35). The
three groups of thyristors, mounted back-to-back waveshape of E4 N is identical to that of Fig. 21.17.
and connected to a 3-phase source. They jointly sup- During the next interval T, thyristors Q4, Q5,
ply single-phase power to a resistive load R. Q6, are fired by 4 similar pulses g4, g5, g6, This
To understand the operation of the circuit, sup- makes terminal 4 negative with respect to N. The
pose all thyristors are initially blocked (nonconduct- firing process is then repeated for the QI, Q2, Q3

01
<D gl
g4
~
02
® g2
g5

03
@ g3
96

R
® ©
Figure 21.34
Elementary cycloconverter.

Figure 21.35
Typical voltage output of a cycloconverter.
502 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC DRIVES

thyristors, and so on. with the result that a low- 21.25 3-phase, 6-pulse controllable
frequency ac voltage appears across the load. The converter (Circuit 6,
duration of I cycle is 2 T seconds. Compared to a
Table ~10)
sine wave, the low-frequency waveshape is rather
poor. It is flat-topped and contains a large 180 Hz The 3-phase, 6-pulse thyristor converter is one of
ripple when the 3-phase frequency is 60 Hz. the most widely used rectifier/inverter units in
However. this is of secondary importance because power electronics. Due to its practical importance,
means are available to improve it. we will explain how it operates in some detail. As
Returning to Fig. 21.35 and assuming a 60 Hz in all 3-phase converters, the waveforms become
source, we can show that each half-cycle corre- rather complex, although not particularly difficult
sponds to 540°, on a 60 Hz base. The duration of Tis, to understand. Even the simplest circuits yield
therefore, (540/360) X ( 1/60) 0.025 s, which cor- chopped voltages and currents that pile on top of
responds to a frequency of 1/(2 X 0.025) = 20 Hz. each other, and it taxes the mind to keep track of
Obviously, by repeating the firing sequence g I, everything that is going on. Consequently, we will
g 1, ... , we could keep terminal 4 positive keep the waveforms as simple as possible, so as to
for as long as we wish, followed by an equally long highlight the basic principle of operation.
negative period, when g4, g6, g4 ... are fired. In Three-phase. 6-pulse converters have 6 thyristors
this way we can generate frequencies as low as we connected to the secondary winding of a 3-phase
please. The high end of the frequency spectrum is transformer (Fig. 21.36). The arrangement is identi-
limited to about 40 percent of the supply frequency. cal to the rectifier circuit of Fig. 21.19, except that the
The reader should also note that this cycloconverter diodes are replaced by thyristors. Because we can
can supply a single-phase load from a 3-phase sys- initiate conduction whenever we please, the thyris-
tem, without unbalancing the 3-phase lines. tors enable us to vary the de output voltage when the
Later, we will encounter cycloconverters that converter operates in the rectifier mode. The con-
can produce a sinusoidal, low-frequency 3-phase verter can also function as an inverter, provided that
output from a 60 Hz, 3-phase input. a de source is used in place of the load resistor R.

©
Q3

3-phase
line

Q6

@
Figure 21.36
Three-phase, 6-pulse thyristor converter.
 FUNDAMENTAL ELEMENTS OF POWER ELECTRONICS 503

21.26 Basic principle of operation 21.22. There is, however, an important difference.
The thyristors can be made to conduct at precise
We can gain a basic understanding of how the con- moments on the ac voltage cycle. Thus, conduction
verter works in the rectifier mode by referring to Fig. can be initiated when the instantaneous voltage be-
21.37. In this figure, the six SCRs are assumed to be tween the ac lines is either high or low. If the volt-
enclosed in a box, where they successively switch age is low, the de output voltage will also be low.
the output terminals K A to the ac supply lines I, 2, Conversely, if the thyristors conduct when the ac
3. The load is represented by a resistor in series with line voltage is momentarily near its peak, the de
an inductor L. The inductor is assumed to have a very output voltage will be high. In effect. the output
large inductance, so that the load current /d remains voltage EKA is composed of short 60-degree seg-
constant. In Fig. 2 l .37a, the two thyristors Q l, Q5 lo- ments of the ac line voltage. The average value of
cated between terminals K- 1 and A-2 are conducting. EKA becomes the de output voltage Ed.
A moment later, the thyristors Q2, Q4 between K-2 In examining Fig. 21.37, it can be seen that the line
and A-I conduct (Fig. 21.37b). The other thyristors current always flows out of a line that is momentarily
are similarly switched, in sequence. When these positive. This must be so because the line delivers ac-
steps have been completed, the entire switching cy- tive power to the load. For example, in Fig. 2L37a,
cle repeats. The reader will note that the de current /d e 12 is positive when /d flows in the direction shown.
flows in the ac lines. However, Fig. 21.37 shows that Knowing how the thyristor converter behaves as
the current in each line reverses periodically, and so a rectifier, the question arises; how can it be made
it is a true ac current of amplitude /d. It is also evident to operate as an inverter? Three basic conditions
that the current in one of the three lines is zero for have to be met.
brief intervals. For example, in Fig. 21.37, there is First, we must have a source of de current /d.
momentarilv no current in line 3. Such a current source can be provided if a voltage
The swi;ching sequence we have just described source £ 0 is connected in series with a large induc-
is similar to that of the diode bridge rectifier of Fig. tance (Figs. 2 I .38a and 2 I .38b ).

(a) (a)

+ ___!.::._

(bl (b)

Figure 21.37 Figure 21.38

Rectifier mode (see Fig. 21.36) Inverter mode (see Fig. 21.36)
a. 01 and 05 conducting. a. 01 and 05 conducting.
b. 02 and 04 conducting. b. 02 and 04 conducting.
 504 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC DRIVES

Second, the converter must be connected to a voltage polarities in the inverter mode are consis-
3-phase line that can maintain an undistorted sinu- tently opposile·to those in the rectifier mode.
soidal voltage, even when the line current is nonsi- The reader can~.ee that the line current alternates
nusoidal. The voltage may be taken from a power as before, and it has a peak value equal to /d. Indeed,
utility, or generated by a local alternator. the waveshape of the ac line currents is the same in
Third, to force power into the line, the thyristors Figs. 21.37 and 21.38: it is only the instantaneous
must be switched so that current /J flows into an ac line voltages that differ.
line that is momentarily positive. The gate firing If the de supply voltage is low, the thyristors
must therefore be precisely synchronized with the must be fired when the instantaneous ac voltage is
line frequency. low. Conversely, if the de voltage is high, the thyris-
The inverter operation can best be understood tors must be triggered when the ac line voltage is
by referring to 21.38. The SCRs enclosed in near its peak.
the box are arranged the same way as in 21.37. We wish to make one final important observa-
In other words, the converters in the two figures are tion. The voltage that appears between terminals K
absolutely identical. Looking first at the de side, and A is composed of 60-degree segments of the ac
the de current /d must flow in the same direction as line voltages. Consequently, EKA is a fluctuating
before because SCRs cannot conduct in reverse. voltage whose average value is Ec1. This average
On the other hand. because we want the de source voltage must be equal to £ 0 because the de voltage
£ 0 to deliver power, Id must flow out of the posi- drop across the inductor is negligible. In addition to
tive terminal. as shown. In other words, the posi- keeping current /d constant and almost ripple free.
tive side of £ 0 must be connected to terminal A. On the inductor serves as a buffer between the fluctuat-
the ac side. the 3-phase line is simply connected to ing voltage EKA and the constant voltage £ 0 .
terminals I, 2, 3.
We are now ready to fire the thyristors. However, 21.27 Three-phase, 6-pulse rectifier
the firing must be properly timed so that the ac line
feeding an active load
receives power. This is consistently done in Fig.
21.38, because current (i always flows into an ac ter- Consider the circuit of Fig. 21.39 in which a
minal that is momentarily positive. Note that the line 3-phase. 6-pulse converter supplies power to a load.

01 i,f 03 isf 05

3-phase _ _ __ 3-phase ~
line
Trans- 2 >---+-----
former

04 1,.j 06 i, t 02

Figure 21.39
Three-phase, 6-pulse rectifier.
 FUNDAMENTAL ELEMENTS OF POWER ELECTRONICS 505

The load is composed of a de voltage £ 0 and a re- (21.12)

sist9r R in series with a smoothing inductor. The The triggering time has to be fairly precise to obtain
converter is fed from a 3-phase transformer. The the rectified voltage shown in 21.40a. Thus, if
gates of thyristors Q 1 to Q6 are triggered in succes- g 1 fires slightly ahead of 01,, conduction cannot start
sion at 60-degree intervals. We assume that the con- because anode 1 is then negative. On the other
verter has been in operation for some time, so that hand, if g 1 fires after 80 , QS (along with Q6) will
conditions are stable. Initially, suppose thyristors continue to conduct until g 1 is fired. In practice. the
Q5 and Q6 are conducting, carrying load current Id triggering pulses are made wide enough to ensure
(Fig. 2 l.40a). Then, at the 0° point (0 0 ), thyristor that commutation occurs at the desired instant.
Q 1 is triggered by gate pulse g l. Commutation oc-
curs and QI starts conducting, taking over from Q5. 21.28 Delayed triggering-
At 60° thyristor Q2 is fired and the resulting com-
mutation transfers the load current from Q6 to Q2.
rectifier mode
This switching process continues indefinitely and, Let us now delay all triggering pulses by an angle a
as in 21.21, point K follows the peaks of the of 15° (Fig. 2 l .40b ). Current Id, instead of switch-
successive waves. The thyristors are labelled so as to ing over to Q 1 at 00 , will continue to flow in QS un-
indicate the sequence in which they are fired. Two til gate pulse g I triggers QI. Commutation occurs,
SCR 's conduct at a time; the conduction pairs are. and the potential of point K jumps from line 3 to
therefore, Q l-Q2, Q2-Q3, Q3-Q4, and so on. Thus. line I. A similar switching action takes place (but at
by referring to 21.39, we can tell at a glance later times) for the other thyristors. The resulting
which thyristors are conducting at any given time. choppy waveshape between terminals K and A is
The converter acts as a rectifier and the average shown in Fig. 2 l .40b.
or de voltage between K and A is Ed 1.35 £. Note that the triggering delay does not shorten
Because there is no appreciable de voltage drop in the conduction period; each thyristor still conducts
an inductor, the de voltage between points 4 and A for a full 120° and each voltage segment has a du-
is also 1.35 £. Consequently. the de current Id is ration of 60 degrees. Furthermore, the current re-
given by mains constant and ripple-free, due to the presence

01 02 03 04 05 06 01
fires fires fires fires fires fires fires
Figure 21- 40a
05, 06-L-06, 01 01, 02 02, 03 -03, 04 04, 05 05, 06- Delay angle: zero.
conducting jconducting conducting conducting conducting conducting conducting
fJo
1.414 E
1.225 E

Figure 21.40a
Delay angle: zero.
 506 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC DRIVES

of the big inductor. The level of point K follows the E = effective value of the ac line-to-line volt-
tops of the individual sine waves, but the average age [VJ
voltage Eu, between K and A, is obviously smaller a = firing angJe f0 l
than before. We can prove that it is given by
According to Eq. 21.13, becomes smaller and
E<l = 1.35 E cos a (21.13) smaller as a increases. However, if Eu becomes equal
to or less than E0 , the load current flows intermit-
where
tently. Ordinarily, the current would reverse when Ed
de voltage produced by the 3-phase, is smaller than E0 . However, this is impossible, be-
6-pulse converter fV] cause the SCRs can only conduct in the forward

01 02 03 04 05 06 01
fires fires fires fires fires fires fires
a 15° Oo T T T T T T T Figure 21-40b
f<l-06, 01--i--01, 02--t-02, 03_,.,......03, 04_,.,......o4, os-i--os, 06-i Delay angle: 15°.
o 5 , 06 Iconducting Iconducting 'conducting Iconducting Iconducting Iconducting I
conducting I I I I I I I
K

Figure 21.40b
Delay angle: 15°.

01 02 03 04 05 06 01
Oo fires fires fires fires fires fires fires
Figure 21-40c
o5, 06 j-;5:-la6, a 1-t.-o 1, 02402, 03_.,t_03, o4-f-o4, 05-..f.-05, 06-f Delay angle: 45°.
cond~cting I ,,, Iconducting Iconducting 'conducting Iconducting jconducting Iconducti~g I
1.414 E

0.366£

Figure 21.40c
Delay angle: 45°.
 FUNDAMENTAL ELEMENTS OF POWER ELECTRONICS 507

01 02 03 04 05 06 01
fires fires fires fires fires fires fires
Figure 21-40d
---06. 01 01. 02-f-02. 03 03, 04 -o4. os-1-os. 06- Delay angle: 75°.
conducting conducting ,conducting conducting conducting conducting I
1.414£

- 0.366£

Figure 21.40d
Delay angle: 75°.

direction. We will not study the condition of inter- The de load current is therefore
mittent current flow.
/u = EIR = 126/2 = 63 A
Figs. 21.40c and 2 I .40d show the waveform be-
tween K and A for a. = 45° and 75°, respectively. The power supplied to the load is
Note that the ac component in £KA is now very
p Edld
large, compared to the de component.
= 626 x 63 39.4 kW
Example 21-7 b. With a phase angle delay of 75°, the converter
The 3-phase converter of Fig. 21.39 is connected to voltage is
a 3-phase 480 V, 60 Hz source. The load consists of
a 500 V de source having an internal resistance of Ed = 1.35 E cos a.
2 f1. Calculate the power supplied to the load for 1.35 x 480 x cos 75°
triggering delays of (a) 15° and (b) 75°. 167.7 v
Solution Because is less than £ 0 , the current tends to
a. The de output voltage of the converter is flow in reverse. This is impossible and, conse-
Ed = 1.35 E cos a. quently, the current is simply zero and so, too,
is the power.
= 1.35 x 480 cos l 5°
626 v 21.29 Delayed triggering-
Because the de voltage drop across the inductor inverter mode
is negligible, the IR drop across the 2 f! inter-
nal resistance is If triggering is delayed by more than 90°, the voltage
Ed developed by the converter becomes negative. ac-
E =Ed £0 cording to Eq. 21.13. This does not produce a nega-
626 - 500 = 126 v tive current because, as we said, SCRs conduct in
508 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC DRIVES

03 is f 05

3-phase _ _ ___.
3-phase _!!:!_
Trans- 2 r - - - 1 - - - -...
line former

Figure 21.41
Three-phase, 6-pulse converter in the inverter mode.

only one direction. Consequently, the load current is Fig. 21.42 shows the waveshapes at firing angles
simply zero. However, we can.force a current to tlow of 105°, 135°, and 165°. The de voltage E<l gener-
by connecting a de voltage of proper magnitude and ated by the inverter is still by Eq. 21.13. It
polarity across the converter terminals. This external reaches a maximum value of -1.35 Eat a fir-
voltage £ 0 must be slightly greater than Ed in order ing angle of 180°.
for current to flow (Fig. 21.41 ). The load current is
given by
21.30 Triggering range
The triggering angle of a given thyristor is usually
Because current flows out of the positive termi- kept between 15° and 165°. The thyristor acts as a
nal of £ 0 , the load is actually a source, delivering a rectifier between 15° and 90° and as an inverter be-
power output P £ 0 /,<l. Part of this power is dissi- tween 90° and 165° Under these conditions. the de
pated as heat in the circuit resistance R and the re- voltage developed reaches its maximum value at
mainder is delivered to the secondaries of the 15° and 165°; it is zero at 90°.
3-phase transformer. If we subtract the small trans- The triggering angle is seldom less than 8° in the
former losses and the virtually negligible SCR rectifier mode. The reason is that sudden line volt-
losses, we are left with a net active power Pac that is age changes might cause a thyristor to misfire, thus
delivered to the 3-phase line. producing a discontinuity in the de output current.
The original rectifier has now become an in- In the inverter mode we seldom permit the firing
verter, converting de power into ac power. The tran- angle to exceed 165°. If we go beyond this point,
sition from rectifier to inverter is smooth, and re- the inverter may lose its ability to switch from one
quires no change in the converter connections. In thyristor to the next. As a result, the currents build
the rectifier mode, the firing angle lies between (l° up very quickly until the circuit breakers trip. In
and 90°, and the load may be active or passive. In some cases, the firing angle is not allowed to exceed
the inverter mode, the firing angle lies between 90° 150°, to ensure an adequate safety margin.
and J 80°, and a de source of proper polarity must be Fig. 21.43 shows the allowed and forbidden gate
provided. firing zones for a particular thyristor in a 3-phase.
 FUNDAMENTAL ELEMENTS OF POWER ELECTRONICS 509

01 02 03 04 05 06 01
fires fires fires fires fires fires fires

06, 01 1, 02 02. 03 03, 04 04, 05-.+-05, as--

conducting conducting conducting conducting conducting conducting I

Figure 21 .42a
Triggering sequence and waveforms with a delay angle of 105°.

01 02 03 04 05 06 01
fires fires fires fires fires fires fires

05, 06 a= 135°-+06, 01 01, 02 02, 03+03, 04 04, 05 05, 06

conducting 'conducting conducting conducting conducting conducting conducting

Figure 21.42b
Triggering sequence and waveforms with a delay angle of 135°.

6-pulse converter. Specifically, it refers to QI in changes both in magnitude and polarity, depending
Fig. 21.39. The other thyristors have similar firing upon the gate pulse delay. However, the de genera-
zones, but they occur at different times. tor has some special properties:
I. It can carry current in only one direction.
21.31 Equivalent circuit 2. It produces an increasingly large ac ripple volt-
of a converter -.. age as the de voltage decreases.
We may think of a converter as being a static ac/dc The analogy may be represented by the circuit of
motor-generator set whose de output voltage £ 0 Fig. 21.44, in which
 510 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC DRIVES

01 02 03 04 05 06 01
fires fires fires , fires fires fires

05, 06 1----a: 165°----;--06, 01 --01, Q2-..-Q2, 03 ..-Q3'; 04±04, 05 -05, 06_...

conducting conducting conducting conducting, conducting conducting

Figure 21.42c
Triggering sequence and waveforms with a delay angle of 165°.

i - - - - - - o n e cycle-----....i

forbidden firing forbidden firing

zone (for Q 1) zone (for 01)
165°

Figure 21.43
Permitted gate firing zones for thyristor 01.

• Eac represents the 3-phase line vuJLa..~c;. • D is a diode to remind us that current can flow
• Ed is the de voltage generated by the converter. in only one direction.
• ec is the ac voltage generated by the converter • The dotted line between Eac and Ed indicateS'
on the de side (mainly the 6th and 12th har- that active power can flow in either direction be-
monics). tween the ac and de systems.
 FUNDAMENTAL ELEMENTS OF POWER ELECTRONICS 5I I

1
lgate p ¢fil=l
~on~~
3-ph•~
~Q p
3-phase~~
line~
- - } - ................ line~ ............... .

'-----.oA

Figure 21.44 Figure 21.46

Equivalent circuit of a thyristor converter. Equivalent circuit of a 3-phase thyristor converter in
the inverter mode.
• Unlike a motor/generator set, the de and ac sys-
tems are not electrically isolated from each other. angle of 45°. The currents i 1, i 2 , i 3 , i 4 , i 5 , i6 in the
thyristors flow for 120°, and their peak value is equal
When the converter is operating as a rectifier, the to the de current ( 1• This holds true for any firing an-
equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 21.45. When op- gle between zero and 180°. Consequently, the cur-
erating as an inverter, the circuit is given by Fig. rents in a thyristor converter are identical to those in
21.46. The ac voltage generated by the converter a plain 3-phase diode rectifier (Fig. 21.20). The only
appears across inductor L. Its inductance is as- difference is that they flow later in the cycle.
sumed to be sufficiently large to ensure an almost The waveshapes of the corresponding ac line cur-
ripple-free de current. rents are easily found because they are equal to the
It will also be recognized that the currents flow- difference between the respective thyristor currents.
ing in the 3-phase lines are not sinusoidal. Thus. on Thus, referring to Fig. 21.39, line current/" i 1 i4 •
the ac side, the converter generates harmonic cur- These line currents also have a peak value (i. but they
rents, as we have already seen (Section 21.14 ). flow in positive and negative blocks of 120°.
The heating effect of the ac line currents is im-
21.32 Currents in a 3-phase, portant because they usually flow in the windings of
6-pulse converter a converter transformer. The PR loss depends upon
the effective value I of the current. From Eq. 21.6
Fig. 21.47 shows the voltage and current waveshapes we know that
when the converter functions as a rectifier at a firing
I 0.816(1 (21.6)
L
The effective value of the ac line current is, there-
~p fore, directly related to the de output current and is

3-ph~Q ~
unaffected by the firing angle. Clearly. the same is
line~·-···· .......... true when the converter operates as an inverter.

21.33 Power factor

We recall that in the 3-phase, 3-pulse diode rectifier
(Figs. 21.16 and 21.17), the currents in lines I, 2,
Figure 21.45 and 3 are symmetrical with respect to the line-to-
Equivalent circuit of a 3-phase converter in the recti- neutral voltages. Thus, rectangular current i 2 is ex-
fier mode. actly in the middle of the positive £ 2 N wave.
512 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC DRIVES

01 02 03 04 05 06 01 02 03 04
80 fires fires fires fires fires fires , firiis fires fires fires
Q

05, 06 45° 06, 01 01. 02 02, 03 03, 04 04, 05 05, 06 06, 01 01. 02 02, 03
conducting
1.414 E

Id
15 i, /3 is i,
0

Id
i4 i. ii /4 lo
0

+Id
0
- /d

/b

Figure 21.47
Voltage and current waveforms in the thyristor converter of 21.39 with a delay angle of 45°.

In essence (and in actual fact), i 2 is in phase with Referring now to Fig. 21.4 7, where triggering
E 2 N. This is also true for the currents in the other has been delayed by 45°, we note that the thyristor
two lines, as regards their respective voltages. This currents have all been shifted (displaced) by 45° to
condition is reflected back into the primary of the the right. Consequently, the line currents lag the re-
transformer, and from there to the 3-phase feeder. spective line-to-line voltages by 45°~ the disphice-
Because the currents are in phase with the voltages, ment power factor is no longer unity but only 0. 707
the displacement power/actor is I 00%. As a result, (cos 45° 0.707). This means that a converter ab-
the rectifier draws no reactive power from the line. sorbs reactive power from the ac system to which it
 FUNDAMENTAL ELEMENTS OF POWER ELECTRONICS 513

is connected. This is true whether the converter op- 735 A

eratys as a rectifier or inverter. The reactive power
is given by
Q = P tan a (21.14)
where
Q reactive power absorbed by the converter
[var] 16kV

P de power of the converter (positive for a

rectifier, negative for an inverter) lWJ
a= angle [0 ]
The reader will note that the waveshapes of the cur- Figure 21.48
See Example 21-11.
rents in Fig. 21.47 are the same as those in a con-
ventional 6-pulse rectifier (Fig. 21.20). Calculate
a. The de current carried by each SCR
Example 21-8 b. The de voltage generated by the inverter
In Example 21 and for a triggering angle of 15°, c. The required firing angle a
calculate the following: d. The effective value of the ac line currents
e. The reactive power absorbed by the inverter
a. The displacement power factor
b. The reactive power absorbed by the converter Solution
c. The total power factor a. Each SCR carries the load current for one-third
of the time. The de current is. therefore.
Solution
a. The displacement between the fundamental line I= IJ3 = 900/3
current and the line-to-neutral voltage is a= 15°. = 300A
The displacement power factor is
b. The voltage Ec1 generated by the inverter is
cos a = cos 15° 0.966, or 96.6% equal to E0 less the IR drop. Thus.
b. The active power supplied to the converter is Ec1 = E0 - fc1R
P Eid 39.4 kW 16 000 900 x I
Hence = 15 JOO V

Q P tan a c. Knowing that the effective ac line voltage is

12 000 V, the firing angle can be found from
= 39.4 tan 15
Eq. 21.13:
10.6 kvar
Ed 1.35 E cos a
c. The total power factor displacement power
15 100 1.35 x 12 000 cos O'.
factor X distortion power factor
cos O'. 0.932
= 0.966 x 0.955
a= 21.2°
= 0.923 92.3%
This is the firing angle that would be required
Example 21-9 if the converter operated as a rectifier.
A 16 kV de source having an internal resistance of However, because it is in the inverter mode,
I H supplies 900 A to a 12 kV, 3-phase, 6-pulse. the actual firing angle is
60 Hz inverter (Fig. 21.48). O'. 180 - 21.2 = 158.8°
514 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC DRIVES

d. The effective value of the ac line current is

I 0.816 /d (21.6)
-14~c~. //1
= 0.816 x 900 (a) l I --1

~ 120°±120°:i ~
734A

e. The de power absorbed by the inverter is

01 03 05
nducting conducting conducting
P EJ(1
= 15 100 x 900

('ti
13.6MW

J~v
P is actually negative because the inverter ab-
sorbs de power; hence,
P -13.6MW

The reactive power absorbed by the inverter is

Q = P tan a (21.14)
~ 120°
01
conducting
u

03
conducting
,, 05
conducting --J
I

13.6 tan 158.8

= 5.27 Mvar Figure 21.49
a. Instantaneous commutation in a rectifier when o: =
In practice. the actual reactive power is higher than 45° (see Fig. 21.58).
the calculated value, due to commutation overlap. b. Sarne conditions with commutation overlap of 30°,
showing current waveshapes in 01, 03, 05.

21.34 Commutation overlap The commutation overlap delays the current

build-up by angle u. It also delays the cutTent cutoff
We mentioned in Section 21.9. that the current in a by the same angle. Owing to these delays, the ef-
three-phase rectifier cannot switch instantaneously fective firing angle is somewhat greater than the
from one diode to the next. The commutation triggering angle a. This reduces the power factor of
process takes time and this is also true for thyristors. the converter in both the rectifier and inverter
Thus, in a six-pulse converter, the commutation modes. It also reduces the average de voltage Ede-
from QI to Q3 followed by Q3 to QS is not instan-
taneous (as assumed in Fig. 21.47), but is more like
21.35 Extinction angle
that shown in Fig. 2 I .49b.
The transfer of lc1 from one thyristor to the next We have seen that when a converter operates in the
is effected during the so-called commutation over- inverter mode, it is very important that conduction
lap period, defined by angle u. The amount of over- be initiated prior to a = 180°. Because the current in
lap varies with the current /d. At full-load, u lies typ- an ideal inverter flows for 120°, the conduction must
ically between 20° and 30°. At light load it can be also cease before the angle of (180 + 120) 300°
as small as 5°. On account of commutation overlap, is reached. The interval between the end of commu-
the current in each thyristor flows for a period of tation and 300° is called the extinction angle -y (Fig.
120 + u degrees instead of 120°, as we have as- 21.50). The extinction angle permits thyristor QI to
sumed so far. The commutation overlap modifies recover its blocking ability before its anode (I)
the waveshape of but we will not examine this again becomes positive with respect to the cathode
aspect of converter behavior. K. The value of -y lies typically between I5° and 20°.
 FUNDAMENTAL ELElv/ENTS OF POWER ELECTRONICS 515

01 02 03 04 05
fires fires fires fires fires

05,06 - - - a 135°--_,
conducting

- - - 180° - - - + - - - - - - 1 2 0 ° - - + - + l
01
conducting

Figure 21.50
Waveshape of i1 in thyristor 01 for a delay angle ex. The extinction angle -y permits 01 to establish its blocking abil-
ity before the critical angle of 300° is reached. At 300° the anode of 01 becomes positive with respect to its cath-
ode. The figure also shows the relationship between angles ex, ~' -y, and u.

In the case of an inverter, we often define the fir- saw that one of its shortcomings was that conduc-
ing instant by the angle of advance [3, rather than by tion only stopped when the anode current dropped
the angle of delay a. From Fig. 21.50 it can be naturally to zero. Although it is possible to force the
shown that the following relationships exist be- anode current to zero by special techniques, such as
tween the commutation angle u, the delay angle a, mentioned in Section 21.18, the additional circuit
the angle of advance [3, and the extinction angle y components make this solution cumbersome and
f3 180 - a (21.15) expensive. Another problem is that thyristor switch-
ing is limited to a maximum of about 2 kHz.
f3 u+'Y (21.16)
To overcome this problem, special semiconductor
switches have been developed whereby conduction
DC-TO-DC SWITCHING CONVERTERS
can be initiated or blocked by controlling the gate cur-
rent or gate voltage. These devices are constantly be-
21.36 Semiconductor switches ing improved upon, but we will limit our attention to
So far we have studied circuits in which the elec- those that are most frequently used. As mentioned in
tronic switching is accomplished by thyristors. We the introduction to this chapter, they are GTOs, bipo-
516 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC DRIVES

lar transistors, power MOSFETs, and IGBTs. These available. Most thyristors are designed to operate
controllable on/off switching devices enable us to de- far within fue limits shown.
sign de-to-de and dc-to-ac converters of extraordinary 21.51 b shows that GTOs are able to with-
versatility. The basic principles of these switch-type stand forward voltages but not reverse blocking
converters are explained in the ensuing sections. voltages. Furthermore, the voltage drop is about
Thyristor and GTO Basic Characteristics Apart 3 V compared to 2 V for thyristors. As in the case of
from their important gate turn-off feature, GTOs are a thyristor, conduction in a GTO is initiated by in-
very similar to ordinary thyristors. The characteris- jecting a positive current pulse into the gate. In or-
tics of both these devices in the on and off states are der to keep conducting, the anode current must not
illustrated in Fig. 21.51. Thus, in the off state, when fall below the holding current of the GTO.
the current is zero the thyristor can withstand both However, the GTO is a device in which the anode
forward and reverse blocking voltages £AK' up to current can be blocked by injecting a strong nega-
the maximum limits bounded by the cross-hatched tive current into the base for a few microseconds.
bands (Fig. 21.51 a). During the on state, when the To ensure extinction, the amplitude of the gate
thyristor conducts, the figure shows that the EAK pulse has to be about one third the value of the an-
voltage drop is about 2 V, and the upper limit of the ode current. GTOs are high-power switches, some
anode current I AK is again indicated by the cross- of which can handle currents of several thousand
hatched band. These bands merely indicate the amperes at voltages of up to 4000 V.
broad-brush maximum values that are currently BJT Basic Characteristics The bipolar junction
transistor, or BJT, is designated bipolar because
,2 v conduction is due to the migration of both electrons
IAK
3 kA and holes within the device. The transistor has three
terminals named collector C, emitter E, and base B

t
thyristor
on (Fig. 21.52). The collector current le that flows
f max 2 kHz
/ holding from collector to emitter is initiated and maintained
off current by causing a sustained current / 8 to flow into the
thyristor
base. When operated as a switch, the base current
4 kV EAK 4 kV must be large enough to drive the BJT into satura-
(a) tion. Under these conditions, the voltage be-
tween the collector and emitter is about 2 to 3 volts,
at rated collector current. Conduction ceases as soon
as the base current is suppressed. The characteristics
IAK pv
3 kA
GTO
f max= 500 Hz
ton

'../ holding
current

EAK 4 kV
/max
BJT
20 kHz
on

~
c ii 'c

E
c
(b)

Figure 21.51
Typical properties and approximate limits of GTOs Figure 21.52
and thyristors in the on and off states. Typical properties and approximate limits of BJTs.
 FUNDAMENTAL ELEMENTS OF POWER ELECTRON/CS 517

of the BJT in the on and off states are shown in Fig. IGBT Basic Characteristics The IGBT is also a
21.52, together with the approximate limits of the voltage-controlled switch whose terminals are
collector-emitter voltage ECE and collector current identified the same way as those in a transistor,
le. Note that the transistor cannot tolerate negative namely collector. emitter, and base. The character-
values of Power transistors can carry currents istics in the on and off states are shown in Fig.
of several hundred amperes and withstand EcE volt- 2 together with the limiting voltages and cur-
ages of about I kV. To establish collector currents of rent. The collector current in an IGBT is much
IOO the corresponding base current is typically higher than in a MOSFET. Consequently, the IGBT
about I A. can handle more power.
MOSFET Basic Characteristics The power Compared to GTOs, an important feature of
MOSFET is a voltage-controlled three-terminal de- BJTs, MOSFETs, and IGBTs is their fast turn-on
vice having an anode and cathode, respectively and turn-off times. This enables these switches to be
called drain D, source S, and gate G (Fig. 21.53). used at much higher frequencies. As a result, the as-
The drain current ID is initiated by applying and sociated transformers. inductors, and capacitors are
maintaining a voltage EGs of about 12 V between smaller and cheaper. Typical maximum frequencies
the gate and the source. Conduction stops whenever are shown in Figs. 21.51 to 21.54. Another advan-
falls below a threshold limit (about l V). The tage of high-speed switching is that the semicon-
gate currents are extremely small; consequently, ductor switches can generate lower-frequency volt-
very little power is needed to drive this electronic ages and currents whose waveshapes and phase can
switch. The characteristics in the on and off states be tailored to meet almost any requirement.
are shown in Fig. 21.53, together with typical max-
imum limits of drain voltage EDs and drain current 21.37 DC-to-DC switching
ID. The MOSFET cannot tolerate negative values of converter
£ 05 To meet this requirement, it has incorporated In some power systems there is a need to transform
within it a reverse-biased diode, as shown in the de power from one de voltage level to either a
symbol for the device. Power MOSFETs can carry higher or lower de level. For example, in a public
drain currents of about a hundred amperes and with- transportation system, a 4000 V de overhead line
stand EcE voltages of about 500 V. At rated current, may be the source to drive a 300 V de motor in a
when driven into saturation, the £ 05 voltage drop bus. In other cases. a 12 V battery may have to
ranges from about 2 V to 5 V. power a device rated at 120 V de. In alternating-
current systems the voltage step-up or step-down
can easily be done with a transformer. But in de sys-
10 i3 v
pv
100 A

MOSFET
f max = 200 kHz
IGBT c J~ le
f max= 50 kHz

Eos 1 kV
EcE 1.5 kV
~
E.

Figure 21.53
Typical properties and approximate limits of Figure 21.54
MOSFETs. Typical properties and approximate limits of IGBTs.
518 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC DRIVES

terns, an entirely different approach is required. It When the switch opens (Fig. 21.57) the current
involves the use of a de-to-de switching converter. collapses and µII the stored energy is dissipated in
sometimes called a choppet: the arc across the-..Switch. At the same time, a high
Suppose that power has to be transferred from a voltage e1, is induced across the inductor because
high-voltage de source to a lower-voltage de the current is collapsing so quickly. The polarity of
load E0 • One solution is to connect an inductor be- this voltage is opposite to what it was when the cur-
tween the source and the load and to open and close rent was increasing (compare Figs. 21.56 and
the circuit periodically with a switch (Fig. 21.55). 21.57 ). The high negative voltage indicates that the
In order to follow the transfer of energy, assume the inductor is rapidly discharging the volt-seconds it
switch closes for a time T 1• During this interval, the had previously accumulated. As a result, the current
voltage across the inductor is Es E 0 , with polari- decreases very quickly.
ties as shown in Fig. 21.56. The inductor accumu- Although some energy is transferred from the
lates volt-seconds, and the resulting current i in- source Es to the load E 0 while the switch is closed,
creases at a constant rate given by there is a great loss of energy every time the switch
. (Es-E ) t opens. The efficiency is therefore poor.
I = - · · · - -0- -
l We can prevent this energy loss by adding a diode
to the circuit as shown in Fig. 21.58. When the switch
After a time T 1 (when i has reached a value /a,
closes, the current rises to la as before. The diode has
say, and the switch is about to open), the current is
no effect because its cathode is positive with respect
(21.17) to the anode and so the diode does not conduct. When
the switch opens. current i again begins to fall. in-
The corresponding magnetic energy stored in the
ducing a voltage eL. However, eL cannot jump to the
inductor is
high value it reached before because as soon as it ex-
w (2.8) ceeds the anode of the diode becomes positive

Figure 21.55
Energy transfer using an inductor.
3 Figure 21.57
Energy is dissipated in the arc. Note the polarity of eL.

r
Es-=- diode

Figure 21.56 Figure 21.58

Energy is stored in the inductor. Energy transferred without loss.
 FUNDAMENTAL ELEMENTS OF POWER ELECTRONICS 519

and so the diode begins to conduct. Assuming the The switch is actually a GTO, MOSFET, or lGBT,
diode voltage drop is negligible, it follows that eL = whose on/off state is controlled by a signal applied to
E0 . Because E0 is constant, the voltage across the in- the gate. The combination of the electronic switch,
ductor is also constant. Starting from /a, current i inductor, and diode constitutes what is known as a
therefore falls at a uniform rate given by step-down de-to-de converter, or buck chopper.

(2.28)
L 21.38 Rapid switching
The current eventually becomes zero after a time
Instead of letting the load current swing between
We can calculate T 2 because the volt-seconds
zero and la, we can close the switch for a short pe-
accumulated during the charging period Ti must
riod Ti (as in Fig. 21.59) until the current reaches the
equal the volt-seconds released during the dis-
desired value la- We then open and close the switch
charge interval Referring to Fig. 21.59, we have
rapidly so that the current increases and decreases
Y·s during charge period Y·s during discharge by small increments. Referring to Fig. 2 l .60a, the
period switch is closed for an interval Ta and open during
an interval Tb. When the switch is open, the load cur-
=A<->
rent falls from its peak value la to a lower value / 0 .
(Es Eo) Ti EoT2
During this interval, current flows in the inductor,
Consequently, the load, and the freewheeling diode. The current de-
(£5 - £0) T1 creases at the same rate as it did in Fig. 21.59.
T2 = E (2l.l8) When the current has fallen to a value /b, the
0
switch recloses. Because the cathode of the diode is
When the current is zero, the inductor will have
now ( + ), the current in the diode immediately stops
delivered all its stored energy to load E0 • Simul-
flowing, and the source now supplies current ft,. The
taneously, the diode will cease to conduct. We can
current then builds up and when it reaches the value
therefore reclose the switch for another interval T 1
(, (after a time T,.), the switch reopens. The free-
and repeat the cycle indefinitely. Consequently, this
wheeling diode comes into play and the cycle
circuit enables us to transfer energy from a high-
repeats. The current supplied to the load fluctuates
voltage de source to a lower-voltage de load without
therefore between /a and the slightly lower value /b
incurring any losses. In effect, the inductor absorbs
2 l .60b). Its average or de value /0 is nearly
energy at a relatively high voltage (Es £ 0 ) and de-
equal to la. but the exact value is given by
livers it at a lower voltage E0 .
The diode is sometimes called a ji-eewheeling (21.19)
diode because it automatically starts conducting as
soon as the switch opens and stops conducting Whereas the current in the load is essentially con-
when the switch closes. stant, having only a small ripple (Fig. 2 l.60b ), the
current supplied by the source is composed of a se-
ries of sharp pulses, as shown in Fig. 2 I .60c. What
is the average value of these pulses? It is found by
noting that the average current during each pulse
0 (duration Tu) is Ua + /b)/2 = 10 . Consequently. the
repeat
average current ls during one cycle (time T) is
the cyi::le
ls= / 0 (TjT)
that is
Figure 21.59
E and I in the inductor of Fig. 21.58. ls= / 0 D (21.20)
520 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC DRIVES

Esfs Erifo

T,jb1Ldlf To ._r "<:";,' If we substiti.He·Eq. 21.20 in the above equation, we

l
obtain
T c/~.---J E0 Es fI =Es T; 1

£5 = source ~ I lo
()

which gives the important relationship

E0 DEs (21.21)

where
Figure 21.60a
Currents in a chopper circuit. E 0 = de output voltage of the converter IV j
de voltage of the source l V]
D duty cycle
Equation 21.21 signifies that the de output voltage
E0 can be controlled simply by varying the duty cycle
D. Thus, the converter behaves like a highly efficient
de transformer in which the "turns ratio" is D. For a
Figure 21.60b
Current in the load. given switching frequency, this ratio can be changed
as needed by varying the on time of the switch.

!,···*·······*········. ~
In practice, the mechanical switch is replaced by an
lb ......................................................................... . electronic switch, such as an JGBT. It can be turned on
and off at a frequency that may be as high as 50 kHz.
Ta Tb Ta ./Is
- --- --- ,J.__ If more power is required, a OTO is used, wherein the
frequency could be of the order of 300 Hz.
~r--j
Example 21-10
Figure 21.60c The switch in Fig. 2 I .60a opens and closes at a fre-
Current pulses provided by the source. quency of 20 Hz and remains closed for 3 ms per
where cycle. A de ammeter connected in series with the
load E0 indicates a current of 70 A.
Is de current drawn from the source fAj
10 = de current absorbed by the load [A] a. If a de ammeter is connected in series with the
T" on time of the switch [s] source, what current will it indicate?
T = period of one cycle [sj b. What is the average current per pulse?
D duty cycle = T)T Solution
The circuit of Fig. 2 l .60a shows the current a. Using Eq. 21.20. we have
waveshapes in the source, the load, and the diode. I
Although the waveshapes are choppy and discon- period T 20 = .50ms.
tinuous, they still obey Kirchhoff's current law, in-
3
stant by instant. duty cycle = = 0.06
T 50
Turning our attention to the power aspects, the
de power drawn from the source must equal the de
ls l0 D
power absorbed by the load because. ideally. there
is no power loss in the switch. the inductor, or the = 70 x 0.06
freewheeling diode. We can, therefore, write = 4.2A
 FUNDAMENTAL ELEMENTS OF POWER ELECTRONICS 521

b. The average current during each pulse (duration Is = PIEs 24001600 4A

Ta) is 70 A. Considering that the average current
b. To calculate the average current in the diode.
is only 4.2 A, the source has to be specially de-
we refer to 21.61 a. Current 10 is 20 A and
signed to supply such a high 70 A pulse. In most
ls was found to be 4 A. By applying
cases a large capacitor is connected across the
Kirchhoff's current law to the diode/inductor
terminals of the source. It can readily furnish
junction, the average diode current 10 is
the high current pulses as it discharges.
10 = /0 Is
Example 21-11 20 4
We wish to charge a 120 V battery from a 600 V de
16A
source using a de chopper. The average battery cur-
rent should be 20 A, with a peak-to-peak ripple of c. The duty cycle is
2 A. If the chopper frequency is 200 Hz, calculate
D EofEs = 120/600 = 0.2
the following:
T W= l/200 5 ms
a. The de current drawn from the source
b. The de current in the diode Consequently, the on time Ta is
c. The duty cycle Ta = DT 0.2 X 5 ms I ms
d. The inductance of the inductor
The waveshapes of 15 and In are shown in Figs.
Solution 21.6lc and 21.6ld, respectively. Note the sharp
The circuit diagram is shown in Fig. 21.61 a and the pulses delivered by the source.
desired battery current is given in 21.61 b. It d. During interval Ta the average voltage across
fluctuates between 19 A and 21 A, thus yielding an the inductor is (600 - 120) 480 V.
average of 20 A with a peak-to-peak ripple of 2 A. The volt-seconds accumulated by the inductor
a. The power supplied to the battery is during this interval is A<+) = 480 V X I ms =
480 mV·s = 0.48 V·s. The change in current
P 120 V x 20 A = 2400 W during the interval is 2 A: consequently,
The power supplied by the source is, therefore, (2.28)
M = A<+/L
2400W.
2 0.48/L
The de current from the source is
L 0.24 H

(a) (c)

(b) (d)

Figure 21.61 Figure 21.61

a. Circuit of Example 21-11. c. Current drawn from the source.
b. Current in the load. d. Current in the freewheeling diode.
522 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC DRIVES

Thus, the inductor should have an inductance The converter. therefore, has the ability to trans-
of 0.24 H. If a larger inductance were used. the form the resist:,rnce of a fixed resistor to a higher
current ripple would be smaller, but the de volt- value whose magnitude depends upon the duty cy-
ages and currents would remain the same. cle. Thus. the chopper again behaves like a de trans-
former in which the turns ratio is D.
21.39 Impedance transformation
Example 21-12
So far, we have assumed that the converter feeds The chopper in Fig. 21.62 operates at a frequency of
power to an active load E0 . However, it may also be 4 kHz and the on time is 20 µs. Calculate the ap-
used to connect a higher-voltage de source Es to a parent resistance across the source. knowing that R0
lower-voltage load resistor R0 (Fig. 21.62). 1211.
Equations 21.20 and 21.21 still apply, but we now
have the additional relationship E0 = / 0 R0 . Solution
Furthermore, the apparent resistance Rs across the The duty cycle is
terminals of the source is given by D = T)T T j'= 20 X 10- 6 x 4000 = 0.08
Applying Eq. 21.22, we have
We can therefore write Rs= R0 /D
2

Rs = Eslls 12/(0.08) 2
E0 /D = 1875 n
/0 0 This example shows that the actual value of a re-
sistor can be increased many times by using a chop-
per. Although a chopper can be compared to a trans-
former, there is an important difference between the
:. Rs (21.22) two. The reason is that a transformer permits power
flow in both directions-from the high-voltage side
where to the low-voltage side or vice versa. The step-
Rs apparent resistance across the source lfl] down chopper we have just studied can transfer
power only from the high-voltage side to the low-
R0 = actual load resistance [fl]
voltage side. Because power flow in both directions
D = duty cycle is often required, we now examine a de-to-de con-
verter that achieves this result.

.------·-1
7 ~
,___
<D ,---1 i----.--J
L
21.40 Basic 2-quadrant

1
.J de-to-de converter
-=-Es D Consider Fig. 2 I .63a in which two mechanical
switches SI to S2 are connected across a de voltage
source EH. The switches open and close alternately
in such a way that when S 1 is closed, S2 is open and
© vice versa. The time of one cycle is T, and S 1 is
Figure 21.62 closed for a period Ta. It follows that the duty .cycle
A chopper can make a fixed resistor R0 appear as a of SI is D = T)T, while that of S2 is (I - D). When
variable resistance between terminals 1-2. S l is closed, terminal I is at tbe level of point 3 and
 FUNDAMENTAL ELEMENTS OF POWER ELECTRONICS 523

3 3

81 81
+ +
R

82
!:'
2
2
82

Figure 21.63a Figure 21.64

Two-quadrant de-to-de converter. Power can flow from EH to E0 and vice versa.

~:o-~;12 n r1£1 to be. This is a crucially important feature of the

converter. It is called a two-quadrant converter be-
cause current I can flow in either direction, but the
polarity of the de voltage EL remains fixed:
Terminal 1 is always (+)with respect to terminal 2.

-T- Ta Tb I
Suppose we want to transfer de power from ter-
minals E 12 to a load such as a battery, whose de
I
voltage E52 has a value E0 (Fig. 21.64 ). Knowing
Figure 21.63b that E 12 is fluctuating while E0 is constant, it is es-
Waveshape of E12 and average value EL. sential to place a buffer between the two, otherwise
short-circuit currents will result. We could place a
resistor between points 1 and 5, but that would in-
so the output voltage is E 12 = EH for a period Ta- volve PR losses which would reduce the efficiency
Then, when S 1 is open, S2 is closed and so E 12 = 0 of the converter. The best solution is to use an in-
for a period Tb. The output voltage oscillates, there- ductance L as shown in Fig. 21.64. It has the ad-
fore, between EH and zero (Fig. 21.63b) and its av- vantage of opposing ac current flow while offering
erage de value E 1 is given by Eq. 21.21 no opposition to de. We assume that the load has a
small internal resistance R.
(21.21)
Suppose that both the voltage source EH and the
By varying D from zero to 1, we can vary the mag- duty cycle D are fixed. Consequently, the de com-
nitude of EL from zero to EH. ponent EL between points 1 and 2 is constant. If £0
In examining Fig. 21.63a, it is apparent that the is exactly equal to EL, no de current will flow and
circuit on the left-hand side of terminals 1, 2 is no de power exchange will take place. But if £ 0 is
never open. For example, if current I happens to less than EL, a de current /L will flow from terminal
flow into terminal 1, it can find its way back toter- 1 into terminal 5. Its magnitude is given by
minal 2 either via S2 (if S2 is closed) or via S 1 and
(21.23)
source EH if S2 is open. Because~one_ of the switches
is always closed, it is evident that current I can al- Power equal to EL/L will, therefore, flow from ter-
ways circulate, no matter what its direction happens minals 1, 2 toward the battery. This de power can
524 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC DRIVES

only come from the higher voltage source EH. In

this mode of operation, with less than EL, the
converter acts like the step-down (buck) chopper
we covered in Section 21.37.
On the other hand, if is greater than a de
current /L will tlow out of terminal 5 and into ter-
minal I. Its magnitude is /L (E0 Ed!R. Power
now flows from the low-voltage battery side E 0 to
the higher voltage side EH. In this mode of opera-
tion, with E 0 greater than EL, the converter acts like
a step-up (boost) chopper.
The mechanical switching system of Fig. 2 2
2 I .63a is therefore able to transfer de power in Figure 21.65
both directions-from high-voltage side to low- Circuit of Example 21-13.
voltage side or vice versa. Again, because the cur-
rent can reverse while the polarity of EL remains To determine the peak-to-peak ripple, Jet us ex-
the same, this buck/boost converter operates in amine the situation when S2 is closed (Fig. 21.66).
two quadrants. Assuming the current i is momentarily equal to its
Let us now examine the behavior of the con- de value of 5 A. the voltage across the inductor
verter more closely, by means of an example. is equal to the battery voltage minus the JR drop in
the resistor: 30 V - 5 A X 2 n 20 Y. Knowing
Example 21-13 that /L is flowing into terminal 4 and that terminal 4
The following data is given on a buck/boost con- is ( +) with respect to terminal I, it follows that 11,
verter (Fig. 21.65 ): must be increasing. The inductor accumulates volt-
EH 100 v Eo = 30 v R = 2 n L IO mH seconds and during the 40 µs that S2 is closed, the
switching frequency = 20 kHz with a duty cycle magnetic "charge'' totals 20 V X 40 µs = 800
D of 0.2 for SI. Y·µs. Therefore the current increases by an amount
111 = 800 Y·µs/10 mH 0.08 A.
Determine the following: Let us now see what happens when S l is closed
a. The value and direction of the de current ft. and i is again momentarily 5 A (Fig. 21.67). The
b. The peak-to-peak ripple superposed on the de
current 3
Solution
S1
Referring to Fig. 21.65, the value of EL DEH = open
0.2 x 100 V 20 V. + (40 µs)
Because the battery voltage is greater than EL, cur-
rent /L flows out of terminal 5 and into terminal I.
Its average value is S2
closed
/L (30 V - 20 V)/2 !l 5A
(40 µs)
The duration of one cycle is
T l If 1120 000 50 µs
Thus, SI is closed for a time Ta 0.2 X 50 µs = Figure 21.66
10 µs and S2 is closed for 40 µs. See Example 21-13.
 FUNDAMENTAL ELEMENTS OF POWER ELECTRONICS 525

3 The current flowing into the battery would reverse

and its value would become
\
I
81 I (45 V 30 V)/2 !! 7.5 A
closed
(10 µs) •
I
I 10 mH 2Q Direct-current power now flows from the I 00 V
source toward the battery, causing the latter to
:1
\ charge up. Under these conditions, the converter is
82 said to operate in the buck mode. Thus, the transi-
open 5A
tion from boost to buck can be effected very
(10 µs) (i decreasing)
smoothly by simply varying the duty cycle.
'------ ------

Fig. 21.65 can be considered to be the mechanical

2 equivalent of a buck/boost chopper.
Figure 21.67
See Example 21-13.
21.41 Two-quadrant
electronic converter
Figs. 21.66 and 21.67 show the direction of current
A flow in the case of a boost converter. If the converter
operated in the buck mode, the currents would follow
5.04
the same paths but in the opposite direction. With me-
4.96 chanical switches this creates no problem because
i they can carry current in either direction. But in the

t real world we have to deal with electronic switches,

which inherently carry current in only one direction.
Therefore, in order to get bidirectionality, diodes have
0 40 50 90 to be placed in antiparallel with the respective semi-
-time µs conductor switches QI and Q2 (Fig. 21.69). The
switch contacts are shown with an arrowhead to indi-
Figure 21.68 cate the allowed direction of current flow. For exam-
ple, when current flows into terminal I, it can con-
tinue on to terminal 2 either by way of diode DI and
voltage across the inductor is now 100 V (30 source EH or by way of Q2, provided Q2 is closed.
10) V = 80 V, but terminal 4 is nef{ative with respect
to terminal I. The current i is therefore decreasing.
3
The volt-seconds discharged during the JO µsinter-
val is 80 V X JO µs 800 Y·µs. The change in cur-
rent is M 800 Y·µs/10 mH = 0.08 A.
01
We observe that the decrease in current when SI
is closed is the same as the previous increase when
+:.......... ,

SI was open. Consequently, the peak-to-peak ripple ~ EH ;

.............. "
is 0.08 A. The de current fluctuates between 5.04 A
and 4.96 A 21.68). Direct-current power flows '
02
from the lower voltage battery Joward the higher
voltage source. The converter is said to function in
,_ - -- - --- - - - - - -~-----.i2
the boost mode.
Note that if the duty cycle were raised to 0.45, the Figure 21.69
value of would increase to 100 X 0.45 45 V. Two-quadrant electronic converter.
526 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC DRIVES

Similarly if current flows out of terminal I, it can take arm arm

the path through diode 02 or the path through QI and A
,..._..,_ B
. 3
EH, provided that QI is closed.
In this figure, Q 1 and 0 I together perform the
same way as the mechanical switch S 1. Similarly. D 01
Q2 and 02 together perform the same way as me- +
ELL
chanical switch S2. Fig. 21.69 therefore represents A B
the essence of a 2-quadrant electronic converter. If +) +
a de voltage EH is applied between terminals 3 and (1 - D)
2. the converter generates a de voltage EL between 02 EA E9
I
terminals I and 2 and the relationship is again I

DEH, where Dis the duty cycle of QI.

It is important to note that QI and Q2 cannot be 2

closed at the same time, otherwise a short-circuit Figure 21.70

will result across source EH. Thus, for a very brief Four-quadrant de-to-de converter.
period, called dead time, both switches must be
open. The current is carried by one of the two diodes
EA= DEH
during this instant.
Power can be made to flow from the higher volt- The de voltage Ep, between terminals B, 2 is
age side to the lower voltage side or vice versa. The Ea (1 - D)EH
power transported in one direction or the other de-
pends upon the respective voltages and the duty cy- The de voltage Eu. between terminals A and B is
cle. The 2-quadrant converter of 21.69 is the ba- the difference between EA and Ep,:
sic building block for most switch-mode converters.
ELL EA Ea
DEH- (l - D)EH
21.42 Four-quadrant
thus
de-to-de converter
(2 l.24)
The 2-quadrant converter we have studied can only
be used with a load whose voltage has a specific po- Equation 21.24 indicates that the de voltage is
larity. Thus, in Fig. 21.69, given the polarity of EH, zero when D 0.5. Furthermore, the voltage
terminal I can only be ( +) with respect to terminal changes linearly with D, becoming +EH when D =
2. We can overcome this restriction by means of a I, and when D = 0. The polarity of the output
4-quadrant converter. It consists of two identical voltage can therefore be either positive or negative.
2-quadrant converters arranged as shown in Fig. Moreover. if a device is connected between termi-
21.70. Switches QI, Q2 in converter arm A open nals A, B, the direction of de current flow can be ei-
and close alternately, as do switches Q3, Q4 in con- ther from A to B or from B to A. Consequently, the
verter arm B. The switching frequency (assumed to converter of Fig. 21.70 can function in all four
be 100 kHz) is the same for both. The switching se- quadrants.
quence is such that Q l and Q4 open and close si- The instantaneous voltages EA 2 and Ea 2 oscil-
multaneously. Similarly, Q2 and Q3 open and close late constantly between zero and +EH. Fig. 21.7 l
simultaneously. Consequently, if the duty cycle for shows the respective waveshapes when D = 0.5.
QI is D, it will also be D for Q4. It follows that the Similarly, Fig. 21.72 shows the waveshapes when
duty cycle for Q2 and Q3 is ( 1 - D). D 0.8. Note that the instantaneous voltage £AB
The de voltage appearing between terminals between the output terminals A, B oscillates be-
A, 2 is given by tween +EH and -EH. In practice, the alternating
 FUNDAMENTAL ELEMENTS OF POWER ELECTRONICS 527

+EH -··>
/H
+
0 4-quadrant
de-to-de ELL
c R
converter

+EH
j
2 B
0 +
D
Figure 21. 73
Four-quadrant de-to-de converter feeding a passive de
load R.

components that appear between terminals A. B are

filtered out. Consequently. only the de component
0 5 10 15 20 /JS
remains as the active driving emf across the ex-
Figure 21.71 ternal device connected to terminals A, B.
Voltage output when 0 = 0.5. The average voltage is Consider, for example, the block diagram of a
zero. converter feeding de power to a passive load R (Fig.
21.73). The power is provided by source EH. As we
have seen, the magnitude and polarity of ELL can be
varied by changing the duty cycle D. The switching
frequency f of several kilohertz is assumed to be
constant. Inductor Land capacitor C act as filters so
that the de current flowing in the resistance has neg-
ligible ripple. Because the switching frequency is
high, the inductance and capacitance can be small,
thus making for inexpensive filter components.
The de currents and voltages are related by the
power-balance equation EH/H Eu.11.. We neglect
the switching losses and the small control power as-
sociated with the D andf input signals.
Fig. 21.74 shows the converter connected to an
active device E0 , which could be either a source or
a load. If need be, the polarity of E0 could be the re-
verse of that shown.
In all these applications we can force power to
flow from EH to E 0 , or vice versa, by simply ad-
0 5 10 15 25 µs
justing the duty cycle D. This 4-quadrant de-to-de
Figure 21.72 converter is therefore an extremely versatile device.
Voltage output when 0 0.8. The average voltage The inductor Lis a crucially important part of the
ELL is 0.6 EH· converter. It alone is able to absorb energy at one
528 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC DRIVES

3 snubber

+
--·
/H
+
Ti
T:>.
turn-on time
on-state time
T,, = turn-off time
4-quadrant
de-to-de Eu_ T+ off-state time
converter
I
switching
D duty cycle =
T
I semiconductor

2 B
' Figure 21.75a
t
0 0 Switching semiconductor and snubber.

During each interval the instantaneous power

Figure 21.74
Four-quadrant de-to-de converter feeding an active de dissipated in the GTO is equal to the product of the
source/sink E0 . instantaneous voltage across it times the instanta-
neous current that flows through it. However, we
voltage level (high or low) and release it at another are mainly interested in the ai'erage power loss dur-
voltage level (low or high). And it performs this ing one cycle because it determines the temperature
duty automatically, in response to the electronic rise of the GTO. The average power is equal to the
switches and their duty cycle. energy dissipated in the GTO during one complete
cycle, divided by T
21.43 Switching losses It so happens that the voltage across the GTO is
All semiconductor switches such as GTOs, substantial during the turn-on and turn-off periods,
MOSFETs, and IGBTs have losses that affect their being far greater than the on-state voltage drop of 2
temperature rise and switching efficiency. The to 3 volts. As a result, the instantaneous power loss
switches all function essentially the same way, but to during these intervals can be very high.
focus our analysis we assume the switching device Fig. 2 I .75a shows a GTO with its anode, cath-
is a GTO. The switching operation involves four ode, and gate. In addition to the circuit that is be-
brief intervals: ing switched (not shown), a snubber is connected
to the GTO. A snubber is an auxiliary circuit com-
I. Turn-on time T 1: The current in the GTO is posed of R, L, C components (usually including
rapidly increasing while the voltage across it is semiconductor devices) that control the magni-
rapidly decreasing. tude and rate of rise of the anode voltage £AK as
2. On-state time T2 : The current has reached a sta- wel I as the anode current /. The purpose of a
ble value IT, and the voltage VT across the GTO snubber is to aid commutation and to reduce the
is about 2 to 3 volts. losses in the GTO.
3. Turn-off time T,,: The current in the GTO is Fig. 2 I .75b indicates the voltage, cuITent, power,
rapidly falling while the voltage across it is and energy associated with each of the four intervals
rapidly increasing. of the switching operation. For example, during
stage Ti the instantaneous voltage across the GTO is
4. Off state time T4 : The current in the GTO is zero
V 1• the instantaneous current is 1 1• and the average
while the forward voltage is relatively high.
power dissipated is P 1• Consequently, the energy
The sum of Ti + T 2 + T 3 + T4 is equal to the pe- dissipated during this stage is Pi T 1 joules. On the
riod T of one cycle which, in turn, is equal to life other hand, the energy dissipated during interval T+
where j~ is the switching frequency. is zero because the current is nil.
 FUNDAMENTAL ELEMENTS OF POWER ELECTRONICS 529

1- ---~T
I permit them to operate at much higher switching
frequencies than GTOs.
I-Ta-I I In addition to the anode-cathode losses, we must
not overlook the losses (albeit much smaller) asso-
ITi I T2
I To, T+ ITi I T2
ciated with the gate voltages and currents. They are
instant.
t t t t t not covered here.
V1 VT Vo, V4 V1
voltage

instant. lo, 0
DC-TO-AC SWITCHING CONVERTERS
Il IT I1
current
We have studied the 2-quadrant and 4-quadrant dc-
average P1 VTIT Po, 0 P1 to-dc switching converters. In this section we will
power
examine the 4-quadrant converter as a dc-to-ac
energy P1 T1 VTITT2 Po,T3 () P1 T1
converter.

Figure 21.75b 21.44 Dc-to-ac rectangular

Four stages of a GTO switching operation.
wave converter
The total energy dissipated in the form of heat
Referring back to the 4-quadrant converter shown
during one cycle is therefore given by
in Figs. 21. 70 and 21. 71, it is seen that when the
energy = P 1 T 1 + VTITT2 + Po,To, (21.25) duty cycle D has a value of 0.5, the de output volt-
age Eu_ is zero. However, the instantaneous value
The on-time Ta, mentioned earlier, is equal to T2 . It
of ELL oscillates symmetrically between +EH and
is also related to T by the expression Ta = DT,
-EH at a rate determined by the switching fre-
where D is the duty cycle. We can, therefore, write
quency. Consequently, the converter is able to
T2 = DT transform the de voltage into a rectangular ac volt-
age. The rectangular wave can have any frequency,
Substituting in Eq. 21.25, we obtain
ranging from a few cycles per hour to several hun-
energy dissipated= P 1 T 1 + Vr!TDT + Po,To, (21.26) dred kilohertz. If the de supply voltage is I 00 V, the
output ELL oscillates between +I 00 V and - I 00 Y
The total power dissipated in the GTO is this energy
(Fig. 21. 76a). The wave contains a fundamental si-
divided by T
nusoidal component whose peak amplitude is 1.27
EH. Consequently, the effective value of the funda-
mental is 1.27 EH/'12 = 0.90 EH. If an external de-
vice is connected to the output terminals A, B
Recognizing that T = life, we get
(Fig. 21.76b), power can flow from the de side to
power loss= P 1 T 1 j~+ VTl1D + P7,T,,fc (21.27) the ac side and vice versa.

Equation 21.27 reveals the factors that determine

the power dissipated in the GTO and its conse-
,,, ......,\.
+ 100
quent temperature rise. It can be seen that the dis-
V',.----\{"v ~/
sipation increases with the switching frequency j~
and the duty cycle D. The equation also indicates
that the dissipation can be redQced if the turn-on
and turn-off times are shorter. Th<U .is one of the
0

-100- , __
/] \!\ "...... ' "
advantages offered by MOSFETs and IGBTs,
whose brief turn-on and turn-off times (T 1 and To,) Figure 21.76a
530 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC DRIVES

3 A
3
l

+
4-quadrant
+
external 4-quadrant
dc-to-ac ELL device switching ELL
converter
I
converter

+ j
2 B
2 B L2

0t D 0.5
~+
L::J m 1)

(a)

Figure 21.76b
Single-phase dc-to-ac switching converter in which
D = 0.5 and f can be varied.

Although the frequency can be varied over a

wide range, this rectangular-wave converter can
only generate an output that fluctuates between
+EH and -EH. Furthermore, the wave contains (b) D = 0.8 Eu.= +0.6 EH
rather large 3rd, 5th. and 7th harmonics which may
be objectionable.

21.45 Dc-to-ac converter with pulse Eo 0.5

width modulation + E H - ' -c 1tft··+E11

When we studied the 4-quadrant de-to-de con-
ELL= 0 0 0
verter, we discovered that it produced an average
output voltage given by ~ -~
(2 D I) (21.24) (c) IJ 0.5 ELL 0

Consider the 4-quadrant de-to-de converter of

21. 77a, which is operating at a constant switching
frequency .fc of several kilohertz. For reasons that
will soon become apparent, it is called carrier fre-
quency. Suppose that the duty cycle is set at 0.8. The
average value of Eu. is, therefore,
ELL EH (2 x 0.8 -1) 0.6
This average de value is buried in the output voltage
(d) D = 0.2 ELL -0.6 EH
which continually fluctuates between +EH and
(Fig. 2 I .77b). However. by using a small filter Figure 21.77
Lit is possible to eliminate the high frequency com- Four-quadrant dc-to-ac switching converter using car-
ponent.( and thereby obtain the desired de voltage rier frequency fc and three fixed values of D.
 FUNDAMENTAL ELEMENTS OF POWER ELECTRONICS 531

across the output terminals LI, L2. Note that the

po~itive voltage pulses are on for a considerably
longer period than the negative pulses.
If Dis set to 0.5, the average output voltage ELL
becomes zero, buried again within the fluctuating
ac voltage E0 (Fig. 21. 77 c ). Note that the duration
of the positive voltage pulses is now equal to that of
the negative pulses.
Next, if D = 0.2, we find that the average value
of ELL is -0.6 EH; this condition is seen in Fig.
e-
a
2 l.77d. The duration of the positive voltage pulses
is now less than that of the negative pulses and that
is why the average (de) output is negative.
Suppose now, that D is varied periodically,
switching suddenly between D = 0.8 and D = 0.2 Figure 21.79
at a frequency f that is much lower than the carrier Frequency, amplitude, and phase control by varying D.
frequency f.: (Fig. 21.78). As a result, the output
voltage ELL will fluctuate continually between the carrier frequency fc be at least ten times the de-
+0.6 EH and -0.6 EH. The filtered output voltage sired output frequencyf
between terminals LI, L2 is therefore a rectangular Fig. 21.79 gives the same result as Fig. 21.78. ex-
wave having a frequency f The big advantage over cept that the rectangular voltage has been shifted to
the rectangular wave of Fig. 21.76 is that the mag- the right by an angle of 8 degrees. The phase-shift is
nitude of Eu,, as well as its frequencyf can be con- achieved by simply delaying the duty cycle signal.
trolled at will. For example, if EH = I 00 V and the Next, consider Fig. 21.80 wherein the duty cycle
duty cycle is switched from D = 0.65 to D = 0.35 is varied gradua11y between 0.8 and 0.2, following
at a frequency of 73 Hz, the resulting rectangular a triangular pattern. This causes the filtered output
wave will fluctuate between + 24 V and -24 V at a voltage ELL to vary between +0.6 EH and -0.6 EH,
frequency of 73 Hz. The only requirement is that faithfully reproducing the triangular wave. Clearly,

D0.8V\/'
0.2
0

D
E
I o

Figure 21.78 Figure 21.80

Frequency and amplitude control by varying D. Waveshape control by varying 0.
532 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC DRIVES

the 4-quadrant converter is a versatile device be- Consequently, knowing EH (whose value is fixed)
cause it can generate an ac output voltage of almost and knowing.the desired value of ELun as a func-
any shape. The frequency, phase angle, amplitude, tion of time, the pattern of D can be programmed.
and waveshape can all be adjusted as needed by For example, suppose we want to generate an out-
simply modifying the duty cycle pattern. put voltage E given by
Another important property is that power can
flow from the de side to the ac side and vice versa,
E =Em sin (360.ft + 0)
under all conditions. The reason is that no matter According to 21.28, D is given by
what the polarity of the output voltage happens to
be, the current can always flow in one direction or
the other. Furthermore, the ac output impedance is
D 0.5 l E11 j
l
I + §_fl, sin (360.fi + 0) (21.29)

very low because the output terminals A, B are ef-

The ratio Em/EH is called amplitude modulation ra-
fectively connected to the de supply EH, which it-
tio, designated by the symbol m. Consequently, the
self has a very low internal impedance.
duty cycle pattern to generate a sine wave can be
expressed as:
21.46 Dc-to-ac sine wave converter
D 0.5[1 msin(360ft+0)] (21.30)
In order to determine the duty cycle pattern to gen-
erate a desired output voltage, consider Fig. 2 I .8 l In this equation,f is in hertz, tin seconds, and 0
in which Eu.(t} is a voltage having an arbitrary in degrees.
waveshape and frequency. Applying Eq. 21.24, we The ratio j~ff is called frequenc.v modulation ra-
can write tio, designated by the symbol m 1•
El.I.(!) EH (2 D - l)
Example 21-14
from which we immediately deduce A 200 V de source is connected to a 4-quadrant
switching converter operating at a carrier fre-
o = o.5 [ 1 + E~~'1J (21.28) quency of 8 kHz. It is desired to generate a sinu-
soidal voltage having an effective value of 120 V
at a frequency of 97 Hz and phase angle of 35°
lagging. Calculate the value of the amplitude
3 L1 modulation ratio and derive an expression for the
duty cycle.
+ Solution
4-quadrant
The peak value Em of the output voltage is
switching £0
converter
Em 120 '12 170 V

The amplitude modulation ratio is

2 B L2 m E 111/ EH 170/200 0.85
£LL(t}) The frequency modulation ratio is
D=0.5 1 +
( ~·····

mr = fjf 8000/97 82.4 7

Figure 21.81 The expression for D is
Four-quadrant switching converter producing an arbi-
trary waveshape ELL(tl" D = 0.5[ I + 0.85 sin(360 X 97 t 35)] (21.31)
 FUNDAMENTAL ELEMENTS OF POWER ELECTRONICS 533

21.47 Generating a sine wave 100 v

86.6 v-
To understand the switching process, let us deter-
mine the switching sequence to generate a sine
wave between terminals A and B of Fig. 21.70. Here
are the specifications:
Peak ac voltage required: I 00 V
Frequency required: 83.33 Hz
Carrier frequency: I 000 Hz
30 60
i

90 120 150 180{

De supply voltage EH: 200 V
Type of switching is standard: Q l, Q4 open and
-- 1 _..,
ms
A B c D E F
close simultaneously, asdoQ2 and Q3 Fig. 21.70).
We reason as follows: 6000 µs
Duration of one cycle of the desired 83.33 Hz fun-
damental frequency Figure 21.82
Positive half-cycle of the fundamental 83.33 Hz volt-
T I/f= 1/83.33 0.012s 12000µs age comprises six carrier periods of 1 ms each.

This period corresponds to 360 electrical degrees.

Period of the carrier frequency: Proceeding this way, we calculate the value of D
until the end of the cycle (360°) is reached. Table
T.:: = l/fc l/1000 s = I ms 1000 µs 2 IE organizes the information and lists the items of
Number of carrier cycles per fundamental cycle = interest.
12 000 µs/I 000 µs = 12. Knowing the duty cycle for each interval, the cor-
Angular interval (at fundamental frequency) cov- responding time that QI, Q4 are on can be determined.
ered by one carrier period = 360°/12 = 30°. In one For example, during interval 8, they must be closed
cycle of the fundamental voltage there are 12 such for 0.625 X I 000 µs 625 µs. It follows that Q2, Q3
intervals.
Fig. 21.82 shows the positive half-cycle of the TABLE 21E GENERATING A SINE WAVE
sine wave, with the 30° intervals labelled A to G.
The average voltage for interval A is zero. The duty angle £AH QI. Q4 on Q2. Q3 on
[deg] [VJ D lµs] !µsJ interval
cycle during this interval is, therefore,
0 0 0 0.5 500 500 A
D 0.511 + ELL(tl) 0.511 +- I 0.5 30 50 0.625 625 375 B
EH . ' 200'
60 86.6 0.716 716 284 c
The average voltage for interval B is I 00 sin 300 90 100 0.75 750 250 D
50 V. The duty cycle during this interval is, therefore, 120 86.6 0.716 716 284 E
150 50 0.625 625 375 F
. 50 180 0 0.5 500 500
D = 0.5 (1 + §i,_t,ttJ) 0.5( I + - 11 0.625 G
Eu 200 210 -50 0.375 375 625 H
240 -86.6 0.284 284 716
The average voltage for interval C is 100 sin 60°
270 100 0.250 250 750 1
86.6 V. The duty cycle during thisfoterval is, therefore, 300 -86.6 0.284 284 716 K
330 -50 0.375 375 625 L
D 0.5(1 + = 0.716. 360 0 0.5 500 500 M
200
534 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC DRIVES

200 200

100

', 210 340 270 300 330 360

0 30 60 90
120 1so 1M·.~·· ,

200
IAfslcio:EIFfGIH!
Figure 21.84
Figure 21.83 Sequential ( +) and (-) pulses contain the sinusoidal
Alternative ( +) and (~) pulses contain the sinusoidal components.
component.
here. Jn many cases the switching sequence is under
must be closed for the remaining part of the interval. computer control. In the simple method used above,
namely 1000 - 625 375 µs. Note that when Q 1, the intention is to show the fundamental principle
Q4 are closed £AB is momentarily positive, and when upon which pulse width modulation is based.
Q2, Q3 are closed EAB is momentarily negative. The sinusoidal voltage buried in the pulse train
Thus, during interval B, £AB is + 200 V for 625 µs appears grossly distorted in both Figs. 21.83 and
and -200 V for 375 µs. Fig. 21.83 shows these ( +) 21.84. However, once the I 000 Hz carrier fre-
and ( ) polarities. quency is filtered out, the resulting voltage will be
It is seen that although the carrier period is fixed very sinusoidal. Indeed, the lowest harmonics are
IOOO µs). the on/off pulse widths are changing clustered around IOOO Hz, which is 12 times the
continually. That is why this type of switching is fundamental 83.33 Hz frequency.
called pulse width modulation, abbreviated PWM. A higher carrier frequency would yield a better
It is worth noting that during each switching in- waveshape because more points could be established
terval (A. B, C, etc.), the area of the 200 V positive along the sinusoidal curve and the filtering would be
pulse minus the area of the 200 V negative pulse is easier. But a higher frequency would increase the
equal to the volt-second area of the sinusoidal seg- power losses in the IGBTs that are being switched.
ment during that interval. It follows that the area
under the positive sine wave, shown dotted in Fig.
21.48 Creating the PWM pulse train
21.83, is equal to the sum of the areas of the seven
positive pulses less the areas of the six negative We have seen that to transform a desired voltage
pulses. The same remarks apply to the negative waveshape into PWM form, the waveshape is
half-cycle. Thus, whenever a continuous voltage is chopped up into small intervals. The duration of
transformed into a chopped PWM form, the volt- each interval is equal to the period T of the carrier
seconds during any given interval are the same. frequency. In the previous section we showed how
Fig. 21.84 shows another switching pattern that that can be done by actual calculation. In practice, a
generates the same sinusoidal voltage. However, the very ingenious method is employed to create the
pulses are all positive during the positive half-cycle PWM pulses.
and negative during the negative half-cycle. Again, Consider one arm of a converter as illustrated in
in this case the sum of the areas of the five positive Fig. 2 l .63a. Suppose the desired voltage has the
pulses included in the 180° interval is equal to the undulating shape shown in Fig. 21.85 and that the
area of the dotted sine wave during that interval. fixed de voltage at the input to the converter is EH.
There are many other ways of programming the We want to transform the continuous EL into a series
switching sequence, which will not be discussed of pulses having a fixed amplitude EH, a fixed period
 FUNDAMENTAL ELEMENTS OF POWER ELECTRON/CS 535

both the desired voltage EL and the fixed de voltage

EH. The successive crossing points of the two signals
establish the firing pattern of the JGBTs or GTOs.

21.49 Dc-to-ac 3-phase converter

Fig. 2 l .86a shows a dc-to-ac 3-phase PWM con-
verter composed of three switching arms. Jn this
schematic diagram the duty cycle for each arm is
programmed so that the output voltages EAN• EBN•
EcN are equal and mutually out of phase by 120°.
This is achieved by having the respective duty cy-
cles follow the expressions:
D1 = 0.5 f I + m sin (360.ft)J (21.32)
D2 = 0.5 ll + m sin (360 ft 120)1 (21.33)
D3 = 0.5 [I+ m sin (360fi 240)] (21.34)
By assigning values tom andf the amplitude and fre-
0 quency of the output voltages between terminals A, B,
Figure 21.85
Transforming a desired continuous voltage EL into a
PWM voltage. +
T, and an appropriate conduction period Ta for each
pulse. To achieve this result, we first draw a series of
isosceles triangles, each having a base T and height
EH. It is clear that the sides of the triangles will in-
tercept the waveshape at various points. N
The following simple rule applies: Conduction (a)
Ta takes place whenever lies above the triangu-
lar wave, and conduction ceases whenever it lies
below. Thus, conduction Ta occurs during intervals
0-1, 2-3, 4-5, 6-7, and so forth, and ceases during
the remaining intervals. The resulting pulse train
shown in gray contains the original signal EL. If the
carrier frequency were filtered out, the original
smooth signal EL would immediately appear.
In practice, the period Tis made much shorter than
that shown in the figure. Consequently, the change in
EL during one carrier period is considerably less than
that indicated in Fig. 21.85. A higher carrier frequency
automatically improves the faitbful reproduction of
the original signal buried in the PWM pulse train. (b)
In an electronic converter such as that illustrated
in Fig. 21.69, the gates are fired at appropriate in- Figure 21.86
stants by using proportionally reduced signals of Three-phase dc-to-ac switching converter.
536 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC DRIVES

and C can be set to any desired value. The peak line-to-

neutral voltages£AN• Em,, EcN are given by
3 L1
(2L35)
The effective line-to-line voltage is, therefore,
+
3-phase Enm 0.5m EH ('131'12) 0.612 m (21.36)
dc-to-ac
converter The phasor diagram for these voltages is shown
in Fig. 2 l .86b. It is understood that the three dual
N c L L3 mechanical switches in 2 l .86a each represents
the electronic switches shown in Fig. 21.69.
2

§J§J§J Fig. 21.87 is a block diagram of the dc-to-

3-phase converter. The inductances L filter out the
carrier frequency, leaving only the wanted ac voltages
f. m. fJ between terminals LI, L2, L3. Power can again flow
from the de side to the 3-phase side and vice versa.
Figure 21.87 Fig. 21.88 shows the PWM voltages generated by
Schematic diagram of a dc-to-ac 3-phase switching
such a 3-phase converter when connected to a 500 V
converter.

500 v
EAY OV

Esy

Ecy
500 v
ov

phase AB
ov

phase BC
OV

phase CA
OV

Figure 21.88
Three-phase PWM voltages produced by a dc-to-ac switching converter operating at 540 Hz with a 500 V de input.
Top: EAN• E6 N, EcN outputs, peak 60 Hz sinusoidal component 200 V. Bottom: EAB• EcA outputs, peak 60 Hz
sinusoidal component 346.4 V, rms value 245 V.
 FUNDAMENTAL ELEMENTS OF POWER ELECTRONICS 537

de source. The carrier frequency is 540 Hz and the fun- anode

damental wanted frequency/is 60 Hz. The amplitude cathode
modulation ratio is 0.8; consequently, the peak line-to- gate
neutral sinusoidal voltage is choke
filter
E 111 0.5 m E 11 (21.35)
chopper
= 0.5 X 0.8 x 500 = 200V peak inverse voltage
rectifier
The effective 3-phase line-to-line voltage is
inverter
Enm 0.612 m EH (21.36) harmonic
0.612 x 0.8 x 500 = 245 v commutation
line commutation
It should be noted that the converter illustrated in converter
Figs. 21.86 and 21.87 is a 4-quadrant converter that cycloconverter
can deliver or receive 3-phase active power (watts) at bridge rectifier
the fundamental frequency. It can also deliver or re- self commutation
ceive reactive power (vars) at the fundamental fre- displacement power factor
quency. Consequently, as far as the output terminals
LL L2. L3 are concerned, the converter behaves ex- 21-6 The 3-phase transformer shown in Fig.
actly like the synchronous generator we studied in 21.16 produces a secondary line voltage
Chapter 16. Its "synchronous reactance" Xs is equal of 2.4 k Y. The de load current lc1 is 600 A.
to 2TifL, wherefis the fundamental frequency and L
Calculate
is the inductance of the carrier frequency filters. The
a. The de voltage across the load
latter are used to diminish the carrier frequency cur-
b. The average current carried by each diode
rents in the 3-phase line. The device in Fig. 21.87 may
c. The maximum current carried by each diode
be a passive or active load or even a 3-phase source.
21-7 The 3-phase transformer shown in Fig.
21.50 Conclusion 21.19 produces a secondary line voltage
of 2.4 kV. If the de load current is 600 A,
This chapter has given some of the basic concepts of calculate the following:
electronic devices and converters. It lays the ground- a. The de voltage across the load
work for the study of electronic drives for de and ac b. The average current carried by each diode
motors and the control of large blocks of power in 21-8 An ac source having an effective voltage of
electric utilities. In subsequent chapters we will see 600 V, 60 Hz is connected to a single-phase
further applications of switching converters. bridge rectifier as shown in Fig. 2 I. I 4a.
The load resistor has a value of 30 H.
Questions and Problems
Calculate
Practirnl le1•el a. The de voltage Ev,
21-1 State the basic properties of a diode. b. The de E5 ,
21-2 State the basic properties of a thyristor. c. The de load current I
d. The average current carried by each diode
21-3 What is the approximate voltage drop e. The active power supplied by the ac source
across a diode or SCR when it conducts?
21-9 The chopper shown in Fig. 21.62 is con-
21-4 What is the approximate maxi"nium permis- nected to a 3000 V de source. The chop-
sible operating temperature of a thyristor? per frequency is 50 Hz and the on-time
21-5 Ex plain the meaning of the following terms: is I ms.
538 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC DRIVES

Calculate 21-15 The chopper shown in Fig. 21.62 is con-

a. The voltage across resistor R0 nectt?c! to a 2000 V de source, and the load
b. The value of Is if R0 2 fl resistor RQ has a value of 0.15 fl. The on-
21-10 In Problem 21-9, if we double the on-time time is fixed at I 00 µsand the de voltage
calculate the new power absorbed by the across the resistor is 60 V.
load. Calculate
a. The power supplied to the load
Intermediate level
b. The power drawn from the source
21 11 a. In Problem 21-7 calculate the power dissi- c. The de current drawn from the source
pated by the six diodes if the average voltage d. The peak value of Is
drop during the conduction period is 0.6 V. e. The chopper frequency
b. What is the efficiency of the rectifier alone? f. The apparent resistance across the de
21-12 a. The current in Fig. 21.6 has a value of source
~6 A. What is the polarity of '1 g. Draw the waveshapes of Is, 10 , and /D·
b. The current in Fig. 21. 7 has a value of
21-16 The 3-phase, 6-pulse converter shown in
+6 A and E65 is negative. Is the current in-
Fig. 21.36 is directly connected to a
creasing or decreasing?
3-phase, 208 V line.
21-13 The single-phase bridge rectifier shown in
2 l.l 4a is connected to a 120 V, 60 Hz
source. If the load resistance is 3 !1, calcu- Calculate
late the following: a. The de output voltage for a firing angle of
a. The de load current 90°
b. The PIV across the diodes b. The firing angle needed to generate 60 V
c. The energy that must be stored in the (rectifier mode)
choke so that the peak-to-peak ripple is c. The firing angle needed to generate 60 V
about 5 percent of the de current (inverter mode)
d. The inductance of the choke 21-17 The converter shown in 21.36 is con-
e. The peak-to-peak ripple across the choke nected to a transformer that produces a sec-
21-14 The 1ine voltage is 240 V, 60 Hz on the ondary line voltage of 40 kV, 60 Hz. The
secondary side of the converter trans- load draws a de current of 450 A If the de-
former in 21.19. The de load draws a lay angle is 75°, calculate the following:
a. The de output voltage
current of 750 A
b. The active power drawn from the ac line
c. The effective value of the secondary line
Calculate current
a. The de voltage produced by the rectifier d. The reactive power absorbed by the con-
b. The active power supplied by the 3-phase verter
source 21-18 In Problem 21-17, calculate the following:
c. The peak current in each diode a. The peak positive value
d. The duration of current flow in each diode b. The peak negative value of EKA
fmsl c. The peak-to-peak ripple across the inductor
e. The effective value of the secondary line
current 21-19 The electronic contactor in 21.33 con-
f. The reactive power absorbed by the con- trols the power to a 15 fl heater. The sinu-
verter soidal supply voltage has an effective value
g. The peak-to-peak ripple across the of 600 Vat a frequency of 60 Hz. If the fir-
inductor ing angle a = 0°, calculate the following:
 FUNDAMENTAL ELEl'v!ENTS OF POWER ELECTRONICS 539

a. The effective current g I and g4 if we wish to generate an output

b. The power supplied to the heater frequency of 12 Hz. Draw the waveshape
c. The effective value of the harmonic currents of the voltage across the load resistance.
d. The displacement power factor
21-24 a. Referring to Fig. 21.15, and recognizing
e. The reactive power furnished by the ac line
that area A,~ l is almost triangular. calculate
Advanced level the approximate value if the effec-
21-20 In Problem 21-19 the firing angle is in- tive voltage produced by the source is
2000 V. 60 Hz [V·s].
creased to 120° and the effective current I
b. If the peak-to-peak current ripple must not
is found to be 17.68 A. Therms value of
exceed 7 A. calculate the inductance of
the fundamental component is known to
choke L.
be /F = 12.34 A.
21-25 The chopper shown in Fig. 21.58 transfers
Calculate power from a 400 V source to a I 00 V
a. The rms value of all the harmonic currents load. The inductor has an inductance of
b. The power dissipated in the heater [W) 5 H. If the chopper is on for 2 s and off for
c. The distortion power factor I 0 s, calculate the following:
d. The apparent power supplied by the source a. The maximum current in the inductor
e. The total power factor b. The energy transferred to the load. per
f. The displacement power factor cycle lJ]
g. The reactive power supplied by the line [var! c. The average power delivered to the load [W]
d. Draw the waveshape of i as a function of
21-21 The rectifier shown in 21.19 produces
time and compare it with that in Fig. 21.59.
a de output of I 000 A at 250 V. Inductor l
reduces the current ripple, but an addi- 21-26 In Problem 21-25, if the chopper is on for
tional purpose is to limit the rapid build- 2 s and off for 2 s, what is the value of the
up of de current should load R become current
short-circuited. This enables the circuit a. After 2 s·1
breakers to trip before the de current be- b. After 4 s?
c. After 6 s?
comes too large. Assuming the initial cur-
d. After 8 s?
rent is I 000 A. calculate the minimum
e. Will anything prevent the current from
value of l so that the short-circuit current
building up indefinitely?
does not exceed 3000 A after 50 ms.
21-27 A 3-phase, 6-pulse converter shown in
21-22 A diode having a PIV rating of 600 V is Fig. 21.4 l is to be used as an inverter. The
used in a battery charger similar to the one de side is connected to a 120 V battery
shown in Fig. 21.11 a. The battery voltage and R I 0 mn. The ac side is connected
is 120 V and R = 10 n.
to a 3-phase, 120 V, 60 Hz line. lf the bat-
a. Calculate the maximum effective sec-
tery delivers a current of 500 A. calculate
ondary voltage of the transformer so that
the following:
the diode will not break down.
b. For how many electrical degrees will the
a. The firing angle required
b. The active power delivered to the ac line
diode conduct if the rms secondary voltage
is 300 V?
c. The reactive power absorbed by the converter
c. What is the peak current in the diode? Industrial application
21-23 The cycloconverter in Fig. 21.34 is con- 21-28 A 24 V battery is connected in series with
nected to a 60 Hz source. Caiculate the a 12 V (rms ). 60 Hz generator to a lO n
time interval between the firing of gates resistor.
540 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC DRIVES

Calculate Anode current rises linearly from zero to 260 A

a. The maximum and minimum voltage 2. On-state time: 250 ms
across the resistor
b. The effective value of the voltage across On-state current: 420 A
the resistor On-state voltage: 3.2 V
c. The power dissipated in the resistor
3. Turn-off time: 6 ms
21-29 A distorted 60 Hz current has an effective
value of 547 A and a THO of 26 percent. Anode voltage: rises linearly from 3.2 V to 550 V
Calculate the peak value of the fundamen- Anode current: falls linearly from 420 A to zero
tal component and the effective value of
4. Off-state time: 375 ms
all the harmonics taken together.
21-30 One of the diodes in a bridge circuit simi- Off-state voltage: 1300 V
lar to that in Fig. 21.13 fails and becomes Off-state reverse current: 6 mA
open-circuited. The source voltage £ 12 Calculate
has an effective value of 208 V and. be-
a. The peak power dissipated in the GTO dur-
fore the diode failed, the resistor ab- ing the turn-on period
sorbed a power of 1400 W. Describe what b. The peak power dissipated in the GTO dur-
happens after the failure and determine the on-state period
the new power absorbed by the resistor c. The approximate average power during the
and the effective value of the voltage turn-on period
across it. d. The approximate average power during the
on-state period
21-31 One of the thyristors (Q2) in Fig. 21.34
e. The approximate energy dissipated in the
becomes short-circuited. Describe what GTO during the turn-on period
will most likely happen in this unfused f. The approximate energy dissipated in the
circuit. GTO during the on-state period
21-32 A GTO operates under the following con- g. The approximate energy dissipated in the
ditions: GTO during the turn-off period
1. Turn-on time: 2 ms h. The total power dissipated in the GTO, ne-
glecting gate losses
Anode voltage: drops linearly from 1200 V i. The frequency and duty cycle of the
to 3.2 V switching operation
 CHAPTER 22
Electronic Control of Direct-
Current Motors

22.0 Introduction stricted to quadrant I. The field excitation is fixed,

and the speed is varied by changing the armature
igh-speed, relia. ble, and inexpensive semico~­
H ductor devices have produced a dramatic
change in the control of de motors. In this chapter
voltage. A 3-phase, 6-pulse converter is connected
between the armature and a 3-phase source (Fig.
22.1 ). The field current / 1 is provided by a single-
we examine some of the basic principles of such phase bridge rectifier. External inductor L ensures a
electronic drives. The circuits involve rectifiers and relatively smooth armature current. The armature
inverters already covered in Chapter 21. The reader inductance L,, is usually large enough. and so the
should. therefore, review this chapter before pro- external inductor can often be dispensed with. The
ceeding further. Sections 20.16 and 20.17 on elec- armature is initially at rest and the disconnecting
tric drives should also be consulted. switch S is open.
In describing the various methods of control, we
A gate triggering processor receives external in-
will only study the behavior of power circuits.
puts such as actual speed, actual current actual
Consequently, the many ingenious ways of shaping
torque, etc. These inputs are picked off the power
and controlling triggering pulses are not covered
circuit by means of suitable transducers. In addi-
here. The reason is that they constitute, by them-
tion, the processor can be set for any desired motor
selves, a complex subject involving sophisticated
speed and torque. The actual values are compared
electronics, logic circuits. integrated circuits. and
microprocessors. Nevertheless, the omission of this with the desired values, and the processor automat-
important subject does not detract from the thrust of ically generates gate pulses to bring the two as close
this chapter, which is to explain the fundamentals of together as possible. Limit settings are also incor-
electronic de drives. porated so that the motor never operates beyond ac-
ceptable values of current, voltage, and speed.
Gate pulses are initially delayed by an angle a =
22.1 First quadrant speed control 90° so that converter output voltage Ec1 is zero.
We begin our study with a variable speed drive for Switch S is then closed and a is gradually reduced so
a de shunt motor. We assume that its operation is re- that Ec1 begins to build up. Armature current /<l starts

541
542 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC DRIVES

limit settings

max max min/max

current speed etc.
r_l_J__ l_l
desired current __,,..ii , - actual armature current
control
.
settings (
desired speed
.
---i
1
gate
triggering
processor
r--- actual speed
t
external inputs
from the system
desired etc. ---t_f Tl-i-rT~ actual etc.
o : - - - G 1 G2 G3 G4 Gs G6 l

3-phase
line

single phase
source

Figure 22.1
Armature torque and speed control of a de motor using a thyristor converter.

flowing and the motor gradually accelerates. During 4. The de voltage Ed during start-up is much lower
the starting period, the current is monitored automat- than rated voltage. Consequently, the converter
ically. Furthermore, the gate-t1iggering processor is absorbs a great deal of reactive power when the
preset so that the pulses can never produce a current motor runs at low speed while developing its
in excess of, say, 1.6 pu. rated torque. Furthermore, the reactive power
Four features deserve our attention as regards diminishes continually as the motor picks up
the start-up period: speed. As a result, power-factor correction is
difficult to apply during the start-up phase.
I. No armature resistors are needed; consequently,
there are no PR losses except those in the ar- When the motor reaches full speed, the firing an-
mature itself. is usually between 15° and 20°. Converter volt-
age is slightly greater than induced voltage E 0 by
2. The power loss in the thyristors is small; conse-
an amount equal to the armature circuit /dRa drop.
quently, all the active power drawn from the ac
The converter voltage is given by the basic equation
source is available to drive the load.
3. Even if an inexperienced operator tried to start Ed 1.35 E cos a (21.17)
the motor too quickly, the current-limit setting To reduce the speed, we increase the firing angle
would override the manual command. In effect, a so that becomes less than E0 . In a Ward-Leonard
the armature current can never exceed the al- system this would immediately cause the armature
lowable preset value. current to reverse (see Section 5.5). Unfortunately,
 ELECTRONIC CONTROL OF DIRECT-CURRENT MOTORS 543

the current cannot reverse in Fig. 22.1 because the Calculate

SCRs conduct in only one direction. As a result, a. The required firing angle a under rated full-
whe'n we increase a, the current is simply cut off and load conditions
the motor coasts to the lower speed. During this in- b. The firing angle required so that the motor de-
terval, gradually falls and, when it eventually be- velops its rated torque at 400 r/min
comes less than the new setting of Ed, the armature
Solution
current again starts to flow. The torque quickly builds
a. At full-load the converter must develop a de
up and. when it is equal to the load torque, the motor
output of 250 V:
will continue to run at the lower speed.
The efficiency at the lower speed is still high be- Ed= 1.35 E cos a (21.14)
cause the SCR losses are small. However, the ripple 250 1.35 X 208 cos a
voltage generated by the converter is greater than
cos a 0.89
under rated full-load conditions because a is greater
(Section 21.28). Consequently, the armature current a= 27°
is not as smooth as before, which tends to increase Armature JR drop at rated current:
the armature copper losses and iron losses. An
equally serious problem is the large reactive power IR 2500 A X 0.004 H = I 0 V
absorbed by the converter as the firing angle is in- Counter-emf (cemf) at 1200 r/min:
creased. For example, when the firing angle is 45°,
the converter absorbs as much reactive power from E0 250 - IO = 240 V
the 3-phase line as it does active power. b. To develop rated torque at 400 r/min, the arma-
To stop the motor, we delay the pulses by 90° so ture current must still be 2500 A. The cemf at
that Ed = 0 V. The motor will coast to a stop at a rate 400 r/min is
that depends on the mechanical load and the inertia
of the revolving parts. E0 = (400/1200) X 240 80 V
Armature IR drop I0 V
Example 22-1 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
Armature terminal voltage is
A 750 hp, 250 V, 1200 r/min de motor is connected
to a 208 V, 3-phase, 60 Hz line using a 3-phase bridge Ed = 80 + l 0 = 90 V
converter (Fig. 22.2a). The full-load armature current The converter must, therefore, generate 90 V.
is 2500 A and the armature resistance is 4 mil. To determine the firing angle, we have
Ed l.35Ecosa (21.14)
desired values --f~gate~j external
Itnggenng ~ 90 = l.35 X 208 cos a
limits - 1 processor1 inputs
L::.-,-;;:::.;..J a 71 (see Fig. 22.2b)
t gates
t
3-phase £
IX= 71°
208V
208 v .. J
60 Hz ~--Jl"f-
3-phase

560kW
~ 1200 r/min

Figure 22.2a Figure 22.2b

See Example 22-1. Rated torque at 400 r/min.
544 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC DRIVES

Example 22-2 we please. We often res011 to dynamic braking. using

Referring to Example 22-1, calculate the reactive a resistor ccmn~cted across the armature. However,
power absorbed by the converter when the motor the converter can qJso be made to operate as an in-
develops full torque at 400 r/min. verter. feeding power back into the 3-phase line. Such
regenerative brakinf? is preferred for large motors be-
Solution
cause the kinetic energy lost during the deceleration
The load condition is given in Fig. 22.2b. The de
is converted to useful electrical energy. Furthermore,
power absorbed by the motor is
the generator output can be precisely controlled to ob-
P Ettft1 90 X 2500 = 225 kW tain the desired rate of change in speed.
To make the converter act as an inverter, the po-
If we neglect the relatively small converter losses,
larity of Ed must be reversed. as shown in Fig. 22.3.
the active power supplied by the ac source is also
This means we must also reverse the polarity of
225 kW.
Finally, Ed must be adjusted to be slightly less than
The reactive power drawn from the ac source is
to obtain the desired braking current /d (Fig. 22.3).
given by
Q = P tan a (21.14)
= 225 tan 71°
J..phase
= 653 kvar (compare this with line
the active power of 225 kW)
This example shows that a large amount of reac-
tive power is required as the firing angle is increased.
Figure 22.3
It even exceeds the active power needed at full-load. Motor control by field reversal.
Capacitors could be installed on the ac side of the
converter to reduce the burden on the 3-phase feeder
These changes are not as simple as they first ap-
line. Alternatively. a variable-tap transformer could
pear. The polarity of Ed can be changed almost in-
be placed between the 3-phase source and the con-
stantaneously by delaying the gate pulses by more
verter. By reducing the ac voltage at the lower
than 90°. However, to change the polarity of E0 , we
speeds, the reactive power can be reduced consid-
must reverse either the field or the armature, and
erably. The reason is that the firing angle can then be
this requires additional equipment. Reversing the
kept between 15° and 20°. However. this may not
armature or field also takes a significant length of
be a feasible solution if the speed of the motor has to
time. Furthermore, after the generator (braking)
be continually varied. The tap-changing becomes too
phase is over, we must again reverse the armature or
frequent to be practical. Later sections in this chapter
field so that the machine runs as a motor. Bearing
(Sections 22.8 and 22.9) show other ways to reduce
these conditions in mind, we now list the steps to be
the reactive power demand.
taken whenjield reversal is employed.
Step I: Delay the gate pulses by nearly 180° so
22.2 Two-quadrant control- that Ed becomes quite and negative. This
field reversal operation prepares the converter to act as an in-
We cannot always tolerate a situation where a motor verter. It takes a few milliseconds, following
simply coasts to a lower speed. To obtain a quicker re- which current Id is zero.
sponse, we have to modify the circuit so that the mo- Step 2: Reverse the field current as quickly·as
tor acts temporarily as a generator. By controlling the possible so as to reverse the polarity of £ 0 . The
generator output, we can make the speed fall as fast as total reversing time may last from I to 5 sec-
 ELECTRONIC CONTROL OF DIRECT-CURRENT MOTORS 545

onds, owing to the high inductance of the shunt

field. The armature current is still zero during
this interval. 3-phase
line
Step 3: Reduce a so that becomes slightly
less than E 0 . enabling the desired armature cur-
rent to flow. The motor now acts as a generator,
feeding power back into the ac line by way of Figure 22.4
the inverter. Its speed drops rapidly toward the Motor control by armature reversal.
lower setting.
What do we do when the lower speed is reduce speed, the same steps are followed as in the
reached? We quickly rearrange the circuit so case of field reversal, except that the armature is re-
the de machine again runs as a motor. This in- versed instead of the field.
volves the following steps:
Step 4: Delay the gate pulse by nearly 180° so 22.4 Two-quadrant control-
that E0 becomes quite large and negative. This two converters
operation takes a few milliseconds, after which When speed control has to be even faster. we use
current /d is again zero. two identical converters connected in reverse paral-
Step 5: Reverse the field current as quickly as lel. Both are connected to the armature. but only
possible so as to make £ 0 positive. The revers- one operates at a given time, acting either as a rec-
ing time again lasts from I to 2 seconds. During tifier or inverter (Fig. 22.5). The other converter is
this interval. the armature current is zero. on standby, ready to take over whenever power to
Step 6: Reduce a so that E" becomes positive the armature has to be reversed. Consequently.
and slightly greater than £ 0 , enabling the de- there is no need to reverse the armature or field. The
sired armature current to flow. The machine time to switch from one converter to the other is
now acts as a motor, and the converter is back typically I 0 ms. Reliability is considerably im-
to the rectifier mode. proved, and maintenance is reduced. Balanced
against these advantages are the higher cost and in-
22.3 Two-quadrant control- creased complexity of the triggering source.
Because one converter is always ready to take
armature reversal over from the other, the respective converter volt-
In some industrial drives, the Jong delay associated ages are close to the existing armature voltage, both
with field reversal is unacceptable. In such cases we in value and polarity. Thus, in Fig. 22.6a, converter
reverse the armature instead of the field. This re- I acts as a rectifier, supplying power to the motor at
quires a high-speed reversing switch designed to a voltage slightly higher than the cemf E0 . During
carry the full armature current. The control system is this period, gate pulses are withheld from converter
arranged so that switching occurs only when the ar- :2 so that it is inactive. Nevertheless. the control cir-
mature cuITent is zero. Although this reduces contact cuit continues to generate pulses having a delay a 2
wear and arcing, the switch still has to be fairly large so that Ect 2 would be equal to 1 if the pulses were
to carry a current, say, of several thousand amperes. allowed to reach the gates (G7 to G 12, Fig. 22.5 ).
Due to its low inductance. the armature can be To reduce the motor speed, gate pulses a 1 are de-
reversed in about 150 ms, which is at least 10 times layed and, as soon as the armature current has fallen
faster than reversing the field. Fig. 22.4 is a simpli- to zero, the control circuit withholds the pulses to
fied circuit showing a de shunt motor connected to converter I and simultaneously unblocks the pulses
the converter by means of a reversing contactor. To to converter 2. Converter I becomes inactive and
546 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC DRIVES

inputs --1,--ga-te---1
triggering I
r--gate--1
I trigg11rLng 1-- inputs
L-

--r--
processor J L --r--;-
processor J

gates G 1 to G6 gates G7 to G 12
0!1 0!2 L

transformer

3-phase
line

converter 1 converter 2

Figure 22.5
Two-quadrant control using two converters without circulating currents.

L
the delay angle a. 2 is then reduced so that be-
comes slightly less than £ 0 , thus permitting reverse
current /d 2 to flow (Fig. 22.6b ).
This current reverses the torque, and the motor
speed decreases rapidly. During the deceleration

[ phase, a. 2 is varied automatically so that Ed2 follows

the rapidly decreasing value of £ 0 . In some cases a. 2
is varied to maintain a constant braking current.
During this period the control circuit continues to
converter 1 converter 2 generate gate pulses for converter l, and the delay an-
gle a. 1 tracks a. 2 so that would be equal to if
Figure 22.6a the pulses were allowed to reach the gates (G l to G6).
Converter 1 in operation; converter 2 blocked. If the motor only operates in quadrants I and 4, the
direction of rotation never reverses. Consequently,
L
converters 1 and 2 always act respectively as rectifier
and inverter.

22.5 Four-quadrant control-two

converters with circulating
current
Some industrial drives require precise speed and
converter 1 converter 2
torque control right down to zero speed. This means
that the torque may at times be much less than rated
Figure 22.6b torque. Unfortunately, the converter current is dis-
Converter 2 in operation; converter 1 blocked. continuous under these circumstances. In other
 ELECTRONIC CONTROL OF DIRECT-CURRENT MOTORS 547

words, the current in each thyristor no longer flows Example 22-3

for 120°. Thus, at low torques the speed tends to be The de motor in Fig. 22.8 has an armature voltage
erratic, and precise control is difficult to achieve. of 450 V while drawing a current of 1500 A.
To get around this problem, we use two converters Converter I delivers a current /d 1 of 1800 A, and
that function simultaneously. They are connected converter 2 absorbs 300 A. If the ac line voltage for
back-to-back across the armature (Fig. 22.8). When each converter is 360 V, calculate the following:
one functions as a rectifier the other functions as an a. The de power associated with converters I and 2
inverter, and vice versa. The armature current I is the b. The active power drawn from the incoming
difference between currents /J 1 and /J 2 flowing in the 3-phase line
two converters. With this arrangement, the currents in c. The firing angles for converters I and 2
both converters flow during 120°, even when I is d. The reactive power drawn from the incoming
zero. Obviously, with two conve1ters continuously in 3-phase line
operation, there is no delay at all in switching from
Solution
one to the other. The armature current can be reversed
a. The de power delivered by converter I is
almost instantaneously; consequently, this represents
the most sophisticated control system available. It is
also the most expensive. The reason is that when con- 450 x 1800
ve1ters operate simultaneously, each must be pro-
810kW
vided with a large series inductor (l 1, L 2 ) to limit the
ac circulating currents. The converters may be fed The power absorbed by converter 2 (operating
from separate sources, such as the isolated secondary as an inverter) is
windings of a 3-phase transformer. A typical circuit
composed of a delta-connected primary and two wye-
connected secondaries is shown in Fig. 22.8. Other 450 x 300
transformer circuits are sometimes used to optimize 135 kW
performance, to reduce cost, to enhance reliability, or
Note that the converter voltages £d 1 and are
to limit short-circuit currents. essentially identical because the de voltage
drops in L 1 and L 2 are negligible. This means
that the respective triggering of converters I
and 2 cannot be voltage-controlled (by £ 0 , for
example). In practice, the triggering is current-
controlled and is made to depend on the desired
converter currents /d 1 and /d?.·
b. The active power drawn from the incoming ac
line is
P P1 P2
= 810 135
675 kW
Secondary winding L 2, 3 delivers 810 kW
Figure 22.7
Precise 4-quadrant electronic speed ctmtrol is pro- while secondary winding 7, 8, 9 receives 135
vided in a modern steel mill. kW. It follows that the net active power drawn
(Courtesy of Siemens) from the line (neglecting losses) is 675 kW.
548 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC DRIVES

3-phase line
A c
'1.-~~~~~~~~~~~~-..,

- /d2 +

G, G, Gu

Fd2

Figure 22.8
converter 1
[
L2
G10 Gn Ge

converter 2 - 02

Two-quadrant control of a de motor using two converters with circulating currents.

c. The approximate firing angle for converter I Note that assuming /d 2 is held constant, it
can be found from Eq. 21.l 3: would take a very small change in a 1 (and
hence in EJ 1) to make a big change in ( 11 • The
Ec1 1 = l.35 E cos a 1
reason is that /d 1 is equal to the difference be-
450 = 1.35 X 360 cos a 1 tween EJ 1 and E,,, divided by the very low ar-
cos a 1 0.926 mature resistance Ra. Such a big change in /J 1
would produce a corresponding big change in
a 1 22.2°
the current I feeding the armature.
Because is nearly equal to EJ" the firing In the same way, a very small change in a 2
angle for converter 2 is found to have the (with /J 1 held constant) produces a big change
same approximate value. However, in I JZ and, therefore, in the armature current.
because it operates as an inverter, the Thus, although the approximate values of a 1
angle is and a 2 are mainly determined by the magnitude
of the armature voltage £ 0 (which depends.
a2 180 - a 1
upon the speed), their precise values are set by
180 22.2 the desired value of the armature current/. That
157.8° is why /<l 1 and lc1 2 have to be current-controlled.
 ELECTRONIC CONTROL OF DIREC7~CURRENT MOTORS 549

d. The reactive power drawn by converter I is

-- *
<900
Q1 = P 1 tan a 1
G'.1

3-phase
810 tan 22.2° line

331 kvar
The reactive power drawn by converter 2 is
Q1 P2 tan a 2
Figure 22.9
= -135tan 157.8° Hoist raising a load.
= 55 kvar

-- *
Consequently, the reactive power drawn from
Cl'2 > 900
the incoming 3-phase line is
3-phase
line
Q =QI+ Q2
= 331 + 55
= 386 kvar
It is interesting to note that whereas the active
Figure 22.10
powers subtract (P = P 1 - P 2 ), the reactive Hoist lowering a load.
powers add: (Q = Q1 + Q2 ). The reason is that
a line-commutated converter always absorbs re- the descending weight delivers power to the motor,
active power, whether it functions as a rectifier and so it becomes a generator. We can feed the re-
or inverter. sulting electric power into the ac line by making the
converter act as an inverter. The gate pulses are sim-
22.6 Two-quadrant control with ply delayed by more than 90°, and Ed is adjusted to
positive torque obtain the desired current flow (Fig. 22.10).
Hoisting and lowering can, therefore, be done in
So far, we have discussed various ways to obtain a stepless manner and no field or armature reversal
torque-speed control when the torque reverses. is required. However, the empty hook may not de-
However, many industrial drives involve torques scend by itself. The downward motion must then be
that always act in one direction, even when the assisted by the motor, which means that either the
speed reverses. Hoists and elevators fall into this field or armature has to be reversed.
category because gravity always acts downward
whether the load moves up or down. Operation is
22.7 Four-quadrant drive
therefore in quadrants 1 and 2.
Consider a hoist driven by a shunt motor having We can readily achieve 4-quadrant drive of a de ma-
constant field excitation. The armature is connected chine by using a single converter combined with ei-
to the output of a 3-phase, 6-pulse converter. When ther field or armature reversal. However, a great deal
the load is being raised, the motor absorbs power of switching may be required. Four-quadrant control
from the converter. Consequently, the converter acts is possible without field or armature reversal by using
as a rectifier (Fig. 22.9). The lifting speed depends two converters operating back-to-back. They may
directly upon the converter voltage Ed' The armature function either alternately or simultaneously, as pre-
current depends upon the weight of the load. viously described in Sections 22.4 and 22.5.
When the load is being lowered, the motor re- The following example illustrates 4-quadrant
verses, which changes the polarity of £ 0 . However, control of an industrial drive.
550 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC DRIVES

r/min
Nm Note: Clockwise speed and.torque are positive.
1000 .
torque
800 speed
(1) -0
600 )
::::;
er
(1)
400 2
g
(1)
c..
(/) 200 .//······...........
.. 0
t 9/ 22 ·}4
2 4 6 a\. 10 12 14 1\ 18 2 26 s speed
200
400 \ torque 3 4
600
800 -time
. . !... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ·
1000

Figure 22.11
Torque-speed characteristic of an industrial drive.

FIRST FOURTH THIRD ! SECOND..__ quadrant

motor generator motor i generator~- machine mode
rectifier inverter rectifier inverter converter mode
r/min
(+) (+) (-) (-) converter polarity
N·m
1000
800 speed
(1) -0
600 )
::::;
(1)
(1)
400
2" c..
.8 (/) 200
0

it 200
400
2 4 6 a\. 10
\. torque
12 14 16 18 2r· 22 24 26 s

\.~~ ......................................·
600
800 -time
1000

Figure 22.12
See Example 22-4.

Example 22-4 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ four quadrants. In doing so, we look for those mo-
An industrial drive has to develop the torque-speed ments when either the torque or speed pass through
characteristic given in 22.11. A de shunt motor is zero. These moments always coincide with the tran-
used. powered by two converters operating back-to- sition from one quadrant to another. Referring to
back. The converters function alternately (only one at Fig. 22.11, the speed or torque passes through zero
a time) as explained in Section 22.4. Determine the at 2, 8, 15, 21, and 25 s.
state of each converter over the 26-second operating We draw vertical lines through these points (Fig.
period, and indicate the polarity at the terminals of the 22.12). We then examine whether the torque and
Jc machine. The speed and torque are considered pos- speed are positive or negative during each subdi-
itive when acting clockwise. vided interval. Knowing the respective signs, we
So/11rio11 can immediately state in which quadrant the motor
The analysis of such a drive is simplified by subdi- is operating. For example, during the interval from
viding the torque-speed curves into the respective 2 s to 8 s, both the torque and speed are positive.
 ELECTRONIC CONTROL OF DIRECTCURRENT MOTORS 551

Consequently, the machine is operating in quadrant A similar line of reasoning enables us to deter-
I. On the other hand, in the interval from 21 s to mine the operating mode of each converter for the
25 s, the speed is negative and the torque positive, other intervals. The results are tabulated in Table
indicating operation in quadrant 2. 22A. We encourage the reader to verify them.
Knowing the quadrant, we know whether the
machine functions as a motor or generator. Finally,
TABLE22A
assuming that a positive (clockwise) speed corre-
sponds to a positive armature voltage (Fig. 22. I 3a), Operating mode
we can deduce the required direction of current Time
interval Converter I Converter 2
flow. This tells us which converter is in operation.
and whether it acts as a rectifier or inverter.
Thus, taking the interval from 21 to 25 seconds, 2-8 s rectifier off
it is clear that the machine acts as a generator. 8-15 s off inverter
15-21 s off rectifier
Consequently, one of the two converters must func-
21-25 s inverter off
tion as an inverter. But which one? To answer the
question, we first look at the polarity of the arma-
ture. Because the speed is negative, the armature
22.8 Six-pulse converter
polarity is negative, as shown in Fig. 22.13b.
Current flows out of the positive terminal because
with freewheeling diode
the machine acts as a generator. Only converter I When a de motor is started up. we can signifi-
can carry this direction of current flow, and so it is cantly reduce the reactive power absorbed by the
the one in operation. converter by placing a diode across the converter
output (Fig. 22.15). The usefulness of this free-
wheeling diode is best illustrated by a numerical
example.
Suppose a de motor has the following characteristics:
rated power: I 00 hp
(a)
rated armature voltage: 240 V
rated armature current: 320 A
converter 1 armature resistance: 25 mn
armature inductance: 1.7 mH
Figure 22.13a
Polarities when the speed is positive. We begin our analysis using a conventional
6-pulse converter to drive the motor. The converter
(rectifier) is fed by a 3-phase, 184 V, 60 Hz line. We
will analyze the voltages and currents when the mo-
tor is at standstill with rated current flowing in the
armature. As a result, the motor will develop rated
(b) torque. The circuit of the motor and converter is
shown in 22.14a.
The motor is stalled and the value of is only
converter 1 that needed to supply the armature IR drop.
IR= 320A X 25 mf!
Figure 22.13b
Interval from 21 s to 25 s. 8V
552 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC DRIVES

1.7mH

Q
Pac 01 i,f 03 1,j 05

3-phase 3-phase ~
Trans- 2
line former

~
3
184V
3-phase
i.i 04
i"l 06
i; l 02

Figure 22.14a
Conventional rectifier supplying rated current to a stalled de armature. Firing angle is 88.15°.

To develop this de voltage. the required firing angle behind the positive voltage peak £ 1N. Thus, la lags
is given by almost 90° behind N and that is why the reactive
power is so large. The same remarks apply to lb. lc.
Ed 1.35 E cos a
and their respective line-to-neutral voltages.
8 = 1.35 X I 84 cos a The effective value of the line current is
whence 0.816 Id (21.6)
cos a 0.0322 = 0.816 x 320
and so 261 A

a 88.15° Figure 22. l 4b also shows that voltage £KA

across the armature is a sawtooth wave. The peak
The active ac power P supplied to the converter is value oscillates between + 137 V and - 123 V, but
necessarily equal to that absorbed by the armature. the average value of the wave is only 8 V.
Thus. It would be useful if we could remove the nega-
P Eid =8 X 320 = 2560 W tive voltages in £KA- The reason is that for a given
firing angle (such as 88.15°) the average voltage Ed
The reactive power Q absorbed by the converter is, will then increase. The negative voltages can be
therefore, suppressed by placing a diode between terminals K
Q P tan a= 2560 tan 88.15° and A (Fig. 22.15a). In effect. as soon as K becomes
negative with respect to A, the diode starts con-
= 79.25 kvar
ducting. During the conduction period all currents
Note that the reactive power is 31 times greater than cease to flow in the converter. and so the line cur-
the active power. rents la. lb. lc are also zero. Note that la is now com-
The line-to-neutral voltage E 1N and the corre- posed of a double positive pulse of current followed
sponding line current I" are shown in Fig. 22.14b. by a double negative pulse.
Note that QI is triggered 88.15° after 8,,. As a result. The presence of the diode produces the wave-
the center of the positive current pulse lags 88.15° shape shown in Fig. 22.15a. The negative voltages are
 ELECTRONIC CONTROL OF DIRECT-CURRENT MOTORS 553

01 02 03 04 05 06 01
fires fires fires fires fires fires fires

l--o5, 06-T-06. 01J.-01. 02-l.-02. 03..l-03. 04-4-04. 05.J..05. 06--1

1.414 E
Iconducting jconducting j conducting jconducting Iconducting Iconducting Iconducting
1.225 E

ss.15°--0-----
---148.150 - - -

Figure 22.14b
Voltage and current waveshapes when armature is stalled while developing rated torque.

clipped off. and so the de voltage across the armature Ed l.35 E ( 1 cos J 120 al)
becomes much larger than 8 V. As a result, the arma- 1.35 x 184 (I cos l 120 88.15])
ture current also becomes much greater than 320 A. In
1.35 X 184(1 cos31.85°)
order to make Ed 8 V, we must increase the firing
angle a. It can be proved that the de voltage of a 3- = 37.4 v
phase 6-pulse conve11er equipped with such a free- The resulting armature current would, therefore, be
wheeling diode is given by
I= 37.4/0.025 = 1496 A
Ed 1.35 E(I cos r120 et]) (22.1)
where This is nearly five times the rated current, which
is clearly unacceptable.
Ed = de voltage [VJ
In order to obtain the desired Ed = 8 V. we must
E = effective value of line-to-line voltage
increase the firing angle such that
[VJ
a firing angle (between 60° and 120°) [ 0
] Et1 = l.35E(I cosr120 et]) (22.1)
l .35 a constant that applies only when a lies 8 l.35Xl84(1-cos!l20-aj)
bet~~en 60° and 120° [exact value
0.9678 = cos ( 120 - a)
3 V211rJ
therefore
In our example, the de voltage with a firing angle of
88.15°is 120 a= arcos 0.9678 = 14.6°
 0

1496 A

i------180°-----
88.150-j

Figure 22.15a
Conventional rectifier and freewheeling diode supplying current to a stalled de armature. Firing angle is 88.15°.

554
 ELECTRONIC CONTROL OF DIRECT-CURRENT MOTORS 555

consequently, E 1 ;-.i. The displacement angle is therefore 82.7° and

the displacement power factor is
a = 120 - 14.6° 105.4°
With this firing angle, the waveshapes of EKA and (, PF (displacement)= cos 82.7° = 0.127
are as shown in Fig. 22. l 5b. The positive half-cycle The active power P drawn from the 3-phase line
of / 11 is composed of two current pulses. Each has an is again 320 A X 8 V 2.56 kW. The reactive
amplitude of 320 A and a duration of (120° power Q is
105.4°) = 14.6°. The effective value of / 11 , therefore,
Q P tan (displacement angle)
/..(eft) x 14.6) I 360 = 128.9 A
2.56 tan 82. 7°
Thus, the 3-phase line currents are much lower than
20 kvar
in 22.14a, even though the de current in the ar-
mature is the same. Thus, with the freewheeling diode the converter
The positive half-cycle of current /,, is centered only draws 20 kvar from the line, compared to
midway between 105.4° and 180° (see Fig. 22.15b). 79.26 kvar with no diode.
Thus,angle<I>; (105.4+ 180)/2 142.7°.0n The reader should note that the freewheeling
the other hand, the positive peak of N occurs at diode only begins to produce an effect when the fir-
<Pe 600. ing angle lies between 60° and 120°. It is only then
Consequently, the fundamental component of(, that EKA starts to become negative, thus permitting
lags by <Pd= ( 142.7° 60°) = 82.7° behind the diode to exert its influence. The line current is

Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 as Q6 01
fires fires fires fires fires fires fires

~as. as-l-as. a1-!-a1. a2--l-a2. a3-l..-a3. a4-f-a4, as-l..-as, as-f

1.414 £
Iconducting Iconducting Iconducting Iconducting Iconducting Iconducting Iconducting I
1.225 E

1. 1.
1os.•·----I 14.6°

·~~
142.7"
cl>i

1~·

Figure 22.1 Sb
Conventional rectifier and freewheeling diode supplying current to a de armature. Firing angle is 105.4°.
556 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC DRIVES

not sinusoidal and possesses a strong harmonic con- a firing angle (must lie between 60° and
tent. It can be shown that the fundamental compo- . 1.80°) [0 ]
nent of the line current lags behind the correspond- 0.675 = a constant that only applies for a be-
ing line-to-neutral voltage by an angle cpd given by tween _§0° and 180° [exact value is
(1.5 V2)hrJ
()> d 30° + a/2 (22.2)
Using the same example as in Section 22.8, the
where
firing angle needed to produce Ed = 8 Vis given by
cpd displacement phase angle [ 0 ]
Ect = 0.675 E (I +cos a)
a = firing angle (must lie between 60°
and 120°) [ 0 1 8 0.675 X 184 (I +cos a)
30° a constant for this type of converter -0.936 cos a

The effective value of the line current is given by whence

I= /d\/(120 - a) /90 (22.3) a= 159.32°

The displacement power factor is given by The line-current pulses have an amplitude equal
to the de armature current, namely 320 A. The du-
PF (displacement) cos cpd (22.4) ration of the current pulses is ( 180° -- 159.32°)
The displacement angle cpd can be used to calculate 20.68°. Based upon the example of Fig. 22.16, the
the reactive power Q: positive current pulse starts at 159.32° and ends at
180°. The negative current pulse starts at 279.32°
(22.5) and ends at 300°. Thus, current(, essentially passes
through zero at an angle cp" given by
22.9 Half-bridge converter cpo = 1/2( 159.32° + 300°) = 229.66°
The half-bridge converter is another way whereby the Consequently, the positive peak of(, occurs es-
reactive power can be reduced when the de output sentially at an angle of (229.66° 90°) = 139.66".
voltage is low. Fig. 22.16 shows a 3-phase, 6-pulse Thus, the displacement angle is
converter in which three thyristors have been re-
placed by three diodes 02, 04, D6. This ha{f-hridge cpd = ( 139.66° - 60) 79.66°
converter has properties similar to those of a conven- The displacement power factor is
tional thyristor bridge with a freewheeling diode.
The firing angle a can be varied from zero to PF (displacement) cos cpd = 0.179
180°. However, the freewheeling diode effect only As before, the active power supplied by the 3-phase
begins for angles greater than 60°. In Fig. 22.16, the line is
firing angle is assumed to be 135°. As a result, EKA
is positive during successive 45° periods. Note that P 2.56kW
the positive and negative curre.nt pulses in each The reactive power absorbed is
3-phase line also flow for 45°.
The average value of £KA is given by the equation Q = P tan cpd= 2.56 tan 79.66"
14 kvar
Ed 0.675£(1 cosa) (22.6)
The reader will note that even less reactive
in which
power is needed with the half-bridge rectifier than
£0 de voltage across the load [V] with the freewheeling diode circuit of Fig. 22. I 5b.
E = effective value of line voltage [VJ The effective value I of the line current is given by
 - - - - 11>0 = 217.5° - - - -

Figure 22.16
Half-bridge rectifier. Firing angle is 135°.

557
558 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC DRIVES

t/· x 20.68° x 2 p x 360° the improvement that has taken place, let us review
some of the features of the older systems.
whence A train· equipped with, say, two de motors, is
I 0.339 ( 1 = 0.339 X 320 108.4 A started with both "motors connected in series to an
external resistor. As the speed picks up, the resistor
Table 228 sums up the basic properties of the three is shorted out. The motors are then paralleled and
types of rectifier converters we have discussed. In connected in series with another resistor. Finally,
the case of converters B and C, the firing angle lim- the last resistor is shorted out, as the train reaches its
its are those during which freewheeling operation nominal torque and speed. The switching sequence
takes place. The values of Eu, cJ:>J, I, and so forth, are produces small jolts, which, of course, are repeated
only valid within the stated limits. Furthermore, the during the electric braking process. Although a jolt
load is assumed to be resistive. affects passenger comfort, it also produces slippage
on the tracks. with consequent loss of traction. The
de chopper overcomes these problems because it
22.1 O DC traction
permits smooth and continuous control of torque
Electric trains and buses had for years been de- and speed. We now study some simple chopper cir-
signed to run on direct current, principally because cuits used in conjunction with series motors.
of the special properties of the de series motor. Fig. 22. 17 shows the armature and field of a se-
Many have been modified to make use of the ad- ries motor connected to the output of a chopper.
vantages offered by thyristors and GTOs. Existing Supply voltage is picked off from two bare over-
trolley lines still operate on de and, in some cases, head trolley wires. Capacitor C 1 furnishes the high-
de series motors are still used. To modify such sys- current pulses whose amplitudes are equal to the
tems, high-power electronic choppers are installed large de armature current drawn by the motor. The
on board the vehicle (see Section 21.37). Such inductor l 1 has a smoothing effect so that current I
choppers can drive motors rated at several hundred drawn from the trolley line (or catenary) has a rela-
horsepower with outstanding results. To appreciate tively small ripple.

TABLE 228 PROPERTIES OF SOME RECTIFIER CONVERTERS (RESISTIVE LOAD)

Converter A Converter B Converter C

Items
3-phase. 6-pulse 3-phase. 6-pulse Half-bridge
+ freewheeling diode

firing angle (a) limits 0 to 90° 60° to 120° 60° to 180°

de output voltage (Ed) 1.35 E cos a 1.35 E (I cos [ 120 - a]) 0.675 E (I +cos a)
displacement angle (<t>J) a 30 a/2 a/2
PF (displacement) cos <t>J cos a cos ct/2
effective line current(/) 0.816 Id Id\( 180 a) I 180
Total apparent power (S) El\'3 El\3
Total active power (P) Ecifc1 E"I"
Total reactive power (Q) P tan <Pd P tan <Pd
PF (total) PIS PIS
 ELECTRONIC CONTROL OF DIRECT-CURRENT MOTORS 559

chopper
~·············1
'--.--~~ Oi--.---J
L,
L...........J
c, D

Figure 22.17
Direct-current series motor driven by a chopper. Figure 22.18a
The chopper is not a switch as shown, but a force- See Example 22-5.
commutated SCA.
a. Calculate the chopper frequency and the current
As far as the motor is concerned, the total induc-
drawn from the line when the motor is at stand-
tance of the armature and series field is large
still and drawing a current of 240 A.
enough to store and release the energy needed dur-
b. Calculate the chopper frequency when the mo-
ing the chopper cycle. Consequently, no external in-
tor delivers its rated output.
ductor is required. When the motor starts up, a low
chopper frequency is used, typically 50 Hz. The Solution
corresponding on time Ta is typically 500 µs. In a. Referring to Fig. 22. l 8a, the armature IR drop
some older systems, Ta is kept constant while the is 240 A x 0.1 n 24 V, and the cemf is zero
switching frequency varies. The top frequency because the motor is at standstill.
(about 2000 Hz) is limited by the switching and Consequently, £ 0 = 24 V and £, = 700 Y.
turn-off time of the thyristors. We can find the frequency from
Most choppers function at constant frequency,
E0 EJT., (21.14)
but with a variable on time Ta. In still more sophis-
ticated controls, both the frequency and Ta are var- 24 = 700f x 600 x 10- 6
ied. In such cases, Ta may range from 20 µs to 800 f 57.14 Hz
µs. Nevertheless, the basic chopper operation re- Ta+ Tn l(f' 1/57.14
mains the same, no matter how the on-off switching
17 500 µs (Fig. 22.18b)
times arc varied. Thus, the chopper output voltage
£ 0 is related to the input voltage E, by the equation The de current drawn from the catenary is
(21.21) I= Is = PIE, 24 x 240/700
where Dis the duty cycle,fis the chopper frequency 8.23A
and Ta is the on time.
Ta+ Tb
Example 22-5 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ - - - - - 1 7 500 µ s - - - -

A trolley-bus is driven by a 150 hp, 1500 r/min,

600 V series motor. The nominal full-load current is
200 A and the total resistance of the armature and
field is 0.1 !!. The bus is fed froip a 700 V de line.
A chopper controls the torque aoo speed. The Figure 22.18b
chopper frequency varies from 50 Hz to 1600 Hz, Current pulses /5 drawn by the chopper from the
but the on time T,, is fixed at 600 µs. 700 V source when the motor is stalled.
560 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC DR!l/ES

(Note the very low current drawn from the line Example 22-6
during start-up) Referring to 13,xample 22-5 and Fig. 22. I 8a, calcu-
b. At rated output the voltage across the motor late the peak value.,of currents I, and I when the mo-
terminals is 600 V (Fig. 22. I 9a). The required tor is at standstill.
frequency is therefore given by:
Solution
Eo = E,fTa a. Although the average value of/, is 8.23 A, its
600 700f X 600 X I 0~ 6 peak value is 240 A. The current flows in a se-
ries of brief, sharp pulses. On the other hand,
f = 1429 Hz the armature current / 0 is steady at 240 A.
Ta+ Th llf 1/1429 b. The average value of line current I is 8.23 A.
= 700 µs (Fig. 22.19b) The voltage across the capacitor fluctuates and
so current I will have a ripple because inductor
Line current I: L 1 does not have infinite inductance.
Consequently, the peak value of I will be
I = 1., PIE,
slightly greater than the average value.
600 x 2001700
= 171 A
22.11 Motor drive using a de-to-de
switching converter
trolley wores In Section 21.42 we studied the 4-quadrant de-to-de
converter. It is eminently suited for de motor drives.
Consider Fig. 22.20 in which a 3-phase source is
converted to de by means of a 6-pulse uncontrolled
rectifier. The de output is applied to a 4-quadrant
switching converter via a filter L{" C. The converter
) is composed of IGBTswitches QI, Q2, Q3, Q4 and
their associated diodes. hs output terminals A, Bare
connected to the armature of a de motor. The arma-
ture is composed of the armature resistance R.. ,
Figure 22.19a armature inductance L,1' and the counter emf
Conditions when the motor is running at rated torque The shunt field is excited from a separate source
and speed. (not shown).
Currents 'I· r2, and /a represent instantaneous
values. Current lc1 supplied by the rectifier is as-
-j 700µs 1-- sumed to be constant and ripple-free. As we pro-
ceed, we will make distinctions between instanta-
neous and average, or de values.
We could analyze the drive in terms of symbolic
equations, but such an algebraic approach lacks the
--j 1-- 100 µs interest and impact of dealing with numerical val-
ues. Consequently, we will use two examples to il-
(b)
lustrate the factors that come into play in a de drive.
Figure 22.19b The first examines the system when the motor op-
Corresponding current pulses /5 drawn by the chopper erates at full-load. The second covers the behavior
from the 700 V source. under dynamic braking conditions.
 ELECTRONIC CONTROL OF DIRECT-CURRENT MOTORS 561

Id= 61.7 A E12 = 324 V Ecs = 250 V

3 -- 1~

240 v 240 v
3-ph 3-ph
recti- c
recti-
fier fier
04

2 2

Figure 22.20 Figure 22.21 a

De motor controlled by a 4-quadrant de-to-de converter. See Example 22-7.

Example 22-7 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
A 25 hp, 250 V, 900 r/min de motor is connected to thus,
a de-to-de converter that operates at a switching fre- 250 = 324 (2 D - I)
quency of 2 kHz. The converter is fed by a 6-pulse
rectifier connected to a 240 V, 3-phase, 60 Hz line and so,
(Fig. 22.21 a). A 500 µF capacitor C and an induc- D = 0.886
tor Ld act as filters. The armature resistance and in-
ductance are respectively 150 mf! and 4 mH. The The 250 V appears between terminals A, B (Fig.
rated de armature current is 80 A. We wish to deter- 22.2 la).
mine the following: Because the motor develops rated torque, the ar-
mature draws its rated current, namely 80 A. The
a. The required duty cycle when the motor devel- voltage drop in the armature resistance is
ops its rated torque at rated speed
b. The waveshape of currents 11, 12 , and 1.. 80 A x 0. I 5 !1 = I 2 V
c. The waveshape of voltages £ 12 and £AB· The induced armature voltage, or counter emf, at
Solution 900 r/min is, therefore,
The 3-phase rectifier produces a de voltage Ed £() = 250 - 12 = 238 v
given by
The de power input to the motor is
Et1 = 1.35 E (21.4)
= 1.35 x 240 v = 324 v P = 250 V x 80 A = 20 000 W
Neglecting the losses in the converter, and recalling
This voltage appears between the input terminals I,
that the de output of the rectifier is 324 V, it follows
2 of the converter.
that current ( 1 is given by
In order to produce the rated 250 V across the ar-
mature, the duty cycle of the converter has to be ad- 324 (1 = 20 000
justed accordingly. The relationship is given by Eq.
( 1 =61.7A
21.24:
The frequency of the converter is 2 kHz and so the
output voltage = input voltage ¥. (2 D - I)
period of one cycle is
Eu. = EH (2 D - I) (21.24) T = l(f'= 1/2000 = 500 µs
562 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC DRIVES

-
Ld
11
EAc = 324
Ecs = +250
250 = 74 V
v
/d=61.7A
-
1
11 -BOA BOA

/1 I 01
1,
141~7 Ai
i

4 03 03
1B.3A
c
+ ' A B c
+ A mH C B

500 µF 500 µF
la 80 A 02 : 02 la 80 A EAc -574 V
' 04 (57 µs) Ec 8 = +250 v
_(~43 .us)~

2 2

Figure 22.21 b Figure 22.21 c

Circuit when 01 and 04 are "on." Current la is increas- Circuit when D2 and 03 are conducting. Current la is
ing. EcA = -74 V. decreasing.

The on and <df"times of QI (and Q4) are, respec- 80 A) now flows toward terminal I, which is op-
tively, posite to the direction it had in 22.21 b.
Meanwhile, current ( 1 furnished by the rectifier
T" DT = 0.886 X 500 443 µs
continues to flow unchanged because of the pres-
Tb 500 - 443 57 µs ence of inductor Lc1. As a result, by Kirchhoff's cur-
It follows that the corresponding on and <df'times of rent law, the current / 2 must flow into the capacitor
Q2 (and Q3) are 57 µsand 443 µs. and its value is (80 + 61.7) = 141.7 A. This high-
We recall that QI and Q4 operate simultane- lights the absolute necessity of having a capacitor in
ously, followed by Q2 and Q3, which also open and the circuit. Without it, the flow of armature current
close simultaneously. would be inhibited during this 57 µs interval. The
When QI and Q4 are conducting, the armature capacitor charges up and the increase in voltage/).£
current follows the path shown in Fig. 22.21 b. This is given by
iasts for 443 µsand during this time / 1 (= 80 A) !).E Q/C 141.7 A x 57 µs/500 µF = 16 V
flows in the positive direction. Note however, that
the rectifier only furnishes 61.7 A, whereas the ar- Note that the increase in voltage across the capacitor
mature current is 80 A. It follows that the difference during the 57 µs interval is exactly equal to the de-
(80 - 61. 7) = 18.3 A must come from the capaci- crease during the 443 µs interval. The peak-to-peak
tor. The capacitor discharges, causing the voltage ripple across the capacitor is, therefore, 16 V. Thus,
across it to drop by an amount /).£given by the voltage between points 1 and 2 fluctuates be-
tween (324 + 8) 332 V and (324 8) = 316 V.
!).E Q/C = 18.3 Ax 443 µs/500 µF = 16 V
This 2.5 percent fluctuation does not affect the op-
Q 1 and Q4 then open for 57 µs. During this in- eration of the motor.
terval Q2 and Q3 are closed (Fig. 22.21c), but they Let us now look more closely at the armature
cannot carry the armature current because it is flow- current, particularly as regards the ripple. In Fig.
ing opposite to the direction permitted by these 22.21 b the voltage across the armature inductance
IGBTs. However, the current must continue to flow can be found by applying KVL:
because of the armature inductance. Fortunately, a
path is offered by the diodes D2 and D3 associated
EAc + Em + + E21 + E 1A = 0

with Q2 and Q3, as shown in the figure. Note that I 1 EAc + 250 + 0 324 + 0 = 0
 ELECTRONIC CONTROL OF DIRECT-CURRENT MOTORS 563

Hence

EAc = 74 V
Therefore, the volt seconds accumulated during this
443 µs interval is 74 X 443 = 32 782 µs.V. The re- Q-r--~~-~~·-t---t-~~~~-t--+-------i

Ta
sulting increase in armature current /)./" is
443 µs
Ma =Alla= 32 782 x 10- 6 /0.004 = 8 A (2.28)
-324
Next, consider Fig. 22.21 c. The voltage across the
armature inductance can again be found by apply-
ing KVL:
84A
EAc + Ecs + Es1 + E12 + E2A = 0 BOA
76A
EAc + 250 + 0 + 324 + 0 = 0
Hence, EAc = -574 V. This negative voltage causes a
very rapid decrease in the armature current. The decrease 443 µs
during the 57 µs interval is given by a---~~~'-+-~~~~---<
O 500 µs
Ma = 574 x 57 x I 0- 6 /0.004 = 8 A (2.28)

The 8 A decrease during the 57 µs interval is pre- 84A

cisely equal to the increase during the previous 443 76A
µs interval. The peak-to-peak ripple is, therefore,
8 A, which means that the armature current fluctu-
- """\""""""""
IJ
ates between (80 + 4) = 84 A and (80 - 4) = 61.7 A
76 A. Figure 22.21 d shows the waveshapes of the
various voltages and currents.

Example 22-8 - 76 A ------------- -

We now consider the question of dynamic braking. - 84 A -------------
The same motor is used as in Example 22-7, and we
assume it is running at 900 r/min at the moment that
332A
braking is applied. We further assume that the iner-
tia of the motor and its load is very large. As a re- 316A
sult, the speed cannot change quickly. The connec-
tion between the converter and the 6-pulse rectifier
is removed and a braking resistance of 20 D is con-
nected between terminals I and 2, along with the 443 µs
500 µF capacitor (Fig. 22.22). We assume that a \
braking torque equal to 75 percent of nominal 500 µs

torque is sufficient. Consequently, the required ar-

Figure 22.21 d
mature current is 0.75 X 80 A;; 60 A. The switch-
Waveshapes of currents and voltages in Example 22-7.
ing frequency remains unchanged at ·2 kHz. We
wish to determine the following:
564 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC DRIVES

other hand, the voltage should not be too high,

otherwis.e it could exceed the withstand capabil-
ity of the ~~itc!Jing IGBT devices.
The average current in the resistor is
524 V/20 fl 26 A.
b. Knowing the input and output voltages of the
converter, we can determine the value of the
duty cycle:
2 Eu.= E~ 1 (2 D - 1) (21.24)

Figure 22.22 229 = 524(2 D I)

Dynamic braking. See Example 22-8. Therefore
D 0.72
a. The voltage across the resistor
The on and qfftimes of QI (and Q4) are, therefore,
b. The duty cycle required
c. The braking behavior of the system Ta= DT 0.72 x 500 360 µs
Solution Tb= 500 360 = 140 µs
a. Because the motor is turning at 900 r/min at the It follows that the corresponding on and off
moment that braking is applied, the induced times of Q2 (and Q3) are 140 µs and 360 µs.
voltage E0 remains at 238 V. However, the mo- QI and Q4 still operate simultaneously, as do
tor must now operate as a generator and so the Q2 and Q3.
60 A braking current flows out of the ( +) ter- When Q2 and Q3 are closed, the armature
minal, as shown in Fig. 22.22. current follows the path shown in Fig. 22.23.
The voltage drop across the armature resis- This lasts for 140 µs and during this time I 1 ( =
tance is 0.15 fl x 60 A 9 V. 60 A) flows out of terminal I. The current in
The de voltage between terminals A, B is the resistor is still 26 A. It follows that a current
(238 - 9) 229 V, which is the required aver- (60 + 26) = 86 A must come from the capaci-
age output voltage of the converter. tor. The capacitor discharges, causing the volt-
To calculate the de input voltage EH between age across it to drop by an amount !iE given by
terminals I, 2 of the converter, we reason as
follows: !iE = Q/C 86 A x 140 µs/500 µF = 24 V
Due to the large inertia, the speed will re-
main essentially constant at 900 r/min for, say,
I 0 cycles of the converter switching frequency.
The power output of the generator during
this I0-cycle period is equal to the power ab-
sorbed by the 20 fl braking resistor. Thus,
229 v x 60 A = 2
(EH) 120 n c
500
hence 524 v µF
This voltage is much higher than the previ-
ous operating voltage of 324 V. It is actually an 2
advantage because the higher voltage automati-
cally prevents the input rectifier from continu- Figure 22.23
ing to feed power to the drive system. On the Current flows through IGBTs 02 and 03.
 ELECTRONIC CONTROL OF DIRECT-CURRENT MOTORS 565

/R
26A
!
01
- rotation
fcoilB

+ A
2011 c
500
µF

2
-
60A
D4
N s
Figure 22.24
Current flows through diodes D1 and D4.

Next, when Q2, Q3 open and Q 1, Q4 close, the

current has to circulate via diodes DI and 04
(Fig. 22.24). Applying KCL, a current of (60
26) = 34 A must flow into the capacitor during
360 µs. The resulting increase in voltage is
ilE = QIC = 34 A X 360 µs/500 µF 24 V Figure 22.25
Special current-fed de motor.
Thus, the increase in voltage during 360 µs is
exactly equal to the decrease during the remain- other (Fig. 22.25). The two ends of each coil are con-
ing 140 µs of the switching cycle. The voltage nected to diametrically opposite segments of a
across the resistor fluctuates between 524 6-segment commutator. Two narrow brushes are con-
12 = 536 V and 524 - 12 512 V. nected to a constant-current source that successively
This example shows that the converter can feeds current into the coils as the armature rotates. A
transfer power to the passive braking resistor. In permanent magnet N, S creates the magnetic field.
so doing, the motor will slow down and the With the armature in the position shown, current
voltage between terminals A, B will decrease flows in coil A and the resulting torque causes the ar-
progressively. By continually adjusting the duty mature to turn counterclockwise. As soon as contact
cycle during the deceleration period, it is possi- is broken with this coil, it is immediately established
ble to maintain the 60 A braking current until in the next coil. Consequently, conductors facing the
the speed is only a fraction of its rated value. N pole always carry currents that flow into the page,
This adjustment is of course done automatically while those facing the S pole carry currents that flow
by means of an electronic control circuit. out of the page (toward the reader). The motor torque
is, therefore, continuous and may be expressed by

22.12 Introduction to brushless de T k/B (22.7)

motors where
Some electronic drives involve direct-current motors T motor torque IN·ml
that do not look at all like de machines. The reason is
I current in the conductors fAl
that the usual rotating commutator is replaced by a sta-
tionary electronic converter. We now discuss the the- B average flux density surrounding the current-
ory behind these so-called "brushless" de machines. carrying conductors [T]
Consider a 2-pole de motor having three indepen- k a constant, dependent upon the number of
dent armature coils A, B, and C spaced at 120° to each turns per coil and the size of the armature
566 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC DRIVES

If the current and flux density are fixed, the result- where p is the number of poles and 11 is the speed
ing torque is also fixed, independent of motor speed. (r/min). The frequency in the coils is automatically
The commutator segments are 60° wide; conse- related to the speed of the motor because the faster
quently, the current in each coil flows in 60° pulses. the machine rotates, the faster the commutator
Furthermore, the current in each coil reverses every switches from one coil to the next. In other words,
time the coil makes half a turn The al- the commutator generates an ac current in the coils
ternating nature of the current is of crucial impor- whose frequency is such that a positive torque is de-
tance. If the current did not alternate, the torque de- veloped at all speeds.
veloped by each coil would act first in one As the coils rotate, they cut across the magnetic
direction, then in the opposite direction. as the ar- field created by the N, S poles. An ac voltage is,
mature rotates. The net torque would be zero, and so therefore, induced in each coil, and its frequency is
the motor would not develop any power. also given by Eq. 22.8. Furthermore, the voltages
Fig. 22.26 shows that the ac currents in the three are mutually displaced at 120° due to the way the
coils are out of phase by 120°. Consequently, the ar- coils are mounted on the armature. The induced ac
mature behaves as if it were excited by a voltages appear as a de voltage between the
3-phase source. The only difference is that the cur- brushes. The reason is that the brushes are always in
rent waveshapes are rectangular instead of sinu- contact with coils that are moving in the same di-
soidal. Basically, the commutator acts as a mechan- rection through the magnetic field; consequently,
ical converter, changing the de current from the de the polarity is always the same (see Section 4.2).
source into ac current in the coils. The frequency of If the brushes were connected to a de voltage
the current is given by source £. the armature would accelerate until the in-
duced voltage £ 0 was about equal to E (Section
f = pn/120 (22.8)
5.2). What determines the speed when the armature
is fed from a current source, as it is in our case? The
speed will increase until the load torque is equal to
the torque developed by the motor. Thus, while the
speed of a voltage-fed armature depends upon equi-
60"
librium between induced voltage and applied volt-
age, the speed of a currentJed armature depends
upon equilibrium between motor torque and load
torque. The torque of a mechanical load always
rises with increasing speed. Consequently, for a
given motor torque, a state of torque equilibrium is
always reached, provided the speed is high enough.
Care must be taken so that current-fed motors do
not run away when the load torque is removed.

22.13 Commutator replaced

by reversing switches
Recognizing that each coil in Fig. 22.25 carries an
alternating current, we can eliminate the commu-
0 60 120 180 240 300 360 tator by connecting each coil to a pair of slip-rings
0 60 120 180 240
and bringing the leads out to a set of mechanical
Figure 22.26 reversing switches (Fig. 22.27). Each switch has
The de current changes to ac current in the coils. four normally open contacts. Considering coil A,
 ELECTRONIC CONTROL OF DIRECT-CURRENT MOTORS 567

coil A Coil B coil C

N s

source 10 8

Figure 22.27 Figure 22.28

The commutator can be replaced by an array of me- Circuit showing how current is controlled in coil A.
chanical switches and a set of slip-rings.

The de motor in Fig. 22.29 looks so different

for example, switch contacts 7 and 8 are closed
from the one in Fig. 22.25 that we would never sus-
during the 60° interval when coil side 1 faces the
pect they have the same properties. And yet they do.
N pole (Fig. 22.28). The contacts are then open for
For example:
120° until coil side 4 faces the N pole, whereupon
contacts 9 and 10 close for 60°. Consequently, by I. If we increase the de current I or the field
synchronizing the switch with the position of coil strength of poles N, S, the torque increases, and
A, we obtain the same result as if we used a com- consequently, the speed will increase.
mutator.
2. If we shift the brushes against the direction of
Coils B and C operate the same way, but they are
rotation in Fig. 22.25, current will start flowing
energized at different times. Fig. 22.27 shows how
in each coil a little earlier than before.
the array of 12 contacts and 6 slip-rings are con-
Consequently, the ac current in each coil will
nected to the current source. The reversing switches
lead the ac voltage induced across its terminals.
really act as a 3-phase mechanical inverter, chang-
We can produce exactly the same effect by fir-
ing de power into ac power. The slip-rings merely
ing the thyristors a little earlier in Fig. 22.29.
provide electrical contact between the revolving ar-
Under these circumstances, the machine fur-
mature and the stationary switches and the de power
nishes reactive power to the three thyristor
supply.
bridges, at the same time as it absorbs active
Clearly, the switching arrangement of Fig. 22.27
power from them.
is more complex than the original commutator.
However, we can simplify matters by making the ar- 3. If we shift the brushes by 1800. the current in
mature stationary and letting the permanent magnets each coil flows in the opposite direction to that
rotate. By thus literally turning the machine inside shown in 22.25. However, the induced
out, we can eliminate 6 slip-rings. Then, as a final voltage in each coil remains unchanged be-
step, we can replace each contact bj'-a.GTO thyris- cause it depends only on the speed and direc-
tor (Fig. 22.29). The 12 thyristors are triggered by tion of rotation. Consequently, the machine be-
gate signals that depend upon the instantaneous po- comes a generator, feeding de power back into
sition of the revolving rotor. the current source.
568 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC DRIVES

current
source

Figure 22.29
The armature is now the stator, and the switches have been replaced by thyristors.

The same result occurs if we fire the thyris- ''brushless" de machine. This has a profound effect
tors 180° later in Fig. 22.29. The thyristors then upon its performance.
behave as rectifiers feeding power back to the First, the "synchronous motor" can never pull out
de current source. of step because the stator frequency is not fixed, but
changes automatically with speed. The reason is that
It is now clear that the machines in Figs. 22.25
the gates of the SCRs are triggered by a signal that
and 22.29 behave the same way. The only differ-
depends upon the instantaneous position of the rotor.
ence between them is that one is equipped with a ro-
For the same reason, the machine has no tendency to
tating mechanical commutator, while the other has
oscillate or hunt under sudden load changes.
a stationary electronic commutator composed of 12
Second, the phase angle between the ac current
thyristors. By firing the thyristors earlier or later,
in a winding and the ac voltage across it can be
we produce the same effect as shifting the brushes.
modified by altering the timing of the gate pulses.
This enables the synchronous motor to operate at
22.14 Synchronous motor as a leading, lagging, or unity power factor.
Third, because the phase angle between the re-
brushless de machine
spective voltages and currents can be fully con-
The revolving-field motor in Fig. 22.29 is built like trolled, the machine can even function as a genera-
a 3-phase synchronous motor. However. because of tor, feeding power back to the de current source.
the way it receives its ac power, it behaves like a The thyristor bridges then operate as rectifiers.
 ELECTRONIC CONTROL OF DIRECT-CURRENT MOTORS 569

rotation

"synchronous"
motor
G1 G, G3 i,

f/
current
source
~ N s
~

G, Gs a.
gates G 1 to G6

r······· ........J.................. rotor

i .gate. f.-
i triggering ; position
L...... P.!:~!~9.~.........Ji..- other inputs

Figure 22.31
Figure 22.30
This elementary de motor is equivalent to the entire
Brushless de motor being driven by a converter.
circuit of Fig. 22.30.

Currents i 1• i3 in Fig. 22.29 flow only during these conditions, the input to the gate triggering
60 degree intervals, as they did in the original de processor no longer depends on rotor position or ro-
machine. In practice, the conduction period can be tor speed.
doubled to 120°, by connecting the coils in wye and Obviously then, the behavior of the machine as a
exciting them by a 3-phase, 6-pulse converter (Fig. commutatorless de motor or synchronous motor de-
22.30). This reduces the number of thyristors by pends upon the way the gates are fired. If the trig-
half. Furthermore, it improves the current-carrying frequency is constant, the machine acts as a
capacity of the windings because the duration of synchronous motor. On the other hand, if the trig-
current flow is doubled. Gate triggering is again de- frequency depends on the speed of the rotor,
pendent upon the position of the rotor. The phase it behaves like a commutatorless de motor*.
angle between line voltage E, and line current I is
modified by firing the gates earlier or later. In the
circuit of Fig. 22.30, the power factor of the motor 22.16 Practical application
has to be slightly leading to provide the reactive of a brushless de motor
power absorbed by the converter.
As a matter of interest, the converter and motor One practical application of the brushless de motor
of Fig. 22.30 could be replaced by the de motor is illustrated in Fig. 22.32. This small blower. rated
shown in Fig. 22.31. The armature coils are con- at 12 V de has an output of only I W. For all its
nected in wye and the 3 leads are soldered to a miniature construction, it represents hi-tech con-
3-segment commutator. The respective voltages cepts that reflect the theory we have just studied.
and currents are identical in the two figmes. The motor is a permanent magnet synchronous
machine in which the armature is stationary and the
field rotates. The armature has four salient poles and
22.15 Standard synchronous motor two sets of identical coils, A, A and B, B. Coils A, A

and brushless de machine

Reader~ familiar with feedback theory will recognize that
The machine shown in Fig. 22.30 can be made to the basic distinction between the two machine~ is that one
function as a conventional synchronous motor by function~ on open loop while the other operates on closed
applying a.fixed frequency to the SCR gates. Under loop.
570 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC DRIVES

Figure 22.32
This miniature blower, rated at 1W,12 V de, 2500 r/min, is driven by a brushless de motor. The 7-blade impeller on
the left contains a circular 4-pole permanent magnet that constitutes the revolving field. The stationary armature
on the right consists of four coils that are commutated by an electronic switch. The switch is timed by a position-
sensing detector; together they behave like a pair of brushes riding on a 4-segment commutator.

are connected so as to produce two N poles when they torque between the rotor and stator poles, thereby
are excited, as shown in Fig. 22.33. As a result, two sustaining the cw rotation. The flux pattern between
consequent south poles arc created (Sc in the figure). the respective poles at this moment is shown in the
The same remarks apply to coils B, B; when they are figure.
excited, they create two N poles where the two con- On the other hand, when H lies momentarily un-
sequent Sc poles existed before. The stationary coil der a S pole, it causes the other switch to close, which
sets A A and B, B are excited sequentially for equal excites coil set B, B. At the same time, it causes coil
lengths of time by two electronic switches. We are, set A, A to be de-energized. This also produces a cw
therefore, dealing with a brushless de motor that is ac- torque. As a result, the successive switching action
tually a 2-phase synchronous motor. from one set of coils to the other keeps the rotor go-
The rotor has four permanent magnet poles and ing. Thanks to the presence of the pickup device
we assume it is rotating clockwise. A stationary (which acts as a position detector), the switching fre-
pickup device H detects the successive presence of quency is always related to the speed of rotation.
the N and S poles as the rotor sweeps by. If the Fig. 22.34 shows the switching converter that
pickup happens to be under the influence of a rotat- generates the 2-phase power. It consists of two
ing N pole, as shown in 22.33, it produces a sig- transistors QI and Q2, which behave like switches.
nal that causes one of the electronic switches to ex- The base of Ql receives the signals from the
cite coil set A, A. This produces a cw magnetic pickup device H. The latter is actually a Hall effect
 ELECTRONIC CONTROL OF DIRECT-CURRENT MOTORS 571

+12V

t~T
~ 0
rotor

12 ms 18

triggersAA on
mA-tl----------_--_._,/E_"_3_G_(__1__2-1:V...) _ _ _ __
·~
BB off 200

Figure 22.33 .0 "

Construction of a 12 V, 1 W brushless de motor for 6 12 ms

blower application. The coil structure is stationary. At

this instant, the Hall detector H triggers coils A on and Figure 22.34
B off. Switching circuit of brushless de motor and wave-
shapes.

detector, which produces a voltage of about + 2V

when under the influence of a N pole. The signal bility ensures that vital computer components will
voltage is zero in the presence of a S pole. The not be damaged for lack of adequate cooling.
2.2 µF capacitors absorb the inductive energy re- In the next chapter we will encounter brushless
leased every time the coils are de-energized. de motors of several thousand horsepower. These
22.34 also shows the waveshape of the cur- machines are always connected to a large 3-phase
rents in the coil sets. One cycle lasts for about ac source. For this reason, they are discussed in the
12 ms, which corresponds to half a turn. The fre- chapter on ac motor drives.
quency is. therefore, I/0.012 83.3 Hz and the
speed is 2500 r/min.
This small blower serves to cool components in Questions and Problems
a computer. Its brushless motor offers several ad-
vantages. First, it requires absolutely no mainte- Practical level
nance, even after thousands of hours of service. 22-1 State in which quadrants a de machine op-
Second, it is pollution-free because no dust parti- erates
cles from worn-out brushes can contaminate sur- a. As a motor
rounding components. Third, it is mach quieter than b. As a generator
a conventional de motor because brushes are noisy, 22-2 A de machine is turning clockwise in
both mechanically and electrically, on account of quadrant 3. Does it develop a clockwise or
brush friction and sparking. Finally, its high relia- counter-clockwise torque?
572 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC DRIVES

22-3 A 2-pole de motor runs at 5460 r/min. voltage is 208 V, 60 Hz and the motor
What is the frequency of the voltage in- operates at full-load. calculate the
duced in the coils? following:
22-4 Referring to Fig. 22. l, the converter is con- a. The delay angle required so that the motor
operates at its rated voltage
nected to a 3-phase 480 V, 60 Hz line and
b. The reactive power absorbed by the converter
the delay angle is set at 15°. Switch S is
c. The effective value of the line currents
closed and the armature current is 270 A. d. The induced voltage E0 at 900 r/min
Calculate 22-10 The motor in Problem 22-9 is started at
a. The de voltage across the armature reduced voltage. and the starting current is
b. The power supplied to the motor limited to 60 A.
c. The average current in each diode
d. The power output [hp] if the armature cir- Calculate
cuit has a resistance of 0.07 fl a. The delay angle required
22-5 Explain why the field or armature has to b. The reactive power absorbed by the con-
verter
be reversed in order that the converter in
c. Does inductor L absorb reactive power
Fig. 22. l may feed power from the rotat-
from the ac line?
ing armature back into the ac line.
22-11 Referring to Fig. 22.5, an ac ammeter in-
22-6 Compare the basic behavior of the power
serted in series with line 1 gives a reading
drive of 22.5 with that of Fig. 22.8.
of 280 A. Furthermore, a 3-phase power
22-7 a. What is meant by the term commutatorless factor meter indicates a lagging displace-
de machine? Describe its construction and ment power factor of 0.83.
principle of operation.
b. What is meant by a half-bridge converter? Calculate
What advantages does it have over a con-
a. The value of the de load current lu
ventional 3-phase bridge converter? b. The approximate delay if converter I
is operating alone as an inverter
Intermediate level
22-8 The motor shown in Fig. 22.1 has a shunt 22-12 The hoist motor shown in 22.9 is lift-
field rated at 180 V, 2 A. ing a mass of 5000 lb at a constant speed
a. Calculate the effective value of the 60 Hz ac of 400 ft/min.
voltage that should be applied to the single- a. Neglecting gear losses, calculate the value
phase bridge circuit. of E0 if the armature current Id is 150 A.
b. What is the peak-to-peak voltage ripple b. Knowing that R,. = 0.1 fl, calculate the
across the field terminals? value of converter voltage
c. Does the field current contain a substantial 22-13 In Problem 22-12 (and referring to Fig.
ripple? Explain. 22.9), if the same mass is lowered at a
d. Draw the waveshape of the current in the constant speed of 100 ft/min, calculate the
ac line. following:
e. What is the effective value of the ac line a. The armature current and its direction
current? b. The value of and its polarity
22-9 A I 0 hp, 240 V, 1800 r/min permanent c. The value of and its polarity
magnet de motor has an armature resis- d. In which direction doe~ the active power
tance of 0.4 !1 and a rated armature cur- flow in the ac line?
rent of 35 A. It is energized by the con- 22-14 In Problem 22- I 2, if the mass is simply
verter shown in 22. l. If the ac line held still in midair, calculate the following:
 ELECTRONIC CONTROL OF DIRECT-CURRENT MOTORS 573

a. The value of E0 armature resistance: 12 mn

b. The armature current ( 1
armature inductance: 350 µH
c. The value and polarity of Ed
rated armature current: 620 A
22-15 If the 3-phase line voltage is 240 V, 60
Hz, calculate the delay angle required During start-up. the average armature
a. In Problem 22-13 current is maintained at 620 A. In order to
b. In Problem 22-14 limit the current fluctuations, the Q4 GTO
22-16 a. Referring to 22. l 8a, calculate the aver- is always maintained closed and the Q3
age current and also the peak current car- GTO is kept open. As a result, the con-
ried by the freewheeling diode. verter acts as a 2-quadrant converter dur-
b. What is the PIV across the diode? ing the start-up phase.
22-17 An electronic chopper is placed between a a. Assuming the voltage drop across the
600 V de trolley wire and the armature of switches is negligible. calculate the duty
cycle needed to establish an average current
a series motor. The switching frequency is
of 620 A in the armature when it is stalled.
800 Hz. and each power pulse lasts for
b. Calculate the peak-to-peak current ripple
400 µs. If the de current in the trolley under these conditions.
wire is 80 A, calculate the following: c. If the voltage drop across the switches is
a. The armature voltage 2 V. calculate the new duty cycle and the
b. The armature current peak-to-peak current ripple.
c. Draw the waveshape of the current in the d. During the start-up phase. would the cur-
freewheeling diode, assuming the armature rent ripple be seriously affected if the con-
inductance is high. verter were operated as a 4-quadrant unit?
Advanced level 22-20 The following specifications are given for
22-18 Referring to Fig. 22.8, the cemf £ 0 has the the motor shown in Fig. 22.25:
polarity shown when the armature turns armature diameter: I 00 mm
clockwise. Furthermore, when the arma-
armature axial length: 50 mm
ture current actually flows in the direction
turns per coil: 200
shown and the machine is turning clock-
wise, it operates in quadrant 1. State rotational speed: 840 r/min
whether converters I and 2 are acting as flux density in air gap: 0.5 T
rectifiers or inverters when the machine armature current: 5 A
operates
Using this information, calculate the fol-
a. In quadrant 2
b. In quadrant 3 lowing:
c. In quadrant 4 a. The voltage induced in each coil
d. Make a sketch of the actual direction of b. The de voltage between the brushes
current flow and the actual polarity of E0 in c. The frequency of the voltage in each coil
each case. d. The frequency of the current in each coil
e. The power developed by the motor
22-19 A 200 hp, 250 V. 600 r/min de motor is f. The torque exerted by the motor
driven by a 4-quadrant converter similar
22-21 a. Referring to 22.17, what would be the
to the one shown in Fig. 22.20. GTOs effect if capacitor C 1 were removed?
are used operating at .a frequency of 125 b. In Fig. 22.18a, calculate the approximate
Hz. and the voltage of the de source is value of capacitor C IµF] so that the volt-
1

280 V. The motor has the following age across it does not drop by more than
characteristics: 50 V during the time of a current pulse.
574 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC DRIVES

22-22 A 3-phase, 6-pulse rectifier is equipped 22-24 Referring to Fig. 22.21a, la is +80 A, and
with a freewheeling diode. The 3-phase increasing at the rate of 6000 A/s.
feeder has a line voltage of 240 V and the Calculate the value of the current after an
de load is composed of an armature hav- interval of 3 ms, and the voltage across
ing a resistance of 0.4 0. The rated arma- the 4 mH inductance during the interval.
ture current is 40 A. 22-25 Referring to Fig. 22.20, it is known that at a
instant Id = +I 53A,1 1 + 140 A.
Calculate
+ 300 V, and C = 7000 µF.
a. The voltage needed to cause 60 A to flow
Calculate the value of 12 and the rate at
through the armature when it is at standstill
which the voltage across the capacitor is
b. The firing angle needed to attain this current
c. The reactive power absorbed by the con- changing. Is the capacitor charging or dis-
verter charging?
22-26 In Fig. 22.20, the following information is
Industrial application given:
22-23 Referring to 22.21, suppose the 80 A La 20 mH, Ra = I .2 !1, £ 0 +65 V,
armature current is actually flowing in the IA +5 A, 11 = -5 A, EAB +60 V. Is
direction shown. If the current is decreas- I A increasing or decreasing and at what
ing, what is the polarity of terminal A with rate is it changing?
respect to terminal C?
 CHAPTER 23
Electronic Control of Alternating-
Current Motors

23.0 Introduction 5. AC machines can be built in much larger sizes:

up to 50 000 kW. DC machines are limited to
e saw in Chapter 22 that the electronic con-
W trol of de motors enables us to obtain high ef-
ficiency at all torques and speeds. Full 4-quadrant
about 2000 kW.
6. AC machines can run at speeds up to I 00 000
r/min, whereas large de machines are limited to
control is possible to meet precise high-speed in-
dustrial standards. The same remarks apply to the about 2000 r/min.
electronic control of ac motors. Thus, we find that In this chapter we cover 3-phase motor controls
squirrel-cage and wound-rotor induction motors, as in keeping with the power emphasis of the book.
well as synchronous motors, lend themselves well However, the reader should first review the basic
to electronic control. Whereas de machines are con- principles of electronic drives covered in Chapters
trolled by varying the voltage and current, ac ma- 21 and 22. Furthermore, to understand the basic
chines are controlled by varying the voltage and fre- principles of ac motor control, the reader should
quency. Now, we may ask, if de machines do such also review Sections 20.18 and 20.20, which ex-
an outstanding job, why do we also use ac ma- plain how variable frequency affects the behavior
chines? There are several reasons: of a squirrel-cage induction motor.
I. AC machines have no commutators and brushes;
consequently, they require less maintenance. 23.1 Types of ac drives
2. AC machines cost less (and weigh less) than de
Although there are many kinds of electronic ac
machines.
drives, the majority can be grouped under the fol-
3. AC machines are more rugged and work better lowing broad classes:
in hostile environments.
I. Static frequency changers
4. AC machines can operate at mueh higher volt-
ages: up to 25 kV. DC machines are limited to 2. Static voltage controllers
about I 000 V. 3. Rectifier-inverter systems with line commutation

575
576 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC DRIVES

4. Rectifier-inve11er systems with self-commutation Rect(fier-inverter syste/lls ~vith selfcommutation

5. Pulse-width modulation systems rectify the incoming line frequency to de. and the de
is reconverted to ae.by an inverter. However, the in-
Static .fl'equency changers convert the incoming verter is self-commutated, generating its own fre-
line frequency directly into the desired load fre- quency. Such rectifier-inverter systems are used to
quency. Cycloconverters fall into this category, and control squirrel-cage induction motors (Figs. 23.5
they are used to drive both synchronous and and 23.6).
squirrel-cage induction motors (Fig. 23. l ). Pulse-width modulation systems are a relatively
Static roltage controllers enable speed and torque new development as far as widespread industrial
control by varying the ac voltage. They are used with applications are concerned. They enable variable
squirrel-cage induction motors. Static voltage con- speed induction motor drives ranging from zero
trollers are also used to soft-start induction motors speed and up. Their appearance in the marketplace
(Fig. 23.2). is directly due to the availability of high-speed
Rectifier-in\'erter systems with line commutation switching devices such as IGBTs (Fig. 23.7).
rectify the incoming line frequency to de, and the de The seven block diagrams shown in Figs. 23-1
is reconverted to ac by an inverter. The inverter, in through 23-7 are examples of these ac drives.
turn. is line-commutated by the very motor it drives.
Such systems are mainly used to control synchro-
nous motors (Fig. 23.3 ). Similar systems are used to
control the speed of wound-rotor induction motors 3-phase
source
(Fig. 23.4 ).

upper/lower desired speed

limits - c.._..__fir_in~g~u_n_it_~ real values
3-phase
cycloconverter £, I, 11. T. etc.
source

Figure 23.3
Variable-speed synchronous motor drive using a con-
trolled rectifier and a line-commutated inverter fed
upper/lower control and desired speed
limits firing unit from a de link current source (see Section 23.2).
real values
£. I. n. etc.

3-phase ----+--i diode

Figure 23.1 source __.__,__,__~, rectifier
Variable-speed drive system using a cycloconverter
(see Sections 23.3 and 23.5). de
link

3-phase static inverter

source switches L---------i(line-comm) 1---~

appropriate voltage appropriate voltage 111

~----'-----,desired speed
upper/lower control and
upper/lower control and limits firing unit
desired speed real values
limits firing unit
£. I.n, T. etc.

Figure 23.2 Figure 23.4

Variable-speed drive using a static switch (see Variable-speed drive for a wound-rotor induction mo-
Section 23.6). tor (see Section 23.12).
 ELECTRONIC CONTROL OF ALTERNATING-CURRENT MOTORS 577

current cause large synchronous motors are generally con-

3-phase
inverter sidered to be alternating-current machines. The
source
~--,--'1-----i(self-comm) reader may therefore consider that in electronic dri-
appropriate current n 1 appropriate frequency ves the synchronous motor is a sort of hybrid ani-
mal that can be treated either as an ac machine or as
upper/lower control and - desired speed
limits firing unit a brushless de machine, depending upon the point
real values
E, I. 11. 1: etc. of view. ln this chapter, we consider it to be an ac
machine when fed from a 3-phase source.
Figure 23.5 Fig. 23.8 shows a typical synchronous motor
Variable-speed drive using a controlled rectifier and a drive. It consists of two converters connected be-
self-commutated inverter fed from a de link current tween a 3-phase source and the synchronous motor.
source (see Section 23.9).
Converter I acts as a controlled rectifier. feeding de
power to converter 2. The latter behaves as a line-
3-phase commutated inverter whose ac voltage and fre-
source quency are established by the motor.
A smoothing inductor L maintains a ripple-free
current in the de link between the two converters.
desired speed Current I is controlled by converter I, which acts as
firing unit real values a current source. A smaller bridge rectifier (con-
E. I. n. T. etc.
verter 3) supplies the field excitation for the rotor.
Figure 23.6 Converter 2 is naturally-commutated by voltage
Variable-speed drive using a controlled rectifier and a Es induced across the terminals of the motor. This
self-commutated inverter fed from a de link voltage voltage is created by the revolving magnetic flux in
source (see Section 23. 10). the air gap. The flux depends upon the stator cur-
rents and the exciting current / 1. The flux is usually
voltage
kept fixed; consequently, the induced voltage Es is
3-phase diode proportional to the motor speed.
inverter
source
Lr_e_ct_if_ie_r_J-----i (self-comm) Gate triggering of converter I is done at line fre-
appropriate quency (60 Hz) while that of converter 2 is done at
111 frequency
motor frequency. The latter is directly proportional
upper/lower control and desired speed
limits firing unit real values to the motor speed.
E. I. 11. T. etc. With regard to controls, information picked off at
various points is assimilated in the gate-triggering
Figure 23.7 processors, which then send out appropriate gate-
Variable-speed drive using a diode rectifier and a self- firing pulses to converters I and 2. Thus, the proces-
commutated PWM inverter fed from a de link voltage
sors receive information as to desired speed of rota-
source Section 23.13).
tion, actual speed, instantaneous rotor position, stator
voltage, stator current, field current, etc. They inter-
23.2 Synchronous motor drive pret whether these inputs represent normal or abnor-
mal conditions and emit appropriate gate pulses to
using current-source de link
correct the situation or to meet a specific command.
In Chapter 22, Sections 22.14 .,and 22.15, we saw The gate pulses of converter 2 are controlled by
that the combination of a synchronous motor and its the position of the rotor. This is accomplished by a
position-commutated inverter behaved like a brush- set of transducers that sense the revolving magnetic
less de motor. This presents a bit of a dilemma, be- field. They are mounted on the stator next to the air
 578 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC DRIVES

l
converter 1
_, converter 2 converter 3

3-phase
60 Hz
input

Qa2
i··············9ai'e···············1 con!rol r···············.at:e···············1
settings - ; .g . : external
! triggering i I' ·t : triggering t--- inputs
L...... P.:.?.~.?.~~.?.:.......... .! se~~~gs -L...... .f?.'..?.~.?.~~.?.~......... J

Figure 23.8
Synchronous motor driven by a converter with a de link. The output frequency can be considerably greater than
60 Hz, thus permitting high speeds.

gap. Other methods employ position transducers produce a revolving MMF that moves in jerks around
mounted on the end of the shaft. Due to this method the armature. This produces torque pulsations, but
of gate control, the synchronous motor acts the they are almost completely damped out (except at low
same way as a brushless de machine. The motor speeds), due to the inertia of the rotor. The shaft there-
speed may be increased by raising either the de link fore turns smoothly when running at rated speed.
current I or the field current / 1. The motor line-to-neutral voltage ELN and line
Stator voltage Es produces a de emf E 2 given by voltage are essentially sinusoidal. The field cur-
rent, line current, and triggering are adjusted so that
= 1.35 Es cos a 2 (21.13)
line current /s leads the line-to-neutral voltage (Fig.
where 23.9). The reason is that the synchronous motor
must operate at leading power factor to supply the
E2 de voltage generated by converter 2 [V]
reactive power absorbed by converter 2.
Es effective line-to-line stator voltage [VI
Converter I is designed so that under full-load
a2 = firing angle of converter 2 [0 ]
conditions, firing angle a 1 is about 15°, to minimize
Similarly, the voltage produced by converter is the reactive power drawn from the 60 Hz ac line.
given by
E1 1.35 EL cos 0'.1

Link voltages E 1 and are almost equal. differing

only by the negligible IR drop in the inductor. Firing
angle a 1 is automatically controlled so that the
magnitude of the link current is just sufficient to de-
velop the required torque.
The stator line current /s flows in 120° rectangular Figure 23.9
pulses, as shown in Fig. 23.9. These step-like currents Typical voltage and current waveshapes in Fig. 23.8.
 ELECTRONIC CONTROL OF ALJERNATTNG-CURRENT MOJVRS 579

Regenerative braking is accomplished by shift- d. the firing angle a 2 of converter 2

ing the gate-firing pulses so that converter 2 acts as e. the voltage £ 2 of the de link
a rectifier while converter I operates as an inverter. f. the firing angle a 1 of converter I
The polarity of £ 2 and £ 1 reverses, but the link cur- g. the reactive power supplied to converter I
rent continues to flow in the same direction. Power h. the mechanical power developed by the motor
is. therefore, pumped back into the 3-phase, 60 Hz
line and the motor slows down. During this period Solution
the motor functions as an ac generator. a. The frequency applied to the motor is propor-
Starting the motor creates a problem, because the tional to its speed. Because the rated speed is
stator voltage is zero at standstill. Consequently, 450 r/min at a frequency of 60 Hz, the fre-
no voltage is available to produce the line commuta- quency at 535 r/min is:
tion of converter 2. To get around this difficulty, the
converters are fired in such a way that shm1 current 535 r/min
f -·-·-.. -- x 60 Hz ~ 7 L3 Hz
pulses flow successively in phases ab. be, and ca. The 450 r/min
successive pulses create N, S poles in the stator that b. Fundamental component of the stator current:
are always just ahead of their opposite poles on the
rotor. Like a dog chasing its tail, the rotor accelerates /F = 0.955 /_ (21.8)
and, when it reaches about l 0 percent of rated speed. 0.955 x 239 = 228 A
converter 2 takes over and commutation takes place
c. Current in the de link:
normally. This pulse mode of operation is also used
to brake the motor as it approaches zero speed.
I = /F (21.7)
The speed control of synchronous motors using a d 0.78
current-source de link is applied to motors ranging 228
from 1 kW to several megawatts. Permanent magnet = 293 A
0.78
synchronous motors for the textile industry and
brushless synchronous motors for nuclear reactor d. Firing angle a 2 :
circulating pumps are two examples. Pumped-stor- Converter 2 acts as an inverter, consequently:
age hydropower plants also use this method to bring
a2 arccos FP = - arccos 0.95
the huge synchronous machines up to speed so they
may be smoothly synchronized with the line. 180° - 18.2° = 161.8°

Example 23-1 e. Voltage of the de link:

A 3-phase synchronous motor rated at 200 kW, 1.35£, cos a 2 (21.4)
480 V, 60 Hz, 450 r/min. is connected to a drive 1.35 X 511 X cosl61.8° = - 655 V
similar to that shown in 23.8. The three-phase The de voltage drop across inductor Lis negli-
electric utility voltage is 600 V, 60 Hz. gible, consequently, £ = £ 2 = 655 V
1
The motor runs at a of 535 r/min. The ef-
fective terminal voltage is 511 V and the motor f. Firing angle a 1:
draws an effective line current I, of 239 A at a power Converter I acts as a rectifier, hence:
factor of95 %. The motor has an efficiency of 93 %. I .35£L cos a 1 (21.4)
Neglecting the losses in the converters, calculate: 655 J.35 X 600 X COS O'. I

a. the frequency applied to the,Mator a1 arccos 0.808 = 36.0°

b. the fundamental component of the stator
g. Active power supplied to converter I:
current/,
c. the current I flowing in the de link P = £ 1/ 655 X 293 191 915 W = 192 kW
580 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC DRIVES

Displacement power factor of converter I : ate gate firing, the low-frequency voltage can be
made to approa.ch ~ sine wave quite closely (Fig.
PF cos CX1 cos 36.0° 0.809 = 80.9 %
23.11 ). However, to reduce the reactive power ab-
Apparent power absorbed by converter 1: sorbed from the 60 Hz line, the output voltage is
usually designed to have a trapezoidal, flat-topped
S 192 kW/0.809 237 kVA
waveshape.
Reactive power absorbed by converter I: The 3-phase controlled rectifier supplying the
field current Ir functions as a current source. The
Q
magnitudes of the three stator currents and of Ir are
139 kvar controlled so as to keep a constant flux in the air
h. Mechanical power developed by the motor: gap. Furthermore, the gate pulses are timed and the
excitation is adjusted so that the motor operates at
P 111 = 192 kW X 0.93 179 kW 240 hp
unity power factor at low frequency. However, even
at unity power factor(/"' lb, I..: respectively in phase
23.3 Synchronous motor with EaN' EbN' EcN), the cycloconverter absorbs re-
active power from the 60 Hz line. The reason is that
and cyclocoriverter
delayed triggering is needed on the 60 Hz line to
We have seen that cycloconverters can directly con- generate the sinusoidal low-frequency voltage. The
vert ac power from a higher frequency to a lower input power factor is typically 85 percent when the
frequency (Section 21.24 ). These converters are motor runs at rated power and speed.
sometimes used to drive slow-speed synchronous Fig. 23.12 shows a large low-speed synchronous
motors rated up to several megawatts. If a 60 Hz motor that is driven by a cycloconverter. The speed
source is used, the cycloconverter output frequency can be continuously varied from zero to 15 r/min.
is typically variable from zero to I 0 Hz. Such a low The low speed permits direct drive of the ball-mill
frequency permits excellent control of the wave- without using a gear reducer. The motor is stopped
shape of the output voltage by computer-controlled by altering the gate firing so that the motor acts as a
firing of the thyristor gates. The thyristors are line- generator, feeding power back into the ac line.
commutated, with the result that the complexity of Similar high-power, low-speed cycloconverter
the electronics surrounding each SCR is consider- drives are being used with propulsion motors on
ably reduced. board ships. For example, a popular 70 000 ton
Fig. 23.10 shows three cycloconverters connected cruise liner (Fig. 23.59), is propelled by two 14 MW
to the wye-connected stator of a 3-phase synchro- synchronous motors. The motors are directly cou-
nous motor. Each cycloconverter produces a single- pled to propeller shafts that are driven at speeds of
phase output, based upon the principle explained in zero to 140 r/min.
Section 21.24. Referring to phase A, the associated
cycloconverter is composed of two 3-phase bridges, 23.4 Cycloconverter voltage
+A and - A, each fed by the same 3-phase 60 Hz
and frequency control
line.
Bridge +A generates the positive half-cycle of Returning to Fig. 23.11 we can see that the low-
voltage for line a, while bridge - A generates the frequency output voltage is composed of selected
negative half. The two bridges are prevented from segments of the 3-phase 60 Hz line voltage. The
operating at the same time so as to prevent circu- segments are determined by the gate firing of the
lating currents between them. The resulting low- SCRs. The triggering is identical to that of a con-
frequency wave is composed of segments of the ventional 6-pulse rectifier, except that the firing an-
60 Hz voltage between lines I, 2, 3. By appropri- gle is continually varied during each low-frequency
 3·phase 60 Hz line 3·phase 60 Hz line
Gonverter Thyristors

+A 01 to 06
! J s,
j
A 07 to 012

+B 013 to 018
B 019 to 024

+C 025 to 030 primary

c 031to036

secondary secondary secondary

primary

limit control
settin,gs settings
._l __ j_l secondary

I !
i gate i
I triggering I
I processor i
I I
I I
'-+-.--.-.-'
external inputs
N
neutral

Typical inputs to gate triggering processor

a. rotor position
b. motor speed
c. cycloconverter input current
d. cycloconverter output current
e. input and output voltages inputs
f. desired speed

Figure 23.10
Cycloconverter driving a large synchronous motor. The output voltage associated with phase A is a slowly chang-
ing sine wave having a frequency Gf 6 Hz, which is 10 times less than the supply frequency. Thyristors 01 to 012
are triggered so as to track the desired sine wave as closely as possible. This produces the sawtooth output volt-
age shown in Fig. 23.11. The power factor at the input to the motor is assumed to be unity. The corresponding
power factor at the input to the cycloconverter is less than unity, due to the delayed firing angles.

581
582 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC DRIVES

@ 60 Hz

Figure 23.11
Voltage between lines a and N of Fig. 23.10.

period so as to obtain an output voltage that ap- stead of 20 Hz, and the amplitude of the output volt-
proaches a sine wave. During the positive half- age is also reduced by one-half. The gate pulses are
cycle, thyristors QI to Q6 are triggered in sequence, altered accordingly and, as we can see, a very
followed by thyristors Q7 to Q 12 for the negative jagged voltage is produced. Nevertheless, the cur-
half-cycle. In Fig. 23.11 the low-frequency output rent flowing in the windings will still be quite sinu-
voltage has the same peak amplitude as the soidal. A low-output voltage requires a large firing
3-phase line voltage; consequently, it has the same angle delay, which in turn produces a very low
effective value. In this figure, the frequency is 1/10 power factor on the 60 Hz line.
of the line frequency. or 6 Hz on a 60 Hz system. Although we have only discussed the behavior
We can gain a better understanding of the trig- of phase A the same remarks apply to phases B and
gering process by referring to Fig. 23.13. In this C (Fig. 23.10). The gate firing is timed so that the
case the output frequency is 20 Hz on a 60 Hz sys- low-frequency line currents la, / 11 , le are mutually
tem. The 60 Hz line voltages are indicated, as well out of phase by 120°.
as the firing sequence for the various SCRs. The cycloconverter drive is excellent when high-
Although the resulting waveshape is very jagged, it starting torque and relatively low speeds are needed.
does follow the general shape of the desired sine However, it is not suitable if frequencies exceeding
wave (shown as a dash line). The gate-triggering one-half the system frequency are required.
times are quite irregular (not evenly spaced) to ob-
tain the desired output voltage. That is why the fir- 23.5 Squirrel-cage induction motor
ing program has to be under computer control.
with cycloconverter
If this 20 Hz voltage is applied to the motor of Fig.
23. I0, the resulting current will be a reasonably good Fig. 23.15 shows a 3-phase squirrel-cage induction
sine wave. In effect. the inductance of the windings motor connected to the output of a 3-phase cyclo-
-:mooths out the ragged edges that would otherwise converter. The circuit arrangement is similar to that
be produced by the sawtooth voltage wave. of Fig. 23. I 0, except that the windings are directly
To reduce the speed, both the frequency and fed from a 3-phase line. Consequently, the wind-
voltage have to be reduced in the same proportion. ings cannot be connected in wye ot delta but must
Thus, in Fig. 23.14 the frequency is now 10 Hz in- be isolated from each other. Motor speed is varied
Figure 23.12a
Stator of a 3-phase synchronous motor rated 6400 kW (8576 hp), 15 r/min, 5.5 Hz, 80°C used to drive a ball-mill in
a cement factory. The stator is conAected to a 50 Hz cycloconverter, whose output frequency is variable from zero
to 5.5 Hz. Internal diameter of stator: 8QOO.mm; active length of stacking: 950 mm; slots: 456.
(Courtesy of ABB)

583
Figure 23.12b
The 44 rotor poles are directly mounted on the ball-mill so as to eliminate the need of a gearbox. The two slip-rings
on the right-hand side of the poles bring the de current into the windings.

Figure 23.12c
End view of the ball-mill showing the enclosed stator frame in the background. The mill contains 470 tons of steel
3
balls and 80 tons of crushable material. The motor is cooled by blowing 40 000 m of fresh air over .the windings,
per hour.
(Courtesy of ABB)

584
 056 1 23 4 5 1 1112 7 8 10 11 12 7 5 6 1 2 - - thyristor triggering sequence

rrrrrrr r rrrr rr r r rrrr

~A+ operation~ ~
in

i..----------T= 1f20s---···------

Figure 23.13
Waveshape of the output voltage EaN in Fig. 23.10 at a frequency of 20 Hz. The effective output voltage has the
same value as the effective input voltage between the 3-phase lines.

-------~--- Tf2 1{20 • - - - - - - - - - i

Figure 23.14
Waveshape of EaN in Fig. 23.10 at ·a freq1:Jency of 10 Hz. The thyristors are triggered later in the cycle so that the
effective value of the output voltage is only half that between the 3-phase lines. As a result, the flux in the air gap is
the same in this figure as it is in Fig. 23.13.

585
586 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC DRIVES

by applying appropriate gate pulses to the thyris- versely, when E.. is positive, converter 2 transfers
tors to vary the output voltage and frequency. For power from tb.~ winding to the 3-phase line.
example, the speed of a 2-pole induction motor can It is important tQ:note that only one converter op-
be varied from zero to 1500 r/min on a 60 Hz line erates at a time. Thus, when converter I is in oper-
by varying the output frequency of the cyclocon- ation, converter 2 is blocked, and vice versa. The
verter from 0.1 Hz to 25 Hz. rectifier/inverter behavior of the converters is illus-
Good torque-speed characteristics in all four trated in Fig. 23.17.
quadrants can be obtained. Consequently, the motor The converters in phases B and C function the
can be started, stopped, reversed, and decelerated same way, except that the thyristors (similar to
by regenerative braking. Standard 60 Hz motors those in phase A) are fired respectively 120° and
can be used. The stator voltage is automatically ad- 240° later. At 15 Hz an angle of 120° corresponds to
justed in relation to the frequency to maintain a con- a delay of ( 1/15) X (120/360) = 22.2 ms.
stant flux in the machine. Consequently, the torque- The smooth current and voltage waveshapes
speed curves follow the same pattern and have the shown in Fig. 23. l 7 are actually jagged sine waves,
same properties as those shown in Fig. 23.16. For due to the constant switching between output and
example, to obtain regenerative braking, the fre- input. Consequently, cycloconverter-fed motors run
quency produced by the cycloconverter must be about 10°C hotter than normal and adequate cool-
slightly less than the frequency corresponding to ing must be provided. A separate blower may be
the speed of the motor. Thus, if a 4-pole induction needed at low speeds.
motor turns at 495 r/min, the cycloconverter fre- The cycloconverter can furnish the reactive
quency must be slightly less than (495 X 4)/120 power absorbed by the induction motor. However, a
16.5 Hz in order to feed power back into the line. lot of reactive power is drawn from the 60 Hz line;
To understand the operation of the cyclocon- the power factor is therefore poor. Indeed, with sinu-
verter, consider phase A in Fig. 23.15. The voltage soidal outputs the displacement power factor is al-
across the winding is Ea and the ac current ways less than 84 percent, even for resistive loads.
through it is !,.. The current is, therefore, alterna-
tively positive and negative. Because of the in- Example 23-2 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
ductive nature of a squirrel-cage motor, /a lags be- A 3-phase squirrel-cage induction motor has a full-
hind Ea by an angle of about 30° (Fig. 23.17). load rating of 25 hp, 480 V, 1760 r/min, 60 Hz. The
Suppose the cycloconverter generates a frequency three independent windings each carry a rated cur-
of 15 Hz. rent of 20 A.
Referring now to 23.15, a positive current /a This motor is connected as shown in Fig. 23.15.
can only be furnished by converter l, because only The cycloconverter is connected to a 3-phase, 60 Hz
thyristors QI, Q3, Q5 "point" in the proper direc- line and generates a frequency of 8 Hz. Calculate the
tion. The current obviously returns by way of approximate value of the following:
thyristors Q2, Q4, Q6. This converter can act either
a. The effective voltage across each winding
as a rectifier or inverter. When Ea is positive, it acts
b. The no-load speed
as a rectifier and delivers power to the phase A
c. The speed at rated torque
winding. Conversely, when Ea is negative, the con-
d. The effective current in the windings at rated
verter acts as an inverter, delivering power from the
torque
phase A winding to the 3-phase line.
e. The effective voltage of the 60 Hz line
Similarly, a negative current la can only be fur-
nished by converter 2. This converter acts as a rec- Solution
tifier when Ea is negative, and during this period a. The flux in the motor should renfain the same at
the converter supplies power to the winding. Con- all frequencies. Consequently, for a frequency
 3
3·phase 2
line o--------f.o--------------+-------------.

04 01
control limit
settings settings

fj__ j_I positive

current
converter
l I
I I
I I
I gate I
I triggering le:)
I processor I gate 010 07
I lpulsesi--;~1--._4_~~1--1
I I
I I negative

LIT-1 current
converter

external inputs

a. actual speed cycloconverter phase C

cycloconverter phase B
b. absolute slip
c. stator volts
d. stator current 6 c
e. etc.
Ea

Figure 23.15
Squirrel-cage induction motor fed from a 3-phase cycloconverter.

587
 588 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC DRIVES

of 8 Hz, the voltage across the windings must b. The full-load speed at 60 Hz is 1760 r/min.
be reduced in proportion. Thus, the voltage is Consequently, this is a 4-pole motor whose
8 Hz synchrorloi:Js speed is 1800 r/min. The no-load
E X 480 V = 64 V speed at 8 Hz is~ therefore,
60Hz
8 Hz
n - X 1800 = 240 rmin
N.m
230 V, 15 Hz 460 V, 30 Hz
60 Hz
1~0 '\. y y c. When the motor is operating on 60 Hz, the slip
I/ /,....
'
1ko·
/
' jv I \ speed at rated torque is ( 1800 1760)
_.....-""100 _./. ~ ;-h ~ 40 r/min. Consequently, the slip speed is again
4< "1"

- ~-so
i.--
,.__ i.-- .......
- 0 _.., \ \ 40 r/min when the motor develops rated torque
.-:::
..., I
• 40 \ \ at 8 Hz. The speed at rated torque is, therefore,
I I
! I
I n 240 40 = 200 r/min
600 300 0
''J''
300 600 900 '1200 1500 1800 r/min
I \ d. Because the flux in the motor is the same at
40 _,,__
I ~
.. speed \ ' 8 Hz as it was at 60 Hz, it follows that rated
I \ I
80 I
torque will be developed when the current in
I \ ~

the stator windings reaches its rated value,

I /v
I 1~0 1 / namely 20 A.
I 160 1
I
\
•\ R
v e. Ideally, the peak line-to-line voltage applied to
the motor should be equal to that of the 60 Hz
I '\.. /
200 supply. In other words, therms value of the
60 Hz line voltage should be the same as therms
Figure 23.16
Typical torque-speed curves of a 2-pole induction mo-
voltage output of the cycloconve11er.
tor driven by a cycloconverter. The cycloconverter is Consequently, the line voltage should be about
connected to a 460 V, 3-phase, 60 Hz line. 64 V. A higher line voltage could be used, but

,, ....-i. ~
E. ~
~-

/ '· ... ""

... '<
.... ... v"'
/ ...... ,..~· ····· ~ / ...... "·····
....... ·····
0
/ .... •... !'- ····· ...... r••*•• / ... ·····
....... !'- .... /... • •••1

-····· ····· .... ... . .... ~

~ 3p 90
1
1,0
' 210,,,.

I
,......,
..........
2ro
~
""
---3~0 390
I

converter 1 rectifier rnv rectifier

converter 2 rectifier inv

Figure 23.17
Operating mode of converter 1 and converter 2 when current la lags 30° behind Ea.
 ELECTRONIC CONTROL OF ALTERNATING-CURRENT MOTORS 589

this would require a greater lag in the firing an-

gle to obtain the desired output voltage. The
converter would draw more reactive power from
20----4 T
the line and the power factor would be poorer. c
3tr---t
variable-voltage
23.6 Squirrel-cage motor and static autotransformer
voltage controller
Figure 23.18
The speed of a 3-phase squirrel-cage induction mo- Variable-speed blower motor.
tor can be varied by simply varying the stator volt-
age. This method of speed control is particularly o;()
useful for a motor driving a blower or centrifugal
200
pump. To understand why. suppose the stator is
connected to a variable-voltage 3-phase autotrans- 175
former (Fig. 23.18). 150
At rated voltage. the torque-speed characteristic (!)
::i 125
of the motor is given by curve 1 of Fig. 23.19. If we E!
.8 100
apply half the rated voltage. we obtain curve 2.
Because torque is proportional to the square of the
t 75

applied voltage, the torques in curve 2 are only 1/4

of the corresponding torques in curve 1. For exam- 25
ple, the breakdown torque drops from 184% to 00 20 40 60 80 100 %
46%. Similarly, the torque at 60 percent speed drops
-speed t
from 175% to 43.75%. synchronous
The load torque of a blower varies nearly as speed
much as the square of the speed. This typical char-
acteristic, shown by curve 3. is superimposed on Figure 23.19
Torque-speed curve of blower motor at rated voltage
the motor torque-speed curves. Thus, at rated
(1) and 50 percent rated voltage (2). Curve 3 is the
voltage, the intersection of curves I and 3 shows torque-speed characteristic of the fan.
that the blower runs at 90 percent of synchronous
speed. On the other hand, at half rated voltage, the
blower rotates at only 60 percent of synchronous To reduce the voltage across the motor, the firing
speed. By varying the voltage this way. we can e
angle is delayed still more. For example, to obtain
control the speed. 50 percent rated voltage, all the pulses are delayed
The variable-voltage autotransformer can be re- by about 100°. The resulting distorted voltage and
placed by three sets of thyristors connected back-to- current waveshape for phase A are pictured very ap-
back. as shown in Fig. 23.20. The sets are called proximately in 23.22. The distortion increases
valves. To produce rated voltage across the motor. the losses in the motor compared to the autotrans-
the respective thyristors are fired with a delay El former method. Furthermore, the power factor is
equal to the phase angle lag that would exist if the considerably lower because of the large phase angle
motor were directly conneeted to the line. Fig. lag El. Nevertheless, to a first approximation, the
23.21 shows the resulting currq1t and line-to-neu- torque-speed characteristics shown in Fig. 23.19
tral voltage for phase A. The valves i)l.phases Band still apply.
C are triggered the same way, except for an addi- Due to the considerable PR losses and lower
tional delay of 120° and 240°. respectively. power factor, this type of electronic speed control is
590 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC DRIVES

only feasible for motors rated below 20 hp. Small creases linearly with time until full voltage is
hoists are also suited to this type of controL because reached. Som_e pf these ramp-up schedules incorpo-
they operate intermittently. Consequently, they can rate a short pulse o[foll voltage to overcome the sta-
cool off during the idle and light-load periods. tic friction of machinery that has not operated for
some time or that is covered with frost. In other
23. 7 Soft·starting cage motors schedules the starting current can be limited auto-
matically to, say, four times the rated current. Some
In many applications an induction motor must not of the starting and stopping features offered are illus-
accelerate too quickly when switched across the trated in Fig. 23.23a.
power line. For example, some loads, such as con- Once the motor reaches rated speed. a bypass con-
veyor belts, have to be started slowly to prevent tip- tactor is sometimes used to short-circuit the thyristors
ping or spilling the goods. In other cases, a cen- to eliminate the heat loss. Due to the voltage drop be-
trifugal pump must not start too quickly, otherwise tween the anode and cathode, the total 3-phase loss
a damaging water-hammer effect could burst the amounts to about 3.5 W per ampere. Thus. the thyris-
pipes. In still other instances, the voltage drop along tors of a 600 hp motor drawing a line current of, say
a power line may be excessive when, say, a 500 hp 500 A, will dissipate about 3.5 X 500 = 1750 W. Jn
induction motor is slammed across the line.
In all these applications the back-to-back static
switch of Fig. 23.20 can be used to soft-start or soft-
stop a squirrel-cage motor by applying reduced volt-
age across the stator. The starting controls are set so
that, initially, the voltage builds up rapidly until the
motor just begins to turn, after which the voltage in-

Figure 23.21
Waveshapes at rated voltage.

control
D
..-----,
settings ---JI triggering
.gate. i-- external
.
limit ----i processor 1 ....,__ inputs
settings L_ _ _ _J

Figure 23.20 Figure 23.22

Variable-voltage speed control of a squirrel-cage in- Waveshapes (very approximately) at 50% rated volt-
duction motor using back-to-back thyristors. age.
 ELECTRONIC CONTROL OF ALTERNATING-CURRENT MOTORS 591

1.0 the absence of a bypass contactor, forced cooling

would have to be used to get rid of the heat.
E When power is shut off, the motor may coast to
(p.u.)
a stop too quickly. In such cases the slow ramp-
soft (a)
Emin""" down feature of the electronic starter is an advan-
·,.motion start
starts tage. During this phase the voltage across the motor
terminals is reduced gradually until the motor
start 11 run comes to rest. The starter can be programmed in the
field to generate the ramp-up and ramp-down fea-
1.0 tures that are best suited to the load (Fig. 23.23b).
Another feature of soft starters is their reliability
E
soft start and absolutely silent operation. No mechanical con-
(p.u.)
with (b) tacts clap when they open and close, no noisy hold-
I

''.motion: kickstart ing coil to worry about, and-most importantly-

starts : no worn contacts to replace.
0 ---s-ta-rt--!~1--r-u_n_ __ Soft starting of induction motors is available
from I hp up to several thousand horsepower. It of-
1.0 - - - - - - - - - - - -
fers an excellent alternative choice to series resis-
tance and autotransformer starters as well as wye-
across-the-line delta and part-winding starters. Retrofitting older
E
start
(p.u.)

-- motion
starts
(c)
starters is an important application of soft starters.

0
run

1.0
~
E '%
(p.u.) %
Em in
%
(d)
"",motion : motion
starts I
I
stops _ _,..
0
start run soft stop

4.0
current limit
I start
(p.u.)
(e)
1.0
Figure 23.23b
0 Solid-state soft starter rated 5 hp, 460 V, 60 Hz. Start-
start run up time adjustable 5-50 s; initial torque adjustment
0-75%; current limit schedule 75%-400%; kick-start
Figure 23.23a time adjustable 0-1.5 s. In background is 40 hp, 460 V
Five typical options to control the soft starting and soft soft starter.
stopping of a cage induction motor (per-unit values). (Courtesy of Baldor Electric Company)
592 ELEXTRICALAND ELECTRONIC DRIVES

SELF-COMMUTATED INVERTERS • The inverter power loss is assumed to be negli-

gible; cons~guently. the de input power is equal
23.8 Self-commutated inverters for to the active ac gutput power.
cage motors • The reactive power generated by the inverter is
not produced by the commutating capacitors in-
In Section 23.2 we saw that a synchronous motor cluded in the circuitry. The reactive power is due
can be driven by a line-commutated inverter. This is to the nature of the load.
possible because the synchronous motor can pro-
• The reactive power output requires no net de
vide the reactive power needed by the inverter.
power input.
Unfortunately, if the synchronous motor is replaced
by an induction motor, the frequency conversion • The IGBTs, thyristors, or GTOs connect the de
system breaks down, because an induction motor input terminals to the ac output terminals in a
cannot deliver reactive power. Worse still, it actu- controlled sequence, with negligible voltage
ally absorbs reactive power. drop. It follows that
Nevertheless. we can drive an induction motor us- a. In a voltage source inverter, the ac line
ing a se{fcommutated inverter (also called force- voltages are successively equal to the
commutated inverter). It operates quite differently de input voltage, or zero
from a line-commutated inverter. First, it can gener- b. In a current source inverter, the ac line
ate its own frequency, determined by the frequency currents are successively equal to the
of the pulses applied to the gates. Second, it can ei- de current, or zero
ther absorb or deliver reactive power. The reactive
To control the speed of a squirrel-cage motor, we
power generated or absorbed depends upon the na-
use a rectifier-inverter system in which the rectifier
ture of the load and the switching action of the power
and inverter are connected by a de I ink. The rectifier
semiconductors. The switches may be IGBTs, power
is connected to the 3-phase, 60 Hz supply line and
MOSFETs, GTOs, or ordinary thyristors.
the inverter is connected to the stator. Two types of
Jn the latter case, the thyristors are arranged in a
de links are used-constant current and constant
conventional 3-phase bridge circuit. However, each
voltage. This gives rise to the current-source and
thyristor is surrounded by an array of capacitors, in-
voltage-source inverters* mentioned above.
ductors, diodes, and auxiliary thyristors. The pur-
By virtue of an inductor L, the constant current
pose of these auxiliary components is to force some
link supplies a constant current to the inverter,
power thyristors to conduct when normally they
which is then fed sequentially into the three phases
would not, and to force other thyristors to stop con-
of the motor (Fig. 23.24a). Similarly, by virtue of
ducting before their "natural" time. It is precisely
capacitor C (Fig. 23.26a), the constant-voltage link
this forced switching action that enables these con-
furnishes a constant voltage to the inverter, which is
verters to generate and absorb reactive power.
switched sequentially from one phase to the next of
Because of the variety of the switching circuits
the induction motor.
used, we show the self-commutated inverter as a
Many switching methods have been devised. In
simple 5-terminal device having two de input ter-
the following Sections 23.9 to 23.12, we first de-
minals and three ac output terminals to provide
3-phase power to the motor. There are two basic
types of inverters: current-source inverters (Fig. In 2-quadrant and 4-quadrant motor drives. the term itwerrer
is somewhat misleading because power can flow not only
23.24a) and voltage-source inverters (Fig.
from the de side to the ac side (inverter mode). hut al~o from
23.26a). This simple representation helps us un- the ac side to the de side <rectifier mode). For this reason we
derstand the basic features of all self-commutated prefer the term com·erter rather than inverter whenever ac/dc
inverters: power can flow in both directions.
 ELECTRONIC CONTROL OF ALTERNATING-CURRENT MOTORS 593

scribe the methods that generate a rectangular wave voltage EAN· The voltage finds its own place, so to
current or a rectangular wave voltage. We then go speak, depending upon the particular speed, torque,
on to describe pulse-width modulation methods. and direction of rotation the motor happens to have.
We can obtain regenerative braking (generator ac-
23.9 Current-source self- tion) by changing the firing angle and reducing the
commutated frequency gate pulse frequency of converter 2, as was explained
in Section 20.20. This reverses the polarity of
converter (rectangular wave)
However, the de current continues to flow in the same
The current-source frequency converter shown in direction and so converter 2 feeds power into the de
Fig. 23.24a is used to control the speed of individual link. By simultaneously retarding the triggering of the
cage motors. The switching action of the inverter is thyristors in converter I, we also reverse the polarity
such that the cuJTent in each phase is a rectangular of E 1• Consequently, converter I now acts as an in-
pulse that flows for 120°. Nevertheless, the resulting verter, feeding power back into the 3-phase line. The
voltage between lines A, B, C is nearly sinusoidal. new phase relationship between stator voltage and
The reason is that the 3-phase rectangular current stator current is shown in Fig. 23.24c. Note that con-
pulses together produce a revolving magnetic field verter 2 continues to supply reactive power to the mo-
that is almost sinusoidal in shape. Fig. 23.24b shows tor during this regenerative braking period.
the line current (, in one phase, and the associated The direction of rotation is easily changed by al-
line-to-neutral voltage Phase angle 0 corre- tering the phase sequence of the pulses that trigger
sponds to the operating power factor of the motor. It the gates of converter 2. Consequently, this static
depends upon the properties of the motor itself and frequency converter can operate in all four quad-
not upon the switching action of the inverter. Jn ef- rants with high efficiency. By changing the fre-
fect, although instant t 1 coincides with the firing of quency, the torque-speed curve can be moved back
the thyristor connected to phase A, the timing of the and forth, as shown in Fig. 23.16. High-inertia loads
pulse is not determined by the zero crossing point of can be quickly brought up to speed by designing the

converter 1 converter 2

l
+
A

3-phase 02 _ _
line
-t---• EJ
3

control settings e.xternal] motor speed

limit settings inputs de current etc.

Figure 23.24a
Current-fed frequency converter.
594 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC DRIVES

verter. The efficiency of the motor is 88% and that

of the inverter )s 99.4%. Referring to Fig. 23.24,
calculate the approsimate value of the following:
a. The de power input to converter 2
b. The current in the de link
c. The de voltage £ 1 produced by converter I

Figure 23.24b Solution

Motor voltage and current. a. The active power absorbed by the motor is
40 x 746
P = = 33.9 kW
0.88
The active power absorbed by converter 2 (the in-
verter) is
33.9
P2 = :
0 994 = 34.1 kW
b. The effective value of the full-load current is 52 A,
Figure 23.24c stamped on the nameplate. This is the funda-
Asynchronous generator voltage and current. mental component of current /" (Fig. 23.24b ).
Consequently, the de current has an approxi-
control system so that full-load torque is developed mate value of
as the motor accelerates. 52
In practice. the output frequency of such a rec- I = ·- 66.7 A (21.7)
& 0.78
tangular wave inverter using thyristors may be var-
ied over a range of I 0: I, with top frequencies of c. The de value of £ 1 (and of £ 2 ) is
about 400 Hz. However, in commercial applica- 34.l x 103
tions, frequencies are usually less than 200 Hz. At E = _ =511V
I /d 66 7
rated torque the ac voltage has to be changed in pro-
portion to the frequency so as to maintain a constant
stator flux. Consequently, the de link voltage E 1 23.10 Voltage-source self-
must be reduced as the speed is reduced below base commutated frequency
speed. This voltage reduction is achieved by in-
converter (rectangular wave)
creasing the firing angle of the thyristors in con-
verter I. Unfortunately, this tends to increase the re- In some industrial applications, such as in textile
active power drawn from the 3-phase line. mills, the speeds of several motors have to rise and
The de link voltage is held constant when the fall together. These motors must be connected to a
motor operates above base speed. The motor then common bus in order to function at the same voltage
develops less than rated torque because it is run- and frequency. Under these circumstances we use a
ning in the constant horsepower mode. Fig. 23.25 voltage-source frequency converter (Fig. 23.26a).
shows the physical size of a current-source vari- A 3-phase bridge rectifier produces a de voltage
able-frequency drive. E 1 • The capacitor ensures a stiff de voltage at the in-
put to the inverter, while the inductor tends to
Example 23-3 - - - - - - - - - - - - smooth out the current Id supplied by the rectifier.
A 40 hp, 1165 r/min, 460 V, 52 A, 60 Hz, 3-phase The inverter successively switches voltage across
motor is driven by a current-source frequency con- the lines of the 3-phase motor. The switching pro-
Figure 23.25
Current-source variable-frequency electronic drive for a conventional 500 hp, 460 V, 1780 r/min, 3-phase, 60 Hz induc-
tion motor. The output frequency can be-11ar.ied from zero to 72 Hz and the efficiency at rated load and speed is 95%.
The design is a current-source, 6-step output that can operate in all 4 quadrants.
(Courtesy of Robicon Corporation)

595
596 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC DRIVES

converter 1

3-phase o-2---t---•
line
3

1-:-
I
u
gat~--1--
triggering L
.
external mputs
Lpr~~!:_J

Figure 23.26a.
Voltage-fed frequency converter.
f-120°-J

f
duces pos1t1ve and negative rectangular voltage E2
pulses of 120° duration (Fig. 23.26b ). The frequency
ranges typically from about I 0 Hz to 200 Hz.
The fundamental component of the line-to-line
voltage is directly related to the de voltage by the
expression
Figure 23.26b
(23.1) Motor line-to-line voltages.
where
Eiine = effective fundamental component of Above base speed all the voltages are held constant
line-to-line voltage [V] while the frequency continues to increase. In this
E<l = de voltage at input to converter l V] constant horsepower mode, the torque decreases as
the speed rises.
0.78 constant lexact value = \ 16/ 1T] Regenerative braking is possible, but the link
Up to base speed, the amplitude of the inverter current /<l reverses when the motor acts as a gener-
output voltage Eiine is varied in proportion to the ator. Voltage £ 2 does not change polarity as it does
frequency so as to maintain a constant flux in the in a current-source inverter. Because converter I
motor (or motors). Because the flat-topped ac volt- cannot accept reverse current flow, a third converter
age is equal to the de voltage ( = £ 2 ), it follows (not shown) has to be installed in reverse parallel
that rectifier voltage £ 1 must be varied as the fre- with converter l to permit regenerative braking.
quency varies. The speed of the motor can there- The third converter functions as an inverter and,
fore be controlled from a few revolutions per while it operates, converter I is blocked. As a result,
minute to maximum while developing full torque. voltage-source drives that actually return power to
 ELECTRONIC CONTROL OF ALTERNATING-CURRENT MOTORS 597

+ Time intervals

J J J contacts
1
T1
T2
x
T3

x
T4
x
T5
T6
T7
TB
x
T9

x
TiO
x
T1 i

2 x x x x x
4 5 6
3 x x x x x
4 x x x x x
5 x x x x x x
6 x x x x x x
a b c
(b)

(a) 0

Figure 23.27
a. Three mechanical switches could produce the
same voltage pulses as a voltage-fed inverter.
b. Table showing the switching sequence of the
switches.
c. Voltages produced across the motor terminals.

T1 T3 T5 T7 T9 T11
f2 T4 T6 TB T10
the ac line tend to be more expensive than current-
source drives. In many cases a resistor is used to ab- I I I I I
0 120 240 360 480 600
sorb the power delivered during the braking
process. Unless the power is large, such dynamic (C)
braking is much cheaper than feeding power back
into the line. In other installations a de current is in- 23.11 Chopper speed control of a
jected into the stator windings (see Section 14.9).
wound-rotor induction motor
The switching action of converter 2 can be rep-
resented by three mechanical switches, as shown in We have already seen that the speed of a wound-rotor
Fig. 23.27a. The opening and closing sequence is induction motor can be controlled by placing three
given in the chart (b), together with the resulting variable resistors in the rotor circuit (Section 13.16).
rectangular line voltages. An X indicates that a Another way to control the speed is to connect a 3-
switch contact is dosed. This mechanical model il- phase bridge rectifier across the rotor terminals and
lustrates that thyristors and other electronic devices feed the rectified power into a single variable resistor.
in converter 2 really act as high-speed switches. The resulting torque-speed characteristic is identical
The switching action is called.6-step because the to that obtained with a 3-phase rheostat. Unfor-
switching sequence repeats after eve1y 6th step, as tunately, the single rheostat still has to be varied me-
can be seen from the chart. chanically in order to change the speed.
598 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC DRIVES

We can make an all-electronic control (Fig. The rotor line voltage at 900 r/min is
23.28) by adding a chopper and a fixed resistor R0 to
.E= ( 13.4)
the secondary circuit. In this circuit. capacitor C sup-
plies the high current pulses drawn by the chopper. 0.25 x 400
The purpose of inductor Land freewheeling diode D JOO V
has already been explained in Section 21.37. By
The de voltage developed by the bridge rectifier is
varying the chopper on-time T", the apparent resis-
tance across the bridge rectifier can be made either Ec1 = 1.35£ (21.4)
high or low. The relationship is given by 1.35 x 100
Rd R0 /D 2 (21.22) = 135 v
where Rd is the apparent resistance between termi- Knowing the torque, we can calculate the power
nals A I, A2, and D is the chopper duty cycle. P 1 delivered to the rotor:

Example 23-4 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ T = 9.55 P,!11, (13.19)

The wound-rotor motor shown in Fig. 23.28 is rated 200 = 9.55 P,/1200
at 30 kW (40 hp), I I 70 r/min, 460 V, 60 Hz. The Pr= 25 130W
open-circuit rotor line voltage is 400 V, and the load
resistor R0 is 0.5 H. If the chopper frequency is 200 Part of Pr is dissipated as heat in the rotor circuit:
Hz, calculate time Ta so that the motor develops a ( 13.7)
p.ir sPr
torque of 200 N·m at 900 r/min.
= 0.25 x 25 130
Solution = 6282 w
This problem can be solved by applying the princi-
ples covered in Chapters 13 and 2 I. The rated syn- The power of 6282 Wis actually dissipated in re-
chronous speed is clearly 1200 r/min. The slip at sistor R0 , but it is obviously equal to the rectifier
900 r/rnin is output EJd· Thus.
s=(n, 11)/11, (13.2) E,id = Pir
= ( 1200 900)/1200 135 /d = 6282
= 0.25 /J = 46.5 A

A1 L
stator

3-phase 2 B
line
,-,......._-1 c D
3 F C
c----\

A2

Figure 23.28
Speed control of a wound-rotor induction motor using a load resistor and chopper.
 ELECTRONIC CONTROL OF ALTERNATING-CURRENT MOTORS 599

The apparent resistance at the input to the chop- 23.12 Recovering power in a
per circuit is, therefore, wound-rotor induction motor
Rct = Ectlic1 Instead of dissipating the rotor power in a resistor,
= 135/46.5 we could use it to charge a large de battery (Fig.
= 2.90 23.29). Assuming the battery voltage E 2 can be var-
ied from zero to some arbitrary maximum value, let
Given that R0 = 0.5 D, and applying Eq. 21.22,
us analyze the behavior of the circuit.
we have
The ac voltage E across the rotor terminals is
0.5 = 2.9 X D 2 given by
D = 0.415 (13.4)
D 0.415
Ta = f =
200
= 2.08 ms where s is the slip and E 0 c is the open-circuit rotor
voltage at standstill (Section 13. I 0).
The chopper on-time is therefore 2.08 ms. On the other hand, rectified output voltage Ec1 is
given by
Example 23-5 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
In Example 23-3, calculate the magnitude of the Ec1 = 1.35 E (21.4)
current pulses drawn from the capacitor. Because the IR drop in the smoothing inductor is
Solution negligible, Ec1 = E 2 • Combining Eqs. 13.4 and 21.4,
The current I 0 flowing in R0 is a steady current we obtain
given by
s =
2 1.35 E 0 c
Io Ro = Pjr

Io 2 x 0.5 = 6282 Recognizing that E 0 c is a fixed quantity, the equa-

tion shows that the slip depends exclusively upon
I 0 = 112 A
the battery voltage £ 2 . Consequently, we could
The capacitor therefore delivers current pulses hav- vary the speed from essentially synchronous speed
ing an amplitude of 112 A. The pulse width is 2.08 (s = 0) to zero (s = I) by varying the battery volt-
ms and the repetition rate is 200 pulses per second. age from zero to 1.35 £ 0 c
On the other hand, the rectifier continuously charges In practice, instead of charging a battery to ab-
the capacitor with a current Ic1 of 46.5 A. sorb the rotor power, we use a 3-phase inverter that

recti tier L1

+ I;-
/R
A

3-phase 2 B
Ect E2
line
3 E c

Figure 23.29
Speed control using a variable-voltage battery.
600 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC DRIVES

returns the power to the ac source. The line-com- zero. Consequently. the slip-rings are short-cir-
mutated inverter is connected to the same feeder cuited, thus y}e~ding curve I. When Er is adjusted
that supplies power to the stator (Fig. 23.30). A to equal 0.4 -the torque-speed characteristic
transformer Tis usually added, so that the effective (curve 2) has the same shape but is shifted to the
value of ET lies between 80 and 90 percent of E'2. left. Note that the speed decreases only slightly with
This ensures that the firing angle is reasonably close increasing torque.
to the permissible limit of 165° while reducing the The rotor current /R is rectangular and flows
reactive power absorbed by the inverter. As usual, during 120° intervals (Fig. 23.31 b). It is symmet-
the voltages are related by the equation rical with respect to the respective line-to-neutral
(21.13) rotor voltage £AN· Consequently. the displace-
1.35 Er cos a
ment power factor of the load across the rotor is
where always unity.
= de voltage developed by the inverter [YI This method of speed control is economical be-
ET secondary line voltage of transformer T [VJ cause the rectifier and inverter only have to carry
the slip power of the rotor, which is considerably
a firing angle I 0
]
less than the input power to the stator. For exam-
This method of speed control is very efficient be- ple, if the lowest desired motor speed is 80% of
cause the rotor power is not dissipated in a group of synchronous speed, the power handled by the con-
resistors, but is returned to the line. Another advan- verters (at rated torque) is only 20'k of the input
tage is that for any given setting of ET, the speed is power to the stator. It follows that the converters
practically constant from no-load to full-load. are much smaller than if they were placed in the
Fig. 23.31 a shows the torque-speed curves for stator circuit where the full stator power would
two settings of E 1 . When 0, both and Ed are have to be controlled.

3-phase 2
o-~+----~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

line
3

rectifier L inverter

A
B
E C

LJ
r -""'!Jate~-1.- desired speed
1 tnggenng I
l_£:..o~~i:_j--- actual speed

Figure 23.30
Speed control using a rectifier and naturally commutated inverter.
 ELECTRONIC CONTROL OF ALTERNATING-CURRENT MOTORS 601

Solution
%
200
a. Synchronous speed is
(1) n., 120.flp ( 13.1)
QI 150 120 x 60/8
::i
tr
0 900 r/min
I-
100 s -0.4 s -o
Slip is
r 50 s = (n, n)/11, ( 13.2)
= (900 700)/900
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 % = 0.222
-speed
Mechanical power is
Figure 23.31 a
Pm 800 kW ( 1072 hp)
Torque-speed characteristics of a wound-rotor motor
for two settings of voltage but
Pm = Pr (I s) (13.8)
800 = P, (I 0.222)
Power supplied to rotor is
£AN~
.,,.,,
flfllllll""'--
--
- - - - - -.......

degrees
P1 =

Electric power output of rotor:

P.ir
1028 kW

= sPr ( 13.7)
angle
----- =

=
0.222
228 kW
x 1028

Consequently, 228 kW is fed back to the ac line.

Figure 23.31 b
Rotor voltage and current in Fig. 23.30. b. Rotor line-to-line voltage:
E = s£0 c (13.4)
Example 23-6 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ E = 0.222 X 1800
A 3-phase, 3000 hp, 4000 V, 60 Hz, 8-pole wound- = 400V
rotor induction motor drives a variable-speed cen-
DC link voltage:
trifugal pump. When the motor is connected to a
4160 V line, the open-circuit rotor line voltage is Ed 1.35 E
1800 V. A 3-phase 4160 V/480 V transformer is 1.35 x 400 = 540 v
connected between the inverter and the line (Fig.
c. DC link current:
23.32). If the motor has to develop 800 kW at a
speed of 700 r/min, calculate the following: Id P/Et1 228 000/540

a. The power output of the rotor 422A

b. Rotor voltage and link voltage The effective value of the rotor current is
c. Link current (1 and rotor current- .
/R 0.816 fd (21.6)
d. Firing angle of the inverter
e. Current in the primary and secondary lines of 0.816 x 422
transformer T 344A
602 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC DRIVES

3-phase
2
4160V o-~t-....-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~....::..~~~~~~~--.
60 Hz 3
o---t~+-...-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~-

rectifier L inverter
r40A

B
Ed= 540 V
c

2240 kW, 4000 V, 8-pole

Eco= 1800 V
lJ a 146.5°

Figure 23.32
See Example 23-5.

d. 1.35 cos Q' and currents. When these harmonic currents flow
540 1.35 x 480 cos Q' in the motor windings, they produce torque pulsa-
tions that are superimposed on the main driving
Q' = 33.5°
torque. The frequency of the torque pulsation is six
The firing angle is actually (180 - 33.5) = 146.5° times that of the fundamental frequency.
because the converter acts as an inverter. For example, suppose the drive involves a 4-
e. The current in each phase of the 480 V line pole induction motor. When the frequency of the
flows during 120° intervals and has a peak rectangular wave is 60 Hz, the synchronous speed
value of 422 A. The effective value is given by is 1800 r/min and the corresponding torque pulsa-
Eq. 21.6: tion is 60 X 6 360 Hz. On the other hand. when
a frequency of 1.5 Hz is applied to the stator, the
I= 344A synchronous speed is 45 r/min and the associated
torque vibration is 1.5 X 6 = 9 Hz.
Effective Iine current on the 4160 V side is
Torque pulsations, such as 360 Hz, are damped
I (480/4160) X 344 = 40 A out at moderate and high speeds, due to mechanical
inertia. However, at low speeds (such as 45 r/min),
a 9 Hz vibration is very noticeable. Such torque
PULSE-WIDTH MODULATION DRIVES fluctuations are unacceptable in some industrial ap-
23.13 Review of pulse-width plications, where fine speed control down to zero
speed is required. Under these circumstances, in-
modulation stead of using rectangular waveshapes, the motor is
The self-commutated frequency converters dis- driven by pulse-width nwdulation techniques.
cussed so far generate rectangular waveshapes that Converters that generate PWM outputs were cov-
contain substantial 5th and 7th harmonic voltages ered in Chapter 2 I. Sections 21.45 to 21.48.
 ELECTRONIC CONTROL OF ALTERNATING-CURRENT MOTORS 603

To briefly review the basic principles, consider of pulses per half-cycle from 5 to 50. At the same
the voltage-source frequency converter system time, the pulse spacings are rearranged so that their
shown in Fig. 23.33. A 3-phase bridge rectifier l weighted average again approaches a sine wave.
produces a fixed de voltage Ei. which appears es- In some cases the output voltage has to be re-
sentially undiminished as at the input to the self- duced while maintaining the same fundamental fre-
commutated converter 2. The converter is triggered quency. This is done by reducing all the pulse widths
in a special way so that the output voltage is com- in proportion to the desired reduction in output volt-
posed of a series of short positive pulses of constant age. Thus, in Fig. 23.34b, the pulses are half as wide
amplitude followed by an equal number of short as those in Fig. 23.34a, yielding an output voltage
negative pulses (Fig. 23.34a). The pulse widths and half as great, but having the same frequency.
pulse spacings are arranged so that their weighted We can therefore vary both the output frequency
average approaches a sine wave, as shown in the and output voltage using a fixed de input voltage.
figure. This wanted sine wave is called the fimda- As a result, a simple diode bridge rectifier can be
menta/ and its frequency ranges typically from used to supply the fixed de link voltage. The dis-
0.1 Hz to 400 Hz. The frequency of the pulses, placement power factor of the 3-phase supply line
called carrier.frequency, can range from 200 Hz to is therefore close to unity.
20 kHz, depending on the application and the type The presence of the carrier frequency eliminates
of switch employed (GTO, IGBT, etc.). the low-frequency harmonics of the embedded fun-
The pulses in the figure all have the same width, damental frequency. The only harmonics present
but in practice, the ones near the middle of the sine are the carrier frequency itself and close multiples
wave are made broader than those near the edges. By thereof. Thus, a PWM drive that generates a funda-
increasing the number of pulses per half-cycle, we mental frequency of 2 Hz, using a carrier frequency
can make the fundamental output frequency as low of 2500 Hz, would have harmonics clustered
as we please. Thus, to reduce the output frequency of around 2500 Hz and multiples of 2500 Hz. The har-
Fig. 23.34a by a factor of I 0, we increase the number monics of 2 Hz do not show up. Consequently,

rectifier 1 inverter 3

3-phase 2
o-~-+-~~--~~t--r~~...
line
3

control settings _ , - - g a t e - ) - -
triggering I external inputs
limit settings _JJro~s~_r--

Figure 23.33
Speed control by pulse width modulation.
604 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC DRIVES

formed almost instantaneously into higher frequen-

cies of any arbitrary shape. As a result, induction mo-
tor servo drives caii now respond to commands as
quickly as the best de drives. Fig. 23.35 illustrates a
typical application of PWM drives.
In order to understand the application of PWM
Figure 23.34a to induction motor drives, it is necessary to look at
Voltage waveform across one phase. this motor in a somewhat different light. The reason
is that induction motors have traditionally operated
at fixed frequencies and whenever a variable-speed
drive was needed, the immediate solution was to
use a de drive. Consequently, not much attention
was directed to variable-speed induction motor be-
havior. In the sections that follow, we examine this
aspect of induction motors.

Figure 23.34b
Waveform yielding the same frequency but half the TORQUE AND SPEED CONTROL
voltage. OF INDUCTION MOTORS
torque vibrations at low speeds (and even zero 23.15 DC motor and flux orientation
speed) are imperceptible.
We begin our discussion of speed and torque control
However, the distortion of current due to the car-
by referring to a de motor (Fig. 23.36a). The field
rier frequency increases the copper losses in the
produces a flux <D that is stationary in space and
motor windings. In addition, the carrier frequency
which can be varied by means of the field current.
voltage that appears across the windings increases
When the brushes are in the neutral position. the ar-
the iron losses. As a result, standard induction mo-
mature current I flows in the armature conductors in
tors run about I 0°C to 20°C hotter when supplied
such a way that every conductor is subjected to a
by a 60 Hz PWM voltage source as compared to a
force tending to turn the motor ccw. In this diagram
conventional 60 Hz sinusoidal source.
the axis of the armature current is at right angles to
Pulse-width modulation is effected by computer
the brush axis. The current axis is therefore in line
control of the gate triggering. By firing the gates of
with the field axis. The important feature is that the
IGBTs, it is possible to control induction motors up
resulting torque is then maximum and directly pro-
to several hundred horsepower. If GTOs are used,
portional to the product cf>/. Because the quantities
motors of several thousand horsepower can be driv-
(p and I can be varied independently, it is very easy
en electronically.
to control the torque.
23.14 Pulse-width modulation and The speed can also be varied by raising and low-
ering the applied voltage £,.Thus, a very low speed
induction motors can be obtained with high torque by simply apply-
The important feature of PWM is that it enables the ing a low voltage accompanied by a large armature
production of very low-frequency sinusoidal voltages current/, while keeping the flux <D at its rated value.
and currents, using a relatively high-frequency car- It is important to note that the orientation of the
rier. A further advantage is that the waveshapes can be flux axis with respect to the armature current axis
altered in a fraction of a millisecond. Consequently, has a direct impact on the torque. For example, if
even low-frequency sinusoidal voltages can be trans- the brushes are shifted as shown in Fig. 23.36b. the
 ELECTRONIC CONTROL OF ALTERNATING-CURRENT MOTORS 605

angle between the flux axis and current axis is al-

tered and this will produce a smaller torque. Indeed,
it can be seen that if the brushes were shifted off
neutral by 90°, the angle between the flux and cur-
rent axes would also shift by 90° and the resulting
torque would be zero. The reason is that the forces
on the armature conductors now cancel each other.
Thus, flux orientation relative to the armature cur-
rent axis is just as important as are the cl) and I val-
ues themselves.

23.16 Slip speed, flux orientation,

and torque
Figure 23.35
Food processing is one of countless industrial applica- The fundamental behavior of an induction motor
tions where PWM drives are used. A good example is having p poles can be understood by reference to
the production line at the Wortz® Company in Poteau, Fig. 23.37. It shows two successive N, S poles, cre-
Oklahoma, pictured here. This 700-foot long baking ated by the stator (not shown), sweeping to the right
and packaging line, which produces 1000 boxes of
at synchronous speed n." The flux per pole is dis-
saltine crackers every 10 minutes, is equipped with 44
PWM drives plus 35 other individual motors. The dri-
tributed sinusoidally, with a peak flux density Bpeak
ves allow precise control over the entire production = 0.8 T. The flux in question is the mutual flux that
process. Downtime and maintenance of the drive sys- crosses the air gap (see Section 13.11 ).
tem are much less compared to older baking lines that The rotor and its rotor bars are also moving to
use mechanical drives. the right, but at a speed n, where n is less than n,. It
(Courtesy of Baldor Electric Company) follows that the flux is cutting across the rotor bars
at a slip speed given by
R
S = (n, n)

Figure 23.36a Figure 23.36b

Speed and torque control of a de motor. DC motor with brushes off neutral.
606 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC DRIVES

() ---. Bpeak
Cf)
·x 0.8 T
C1l Cf)
c ·x air-gap flux > lls
~
C1l
x
::J
(.)
::J
:;::::
J
)I

{rotor > 17

0 0 0 0 8 8 8 8 0 0
2 3 4 5 6 8 9 10 11 12
CD 0 CD
CD 0 CD 0 0
E2 0 0
c.ci 0 c.ci 0 0 L!) c.ci 0 c.ci L!) 0 mV
L!)
ro ro
L!)
I ro ro I
I I I

ro 0 ro 0
0 ro 0 ro 0
0 ro
C\J 0 0 C\J
A
!2 0 0 C\J 0 C\J ""'C\JI" C\J 0 C\J 0
C\J ""'"
C\J C\J
I I I I
C\J

C') C')
C') C')
ro CTl ro CTl """:
B 0
CTl CTl """: 0 ""'"
c:i CD c:i CD 0 T
""'"
c:i CD c:i CD
c:i
0
I 0 I c:i
0
I
c:i I I

cp CD
ro CD CD
ro
F 0
CTl ""'"
-.i- cri 0 -.i- 0
cri ""'"
-.i- cri 0 -.i- 0 N
I I

14.4 N · - t · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · _ •• - , . - ,

-4.8 N
·· .._'.·-_u ________ . · . . _ _ u_ .-----·
Figure 23.37
Air-gap flux and resultant voltages, currents, and forces produced in rotor.

where As the flux cuts across the bars, the voltage in-
duced in each will vary sinusoidally in time. We
S = slip speed [r/min]
learned in Chapter 13 that the following equations
n, = synchronous speed [r/min] apply to an induction motor:
n = rotor speed [r/min] The rotor frequency.f2 is related to the stator fre-
quency.fby the expression
A voltage is, therefore, induced in each rotor bar,
the amplitude of which is proportional to the slip (13.3)
speed S multiplied by the flux density in which the
bar happens to be immersed. Thus, the voltage is Furthermore, the slips is given by
momentarily maximum in bars 4 and 10, and zero ( 13.2)
in bars 1, 7, and 13.
There are six rotor bars per pole and so the elec- and, finally, n, is related to the stator frequency f
trical angle separating them is 180°/6 = 30°. and the number of poles p by the equation
 ELECTRONIC CONTROL OF ALTERN4T!NG-CURRENTMOTORS 607

11, = 120.flp ( 13.1) axis of the flux from the stator for all loads be-
tween zero and full-load. Clearly, under these con-
From these equations we deduce the following ex-
ditions the induction motor compares very favor-
pression:
ably with a de motor as far as flux orientation is
./2 = Spll 20 (23.3) concerned.
However, when the rotor frequency is high (say,
where
30 Hz or more), the reactance of the rotor bar is con-
f2 = rotor frequency IHz] siderably greater than its resistance. Consequently.
S slip speed [r/min] the current will lag significantly behind the voltage.
Thus, in Fig. 23.37, where the rotor frequency is
p number of poles
40 Hz, the current lags 60° behind the voltage.
The rotor frequency is therefore directly proportional We conclude that to ensure good flux orientation
to the slip speed. Frequency plays an important role at all speeds, the frequency in the rotor must be kept
in the flux orientation of the induction motor. At full- low: typically, 2 Hz or less.
load and rnted torque. the rotor frequency of conven- Torque. The force exerted on each rotor bar is pro-
tional motors is 2 Hz or less. portional to the product of the current flowing
Rotor Current. The voltage induced in a particular through it and the flux density in which it happens
rotor bar will cause a current to flow in the bar equal to be. For example, in 23.37, the force on bar 3
to the voltage divided by the bar impedance. The is proportional to the current (208 A) times the flux
latter, in turn, depends upon the resistance of the bar density (0.693 T). Using F BU (Eq. 2.26), this
and its reactance. Because of the reactance, the cur- yields a force of 14.4 N for a rotor bar having a
rent in a particular bar will lag behind the voltage, length of I 0 cm. The sum of all the forces acting on
which means that it reaches its maximum value a the rotor bars, multiplied by the radius arm, is equal
brief instant after the voltage has reached its maxi- to the torque developed by the motor. Fig. 23.37
mum. For example. referring to Fig. 23.37. the cur- illustrates the voltage, current, flux density, and
rent is assumed to lag 60" behind the voltage: con- force for the individual rotor bars.
sequently, the current reaches its maximum in bar 2
because this bar is 60" behind bar4, which is the po- 23.17 Features of variable-speed
sition bar 2 occupied at the instant its voltage was control-constant
momentarily maximum.
The axis of the currents in the rotor is therefore
torque mode
displaced from the axis of the air gap flux by an an- Before going into a detailed analysis of speed and
gle of 60°. This is equivalent to shifting the brushes torque control. which involves using the equivalent
of a 2-pole de motor by 60° from the neutral. The circuit diagram of the induction motor, it is useful
flux orientation in this figure is therefore poor. to look at the main features. Fig. 23.38 shows six
However, given that the rotor frequency at full- operating modes of a I kW, 4-pole, 1740 r/min in-
load is typically less than 2 Hz, it follows that the duction motor. It has a nominal rating of 416 V,
reactance of a rotor bar is very low compared to its 3-phase, 60 Hz but is designed to run over a broad
resistance. At full-load the phase angle between range of speeds, including zero speed, by varying
the current and the voltage is typically less than 5°. the stator frequency.
The current distribution in the rotor bars is, there- In these six modes we assume that the torque is
fore, essentially the same as tbe voltage distribu- held constant at its rated value. Fu11hermore, the flux
tion. This means that the rotor.bar in which the in- in the air gap is held constant with a peak flux den-
duced voltage is maximum will also carry the sity 8 11""" = 0.8 T. The first example 23.38a) ex-
maximum current. As a result. the axis of the cur- hibits rated operating conditions, together with in-
rent in the rotor is almost directly in line with the formation on rotor voltages and currents. These
 8 (pcakl -~,--.
0.8 T
f: 60 240V

II 1740 45

L E2 l

(d)v
(peak) E:, (peak)
E2 (peak) -250 A -100 mV E2 (peak) -250 A -100 m V
100mV 100 mV
h 2 Hz

l•IV /].=2Hz

B(pcak) ........... ,,..-..... 8 (peak)-~·

0.8 T 0.8 T .
f = 6.1 E~ 24.4 V

II= 123 60

i L E2 (peak! 12 lpeak) 12 (peak) J

v
A E2 (peak) A -100 mV 250A E2 (peakJ -250 A -100 mV

f., =2 Hz
100mV

(b)
fz=2Hz
100mV

(a)V
Bq1.:akl 8 (peak) ~- - -
0.8 T 0.8 T
f=150 El/! 600V

11 0 11=4440

• i t
12 (p.:ak) _ i L E2 (peak)

v
250 A E2 (peak) -100 mV
100mV
Jc=2 Hz h 2Hz
(c)

Figure 23.38
Features of an induction motor: constant torque mode.

608
 ELECTRONIC CONTROL OF ALTERNATING-CURRENT MOTORS 609

details are then used to analyze in the subsequent op- The voltage induced in the stator by the mutual
erating modes (Fig. 23.38b to 23.38f). flux is
Fig. 23.38a: Rated Operating Mode. The fre-
E,i, 240 X 60/ 1800 = 8 V: frequency 2 Hz
quency f applied to the stator is 60 Hz, and so the
synchronous speed is 1800 r/min. The motor devel-
Fig. 23.38d: Motor Operating As a Brake. The
ops rated torque at 1740 r/min, which corresponds
stator frequency is dropped still further to 0.5 Hz,
to a slip speed of (1800 1740) 60 r/min. The
with the result that the synchronous speed becomes
corresponding rotor frequency is therefore given by
15 r/min. However, the motor can still develop
Eq. 23.3:
rated torque provided the slip speed is maintained
.f?. = Sp/120 (23.3) at 60 r/min. This is achieved if the rotor turns in the
opposite direction to the flux at a speed of ( 15 -
and so 60) = -45 r/min. However. in this mode when the
f2 ( 60 X 4 )/120 = 2 Hz flux and rotor turn in opposite directions. the mo-
tor acts as a brake. The voltage induced in the sta-
The peak voltage induced in each rotor bar under tor is 2 V.
these conditions is known to be I 00 m V and the
corresponding peak current is 250 A. It is also Fig. 23.38e: Stator Excited by DC. The stator fre-
known that the current 4° behind the voltage quency is now zero. which means that a de current
and so the current axis lies 4° behind the flux axis. is flowing in the stator windings. Nevertheless, the
The flux orientation is excellent. rated torque can again be obtained provided the rei-
As the mutual flux sweeps across the stationary ative speed is 60 r/min. This happens when the ro-
stator windings. it induces in each phase a voltage tor turns at 60 r/min in either direction. Again. the
E,1> of 240 V, at a frequency of 60 Hz. motor acts as a brake. The flux is not rotating and so
= 0.
Fig. 23.38b: Operation at 6.1 Hz. The frequency
applied to the stator has been reduced to 6.1 Hz, Fig. 23.38f· Operation Above Base Speed. As an-
with the result that the synchronous speed is 183 other example of motor performance in the con-
r/min. In order to produce the same torque as in stant torque mode, the stator frequency is raised to
Fig. 23.38a. the current in the rotor bars must be I 50 Hz. giving a synchronous speed of 4500
exactly as it was before in magnitude, frequency, r/min. Rated torque is again obtained when the slip
and phase. This is realized when the slip speed (n, speed is 60 r/min. The rotor is, therefore. turning
n) is again 60 r/min. Thus, full-load torque is at 4440 r/min. Note that E, induced in the stator is
,
1
produced when the rotor turns at ( 183 60) = now quite high, reaching 240 X 4500/1800
123 r/min. 600 v.
The voltage E,i, induced in the stator is now less It is revealing that in all six modes examined
than before. because the flux is only turning at 183 above the rotor conditions are identical. The peak
r/min. The value of £, 1, is readily calculated by the voltage induced in the rotor bars remains at I00 mV.
ratio method: the peak current remains at 250 A. and the fre-
£,1, = 240 X 183/ I 800 = 24.4 V: frequency 6.1 Hz. quency is unchanged at 2 Hz. In effect. as the stator
frequency is varied, the entire behavior of the mo-
Fig. 23.38c: Motor Stalled. The stator frequency is tor is seen to depend upon the slip speed S. It is im-
now reduced to 2 Hz and so the.synchronous speed portant to recall that the flux per pole was kept
is 60 r/min. To produce rated t()rque;. the slip speed fixed. To meet this requirement. the magnetizing
must again be 60 r/min. This means that n = (60 current that produces the mutual flux must some-
60) = 0 and so the motor is not turning at all. how be held constant.
610 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC DRIVES

23.18 Features of variable-speed

control-constant ~·~co . oo . ,g·~
xUl .
)o 150
3 1
horsepower mode B(pcakl -. lls 4500
O.BT~ n=?
Returning to the motor described by 23.38a, ) ©' . '&~AS>J___.
suppose the electronic power supply can only deliver 12 ( p c : : : : )
the rated maximum of 240 V. but that the frequency 250 A 100 mV
can be raised to 400 Hz. if need be. We wish to raise
Figure 23.39
the motor speed to about 4500 r/min, which means
Features of an induction motor: constant horsepower
raising the stator frequency to I 50 Hz. If the peak mode.
flux density were held at its normal level. the stator
voltage would have to be 600 V. as previously seen
in 23.38f. But because the stator voltage is lim- 5. The frequency in the rotor is no longer 2 Hz
ited to 240 V. the peak flux density will automatically because the slip speed is 2.5 times greater than
fall in proportion to the increase in frequency. Thus, in Fig. 23.38a. The rotor frequency is 2.5 X
2 Hz = 5 Hz. This higher frequency will cause
Bpeak (60/150) x 0.8 T = 0.32 T
the current to lag a few extra behind
This flux density is 2.5 times less than the rated E 2 . The angle between the flux axis and current
peak value. The situation is depicted in Fig. 23.39. axis is larger than in Fig. 23.38, but the reduc-
To see what happens to the torque and speed, we tion in torque due to this change in flux orienta-
reason as follows: tion is minimal.

However. if the speed had to be raised by a fac-

I. In order to develop the maximum possible
tor of 20 (i.e., to 20 X 1800 36 000 r/min),
torque. the current in the rotor bars should be
while limiting El1, to 240 V. the flux density would
as as possible, without, however, exceed-
have to be reduced by a factor of 20. To generate
ing the thermal limits. This means that the peak
the I00 m V in the rotor bars, the slip speed would
current should again be 250 A.
have to be 20 X 60 = 1200 r/min. This corre-
2. To produce 250 A, the peak voltage E1 induced sponds to a rotor frequency of 20 X 2 Hz 40 Hz.
in the rotor bars must again be I00 m V. The flux orientation would be poor, and the result-
3. If Bp.:ak were equal to 0.8 T. a slip speed of ing drop in torque would be so serious that the
60 r/min would suffice to generate 100 m V. constant horsepower mode could probably not be
But BP''""' is now only 0.32 T, which is 2.5 sustained.
times less. Therefore. the only way to make
equal to JOO mV is for the slip speed to in-
crease by a factor of 2.5. The required slip
23.19 Feature of variable-speed
speed must therefore be 2.5 X 60 = 150 control-generator mode
r/min. The resulting motor speed is 4500 - In variable-speed induction motor drives, the gen-
150 = 4350 r/min. erator mode of operation comes into play very fre-
4. The flux per pole is only 1/2.5 of its rated value, quently. We recall that an induction motor becomes
and so the torque is also l /2.5 of its rated value. a generator whenever the stator flux turns in the
However, the motor speed is nearly 2.5 times its same direction as the rotor, but at a slower speed.
rated base speed and so the horsepower remains We will study two cases, one where the motor is
at its rated value. The motor is operating in the running at close to rated speed and another where
constant horsepower mode. the speed is much lower. These conditions are rep-
 ELECTRONIC CONTROL OF ALTERNATING-CURRENT MOTORS 611

B(pcak)--- Fig. 23.40b: Generator Mode, Low Speed. The

0.8 T stator frequency in this case is 6.1 Hz. producing a
f =60 240V
synchronous speed of 183 r/min. The rotor turns at
243 r/min, and the slip speed is again 60 r/min. The
11 1860
rotor voltages and currents are, therefore, the same
as in Fig. 23.40a. Power is again being fed from the
rotor to the stator.

h=2 Hz 23.20 Induction motor and its

(a)
equivalent circuit
Torque and speed control of a squirrel-cage induc-
tion motor is more difficult to achieve than in a de
motor because the rotor is not accessible, and so the
B(pcakl - - ~--- rotor current cannot be controlled directly. The ro-
0.8 T tor current is induced by the current flowing in the
J = 6.1 E,; = 24.4 V
stator. Furthermore, the stator current also produces
II= 243 the very flux that is needed to produce the torque.
This complex situation can best be resolved by re-
ferring to the equivalent circuit of a 3-phase induc-
tion motor.
The complete circuit for one phase (drawn from
h=2 Hz Chapter 15), is shown in Fig. 23.41. It is very simi-
(b)
lar to the circuit diagram of a transformer. The pa-
rameters of the motor are listed as follows:
Figure 23.40 r 1 = stator resistance
Features of an induction motor: generator mode.
x1 stator leakage reactance
resented in Figs. 23.40a and 23.40b. The generator x~ rotor leakage reactance referred to the stator
torque in both cases is equal to the rated torque, and r 2 = rotor resistance referred to the stator
the same data is used as in Figs. 23.38 and 23.39. Xm = stator magnetizing reactance
Fig. 23.40a: Generator Mode, Rated Speed. The s slip (not slip speed)
stator frequency is 60 Hz and so the synchronous
speed is 1800 r/min. The rotor turns at 1860 r/min; In this figure, in the interest of simplicity, we have
consequently, the slip speed is 60 r/min. As in the not included the branch representing the iron
previous examples, it follows that the rotor fre- losses.
quency is 2 Hz and the current again lags behind The applied voltage E between line I and neu-
by 4°. However, there is an important difference be- tral N produces a stator current 11 , which consists
cause the direction of current flow is the reverse of of two parts, 1111 and 12 . Current /m is the magne-
what it was in Fig. 23.38a. Furthermore, the current tizing current that produces the flux (I) in the air
axis is now slightly ahead of the flux axis, leading gap. Current 12 is a reflection of the current that
it by 4°. The important point to remember is the re- actually flows in the rotor; it is the torque-
versal of the rotor current. It is the reversal that pro- producing component of stator current. Flux c{) is
duces the generator action of the motor. the mutual flux that links the stator and rotor. It is
612 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC DRIVES

1.5 Q 3Q 2Q

5.6 A
!1
1.2 x 3600
265 v 1> ' 90
60 Hz 97% ~' =48Q
E
11.,, = 3600
J n = 3510
T= 10.3 N·m

N Figure 23.42a
Equivalent circuit of a 5 hp, 2-pole, 460 V, 3-phase,
Figure 23.41 60 Hz induction motor at full-load.
Equivalent circuit for one phase of a 3-phase induc-
tion motor (see Chapter 15). When the motor operates at full-load, the speed is
3510 r/min, which corresponds to a slip speed of
precisely the flux illustrated in Figs. 23.38, whose (3600 - 3510) = 90 r/min. The line-to-neutral
peak flux density is B<rcakJ and which induces voltage Eis 460/V,3 = 265 V. The power resistance
voltage Eq,. in the circuit is, therefore, equal to R 2 nJS = 1.2 X
The fluxes <D 1 and <D2' associated with x 1 and x 2 , 3600190 = 48 n.
are the leakage fluxes for the stator and rotor re- After solving the circuit, it is found that
spectively. The sum of <D and <D 1 is the total flux
/ 1 = 5.6 A 12 = 5.2 A / 111 = 1.9 A
linking the stator. It induces voltage E 2 N in the sta-
tor. Similarly, the sum of <D and <D 2 is equal to the to- The full-load torque developed by all 3 phases is
tal flux linking the rotor. It induces E4 N in the rotor. given by:
The resistance R 2/s is a simulated way of repre-
senting the active power P, that is transmitted (13.9)
across the air gap, from stator to rotor, by induction.
This "power resistance" can be expressed in terms 9.55 x 5.2 2 x 48
- - - - - - - - - X 3 = 10.3 N·m
of the slip speed S: 3600
.
power resistance = -R2 = R2ns
--- (23.4)
The magnetizing current/111 produces the flux <Din the
s s air gap. Its value at full-load is 97 % of its no-load
value, which is the reason for designating <Das 97 %.
23.21 Equivalent circuit When these currents are observed in the actual
of a practical motor machine, we obtain the picture shown in Fig.
23.42b. The flux is rotating ccw at 3600 r/min,
What information can such a circuit diagram yield in dragging the rotor along with it. We discover that
the case of a practical motor? Consider Fig. 23.42a, the axis of the rotor current lags only 2.4 ° behind
which shows the equivalent circuit of a commercial the axis of the flux. Consequently, the flux orienta-
5 hp, 460 V, 3-phase, ·60 Hz, 3510 r/min cage motor. tion is excellent. The reader will note that the 2.4 °
The parameters at 60 Hz are listed as follows: is equal to the phase angle determined by the power
r1 = 1.5 n X1 = 3fl resistance (48 fl) and the leakage reactance x 2 (2 fl)
of the rotor.
r2 = 1.2 n X2 = 2fl
Consider now the situation when the rotor is
Xm = 130 fl n, = 3600 r/min locked, with full voltage applied to the stator (Fig.
 ELECTRONIC CONTROL OF ALTERNATING-CURRENT MOTORS 613

1.5 Q 3Q 2Q

1.2 Q

11s = 3600
n=O
T= 20.2 N·m
</! 97%
Figure 23.43a
265 v
60 Hz Equivalent circuit of 5 hp induction motor with locked
rotor at rated voltage and frequency.

Figure 23.42b
At full-load, flux in the air gap is oriented at 2.4° with
respect to rotor current. Flux rotating ccw.

23.43a). The power resistance is now simply equal

to R2' or 1.2 0. After solving the circuit, it is found
that the currents are much larger, and the orientation
</!=42%
of <P and / 2 have changed. Indeed, the rotor current
axis lags 59° degrees behind the flux axis; conse- 265 v
quently, there is a large reduction in the torque that 60 Hz
would otherwise be available. Furthermore, the air
gap flux has dropped to 42% of its rated value, as
witnessed by the drop in the magnetizing current,
which is now only 0.83 A. Clearly, this is an unsat- Figure 23.43b
isfactory condition as far as torque production is At locked rotor, flux in the air gap is oriented at 59°
concerned. It is directly attributable to the high slip with respect to rotor current. Flux rotating ccw.
speed (S 3600 r/min) and the consequent high ro-
tor frequency (60 Hz). has given rise to the so-called constant volts per
Using this background information, we will now hertz rule. When the volts/hertz ratio is held con-
analyze the behavior of the motor when it is driven stant, the flux in the motor remains essentially the
by a variable frequency source. same over a broad speed range. However, a problem
arises at low speeds. For example, let us see how this
23.22 Volts per hertz rule works out when our 5 hp, 3510 r/min, 460 V, 60
Hz commercial motor is driven by a 6 Hz source,
of a practical motor
which is one-tenth of the base frequency.
We saw in Sections 20.18 and 20) 9 that in variable- If we apply the volts per hertz rule, the line volt-
speed drives, the torque-speed· curve. and current- age is one-tenth of 460 V, or 46 V. The line-to-neu-
speed curve retain the same shape provided that the tral voltage is, therefore, 26.5 V. The reactances are
voltage is varied in proportion to the frequency. This all diminished by a factor of I 0, as can be seen in
614 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC DRIVES

Fig. 23.44a. Assuming the same slip speed of 90 1.5 n o.3 n 0.2 n
r/min in order to get rated torque, it follows that the
power resistance is equal to 4.8 n. Thus. all the im-
pedances in Fig. 23.44a are ten times less than those
1.2 x 360
in Fig. 23.42a-except for the 1.5 n stator resistance 90
which remains unchanged. =4.812
After solving the circuit of 23.44a, we dis- I 1.5 A
! 11s = 360
cover that the torque due to the three phases is
i t n =270
T= 6.1 N·m
T = 9.55 P, x ( 13.9)
3
11, Figure 23.44a
5 hp induction motor operating at one-tenth of rated
9.55 x4 x
2
4.8
voltage and frequency.
X3 6.1 N·m
360

This torque is much less than the rated value of I 0.3

N·m. What has happened? The calculations indicate
that the magnetizing current is only 1.5 A compared
to 1.9 A in Fig. 23.42a. Therefore, the flux in the air
gap is much less than before. That is the reason for
the large drop in torque.
Thus. the constant volts/hertz rule leads to a big
drop in torque at lower speeds. The culprit is the sta-
tor resistance. If it were not present, the constant
volts/hertz rule would work perfectly.
The drop in torque can be remedied by system-
atically raising the stator voltage, to compensate for
the IR drop in the stator. This torque boost compen-
sation can be introduced when the motor is con-
trolled electronically by a PWM drive.
Figure 23.44b
Motor rotating at 270 r/min.
23.23 Speed and torque control
feature that actually measures the rotor and stator
of induction motors
parameters. This measurement is done once. at the
The problem in controlling torque and speed is that time when the drive is installed.
the magnetizing current / 111 and the torque-producing When the motor is in operation, the stator volt-
current 12 are merged into a single current, namely age, stator current, frequency, and speed are sensed
the current / 1 flowing in the stator. In order to con- by transducers and compared with the wanted val-
trol the torque. this current must be split into its /m ues. The computer in the control system then deter-
and 12 components. Furthermore. it is advantageous mines the Im and / 2 components and automatically
that / 111 be held close to its rated value. to ensure the sets the required voltage, frequency, and current
flux is as great as possible without excessive satura- that are required.
tion of the iron. Sensing the speed creates a problem. because
To keep track of all these variables. the circuit shaft encoders have to be added. This is not an easy
parameters of the motor must be known. Toward matter for motors that are already installed and
this end. some PWM control systems incorporate a whose shaft extensions are not accessible. For this
 ELECTRONIC CONTROL OFALTERN!\TING-CURRENT MOTORS 615

reason other algorithms exist whereby the computer than normal, causing an eventual breakdown of the
can estimate the speed, without feedback from the insulation. In some cases. line filters have been
shaft. This gives good results, if the speed is not too added to attenuate the effect, particularly when the
low. But if the speed is only a few revolutions per motor is located more than 50 m from the converter.
minute, or if a servo position control is required. it
is mandatory to use an encoder. 23.25 Dynamic control
Having a computer in charge of speed and
of induction motors
torque, it is possible to include many extra features
such as rate of acceleration, deceleration, overcur- If a PWM drive is used to vary the speed of a com-
rent protection, and so forth. as part of the control pressor or fan, the change in speed is usually made
system. Furthermore, special features can be pro- rather slowly and once set, the motor runs essen-
grammed into the computer by the ultimate user. tially at constant speed. Under these conditions, the
The computer makes the high-speed calculations motor behaves like an ordinary induction motor, ex-
and sends signals to the converter driving the mo- cept that the frequency is, say. 4 7 Hz instead of
tor, to achieve the desired result. Thus, PWM con- 60 Hz. The fundamental voltages and currents arc
trol of induction motors is made possible thanks to sinusoidal and the equivalent circuit diagram is suf-
many sophisticated devices, in addition to the ficient to describe the motor behavior. even while
switching converter. the speed is changing.
However, in some machine-tool applications, the
motor must rapidly accelerate, reverse. stop. and stait
23.24 Carrier frequencies
while responding to torques that may suddenly
PWM drives for induction motors use various car- change without warning. all in a matter of millisec-
rier frequencies, ranging from I kHz to about onds. Under such conditions. the behavior of the mo-
16 kHz. These frequencies can often be changed in tor can only be described by special equations that
the field to satisfy particular needs. One of the con- are far more complex than those covered here by the
cerns is noise which, in quiet environments, is par- equivalent circuit. During such transient conditions,
ticularly noticeable in the I kHz to 2 kHz range. For the voltages and currents are no longer sinusoidal,
this reason, carrier frequencies have been raised to and the computer-generated waveshapes change
10 kHz and more because they are beyond the range from instant to instant. During these transition peri-
of human audibility. Unfortunately, the higher fre- ods, the flux must be maintained both in value and
quencies always require a decrease in the power- orientation so as to instantaneously develop the re-
handling capability of the semiconductors. quired torque.
The sharp rise-time of the carrier voltage has also It is the fast switching of IGBTs operating at car-
created problems in some motors, as regards the in- rier frequencies of several kilohertz. in conjunction
sulation. The fast rise time produces two effects. with high-speed computers. that makes this type of
First, owing to the mismatch between the high-fre- dynamic control possible. It is often called/711.r 1·ec-
quency impedance of the motor windings and that of tor control. but other names are also used.
the connecting cable, the voltage across the motor Obviously. vector control is not needed to drive a fan
terminals tends to double for a fraction of a mi- or compressor. where fast changes of speed are not
crosecond during every impulse of the PWM volt- required. Nor is vector control necessary to drive
age. Second, during these sharp peaks, the distrib- high-inertia loads that inherently take considerable
uted inductance and capacitance of the motor time to change speed. Indeed, inertia plays an im-
windings causes the doubled voltage !C? appear across portant role in the setting of all PWM drives.
the first few turns of the motor windings. As a result, There are many ways of designing high-response
the dielectric stress on these turns is much greater induction motor drives, but so far no single best
616 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC DRIVES

method has evolved. However. a few basic princi- 32A A x 30A

a
ples are common to all vector drives. and we will de-
scribe them briefly in the next section. 18 A .. B
b ..c~

23.26 Principle of flux 14A

vector control c ·-
stator
When an induction motor runs at steady-state, we
can use any one of the three phases as a model for mechanical angle between rotor and stator = 20°
all. In this way we arrive at a simple circuit diagram
Figure 23.45
and a few simple equations that adequately describe
Instantaneous currents in rotor and stator windings of
the behavior of the motor. The respective phase a 2-pole, 3-phase induction motor.
voltages and currents have sinusoidal waveshapes.
whose frequency is constant. all neatly separated by tion voltages give rise to the rotor currents.
phase angles of 120°. Unfortunately, the rotor currents cannot change in-
This reassuring situation is completely upset stantaneously in response to changes in these two
when the motor is subjected to rapidly changing types of voltages. The delay is due to the inductance
torques. or if it suddenly has to change speed. The of the rotor windings. Consequently. the L:/R2 time
behavior is particularly complex when the inertia of constant of the rotor (per phase) plays an important
the drive is so small that its mechanical time con- role in the response of high-performance drives.
stant is of the same order of magnitude as the elec- The current source is designed to produce fast
trical time constant of the drive. When such high re- changes in selected rotor currents by modifying
sponse drives are subjected to disturbances. or when both the magnitude and rate of change of specific
they must follow rapidly changing commands, the stator currents. Therefore, one of the duties of a vec-
voltages and currents are no longer sinusoidal, and tor drive is to target those stator currents that will
the term phase angle loses its meaning. produce the desired changes in speci fie rotor cur-
Under these special conditions. the currents and rents while developing the required torque and
voltages in all three phases must be considered on maintaining the rated flux and its proper orientation
an instantaneous basis. both for the stator and the in the air gap. Evidently. this is no small feat.
rotor. In the explanation that follows, we assume a In explaining the principle of a vector drive. it is
wound-rotor motor so that it is easier to visualize much easier to use a numerical example. Thus. the
the currents and rotor position. Nevertheless. a mo- magnitudes and directions of the instantaneous cur-
tor having a cage rotor performs the same way. rents are shown schematically in Fig. 23.4.5. The
23.4.5 is a schematic diagram of a 2-pole, physical location of the stator windings A. B. C and
3-phase motor. Suppose the instantaneous currents instantaneous position of the rotor windings X. Y, Z
flowing in the stator and rotor windings are as are shown in 23.46. The distributed stator and
shown. The stator currents are generated by an ap- rotor windings are shown as single coils. The in-
propriate current source. which establishes both stantaneous current flows in the respective coils are
their instantaneous magnitudes and instantaneous also shown. The individual coils are assumed to
rates of change. The instantaneous magnitudes in- have I 0 turns. The rotor is rotating clockwise. At
duce speed voltages in the rotor windings that are this instant. its position is such that windings X. Y.
proportional to the speed of rotation. On the other Z are displaced by 20° clockwise from the corre-
hand. the instantaneous rates of change of the stator sponding stator windings A. B. C.
currents induce voltages in the rotor windings by in- The currents in the three stator coils produce
duction. The sum of the .\peed voltages and induc- magnetomotive forces that are oriented at right an-
 ELECTRONIC CONTROL OF ALTERNATING-CURRENT MOTORS 617

to the plane of the individual coils. Thus, by

applying the right-hand rule, phase A produces an
mmf of 32 A X I 0 turns = 320 A, directed verti-
cally upward (Fig. 23.47). Similarly, phase B pro-
duces an mmf of 18 A X IO turns = 180 A. di-
rected to the left at an angle of 60° from the
vertical. In turn, phase C produces an mmf of 14 A
X I0 turns = 140 A, slanted to the right at 60°
from the vertical.

Figure 23.48
Instantaneous magnitude and orientation in space of
the rotor mmfs.

The vector sum of these mmfs gives a resultant

stator mmf /, of 481 A, slanted at 4 ° to the vertical.
This single mmf represents the combined effect of
all three phases. It is as if the entire stator were re-
placed at this particular moment by a single I0-turn
coil carrying a current of 48.1 A. The plane of this
fictitious coil is tilted at 4 ° to the horizontal.
Now let us consider the rotor. The individual
Figure 23.46 coils produce oriented mmfs the same way as in the
Instantaneous position of the rotor and stator windings. case of the stator. Thus, the respective currents pro-
duce mmfs of 300 A, 200 A. and I 00 A. which are
ls oriented at 60° to each other. However. on account
481 of the position of the rotor relative to the stator, the
entire group of mmfs is shifted by 20° (Fig. 23.48).
A
The resultant of these mmfs is a rotor mmf /R of 458
A directed downward at an angle of 9" clockwise to
320
the vertical. Therefore, at this instant, the three ro-
40 tor windings can be replaced by a single coil of IO
turns, carrying a current of 45 .8 A. The plane of this
fictitious coil is tilted at 9° to the horizontal.
Let us now combine the vectors in Figs. 23.47 and
23.48 into a single mmf vector diagram (Fig. 23.49).
It again shows how the stator and rotor vectors com-
Figure 23.47 bine to produce the resultant mmf vectors Is and /R·
Instantaneous magnitude and orientation in space of However, it also reveals that the vector sum of Is and
the stator mmfs. IR produces a vector /M. It is this important net mmf
618 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC DRIVES

ln observing Fig. 23.49. it is obvious that the six

vectors gener~tted by the six windings will change
20°
instant by instant. both in magnitude and direction.
The challenge of vector control in the face of
changing torques and speeds. is (I) to keep vector
JM on the dotted circle. (2) to keep angle l)J close to
90°, and (3) to keep Is from exceeding its maximum
permissible limits.
The reader will note that the accent is on the con-
trol of current in the three stator windings. To pro-
duce the required currents. the voltages generated
320
by the PWM converter must, in turn. have appro-
priate waveshapes. In addition. the instantaneous
/~1 rotor currents must be inferred from the instanta-
neous stator voltages and currents, together with
l feedback from an encoder (if necessary) to deter-
mine the position of the rotor. These readings are
fed into a mathematical model of the motor. in
which all the drive parameters are stored.
Figure 23.49
The sum of the stator and rotor mmf's produces a re- In most vector drives. the 3-phase readings are
sultant mmf /M, which creates the flux in the air gap. converted into equivalent 2-phase values because
they are easier to manipulate. In effect. for purposes
that produces the mutual flux cp in the air gap. This of computation, the 3-phase motor is converted into
is the same flux that appears in Fig. 23.41 and else- an equivalent 2-phase machine. This approach per-
where in this chapter. The mmf IM has a magnitude mits expressing all values in terms of direct and
of 110 A inclined at 14 ° to the horizontal. quadrature axes.
The torque is created by the interaction of the ro- It is a tribute to the designers of vector drives
tor mmf /R and the mutual flux <P. The relationship that such sophisticated control systems have been
is given by invented. But a glance at the ever-changing vectors
in 23.49. and their underlying concept. reveals
(23.5) that fast PWM switching and nanosecond computer
In order to maximize the torque. angle t)J should be response in real time. is what makes such remark-
close to 90°, and that is one of the objectives of the able drives possible.
PWM vector control unit. Another objective is to
adjust the magnitude of /M to produce rated flux cl) 23.27 Variable-speed drive
in the air gap. Thus. the actual magnitude of /M
and electric traction
should be adjusted to equal the desired /*M· In Fig.
23.49 the value of/Mis a little too large because ide- There are many applications where the torque and
ally the tip of l1v1 should lie on the dotted circle hav- speed of an induction motor have to be controlled.
ing a radius /*M. We will examine electric traction because in this
We recall that one of the objectives of vector category the torque and speed cover a particularly
control is to decompose the stator mmf Is into two broad range. including generator action.
parts: the component that produces the flux <P and Electric traction is also interesting because many
the component that produces the torque. These power lines for electric trains furnish 60 Hz. single-
components are made evident in Fig. 23.49; they phase power. at voltages from 5 kV to 25 kV. The
correspond respectively to vectors l1v1 and /R. power factor of the transportation vehicle should be
 ELECTRONIC CONTROL OF ALTERNATING-CURRENT MOTORS 619

Figure 23.50
This blower-cooled, flux vector-controlled motor is equipped
with an optical encoder (not visible) that permits accurate
sensing of the shaft position at any instant of time. Standard
encoders produce 1024 pulses per revolution. Nominal rat-
ing of motor: 10 hp, 230 V, 3-phase, 60 Hz, base speed 1800
r/min. The speed is variable from zero to 4500 r/min. PWM
carrier frequency is nominally 2.5 kHz or 8 kHz. (Courtesy of
Baldor Electric Company)

Figure 23.51
Internal view of a PWM flux vector control unit showing the complex circuitry. It comprises IGBTs, amplifiers, filters,
and a host of other components under the control of a microprocessor. The feedback from the encoder, together
with information provided by the keypad instructions, permits an extremely wide range of position and speed con-
trol. Thus, torque can be programmed according to position and speed, ranging from zero to several thousand rev-
olutions per minute. Typical features are 0.01 percent speed regulation, 1 ms torque reversal, and smooth vibration-
free motoring down to zero speed.
(Courtesy of Baldor Electric Company)

as close as possible to unity so as to minimize the switching converter offers an elegant way of meet-
line voltage drop. In addition, t:he current it draws ing these requirements without having to resort to
from the line should be sinusoidal' <;nd free from huge filters and power factor correcting capacitors.
harmonics, so as to prevent interference with adja- Traction motors are relatively large and hence
cent telephone lines. As we will see, the PWM GTOs are often used. The switching frequency of
620 ELECTRICAL AND ELEC7RONIC DRIVES

GTOs is variable but is typically limited to a maxi- of the motor windings. The 5th and 7th harmonics
mum of about 250 Hz. This relatively low carrier are dominant: on a 60 Hz fundamental, they corre-
frequency demands particular attention when PWM spond to freq~~nci£S of 300 Hz and 420 Hz.
methods are applied. However, if a rectangular wave is used at low fre-
In the range from 60 Hz and up, the switching quencies the corresponding cmTent harmonics be-
converters are arranged to deliver rectangular wave- come too great and PWM methods must be used.
shapes, as already discussed in Section 23.10. There Pulse-width modulation can be synchronized or un-
is an important advantage in doing so, because for a synchronized. Synchronization means that the carrier
given de link voltage, the fundamental rms voltage frequency is aiTanged to be an exact integral multiple
is higher when using a rectangular wave rather than of the wanted fundamental frequency. The multiple is
a PWM wave. Although the voltage harmonics are preferably an odd number such as 3, 5, 7. and so forth.
important at these frequencies, the corresponding It has been found that synchronization is advan-
current harmonics are damped out by the reactance tageous whenever the carrier frequency is less than

Figure 23.52
This 3 hp, 460 V PWM drive and keypad integrates the control unit and motor into a single package. At constant
torque the speed can be varied from 180 r/min to 1800 r/min. Above 1800 r/min-up to a maximum of 3600 r/min-
the motor operates in the constant horsepower mode. For optimal performance the carrier frequency can be set to
any value between 1125 Hz and 18 kHz, albeit with progressive power derating.
(Courtesy of Baldor Electric Company)
 ELECTRONIC CONTROL OF ALTERNATING-CURRENT MOTORS 621

ten times the wanted frequency. Thus, if the carrier that steps the voltage down to 530 V. The voltage is
frequency is variable but limited to a maximum, fed into a PWM converter (3) that delivers 700 V to
say, of 250 Hz, it should be synchronized whenever the de link. The link voltage is held stiff by capaci-
the wanted frequency exceeds 25 Hz. For example, tor (6), and switching converter (7) furnishes the
if the wanted frequency happens to be 43.67 Hz, the 3-phase power to traction motor (8).
carrier should be set at the highest odd multiple of A braking resistor and chopper (4) absorb power
this frequency that does not exceed the 250 Hz limit in the event that the catenary line cannot absorb it
of the GTO. Thus, the carrier should be set at 5 X all during a fast stop. A 120 Hz series-tuned filter
43.67 = 218.35 Hz exactly. (5) absorbs the double frequency current generated
If the wanted frequency is less than 25 Hz, the by converter (3) and thereby helps reduce the ripple
unsynchronized PWM method can be employed, in the de link voltage.
wherein the carrier is simply held fixed at the GTO When the system is first connected to the power
limit, namely 250 Hz. In this mode, the harmonics line, switch ( 11) and resistor ( 12) limit the inrush
are clustered around multiples of 250 Hz. current due to the presence of capacitor (6). Switch
These points are brought out more clearly in the ( 13) is immediately closed thereafter.
following example. Inductive reactance (2) acts as a filter for the
carrier frequency generated by the converter
(3). At the same time, it establishes the nature of
23.28 Principal components
the active and reactive power flow between con-
Fig. 23.53 shows the basic elements of a drive for a verter (3) and transformer (I). In practice, the
transportation vehicle. The catenary line supplies leakage reactance of the transformer fills the role
single-phase power at 15 kV, 60 Hz to a transformer of inductive reactance.

©
0

single phase transformer @) traction motor

inductor trolley line
@ PWM converter pantograph
braking resistor and chopper switch
@filter resistor
capacitor switch
PWM converta.r

Figure 23.53
Schematic diagram of a traction drive.
622 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC DRIVES

It must be understood that the circuit of Fig. PWM mode the carrier frequency will be held be-
23.53 has been highly simplified to illustrate only tween a minfr111,1m of 200 Hz and a maximum of 300
those points we want to emphasize. Hz. The minimum js a question of choice regarding
The 3-phase, 4-pole traction motor is described the level of current harmonics that are permissible.
as follows: The maximum depends upon the allowable switch-
ing losses in the GTOs, plus safety margins.
type: squirrel-cage induction
When the motor runs between 1800 r/min (base
power: 160 kW speed) and 3000 r/min, the corresponding frequen-
rated voltage: 545 V cies lie between 60 Hz and 100 Hz. A rectangular
speed range: 0 to 3000 r/min 6-step waveshape is used in this range; thus, the full
700 V de link voltage is available. The motor oper-
base speed: 1800 r/min
ates in the constant horsepower mode, and the fun-
temperature class: H damental rms voltage across the motor terminals is
forced ventilation: 12 m3 /min given by
mass: 520 kg £line 0.78 Ed 0.78 X 700 = 546 V (23.1)
At frequencies immediately below 60 Hz, where
23.29 Operating mode of the the harmonics begin to be more important, the
3-phase converter synchronized PWM mode is initiated. Bearing in
The operating mode of converter (7) can be followed mind that the GTO frequency must not exceed
by referring to Fig. 23.54. The GTOs have a fre- 300 Hz, it follows that a frequency ratio of 5 must
quency limit of, say, 300 Hz. We assume that in the be used to generate frequencies of 60 Hz and be-
low. As the wanted frequency is lowered, the car-
rier frequency must be decreased in proportion,
both frequencies following the sloped line 5.
constant torque ! constant hp. I When the lower 200 Hz limit is reached, it is evi-

-~--·-·f·-·----:i
unsynchro- I synchronized rectangular wave ,
dent that the corresponding fundamental fre-
quency is 200 5 = 40 Hz.
320 nized PWM I PWM ,
The schedule then jumps to a frequency ratio of
300
280 7. On this new operating line, the GTO carrier fre-
quency starts at 7 X 40 280 Hz, which is just be-
N' 240
6 low the 300 Hz limit. Then, as the fundamental fre-
>- 200
0
c quency falls gradually from 40 Hz to 30 Hz, the
<D
::i
160 carrier frequency keeps track so that it is always ex-
O"
~ actly 7 times the fundamental frequency. When
Q; 120 30 Hz is reached, the motor is running at about 900
·;::
(ii
100
0 80 r/min, and the carrier frequency is 210 Hz-just
60 above the 200 Hz minimum.
40
At this point, a transition is made to the unsyn-
chronized PWM mode, using the maximum GTO
0 20 30 40 60 800 100 frequency (300 Hz), which is I 0 times the wanted
fundamental frequency (Hz)
frequency (30 Hz). Thus, for fundamental frequen-
Figure 23.54 cies below 30 Hz. the GTO frequency is held con-
Generating variable fundamental frequencies with stant at 300 Hz, as shown by the bold horizontal
moderate carrier frequencies. line (Fig. 23.54).
 ELECTRONIC CONTROL OF ALTERNATING-CURRENT MOTORS 623

23.55 illustrates the typical waveshapes of We recall that EAB is the difference between the volt-
the line-to-line motor voltage for the four oper- ages E AN and E 8 N that are produced by the two arms
ating modes of the converter displayed in Fig. 23.54. of the 3-phase converter (see Fig. 21.86, Chapter 21 ).

I ' \
+700 v I \
+700 v
, , ii v
/
142
\ \
I I
\ \
I I

'\ I
\ I
£AB \
I
\
r
/
700 v -700 v
(a) fundamental: 100 Hz, 546 V rms, 3000 r/min
(d) fundamental: 11 Hz, 101 V rms, 330 r/min
carrier: 100 Hz, 700 V peak
carrier: 300 Hz, 700 V peak

+700V
/
' /
'
/ ' I \

ii
' '
I

I £AB ' I
' I'- / +700V
' - -700V

(b) fundamental: 47 Hz, 428 V rms, 1410 r/min

carrier: 235 Hz, 700 V peak
(e) line-to-neutral voltages £AN and EBN
fundamental: 11 Hz, 58.3 V rms
,... ,... - +700V
,... ,... - carrier: 300 Hz, 700 V peak
~
'"' de component: 350 V
~
/

-J'.-
;'
' ~
/
'
,, '' ,, ;'

£AB '
~ ~
-7 00 v
(c) fundamental: 35 Hz, 318 V rms, 1050 r/min
carrier: 245 Hz, 700 V peak

Figure 23.55
Waveshapes of line-to-line voltage tor operating modes shown in Fig. 23.54.
a. Constant horsepower mode: 100 Hz, 3000 r/min.
b. Synchronized PWM at 47 Hz; 1)11 5.
c. Synchronized PWM at 35 Hz; m1 7:
d. Unsynchronized PWM at 11 Hz; m1 = 27.27.
e. Line-to-neutral voltages of individual switching arms EAN and
624 ELEC1RJCAL AND ELECTRONIC DRIVES

For speeds above base speed ( 1800 r/min), im- 473 mVs. However, these volt-seconds are pro-
plying frequencies above 60 Hz, the converter op- vided by the.7DO V de supply. Consequently. the
erates in the rectangular wave mode. The step volt- duration of the on.Pulse must be 473 Y·s 700 V
age is applied during 120° intervals and the 0.68 ms. Clearly. the pulse widths are even
effective line-to-line voltage is held constant at 546 shorter when the momentary fundamental voltage
V. Figure 23.55a shows the typical EA 13 waveshape is less than 142 V.
when the frequency is I00 Hz. Note that the peak However. this does not mean that individual
amplitude of the fundamental voltage is slightly GTOs are being switched on, and a fleeting 0.68 ms
greater than the 700 V de supply voltage. later switched off. We must remember that the EAB
Fig. 23.55b shows the £AB waveshape at 47 Hz, pulses are produced by the d(fference between the
corresponding to a synchronous speed of 1410 EAN and EHN on/off switching intervals. In effect
r/min. The carrier frequency is 235 Hz, synchro- when the amplitude of the fundamental ( 11 Hz) out-
nized to be exactly 5 times the fundamental fre- put voltage is low. the £AN on interval is almost
quency. Furthermore, the phase angle of the carrier equal to the (~f.j'interval, namely about 3.33 ms ~· 2
is also synchronized with respect to the fundamen- 1.67 ms. The same is true for Ew"· This switch-
tal. in order to produce the symmetrical pulses ing rate presents no problem for the GTOs. The EAN
shown. The peak value of the fundamental voltage is and £ 13 N switching intervals and waveshapes are
now 428 \/2 = 605 V, which is less than the 700 V shown in Fig. 23.55e. Note that the instantaneous
de supply voltage. output voltage fluctuates between zero and + 700 V
Fig. 23.55c is the wavcshape of £As at 35 Hz. in both cases. However, the m·eraf<e output voltage
The carrier frequency is now 245 Hz, which is ex- contains a de component of 350 Vanda superposed
actly 7 times 35 Hz. Note. in passing, that the volt- peak ac compone~t of 82 V. The latter is related to
seconds under the dotted sine wave during one half- E;\ 13 by 142 V+V3 = 82 V.
cycle are equal to the volt-seconds of the
corresponding seven 700 V pulses. This general
rule holds true for all the waveshapes illustrated in 23.30 Operating mode of the
Fig. 23.55. For example, in Fig. 23.55a the volt-
seconds of the positive pulse are equal to those of
single-phase converter
the positive half of the sine wave. In Chapter 21. Section 21.46 we saw that a switch-
Fig. 23.55d is the multipulse waveshape EAR ob- ing converter can generate a sine wave of any fre-
tained when the fundamental frequency is 11 Hz. It quency. amplitude, and phase angle. This feature
is typical of the waveshape obtained when the con- has a direct application in the power exchange be-
verter is operating in the unsynchronized mode. In tween the ac and de side of the converter (3) in Fig.
this mode. the carrier frequency is fixed at 300 Hz. 23.53. The converter, de link. and transformer are
The individual pulse durations are very short. redrawn in Fig. 23.56. The reactance x is the leak-
Nevertheless, although the figure cannot show it, age reactance of the transformer. including the re-
their width varies in the course of each half-cycle. actance of the catenary line referred to the sec-
In the middle of the cycle, where the peak voltage ondary side of the transformer.
is 142 V, the pulse width is only 0.68 ms. The cal- Let us now look at the voltages in Fig. 23.56.
culation is made as follows: Voltage £ 12 on the secondary side of the trans-
The duration of each pulse is equal to the pe- former is fixed because its frequency and amplitude
riod of the carrier frequency, which is T = 1/300 are directly related to the catenary power line net-
Hz O.(J0333 s 3.33 ms. When the voltage of work. On the other hand, the magnitude and phase
the fundamental is momentarily 142 V, the volt- of E34 is determined by the switching action of the
seconds during 3.33 ms amount to 142 X 3.33 = converter (3). By controlling the magnitude and
 ELECTRONIC CONTROL OF ALTERNATING-CURRENT ,\,fOTORS 625

phase angle of £ 34 , it is possible to control the ac- verter 7 (Fig. 23.53) has now to be fed into the
tive and reactive power flow between the secondary transformer by converter 3. This power reversal is
side of the transformer and the converter. obtained by shifting the phase of voltage so that
Consider, for example, 23.57a wherein the it leads by an angle 82 . At the same time, the
phase angle of is adjusted so it lags behind £ 12 converter adjusts the magnitude of so that the
by an angle 8 1. Furthermore, suppose E34 (rms)' (the resulting current is 180° out of phase with £ 12 (Fig.
rms value of £ 34 ) is adjusted so it is equal to 23.57b). As a result, the power factor is again unity
E 12 (,.111 ,/cos 8 1• Under these conditions the resulting as far as the catenary power line is concerned.
I isf()rced to be in phase with As a result, only The 60 Hz voltage generated by the converter
active power is delivered from the transformer to is pulse-width modulated at a carrier frequency of,
the converter; consequently, the catenary supplies say, 4 kHz. The voltage between terminals 3 and 4
power at unity power factor. The active power P is composed of 700 V impulses that are modulated
that is transferred is given by at 60 Hz. It can be shown that the principal har-
monic frequencies generated at these terminals are
p =
E1,E14 .
- ... sm e, ( 16.8) given by the equation:
x
Next, suppose the vehicle is coasting downhill.
fH 2f~±f

Instead of applying the brakes, the drag is obtained whereinfH is the harmonic frequency,/" is the car-
by having the motor run as an asynchronous gener- rier frequency andfis the wanted frequency. In our
ator. The power furnished to the de link by con- case,fH 2 X 4000 ± 60 8060 Hz and 7040 Hz.
These frequencies are so high that the correspond-
ing ac currents are almost completely filtered out by
5 the reactance x. As a result, the current I (Fig. 23.56)
is nearly a pure sine wave.
@ The 60 Hz sinusoidal current I appears as a rec-
4-quadrant de tified current /d on the de side of the converter.
switching link
Thus, /d consists of chopped rectified sine waves
converter 700 v that contain a strong 120 Hz component. This com-
ponent is short-circuited by the LC series filter (5)
6
that is tuned to 120 Hz. As a result, the de link volt-
age £ 56 contains only a small 120 Hz ripple.
The converter feeding the ac motor does not ex-
Figure 23.56 perience the same problem because in balanced
Power transfer between the transformer and the ac 3-phase systems the instantaneous power is con-
side of a converter. stant, so there is no ripple on this account. The only
ripple is that caused by the switching action of the
converter at carrier frequency.

I
E.14 ...
Figure 23.57a Figure 23.57b
Active power delivered from transformer to converter. Active power delivered from converter to transformer.
Figure 23.58
This tilt-body electric train draws its power from an 11 kV, 25 Hz single-phase catenary. The ac voltage is rectified to
produce a fixed de voltage of 2400 V for the de link. The GTO thyristors in the PWM converters generate a variable
frequency (0-120 Hz) and variable 3-phase voltage (0-1870 V). They drive four 815 kW, 3-phase induction motors.
The fully loaded trainset is 140 m long and has a mass of 343 t. It has reached speeds of 277 km/h (172 mi/h). The
tilt-body feature enables the train to move through curves at higher speeds, thereby saving time while ensuring pas-
senger comfort. Vehicle dynamic tests, carried out in the U.S. Northeast Corridor on this ABB X2000 tilt-body train-
set were sponsored by Amtrak, by SJ (Swedish State Railways), and by ABB, and supported by the Federal
Railroad Administration.
(Courtesy of ABB Traction Inc.)

626
Figure 23.59
This 70 367-ton Superliner MS Fascination contains a power plant composed of six diesel-electric synchronous
generators, four of which are rated at 10 260 kVA and two at 6820 kVA. The 6600 V, 3-phase, 60 Hz, 75% power
factor generators are respectively driven by four 12-cylinder and two 8-cylinder, 512 r/min diesel engines. The num-
ber of diesel engines in service at a given time depends upon the electrical load. Generators that are brought on
line are synchronized automatically.
The propulsion system comprises two 14 MW, 1000 V, 3-phase, 14-pole synchronous motors that are directly
coupled to two propeller shafts driven at speeds ranging from 50 r/min to 140 r/min. The motors each have two
3-phase windings which can be operated independently or in tandem. Each winding has a rating of 7 MVA.
The rotating field is supplied by the excitation unit which provides the excitation current for the Propulsion Motor.
The excitation unit is supplied from the 450 V network through a 450 V/400 V, 400 kVA excitation transformer.
A control unit controls both the excitation current of the Propulsion Motor and the output currents of the cyclo-
converters, i.e., the stator currents of the Propulsion Motor. In addition, the control unit takes care of the speed con-
trol of the motor, overload protection of the supply network, and the synchronization to the propellers.
The 6.6 kV main bus voltage is stepped down to 1500 V by means of transformers. The secondary sides are
connected to the input of four cycloconverters, two of which are used for each propulsion motor. The cycloconvert-
ers each employ 36 thyristors.
This ultramodern Superliner has a length of 260.6 m, a beam of 31.5 m and operates at a service speed of
19.5 knots. The passenger capacity is 2040, complemented by a captain and crew of 920.
(Courtesy of Carnival Cruise Line$)

627
Figure 23.60
The training of technical personnel is an important step toward the creation of new jobs. The inroad of computers
and electronics into every sector of commerce and industry has now expanded into the electric power sector as
well. Thus, electric power technology is rapidly changing to embrace these new devices and concepts.
Top left: This modular educational console employs 200 W machines (de, synchronous, induction) for direct hands-
on training of electronic drives. Physical connections between machines and electronic converters are made, using
protected leads. Measurements are taken using standard instruments. The student observes the physical reality of
torque, inertia, overloads, sudden changes in speed, and so forth.
Top right: In a more advanced program, data acquisition is used to display waveshapes, voltages, currents, active
and reactive power, as well as harmonics. A computer makes the necessary calculations in real time, thus permit-
ting torque-speed characteristics and other drive features to be observed. Printouts of observations save valuable
time for students and instructors alike. By becoming accessible and visible, harmonics lose their mystery and be-
come a source of interest and even fascination.
Lower right: Simulation is becoming a popular way of performing experiments without using any hardware at all.
The special program pictured here permits simulated modules to be taken from "inventory," pulled into the "con-
sole," connected with flexible "wires," and mechanically coupled to "loads." The "modules" are exact replicas of those
shown in the picture at left. The interesting feature of this simulation program is that the static and dynamic proper-
ties of the individual machines (and loads) are stored in the computer. As a result, the steady-state and transient
state behavior of a drive can be observed as if the real machines and converters were present.
(Courtesy of Lab-Volt Ltd.)

628
 ELECTRONIC CONTROL OF ALTERNATING-CURRENT MOTORS 629

23.31 Conclusion 23-2 Why are two converters needed for each
phase winding in Fig. 23.15?
This chapter has covered several types of ac drives.
The converters making up the control part of the 23-3 A standard 3-phase. 16-pole squirrel-cage
drive can be classed into two main groups: line- induction motor is rated at 460 V, 60 Hz.
commutated and self-commutated. Line-commu- We want the motor to run at a no-load
tated converters are particularly suited for thyris- speed of about 225 r/min while maintain-
tors because the current is extinguished naturally ing the same flux in the air gap. Calculate
as the line voltages change. Line-commutated con- the voltage and frequency to be applied to
verters are used in large ac motor drives. the stator.
Drives using self-commutated converters have 23-4 The blower motor shown in Fig. 23.18 has
come to the fore mainly because of two factors: the 4 poles and a full-load rating of 2 hp,
availability of high-power switches such as GTOs 240 V. 3-phase, 60 Hz. It has the torque-
and IGBTs, and the ability of high-speed computers speed characteristic shown in 23.19.
and microprocessors to process signals in real time.
Calculate
In addition, the ability of PWM switching convert-
a. The full-load rated speed Ir/mini
ers to generate complex waveshapes of any fre-
b. The full-load rated tor4ue IN·ml
quency and phase has opened the way to induction
motor drives that perform as well as de drives do. 23-5 A 3-phase, 6-pole induction motor is driv-
Another factor of great importance is that en by a cycloconverter that is fed from a
switching converters, connected to electric utility 60 Hz line. What is the approximate maxi-
feeders, can convert ac power to de power and vice mum speed that can be attained with this
versa while operating sinusoidally at unity power arrangement?
factor. This is made possible by operating the con- 23-6 What is the basic difference between a
verter in the PWM mode and phase-shifting the fun- line-commutated and a self-commutated
damental voltage while filtering out the high- inverter?
frequency components with relatively inexpensive 23-7 A line-commutated inverter can be used to
filters. The fact that power can be drawn from, or drive a 3-phase synchronous motor but
fed back to, the line at high-power factor and low- not a 3-phase induction motor. Explain
harmonic content. augurs well for all induction mo- why.
tor electronic drives.
23-8 In comparing the physical mTangement of
Indeed, the inherent property of PWM switching
the bridge rectifiers in one phase of the
converters to generate or absorb reactive power while
cycloconverter of 23.15, is there any
permitting real power to flow freely from the ac side
difference with the bridge rectifier
to the de side and vice versa has opened new frontiers
arrangement of 23.33?
in all areas where power has to be controlled. Thus.
the PWM switching conve1ter deserves a special 23-9 A large squirrel-cage induction motor has
place, along with transformers and rotating machines, to run at a very low, steady speed. If elec-
in the hierarchy of prominent power apparatus. tronic control is required, what type of
control would be most appropriate?
Intermediate level
Questions and Problems
23-10 The induction motor in Fig. 23.15 has six
Practical level poles and runs at a no-load speed of
23-1 Name three types of drives used to power 160 r/min. The effective voltage across
squirrel-cage induction motors. the windings is 42 V.
630 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC DRIVES

Cairn/ate 23-16 In Fig. 23.33 the value of £ 2 remains

a. The frequency generated by the cyclocon- fixed,.but in Fig. 23.26 it varies linearly
vcrter [HZ] with the frequency generated by converter
b. The smallest possible effective line voltage 2. Can you explain why?
of the 60 HL source [VI
23-17 The blower motor in Fig. 23.18 has a nom-
23-11 When the induction motor in Problem inal rating of 1/4 hp, 1620 r/min, 3-phase,
23-10 operates at full-load (with the frequency 460 V. The respective torque-speed charac-
unchanged) its power factor is 80 percent. teristics of the motor and blower are given
in Fig. 23.19. Calculate the rotor PR losses
Calculate (with the motor coupled to the blower)
a. The time during which converter I acts as a a. When the motor nms at rated voltage
rectifier [ms] b. When the stator voltage is reduced to 230 V
b. The time during which it acts as an inverter c. Is the rotor hotter in (a) or (b)'?
[ms]
23-18 In Problem 23-17 calculate the stator volt-
23-12 The motor and blower shown in Fig. 23.18 age required so that the blower runs at a
have the properties shown in Fig. 23.19. speed of 810 r/min.
The synchronous speed is 1200 r/min, the
23-19 A 30 hp. 208 V, 3-phase, 3500 r/min.
rated torque is 8 N·m, and the rated voltage
60 Hz, wound-rotor induction motor pro-
is 240 V.
duces an open-circuit rotor line voltage of
250 V. We wish to limit the Jocked-rotor
Calculate
torque to a maximum value of 40 N·m so
a. The torque. speed. and horsepower when
as to ensure a small starting current. A
the voltage is 240 V
3-phase bridge rectifier composed of six
b. The torque. speed, and horsepower when
the voltage is 120 V diodes is connected to the three slip-rings.
A single manual rheostat is connected
23-13 Referring to Fig. 23.24a, the de link volt-
across the de output of the rectifier.
age and current are respectively 250 V and
60 A. The 3-phase line voltage is 240 V.
Calculate
60 Hz. The motor has an efficiency of
a. The synchronous speed of the motor
82 percent. b. The power that is dissipated in the rotor cir-
cuit under locked-rotor conditions
Calculate c. The approximate de output volrage
a. The approximate mechanical power devel- d. The approximate resistance of the rheostat
oped by the motor I hp J and its power-handling capacity
b. The firing angle of converter I 23-20 In Problem 23-19 a de chopper is con-
c. The reactive power absorbed by converter I nected between the de output of the recti-
23-14 Why is it easier to achieve regenerative fier and a 0.2 !1 resistor. If the chopper
braking with a current-fed drive than with operates at a fixed frequency of 500 Hz,
a voltage-fed drive? calculate the duration of the on-time Ta
23-15 Referring to Fig. 23.32, calculate the fol- under Jocked-rotor conditions.
lowing:
a. The average current in each diode Advanced level
b. The peak current in each diode 23-21 a. The squirrel-cage induction motor shown in
c. The peak inverse voltage across each diode Fig. 23.15 has a nominal rating of 50 hp.
d. The frequency of rotor current /R 460 V per phase, 60 Hz. 1100 r/min. The
 ELECTRONIC CONTROL OF ALTERNATING-CURRENT MOTORS 631

3-phase line voltage is 208 V, 60 Hz. If we g. The power factor of the 60 Hz line
want the motor to run at a speed of about h. The effective value of/,
200 r/min, while developing full-load i. Show the flow of active and reactive power
torque, calculate the approximate voltage in the converters.
and frequency to be applied to the stator 23-25 The solid-state starter illustrated in Fig.
windings.
23.23b is used with a 5 hp, 460 V, 3-
b. If current(, has an effective value of 60 A,
phase 1760 r/min motor that drives a belt
calculate the approximate value of the peak
current carried by each thyristor. conveyor. The motor has a starting
torque of 2 pu.The kick-start voltage is
23-22 The self-commutated inverter in Fig.
set at 0.8 pu and the initial voltage is set
23.24a furnishes a motor current having
at 0.4 pu.
an effective value of 26 A. What is the a. Calculate the value of the kick-start torque
value of the de link current? and the initial torque.
23-23 A standard 50 hp, 1750 r/min, 3-phase, b. Knowing that the full-load current is 6.2 A,
200 V, 60 Hz squirrel-cage induction mo- calculate the approximate thermal power
tor is driven by a current-fed self-commu- dissipated in the starter.
tated inverter shown in Fig. 23.24a. 23-26 a. Referring to Fig. 23.37 calculate the net
Calculate the voltage and frequency to be tangential force exerted on the rotor bars,
applied to the stator so that the motor de- per pole.
velops its rated torque at 400 r/min. b. If the rotor bar currents were in phase with
the rotor bar voltages, what would be the
Assume that the flux in the machine is
net tangential force exerted on the rotor
constant.
bars, per pole? The peak current is assumed
to remain at 240 A and the length of the ro-
Industrial application
tor bars is 10 cm.
23-24 A 50 hp de motor is required to drive a
23-27 The motor shown in Fig. 23.37 has 8 poles
centrifuge at a speed ranging between
and it is connected to a 60 Hz source. The
18 000 and 30 000 r/min. Owing to com-
rotor has a diameter of 140 mm and the ro-
mutation problems associated with a stan-
tor frequency is 40 Hz. Calculate
dard commutator at these speeds, it is de-
a. The speed of the rotor [r/min]
cided to use a commutatorless de motor
b. The torque developed by the rotor [N·m]
driven by two converters with a de link
(Fig. 23.8). A 2-pole motor is selected 23-28 In the equivalent circuit of Fig. 23.44a,
having a nominal rating of 50 hp, 30 000 calculate the line-to-line stator voltage
r/min, 460 V, 60 A, 90 percent power fac- that is needed in order that the motor will
tor leading. When the motor delivers its develop its rated torque of I 0.1 N·m.
rated output, the delay angle for converter 23-29 The full-load efficiency of the 14 MW
2 is 155°. If the available 60 Hz line volt- propulsion motor described in Fig. 23.59
age is 575 V, calculate the following: is 97.3% when it operates at unity power
a. The triggering frequency applied to the factor.
gates of converter 2 a. Taking into account the losses of the de
b. The de link voltage field, which amount to 84 kW, calculate the
c. The delay angle of converter 1 nominal stator current at full-load.
d. The de link current if the motor draws an b. Calculate the nominal stator current per
input power of 41.5 kW winding.
e. The fundamental ripple frequency in E 1
c. Calculate the peak current carried by the
f. The fundamental ripple frequency in E2 thyristors.
632 ELECTRICALAND ELECTRONIC DRIVES

23-30 In reference to Fig. 23.59. calculate the phase with £ 12 • Neglecting the losses in
following: the C(~11verter. calculate the following:
a. The frequency range of the cycloconverters a. The magpitude of IJ
b. The rated active and reactive power sup- b. The magnitude and phase of I
plied by each of the 10 260 MVA diesel- c. The magnitude and phase of
electric generators d. The amplitude modulation ratio
c. The 75% power factor that the diesel-elec-
23-33 A single-phase. 60 Hz converter such as
tric generators can supply is much lower
shown in Fig. 23.56, operates at a syn-
than the 9WYr lagging power factor rating of
chronous carrier frequency of 300 Hz. The
most alternators. Can you give a plausible
reason for this low power factor rating? de link voltage is 680 V and the effective
d. The lime required to cover a distance of 500 value of the 60 Hz fundamental voltage
miles when this Superliner runs at its rated £ 34 is 430 V. Calculate the duty cycle D
service speed. and the on/off time when the ac voltage is
23-31 In Fig. 23.56 it is given that £ 12 = momentarily:
420L37°; I 330L42°; x = 0.2 Q. a. +500 Y;
Determine the following: b. -30 Y.
a. The magnitude and phase 23-34 The equivalent circuit of a 2-pole, 5 hp.
b. The active and reactive power delivered to. 480 V, 3-phase, 60 Hz motor is shown in
or received by. the converter Fig. 23.42a. Determine the equivalent cir-
23-32 Referring to the electric vehicle drive of cuit per phase when the motor runs at
Fig. 23.56, the 4-quadrant single-phase 600 r/min while operating at a frequency
converter produces a de voltage of 805 V of 12 Hz and a line-to-line voltage of
between terminals 5 and 6. The magnitude 92 V. Calculate the following:
and phase angle of the ac voltage between a. The value of the power resistance
terminals 3 and 4 can be adjusted by con- b. The stator current
tinually varying the duty cycle. The car- c. The magnetizing component of the stator
rier frequency of( is 800 Hz and the fun- current
d. The torque-producing component of the sta-
damental frequency is equal to that of the
tor current
60 Hz power line. The reactance x has a
e. The total torque
60 Hz impedance of 0.8 Q, and the volt-
age on the secondary side of the trans- 23-35 Referring to Fig. 23.44a, but assuming a
former is £ 12 400L62°. The magnitude greater load, calculate the line current,
and phase of Eq are adjusted so that the magnetizing current, and torque if the mo-
converter supplies 161 kW to the de link, tor turns at 90 r/min instead of 270 r/min.
while ensuring that the current I is in
 PART FOUR
Electric Utility Power Systems
 CHAPTER 24
Generation of Electrical Energy

24.0 Introduction shows how the system demand (power) varies dur-
ing a typical day in the summer and a typical day in

N ow that we are familiar with the principal ma-

chines, transformers, and other power devices,
we are in a position to see how they are used in a
the winter. The pattern of the daily demand is re-
markably similar for the two seasons. During the
winter the peak demand of 15 GW 15 000 MW)
large electrical system. Such a system comprises all
the apparatus used in the generation, transmission,
and distribution of electric energy, starting from the
generating station and ending up in the most remote
summer home in the country. This chapter and the
next three chapters are, therefore, devoted to the
following major topics:
"O

• the generation of electrical energy Iii 9 1---1---i.....<--l---l--__;;;;f---"--!

E
Q>
"O
• the transmission of electrical energy
• the distribution of electrical energy
f 6

• the cost of electricity

24.1 Demand of an electrical 4 8 12 16 20 24 h

system -time

The total power drawn by the ·customers of a large Figure 24.1

utility system fluctuates between wide limits, de- Demand curve of a larger system during a summer
pending on the seasons and time of day. Fig. 24.1 day and a winter day.

635
636 ELECTRIC UTILITY POWER SYSTEMS

is higher than the summer peak of IO GW. These power blocks give rise to three types of
Nevertheless. both peaks occur about 17:00 (5 P.M.) generating stq_tions:
because increased domestic activity at this time co-
a. Base-power sta"t:ions that deliver full power at
incides with industrial and commercial centers that
all times: Nuclear stations and coal-fired sta-
are still operating at full capacity.
tions are particularly well adapted to furnish
The load curve of Fig. 24.2 shows the seasonal
base demand.
variations for the same system. Note that the peak de-
b. Intermediate-power stations that can respond
mand during the winter ( 15 GW) is more than twice
relatively quickly to changes in demand, usu-
the minimum demand during the summer (6 GW).
ally by adding or removing one or more gener-
In examining the curve, we note that the demand
ating units: Hydropower stations are well
throughout the year never falls below 6 GW. This is
adapted for this purpose.
the base load of the system. We also see that the an-
c. Peak-generating stations that deliver power
nual peak load is 15 GW. The base load has to be fed
for brief intervals during the day: Such stations
I00 percent of the time, but the peak load may occur
must be put into service very quickly.
for only 0.1 percent of the time. Between these two
Consequently, they are equipped with prime
extremes, we have intermediate loads that have to
movers such as diesel engines, gas turbines.
be fed for less than 100 percent of the ti me.
compressed-air motors, or pumped-storage tur-
Jf we plot the duration of each demand on an an-
bines that can be started up in a few minutes. Jn
nual base, we obtain the load duration curve of Fig.
this regard, it is worth mentionirn! that thermal
24.3. For example, the curve shows that a demand of
generating stations using gas or coal take from
9 GW lasts 70 percent of the time, while a demand
4 to 8 hours to start up, while nuclear stations
of 12 GW lasts for only 15 percent of the time. The
may take several days. Obviously, such gener-
graph is divided into base, intermediate, and peak-
ating stations cannot be used to supply short-
load sections. The peak-load portion usually in-
term peak power.
cludes demands that last for less than 15 percent of
the time. On this basis the system has to deliver Returning to Fig. 24.3. it so happens that the ar-
6 GW of base power, another 6 GW of intermediate eas of the dotted and cross-hatched parts are pro-
power, and 3 GW of peak power. portional to the relative amount of energy (kW·h)

GW
15

"O
c:
"'E
12

n
_// ,,,,,&\----,_ _ _JV\
v /\\,/
~ 9
1-1 day.......j

r6 J
l-1 day-I
3 l4----summer---_..,f4...-----winter-----"'1---- spring----

Figure 24.2
Demand curve of a large electric utility system during one year.
 GENERATION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY 637

GW
15~----·--·------·--------------·--·------·--------·-------·----.-·--·--

base
3 load
(6 GWI

0
___________!____ _
20 40 60 80 100 %
---- time in percent (100% = 8760 h)

Figure 24.3
Load duration curve of a large electric utility system.

associated with the base, intermediate, and peak ergy. Fig. 24.4 also shows some of the obstacles
loads. Thus, the base-power stations supply 58 per- that prevent transmission lines from following the
cent of the total annual energy requirements, while shortest route. Due to these obstacles, both physi-
the peak-load stations contribute only 1.3 percent. cal and legal, transmission lines often follow a
The peak-load stations are in service for an average path between the generating station and the
of only 1 hour per day. Consequently, peak power is ultimate user.
very expensive because the stations that produce it
are idle most of the time. 24.3 Types of generating stations
24.2 Location of the generating There are three main types of generating stations:
station 1. Thermal generating stations
In planning an electric utility system, the physical 2. Hydropower generating stations
location of the generating station, transmission
3. Nuclear generating stations
lines, and substations must be carefully planned to
arrive at an acceptable, economic solution. We can Thermal generating stations produce most of the
sometimes locate a generating station next to the electrical energy in the United States. Nevertheless,
primary source of energy (such as a coal mine) and imponant hydropower stations and nuclear generat-
use transmission lines to carry the electrical en- ing stations produce about 20 percent of the total re-
ergy to where it is needed. When this is neither quirements.
practical or economical, we have to transport the Some of the largest hydropower stations are lo-
primary energy (coal, gas, oilL by ship, train. or cated in Quebec and British Columbia, in Canada.
pipeline to the generating statkm (f.ig. 24.4 ). The Although we can harness the wind, tides, and so-
generating station may, therefore, be near to, or far lar energy, these energy sources represent a tiny part
away from, the ultimate user of the electrical en- of the total energy we need.
638 ELECTRIC UTILITY POWER SYSTEMS

..........

oil R Ha
R A/ask=a==::t::t:=p=i=pe=l=in:e::W:=== mountains ··············...
Ha R R

oi~~
natural
gas Middle East liquid
natural gas

natural Oil
gas i5l
Texas
===:fiSit::::====:t:At::===
pipeline
~
_/)
~/
........ ········
········ . .-
water~~~~~~
fall /;,Niagara Falls
{/'//////////////

run of
the river

. m:;.· desert

~~
Elliot Lake
uranium ;.,..·~ r==u==J J
~ ~:-:..~: ~~,....._,.....,........
refinery

Figure 24.4
Extracting, hauling, and transforming the primary sources of energy is done in different ways. The dotted transmis-
sion lines connecting the generating stations G with the consumers must go around various obstacles. thermal
station; GH: hydro station; GN: nuclear station.

24.4 Controlling the power balance bine and the increased power is immediately trans-
mitted to the generator.
between generator and load
On the other hand, the electric power P1• drawn
The electrical energy consumed by the thousands of from the generator depends exclusively on the load.
customers must immediately be supplied by the ac When the mechanical power supplied to the ro-
generators because electrical energy cannot be tor is equal to the electrical power Pi. consumed by
stored. How do we maintain this almost instanta- the load. the generator is in dynamic equilibrium
neous balance between customer requirements and and its speed remains constant. The electrical sys-
generated power? To answer the question. let us tem is said to be stable.
consider a single hydropower station supplying a However, we have just seen that the system de-
regional load R 1 Water behind the dam mand fluctuates continually, so P1. is sometimes
flows through the turbine. causing the turbine and greater and sometimes less than PT. If P1. is greater
generator to rotate. than PT, the generating unit (turbine and generator)
The mechanical power PT developed by the tur- begins to slow down. Conversely, if Pr. is less than
bine depends exclusively on the opening of the PT, the generating unit speeds up.
wicket gates that control the water flow. The greater The speed variation of the generator is, therefore,
the opening, the more water is admitted to the tur- an excellent indicator of the state of equilibrium be-
 GENERATION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY 639

nuclear
burner reactor

steam boiler steam boiler

p' hydraulic
turbine p' steam
turbine
p' steam
turbine

p'
synchronous synchronous synchronous

p' generator generator

p' generator

Figure 24.5
Power supplied to three independent regions.

tween PL and PT and, hence, of the stability of the sys- The governors of thermal and nuclear stations op-
tem. If the speed falls the wicket gates must open, and erate the same way, except that they regulate the
if it rises they must close so as to maintain a continu- steam valves, allowing more or less steam to flow
ous state of equilibrium between PT and PL. Although through the turbines (Fig. 24.5 ). The resulting
we could adjust the gates manually by observing the change in steam flow has to be accompanied by a
speed, an automatic speed regulator is always used. change in the rate of combustion. Thus. in the case of
Speed regulators, or governors, are extremely a coal-burning boiler, we have to reduce combustion
sensitive devices. They can detect speed changes as as soon as the valves are closed off. otherwise the
small as 0.02 percent. Thus, if the speed of a gener- boiler pressure will quickly exceed the safety limits.
ator increases from 1800 r/min to 1800.36 r/min. the
governor begins to act on the wicket gate mecha- 24.5 Advantage of interconnected
nism. If the load should suddenly increase, the speed
systems
will drop momentarily, but the governor will quickly
bring it back to rated speed. The same corrective ac- Consider the three generating stations of Fig. 24.5.
tion takes place when the load is suddenly removed. connected to their respective regional loads R" R2 ,
Clearly, any speed change produces a corre- and R3 • Because the three systems are not connected,
sponding change in the system"'freql:!ency. The fre- each can operate at its own frequency. and a distur-
quency is therefore an excellent indicator of the sta- bance on one does not affect the others. However, it
bility of a system. The svstem is stable so long as is preferable to interconnect the systems because ( I)
the frequency is constant. it improves the overall stability, (2) it provides better
640 ELECTRIC UTILITY POWER SYSTEMS

------07-~, ------C\~fr'"''-- breakers

tie lines

-----D-i--~ d8
------0------
d IO

Figure 24.6
Three networks connected by four tie-lines.

continuity of service. and (3) it is more economical. for annual inspection and repair, the customers it
Fig. 24.6 shows four interconnecting transmission serves can temporarily be supplied by the two
lines, tying together both the generating stations and remaining stations. Energy flowing over the tie-
the regions being serviced. High-speed circuit break- lines is automatically metered and credited to
ers d to dw are installed to automatically interrupt
1
the station that supplies it, less any wheeling
power in case of a fault and to reroute the tlow of charges. A wheeling charge is the amount paid to
electric power.* We now discuss the advantages of another electric utility when its transmission
such a network. lines are used to deliver power to a third party.
/. Stability. Systems that are interconnected have 3. Economy. When several regions are intercon-
greater reserve power than a system working nected, the load can be shared among the various
alone. In effect, a large system is better able to generating stations so that the overall operating
withstand a large disturbance and, consequently, cost is minimized. For example, instead of oper-
it is inherently more stable. For example. if the ating all three stations at reduced capacity dur-
load suddenly increases in region R 1, energy im- ing the night when demand is low, we can shut
mediately flows from stations and G 3 and down one station completely and let the others
over the interconnecting tie-lines. The heavy carry the load. In this way we greatly reduce the
load is, therefore. shared by all three stations in- operating cost of one station while improving
stead of being carried by one alone. the efficiency of the other stations, because they
2. Continuity of Service. If a generating station now run closer to their rated capacity.
should break down. or if it has to be shut down Electric utility companies are, therefore, inter-
ested in grouping their resources by a grid of inter-
connecting transmission lines. A central dispatching
The IEEE Std I 00-199~ states that a fault is a physkal con-
dition that causes a device. ti component. or an element to
office (control center) distributes the load among the
fail to perform in a required manner. for example. a short- various companies and generating stations so as to
ein:uit. a hrnkcn wire. or an intermittent connection. minimize the costs (Fig. 24.7). Due to the complex-
 GENERATION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY 641

Figure 24.7
Technicians in the control rooms of two generating stations communicate with each other. or with a central dis-
patching office, while supervising the operation of their respective generating units.

ity of some systems. control decisions are invariably other regions. The sudden loss of an important load
made with the aid of a computer. The dispatching of- or a permanent short-circuit on a transmission line
fice also has to predict daily and seasonal load constitutes a major contingency.
changes and to direct the start-up and shut-down of If a big load is suddenly lost, all the turbines begin
generating units so as to maintain good stability of to speed up and the frequency increases everywhere
the immense and complicated network. on the system. On the other hand, if a generator is dis-
For example, the New England Power Exchange connected, the speed of the remaining generators de-
(NEPEX) coordinates the resources of 13 electrical creases because they suddenly have to carry the entire
utility companies serving Connecticut, Rhode load. The frequency starts to decrease-sometimes at
Island, Maine, and New Hampshire. It also super- the rate of 5 Hz per second. Under these conditions,
vises power flow between this huge network and no time must be lost and, if conventional methods are
the state of New York and Canada. unable to bring the frequency back to normal, one or
Although such interconnected systems must more loads must be dropped. Such load shedding is
necessarily operate at the same frequency, the load done by frequency-sensitive relays that open selected
can still be allocated among the individual generat- circuit breakers as the frequency falls. For example.
ing units, according to a specific program. Thus, if on a 60 Hz system the relays may be set to shed 15
a generating unit has to deliver more power, its gov- percent of the system load when the frequency
ernor setting is changed slightly so that more power reaches 59.3 Hz, another 15 percent when it reaches
is delivered to the generator. The increased electri- 58.9 Hz, and a final 30 percent when the frequency is
cal output from this unit produces a corresponding 58 Hz. Load shedding must be done in less than one
decrease in the total power supplied by all the other second to save the loads judged to be of prime impor-
generating units of the interconnected system. tance. As far as the disconnected customers are con-
cerned, such an outage creates serious problems.
Elevators stop between floors, arc furnaces start to
24.6 Conditions during an outage cool down, paper tears as it moves through a paper
..
A major disturbance on a system .(~ailed contin- mill, traffic lights stop functioning. and so forth.
gency) creates a state of emergency and immediate Clearly, it is in everyone's interest to provide uninter-
steps must be taken to prevent it from spreading to rupted service.
642 ELECTRIC UTILITY POWER SYSTEMS

Experience over many years has shown that pends, therefore, on these two factors. The available
most system short-circuits are very brief. They may hydro power c;qn be calculated by the equation
be caused by lightning, by polluted insulators. by .. p 9.8 qh (24.1)
falling trees, or by overvoltages created when cir-
cuit breakers open and close. Such disturbances where
usually produce a short-circuit between two phases P available water power [kW]
or between one phase and ground. Three-phase
q = water rate of flow [m 3 /s]
short-circuits are very rare.
h = head of water [m]
Because line short-circuits are, in general. very
9.8 coefficient to take care of units
brief, a major outage can usually be prevented by
simply opening a short-circuited line and reclosing Owing to friction losses in the water conduits,
it very quickly. Naturally, such fast switching of cir- turbine casing, and the turbine itself, the mechani-
cuit breakers is done automatically because it all cal power output of the turbine is somewhat less
happens in a matter of a few cycles. than that calculated by Eq. 24.1. However, the effi-
ciency of large hydraulic turbines is between 90 and
94 percent. The generator efficiency is even higher,
24. 7 Frequency and electric clocks ranging from 97 to 99 percent, depending on the
The frequency of a system fluctuates as the load size of the generator.
varies, but the turbine governors always bring it
back to 60 Hz. Owing to these fluctuations, the Example 24-1
system gains or loses a few cycles throughout the A large hydropower station has a head of 324 m and
day. When the accumulated loss or gain is about an average flow of 1370 m 3 /s. The reservoir of wa-
180 cycles, the error is corrected by making all the ter behind the dams and dikes is composed of a se-
generators turn either faster or slower for a brief ries of lakes covering an area of 6400 km 2 •
period. The frequency correction is affected ac- Calculate
cording to instructions from the dispatching cen- a. The available hydraulic power
ter. In this way a 60 Hz network generates exactly b. The number of days this power could be sus-
5 184 000 cycles in a 24-hour period. Electric clocks tained if the level of the impounded water were
connected to the network indicate the correct time allowed to drop by I m (assume no precipita-
to within 3 seconds, because the position of the tion or evaporation and neglect water brought
second hand is directly related to the number of in by surrounding rivers and streams)
elapsed cycles.
Solution
a. The available hydropower is
HYDROPOWER GENERATING
STATIONS p 9.8 qh
Hydropower generating stations convert the en- = 9.8 x 1370 x 324
ergy of moving water into electrical energy by = 4 350 000 kW= 4350 MW
means of a hydraulic turbine coupled to a synchro-
b. A drop of l m in the water level corresponds to
nous generator.
6400 X I0 6 m3 of water. Because the flow is
1370 m 3 /s, the time for all this water to flow
24.8 Available hydro power through the turbines is

The power that can be extracted from a waterfall t = 6400 x 106 /1370
depends upon its height and rate of flow. The size 4.67 x 106 s
and physical location of a hydropower station de- 1298 h 54 days
 GENERATION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY 643

As a matter of interest, a flow of 1370 1n-'/s is about other mountainous regions. The amount of im-
10 times the amount of water used by the city of pounded water is usually small.
New York and its suburbs. Medium-head de1'elop111ents have heads be-
tween 30 m and 300 m. and medium-speed Francis
24.9 Types of hydropower stations turbines are used. The generating station is fed by a
huge reservoir of water retained by dikes and a dam.
Hydropower stations are divided into three groups
The dam is usually built across a river bed in a rel-
depending on the head of water:
atively mountainous region. A great deal of water is
1. High-head development impounded behind the dam (Fig. 24.8).
2. Medium-head development Low-head derelop111e11ts have heads under 30 m.
and low-speed Kaplan or Francis turbines are used.
3. Low-head development
These generating stations often extract the energy
High-l1ead developments have heads in excess of from flowing rivers. The turbines are designed to
300 m, and high-speed Pelton turbines are used. handle large volumes of water at low pressure. No
Such generating stations are found in the Alps and reservoir is provided (Fig. 24.9).

Figure 24.8
Grand Coulee Dam on the Columbia River in the state of Washington is 108 m high and 1270 m wide. It is the
largest hydropower plant in the world, having 18 generating units of 125 MW each and 12 generating units of
600 MW each, for a total of 9450 MW of installed capacity. The spillway can be seen in the middle of the dam.
(Courtesy of General Electric)
644 ELECTRIC UTILITY POWER SYSTEMS

the basic features and components of a hydropower

plant (see Fig, ~4.10).
1. Dams. Dams made of earth or concrete are built
across river beds to create storage reservoirs.
Reservoirs can compensate for the reduced pre-
cipitation during dry seasons and for the abnor-
mal flows that accompany heavy rains and melt-
ing snow. Dams permit us to regulate the water
flow throughout the year, so that the powerhouse
may nm at close to full capacity.
Spillways adjacent to the dam are provided to dis-
charge water whenever the reservoir level is too high.
Figure 24.9 We have seen that the demand for electricity varies
The Beauharnois generating station on the St.
considerably throughout the day, and from season to
Lawrence River contains 26 3-phase alternators rated
50 MVA, 13.2 kV, 75 r/min, 60 Hz at a power factor of
season. Consequently, the available water cannot al-
0.8 lagging. An additional 10 units rated 65 MVA, 95.7 ways be used to supply energy to the system. If the
r/min make up the complete installation. The output water reservoir is small or almost nonexistent (such
ranges between 1000 MW and 1575 MW depending as in run-of-river stations), we unfortunately have to
upon the seasonal water flow. let the water through the spillway without using it.
(Courtesy of Hydro-Quebec) Dams often serve a dual purpose, providing irri-
gation and navigation facilities, in addition to their
24.10 Makeup of a hydropower plant power-generating role. The integrated system of the
A hydropower installation consists of dams, water- Tennessee Valley Authority is a good example.
ways, and conduits that form a reservoir and chan- 2. Conduits, Penstocks, and Scroll-Case. In large
nel the water toward the turbines. These, and other installations. conduits lead the water from the
items described, enable us to understand some of dam site to the generating plant. They may be

CJ

Figure 24.1 O
Cross-section view of a medium-head hydropower plant.
 GENERA.110N OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY 645

open canals or tunnels carved through rock. The 3. Draft Tube and Tailrace. Water that has passed
conduits feed one or more penstocks (huge steel through the runner moves next through a carefully
pipes), which bring the water to the individual designed vertical channel. called draft tube. The
turbines. Enormous valves, sometimes several draft tube improves the hydraulic efficiency of the
meters in diameter, enable the water supply to be turbine. It leads out to the tailrace, which channels
shut off in the conduits. the water into the downstream river bed.
The penstocks channel the water into a scroll-case 4. Powerhouse. The powerhouse contains the syn-
that sun-ounds the runner (turbine) so that water is chronous generators, transformers, circuit
evenly distributed around its circumference. Guide breakers, etc., and associated control apparatus.
vanes and wicket gates control the water so that it Instruments, relays, and meters are contained in
tlows smoothly into the runner blades (see Figs. a central room where the entire station can be
24.11, 24.12, and 24.13). The wicket gates open and monitored and controlled. Finally. many other
close in response to a powerful hydraulic mechanism devices (too numerous to mention here) make up
that is controlled by the respective turbine governors. the complete hydropower station.

Figure 24.11
Spiral case feeds water around the circumference of a
483 MW turbine.
(Courtesy of Marine lndustrie)

Figure 24.13
Runner of a Francis-type turbine being lowered into
position at the Grand Coulee Dam. The turbine is
rated at 620 MW, 72 r/min and operates on a nominal
head of 87 m. Other details: runner diameter: 10 m;
runner mass: 500 t; maximum head: 108 m; minimum
Figure 24.12 head: 67 m; turbine efficiency: 93 percent; number of
Inside the spiral case, a set of adjustable wicket gates wicket gates: 32; mass per wicket gate: 6.3 t; turbine
control the amount of water flowing into the turbine. shaft length: 6. 7 m; mass of shaft: 175 t.
(Courtesy of Marine lndustrie) (Courtesy of Les Ateliers d'lngenierie. Dominion)
646 ELEC7RIC UTILITY POWER SYSTEMS

24.11 Pumped-storage installations (shown by a plus), the peaking station returns the
energy it had.previously stored.
We have already seen that peak-power stations are This second solutirin has two advantages:
needed to meet the variable system demand. To un-
I. The base-power station is larger and, conse-
derstand the different types of peaking systems used,
quently. more efficient.
consider a network (electric system) in which the
daily demand varies between I00 MW and 160 MW, 2. The peak-power station is much smaller and.
as shown in Fig. 24.14. One obvious solution to this therefore. less costly.
variable demand is to install a I00 MW base-power Large blocks of energy can only be stored me-
station and a peak-power unit of 60 MW. driven in- chanically. and that is why we often resort to a hy-
termittently by a gas turbine. draulic pumped-storage station. Such a peak-power
However. another solution is to install a larger generating station consists of an upper and a lower
base-power unit of 130 MW and a smaller peaking reservoir of water connected by a penstock and an
station of 30 MW. The peaking station must be able associated generating/pumping unit. During system
to both deliver and absorb 30 MW of electric power. peaks the station acts like an ordinary hydropower
During lightly loaded periods (indicated by a minus generating station, delivering electrical energy as
sign in Fig. 24.15 J, the peaking station receives and water flows from the upper to the lower reservoir.
stores energy provided by the base-power generat- However, during light load periods the process is
ing plant. Then. during periods of heavy demand reversed. The generator then operates as a synchro-
nous motor, driving the turbine as an enormous
pump. Water now flows from the lower to the upper
reservoir. thereby storing energy in preparation for
the next system peak (Fig. 24.16).
power The generating/pumping cycle is repeated
60MW
p once or twice per day, depending on the nature of
r 100 the system load. Peak-power generators have rat-
base power ings between 50 MW and 500 MW. They are re-
station 100 MW
versible because the direction of rotation has to be
o-----------'"----------------------~
-time changed when the turbine operates as a pump.
Starting such big synchronous motors puts a
Figure 24.14 heavy load on the transmission line. and special
A 100 MW base power station and a 60 MW peak methods must be used to bring them up to speed.
power station can supply the network demand. Pony motors are often used, but static electronic
frequency converters are also gaining ground. (A
pony motor is a machine that brings a much larger
machine up to speed.)
pumped storage Pumped-storage installations operating in con-
unit 30 MW junction with nuclear plants make a very attractive
130
p combination because nuclear plants give best effi-
r 100 ' station
base power ciency when operating at constant load.
130MW

THERMAL GENERATING STATIONS

o.1-----------------------------..1----~
-time
The hydraulic resources of most modern countries
Fignre 24.15 are already fully developed. Consequently. we have
A 130 MW base power station and a 30 MW pumped to rely on thermal and nuclear stations to supply the
storage unit can also supply the network demand. growing need for electrical energy.
 GENERATION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY 647

Figure 24.16
This pumped storage station in Tennessee pumps water from Lake Nickajack to the top of Raccoon Mountain, where
it is stored in a 2 km 2 (=500 acres) reservoir, giving a 316 m head. The four alternator/pump units can each deliver
425 MVA during the system peaks. The units can be changed over from generators to pumps in a few minutes.
(Courtesy of Tennessee Valley Authority)

Thermal generating stations produce electricity tient T1_/T 1 should be as small as possible. However,
from the heat released by the combustion of coal, temperature T2 cannot be lower than the ambient
oil, or natural gas. Most stations have ratings be- temperature, which is usually about 20°C. As a re-
tween 200 MW and 1500 MW so as to attain the sult, T2 cannot be less than
high efficiency and economy of a large installation.
Such a station has to be seen to appreciate its enor-
20° + 273° 293 K
mous complexity and size. This means that to obtain high efficiency, T 1
Thermal stations are usually located near a river should be as high as possible. The problem is that
or lake because large quantities of cooling water are we cannot use temperatures above those that steel
needed to condense the steam as it exhausts from and other metals can safely withstand, bearing in
the turbines. mind the corresponding high steam pressures. It
The efficiency of thermal generating stations is turns out that the highest feasible temperature T 1 is
always low because of the inherent low efficiency about 550°C. As a result
of the turbines. The maximum efficiency of any ma-
chine that converts heat energy into mechanical en-
T.~ 550° + 273° 823 K
ergy is given by the equation It follows that the maximum possible efficiency
of a turbine driven by steam that enters at 823 Kand
(24.2)
exists at 293 K is
where
11 (l 293/823) 100 64.40t
11 efficiency of the machine[%]
T1 temperature of the gas entering the turbine l K] Due to other losses, some of the most efficient
steam turbines have efficiencies of 45%. This
T2 = temperature of the gas leaving the turbine I Kl
means that 65% of the thermal energy is lost during
In most thermal generating stations the gas is the thermal-to-mechanical conversion process. The
steam. In order to obtain a high efficiency, the quo- enormous loss of heat and how to dispose of it
648 ELECTRIC UTILITY POWER SYSTEMS

represents one of the major aspects of a thermal pressure turbine HP after having passed through
generating station. superheater ·~. The superheater, composed of a
series of tubes sutrrounding the flames, raises the
24.12 Makeup of a thermal steam temperature by about 200°C. This increase
generating station in temperature ensures that the steam is absolutely
dry and raises the overall efficiency of the station.
The basic structure and principal components of a
• A high-pressure (HP) turbine (3) converts ther-
thermal generating station are shown in Fig. 24.17.
mal energy into mechanical energy by letting the
They are itemized and described below.
steam expand as it moves through the turbine
• A huge boiler (I) acts as a furnace, transferring blades. The temperature and pressure at the out-
heat from the burning fuel to row upon row of put of the turbine are, therefore, less than at the
water tubes S 1, which entirely surround the input. Jn order to raise the thermal efficiency
flames. Water is kept circulating through the and to prevent premature condensation. the
tubes by a pump P 1• steam passes through a reheater S,, composed of
• A drum (2) containing water and steam under high a third set of heated tubes.
pressure produces the steam required by the tur- • The medium-pressure (MP) turbine (4) is similar
bines. Jt also receives the water delivered by to the high-pressure turbine, except that it is big-
boiler-feed pump P,. Steam races toward the high- ger so that the steam may expand still more.

water

Figure 24.17
Principal components of a thermal power plant.
 GENERATION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY 649

• The low-pressure (LP) turbine (5) is composed of

two identical left-hand and right-hand sections.
The turbine sections remove the remaining avail-
able energy from the steam (Fig. 24.18 ). The
steam flowing out of LP expands into an almost
perfect vacuum created by the condenser (6).
• Condenser (6) causes the steam to condense by let-
ting it flow over cooling pipes 5 4 . Cold water from
an outside source. such as a river or lake, flows
through the pipes. thus carrying away the heat. It is
the condensing steam that creates the vacuum.

A condensate pump P2 removes the lukewarm

condensed steam and drives it through a reheater
(7) toward a feedwater pump (8). Figure 24.18
Low-pressure section of a 375 MW, 3600 r/min steam-
• The reheater (7) is a heat exchanger. It re- turbine generator set, showing the radial blades.
ceives hot steam, bled off from high-pressure (Courtesy of General Electric)
turbine HP. to raise the temperature of the
feedwater. Thermodynamic studies show that
the overall thermal efficiency is improved
when some steam is bled off this way, rather
than letting it follow its normal course through
all three turbines.
• The burners (9) supply and control the amount
of gas. oil, or coal injected into the boiler. Coal
is pulverized before it is injected. Similarly,
heavy bunker oil is preheated and injected as an
atomized jet to improve surface contact (and
combustion) with the surrounding air.
• A forced-draft fan ( 10) furnishes the enormous
quantities of air needed for combustion (Fig.
24.19).
• An induced-draft fan ( 11) carries the gases and
other products of combustion toward cleansing
apparatus and from there to the stack and the
outside air.
• Generator G, directly coupled to all three tur-
bines, converts the mechanical energy into elec- Figure 24.19
trical energy. This forced-draft fan provides 455 m3 /s of air at a pres-
sure difference of 5.8 kPa tor a thermal power station. It
In practice. a steam station has hm1dreds of other is driven by a 3-phase induction motor rated 12 000 hp
components and accessories to ensure high effi- (8955 kW), 60 Hz, 890 r/min.
ciency. safety, and economy. For example, control (Courtesy of Novenco Inc.)
650 ELECTRIC UTILITY POWER SYSTEMS

valves regulate the amount of steam flowing to the

turbines; complex water purifiers maintain the re-
quired cleanliness and chemical composition of the
feedwater; oil pumps keep the bearings properly
lubricated. However, the basic components we
have just described enable us to understand the op-
eration and some of the basic problems of a ther-
mal station.

24.13 Turbines
The low-, medium-, and high-pressure turbines
possess a series of blades mounted on the drive
shaft (Fig. 24.18). The steam is deflected by the
blades, producing a powerful torque. The blades are
Figure 24.20
made of special steel to withstand the high temper- Condenser rated at 220 MW. Note the large pipes
ature and intense centrifugal forces. feeding cooling water into and out of the condenser.
The HP, MP, and LP turbines are coupled to- The condenser is as important as the boiler in thermal
gether to drive a common generator. However, in and nuclear power stations.
some large installations the HP turbine drives one (Courtesy of Foster-Wheeler Energy Corporation)
generator while the MP and LP turbines drive an-
other one having the same rating. a large surface to the surrounding air. A lake evapo-
rates continually, even at low temperatures, and it is
24.14 Condenser known that for every kilogram of water that evapo-
We have seen that about one-half the energy pro- rates, the lake loses 2.4 MJ of heat. Consequently,
duced in the boiler has to be removed from the evaporation causes the lake to cool down.
steam when it exhausts into the condenser. Consider now a tub containing I 00 kg of water
Consequently, enormous quantities of cooling wa- at a certain temperature. If we can somehow cause
ter are needed to carry away the heat. The tempera- I kg of water to evaporate, the temperature of the
ture of the cooling water increases typically by 5°C remaining 99 kg will inevitably drop by 5.8°C. We
to I 0°C as it flows through the condenser tubes. The conclude that whenever l percent of a body of wa-
condensed steam (condensate) usually has a tem- ter evaporates. the temperature of the remaining
perature between 27°C and 33°C and the corre- water drops by 5.8°C. Evaporation is, therefore, a
sponding absolute pressure is a near-vacuum of very effective cooling process.
about 5 kPa. The cooling water temperature is only But how can we produce evaporation? Sur-
a few degrees below the condensate temperature prisingly, all that is needed is to expose a large sur-
(see Fig. 24.20). face of water to the surrounding air. The simplest
way to do this is to break up the water into small
droplets, and blow air through this artificial rain.
24.15 Cooling towers
In the case of a thermal station, the warm cooling
If the thermal station is located in a dry region, or water flowing out of the condenser is piped to the top
far away from a river or lake, we still have to cool of a cooling tower 24.21) where it is broken up
the condenser, one way or another. We often use into small droplets. As the droplets fall toward the
evaporation to produce the cooling effect. To un- open reservoir below, evaporation takes place and the
derstand the principle, consider a lake that exposes droplets are chilled. The cool water is pumped from
 GENERATION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY 651

the reservoir and recirculated through the condenser, lost, except for the small portion consumed by the
where it again removes heat from the condensing losses in the motor and pump.
steam. The cycle then repeats. Approximately 2 per-
cent of the cooling water that flows through the con- 24.17 Energy flow diagram
denser is lost by evaporation. This loss can be made for a steam plant
up by a stream, or small lake.
Modern thermal generating stations are very simi-
24.16 Boiler-feed pump lar throughout the world because all designers
strive for high efficiency at lowest cost. This means
The boiler-feed pump drives the feedwater into the that materials are strained to the limits of safety as
high-pressure drum. The high back pressure to- far as temperature, pressure. and centrifugal forces
gether with the large volume of water flowing are concerned. Because the same materials are
through the pump requires a very powerful motor to available to all, the resulting steam plants are nec-
drive it. In modern steam stations the pumping essarily similar. Fig. 24.22 shows a typical 540 MW
power represents about I percent of the generator turbine-generator set, and Fig. 24.23 is a view of the
output Although this appears to be a significant control room.
loss, we must remember that the energy expended in Most modern boilers furnish steam at a temper-
the pump is later recovered when the high-pressure ature of 550°C and a pressure of 16.5 MPa. The
steam flows through the turbines. Consequently, the overall efficiency (electrical output/thermal input)
energy supplied to the feed pump motor is not really is then about 40 percent. The relative amounts of
energy, steam flow. losses. and so forth, do not
change very much, provided the temperature and
pressure have the approximate values indicated
above. This enables us to draw a diagram showing
the energy flow, steam flow, water flow, and so on,
in a reduced-scale model of a typical thermal gen-

Figure 24.21
Cooling tower installed in a nuclear power station in
Oregon. The generator output is a 1280 MVA at a
power factor of 0.88. Tower characteristics: height:
152 m; diameter at the base: 117 m; diameter at the Figure 24.22
top: 76 m; cooling water: 27 m3 /s; Vl.'6ter loss by evapo- This 540 MW steam-turbine generator set runs at
ration: 0.7 m 3 /s. The temperature of the-cooling water 3600 r/min, generating a frequency of 60 Hz. The low-
drops from 44.5° to 24° as it passes through the tower. pressure turbine and alternator are in the background.
(Courtesy of Portland General Electric Company) (Courtesy of General Electric)
652 ELECTRIC UTILITY POWER SYSTEMS

Air intake 40 X IO kg/s 400 kg/s

Boiler thermal power 40 x 30MW l 200MW
Steam output 40 X 8 kg/s 320 kg/s
Cooling water 40 X 360 kg/s 14 400 kg/s
Heat carried away
by the cooling water 40X 15MW 600MW
If a large river or lake is not available and a cool-
ing tower is required, it would have to evaporate
q 2% X 14 400 288 kg/s
of cooling water. This loss by evaporation has to be
made up by a local source of water.

24.18 Thermal stations

Figure 24.23
Control room of the 540 MW generator set. and the environment
(Courtesy of General Electric)
The products of combustion of thermal generating
stations are an increasing subject of concern, due to
crating station. Fig. 24.24 shows such a model pro-
their impact on the environment.
ducing 12 MW of electrical power.
Carbon dioxide (C0 2 ), sulfur dioxide (SO~), and
Using this model, we can estimate the characteris-
water are the main products of combustion when
tics of any thermal power station. For example, a 480
oil, coal, or gas are burned. Carbon dioxide and wa-
MW station (40 times more powerfol than the model)
ter produce no immediate environmental effects,
has the following approximate characteristics:
but sulfur dioxide creates substances that give rise
Electric power output 40 X 12 MW 480 MW to acid rain. Dust and fly ash are other pollutants
Coal consumption 40 X I kg/s 40 kg/s that may reach the atmosphere. Natural gas pro-

I\)~ stack

t toss
3MW steam: 550°C, 16.5 MPz (absolute)

electric power
alternator
!·:·:·:~:·:·:·:,·:·:~
boiler
30MW ~
27MW 12 MW

burners
~
OMW

-
360 kg/s cooling water in

(~i~~~~-~~~J::::.··.:,::·::::::·:-.·:.::::::··.-·:::-.'.'_:::.:-.:-.::·:: ~ lO°C
-8 kg/s
t
2
f
1

t
f-:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:·:> heat lost
coal t:li
'!!!
air condensate: 30°C; 15MW
1 kg/s . 10 kg/s 0.005 MPa (absolute)

Figure 24.24
Scale model of a typical thermal generating station.
 GENERATION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY 653

duces only water and C0 2 . This explains why gas is Electrical data
used (rather than coal or oil), when atmospheric number of generators: 4
pollution must be reduced to a minimum. power per generator: 660 MW
A good example of pollution control is the large speed: 3000 r/min
Eraring generating station located in Newcastle, voltage: 23 000 V
Australia, about l 00 km not1h of Sydney (Fig. 24.25 ). frequency: 50 Hz. phases: 3
It is equipped with a special fabric filter tlue gas
cleaning system (Fig. 24.26). The fabric filters act like Thermal and mechanical data
huge vacuum cleaners to remove particles from the number of steam turbines: 4
boiler-gas flue stream. The fabric filter for each boiler number of condensers: 4
is composed of 48 000 filter bags. each 5 m long and number of boilers: 4
16 cm in diameter (Fig. 24.27). When a boiler oper- steam flow per turbine: 560 kg/s
ates at full capacity, they capture dust particles at the steam temperature: 540°C
rate of 28 kg/s. A substantial proportion of this mate- steam pressure: 16.55 MPa
rial is later mixed with concrete for road-building pro- cooling water per condenser: 21 000 kg/s
jects. The following technical specifications enable us coal consumption per boiler: 51.5 kg/s
to appreciate the size of this station. dust captured by cleaning system: 28 kg/s

Figure 24.25
View of the Eraring Power Station in Newcastle, Australia. The large building on the left is the turbine-generator hall:
27 m wide x 38 m high x 418 m lo.ng. Te the right can be seen the four structures that house the steam boilers. A por-
tion of the flue gas cleaning system can be seen between the emission stack in the foreground and the boiler structures.
(Courtesy of the Electricity Commission of New South Wales)
654 ELECTRIC UTILITY POWER SYSTEMS

Figure 24.26
General construction of the flue gas cleaning system
showing the filter bags that capture the dust, which
then falls into the hoppers below.
(Courtesy of Electricity Commission of New South
Wales)

length of one turbine-generator unit: 50 m

weight of one turbine-generator unit: 1342 tons
number of emission stacks: 2 Figure 24.27
height of emission stack: 200 m Installation of the fabric filter bags. Each bag is 15 m
outside diameter at bottom: 20 rn long and 16 cm in diameter.
outside diameter at top: 11.6 rn (Courtesy of Electricity Commission of New South
Wales)
Another interesting feature is that coal for the
station is brought in by conveyor belts from two
mines that are only 1.5 km and 4.5 km away. Thus,
the station is ideally located near its source of fuel A nuclear station is identical to a thermal station,
and near its source of cooling water, on the shore of except that the boiler is replaced by a nuclear reac-
Lake Macquarie. tor. The reactor contains the fissile material that
generates the heat. A nuclear station, therefore. con-
tains a synchronous generator, steam turbine, con-
NUCLEAR GENERATING STATIONS
denser. and so on, similar to those found in a con-
Nuclear stations produce electricity from the heat ventional thermal station. The overall efficiency is
released by a nuclear reaction. When the nucleus of also similar (between 30 and 40 percent), and a
an atom splits in two (a process called atomic fis- cooling system must be provided for. Consequently.
sion). a considerable amount of energy is released. nuclear stations are also located close to rivers and
Note that a chemical reaction. such as the combus- lakes. In dry areas, cooling towers are installed.
tion of coal. produces only a rearrangement of the Owing to these similarities. we will only examine
atoms, without in any way affecting their nuclei. the operating principle of the reactor itself.
 GENERATION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY 655

24.19 Composition of an atomic In the same way, two isotopes of uranium are
nucleus; isotopes found in nature: uranium 238 (2 38 U) and uranium
235 (2 35 U). Each contains 92 protons, but has
The nucleus of an atom contains two types of parti- 235
146 neutrons and U has 143. Uranium 238 is
cles-protons and neutrons. The proton carries a very common, but the isotope 235 U is rare.
positive charge, equal to the negative charge on an Uranium 235 and heavy water deserve our atten-
electron. The neutron, as its name implies, has no tion because both are essential to the operation of
electric charge. Neutrons are, therefore, neither at- the nuclear reactors we are about to discuss.
tracted to nor repelled by protons and electrons.
Protons and neutrons have about the same mass,
and both weigh 1840 times as much as electrons do.
24.20 The source of uranium
The mass of an atom is concentrated in its nucleus. Where does uranium come from? It is obtained
The number of protons and neutrons in the nu- from the ore found in uranium mines. This ore con-
cleus depends upon the element. Furthermore, be- tains the compound U 3 0 8 (3 atoms of uranium and
cause an atom is electrically neutral, the number of 8 atoms of oxygen). It so happens that U3 0 8 is ac-
electrons is equal to the number of protons. Table tually composed of 238 U0 8 and 235 U0 8 in the rela-
24A gives the atomic structure of a few important tively precise ratio of 1398: 10.
elements used in nuclear reactors. For example, In other words, the ore contains 1398 parts of the
there are two types of hydrogen atoms that can be less interesting 238 U for every I 0 parts of the iso-
distinguished from each other only by the makeup tope 235 U. It is very difficult to separate 238 U0 8
of the nucleus. First, there is ordinary hydrogen (H), from 235 U0 8 because they possess identical chemi-
whose nucleus contains 1 proton and no neutrons. cal properties.
Next, there is a rare form, deuterium (D). whose nu- In order to use these substances in nuclear reac-
clei contain I neutron, in addition to the usual pro- tors, they are processed into uranium dioxide
ton. This rare form is called an isotope of hydrogen. (U0 2 ). The natural U0 2 again contains 238 U0 2 and
235
When two atoms of ordinary hydrogen unite U0 2 in the ratio of 1398: 10.
with one atom of oxygen, we obtain ordinary water Some nuclear reactors require U0 2 that has more
(H 20) called light water. On the other hand, if 2 of the isotope ::mu than natural U0 2 does. This is
atoms of deuterium unite with I atom of oxygen, we produced by an enrichment process whereby the ra-
obtain a molecule of heavy water (0 2 0). The tio of 235 U0 2 to 238 U0 2 is raised to 50: 1398 rather
oceans contain about 1 kg of heavy water for every than the natural ratio of l 0: 1398. In this enrichment
7000 kg of sea water. process a lot of 238 U0 2 is obtained as a byproduct

TABLE 24A ATOMIC STRUCTURE OF SOME ELEMENTS

Mass number
Element Symbol Protons Electrons Neutrons (neutrons + protons)

hydrogen H 0 I
deuterium D I I 2
tritium 'H I 2 3
helium He 2 2 2 4
carbon c 6 6 6 12
iron Fe 26 26 30 56
~35u
uranium 235 92 92 143 235
uranium 238 92 92 146 238
656 ELECTRIC UTILITY POWER SYSTEMS

235 235
10 parts U02 50 parts U02

1000 parts
waste

i:::::;:;::;:;z{;:::;:::;::::;:;;:m;:::::::;:;:;t::p !:((::,:::::::::~:::;;::t~;:::::tp
separation of
U 30 1 from ore processing
by-product
typical ore from
uranium mine

narural U01 enriched U0 1 (""' 3.6%)

(fuel for heavy (fuel for light
water reactors) water reactors)

Figure 24.28
Various steps in the manufacture of nuclear fuel for heavy-water and light-water reactors. This extremely simplified
diagram shows that in the process of enriching uranium dioxide, it is inevitable that large amounts of 238 U02 re-
main as a byproduct.

that must be stored. As we shall see, this byproduct alent to the heat given off by burning 3 thousand tons
also has useful applications. of coal. Uranium is one of those elements that loses
The process of converting uranium ore into these mass when it fissions. However, uranium 235 is fis-
uranium derivatives is shown in highly simplified sionable, whereas uranium 238 is not, and so large
form in Fig. 24.28. separating plants have been built to isolate molecules
containing 235 U from those containing 238 U.
24.21 Energy released
by atomic fission 24.22 Chain reaction
When the nucleus of an atom fissions, it splits in How can we provoke the fission of a uranium atom?
two. The total mass of the two atoms formed in this One way is to bombard its nucleus with neutrons. A
way is usually less than that of the original atom. If neutron makes an excellent projectile because it is
there is a loss in mass, energy is released according not repelled as it approaches the nucleus and, if its
to Einstein's equation: speed is not too great, it has a good chance of scor-
ing a hit. If the impact is strong enough, the nucleus
E = mc2 (24.3)
will split in two, releasing energy. The fission of
where one atom of :mu releases 218 Me V of energy,
mainly in the form of heat. Fission is a very violent
E energy released [J J
reaction on an atomic scale, and it produces a sec-
m = loss of mass fkg l
ond important effect: It ejects 2 or 3 neutrons that
c = speed of light [3 X 108 m/sj
move at high speed away from the broken nucleus.
An enormous amount of energy is released be- These neutrons collide with other uranium atoms,
cause, according to this formula, a loss in mass of breaking them up, and a chain reaction quickly
only one gram produces 9 X 10 13 J, which is equiv- takes place, releasing a tremendous amount of heat.
 GENERATION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY 657

This is the principle that causes atomic bombs to contrary to what its name would lead us to believe,
explode. Although a uranium mine also releases the coolant is not cool but searingly hot.
neutrons, the concentration of 235 U atoms is too low
to produce a chain reaction. 24.23 Types of nuclear reactors
In the case of a nuclear reactor, we have to slow
down the neutrons to increase their chance of strik- There are several types of reactors, but the follow-
ing other uranium nuclei. Toward this end, small ing are the most important:
fissionable masses of uranium fuel (U0 2 ) are im- 1. Pressure-Water Reactor (PWR). Water is used
mersed in a moderator. The moderator may be ordi- as a coolant and it is kept under such high pres-
nary water, heavy water, graphite, or any other ma- sure that it cannot boil off into steam. Ordinary
terial that can slow down neutrons without water, as in light-water reactors may be used, or
absorbing them. By using an appropriate geometri- heavy water, as in CANDU* reactors.
cal distribution of the uranium fuel within the mod- 2. Boiling-Water Reactors (BWR). The coolant in
erator, the speed of the neutrons can be reduced so this reactor is ordinary water boiling under high
they have the required velocity to initiate other fu- pressure and releasing steam. This eliminates the
sions. Only then will a chain reaction take place, need for a heat exchanger, because the steam cir-
causing the reactor to f?O critical. culates directly through the turbines. However, as
As soon as the chain reaction starts, the temper- in all light-water reactors. enriched uranium diox-
ature rises rapidly. To keep it at an acceptable level, ide mu:t be used containing about 3 percent 235 U.
a liquid or gas has to flow rapidly through the reac- 3. High-Temperature Gas Reactor (HTGR). This
tor to carry away the heat. This coolant may be reactor uses an inert gas coolant such as helium
heavy water, ordinary water, liquid sodium, or a gas or carbon dioxide. Due to the high operating
like helium or carbon dioxide. The hot coolant
moves in a closed circuit which includes a heat ex-
changer. The latter transfers the heat to a steam gen- CANDU: Canada Deuterium L'ranium. developed by the
erator that drives the turbines 24.29). Thus, Atomic Energy Commission of Canada.

coolant

heat exchanger
reactor

nuclear moderator
fuel

coolant circulating pump feedwater pump

Figure 24.29
Schematic diagram of a nuclear power station.
658 ELECTRIC UTILITY POWER SYSTEMS

Figure 24.30
Aerial view of a light-water nuclear generating
station. The large rectangular building in the
foreground houses a 667 MVA, 90-percent
power factor, 19 kV, 60 Hz, 1800 r/min turbo-
generator set; the circular building surrounds
the reactor.
(Courtesy of Connecticut Yankee Atomic
Power Company; photo by Georges
Betancourt)

temperature (typically 750°C), graphite is used

as a moderator. The steam created by the heat ex-
changer is as hot as that produced in a conven-
tional coal-fired steam boiler. Consequently, the
overall efficiency of HTGR stations is about
40 percent.
4. Fast Breeder Reactor (FBR). This reactor has the
remarkable ability to both generate heat and create
additional nuclear fuel while it is in operation.

24.24 Example of a light-

water reactor
Figure 24.31
Reactors that use ordinary water as a moderator are Looking down into the water-filled refueling cavity of
similar to those using heavy water, but the uranium- the reactor.
dioxide fuel has to be enriched. Enrichment means (Courtesy of Connecticut Yankee Atomic Power
that the fuel bundles contain between 2 and 4 percent Company; photo by Georges Betancourt)
of 235 U, the remainder being 238 U. This enables us to
reduce the size of the reactor for a given power out- posed of a massive vertical steel tank having an ex-
put. On the other hand, the reactor has to be shut ternal diameter of 4.5 m and a height of 12.5 m. The
down about once a year to replace the expended fuel. tank contains 157 vertical tubes, which can lodge
The generated heat, created mainly by the fission 157 large fuel assemblies. Each assembly is 3 m
of uranium 235, is carried away by a coolant such long and groups 204 fuel rods containing a total of
as ordinary water, liquid sodium, or a gas such as 477 kg of enriched U0 2 . The nuclear reaction is
C02 . As it flows through the heat exchanger, the kept under control by 45 special-alloy control rods.
coolant creates the steam that drives the turbine. When these rods are gradually lowered into the
A typical nuclear power station (Figs. 24.30 and moderator, they absorb more and more neutrons.
24.31) possesses a light-water reactor that is com- Consequently, they control the rate of the nuclear
 GENERATION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY 659

reaction and. hence, the amount of heat released by izontal tubes, each housing 12 fuel bundles con-
the reactor. taining 22.2 kg of U0 2 • Each bundle releases about
The nuclear station drives a 3-phase, 667 MVA, 372.5 kW while it is in operation. Because there is
90 percent power factor, 19 kV, 60 Hz, 1800 r/min a total of 4680 bundles. the reactor develops 1740
synchronous generator. MW of thermal power.
Twelve pumps, each driven by an 1100 kW
24.25 Example of a heavy-water motor, push the heavy-water coolant through the
reactor and the heat exchangers in a closed loop.
reactor
The heat exchangers produce the steam to drive
The CANDU reactor uses heavy water, both as the four turbines. The steam exhausts into a con-
moderator and coolant. It differs from all other re- denser that is cooled by water drawn from Lake
actors in that it uses natural uranium dioxide as a Ontario.
fuel. One of the biggest installations of its kind is Each turbine drives a 3-phase, 635 MVA,
located at Pickering, a few kilometers east of 85 percent power factor, 24 kV, 1800 r/min, 60 Hz
Toronto, Canada. The nuclear station has 4 reactors. alternator.
Each reactor is coupled to 12 heat exchangers that The fuel bundles are inserted at one end of the
provide the interface between the heavy-water calandria and, after a 19-month stay in the tubes,
coolant and the ordinary steam that drives the tur- they are withdrawn from the other end. The bundles
bines (Fig. 24.32). are inserted and removed on a continuous basis-an
Each reactor is enclosed in a large horizontal average of nine bundles per day.
vessel (calandria) having a diameter of 8 m and a Table 24B compares the typical characteristics
length of 8.25 m. The calandria possesses 390 hor- of light-water and heavy-water reactors.

steam
814 kg/s 252°C

6 heat
exchangers I -12°c
22°C
"'=i,... .""""",.....,,....,............
~..~......,.~~~cooling water from
171°C ordinary water ~mi~~==~ Lake Ontario
16 coolant 1100 kW 2.4 tis
circulating pumps
(4 in reserve)
249°C 9.94 MPa ordinary water

reheater feed water

pump

- c::=J steam

I
coolant
heavy water
C::J moderator 11!111 cooling water
heavy water

Figure 24.32
Simplified schematic diagram of a CAN DU nuclear generating unit composed of one heavy-water reactor driving
one alternator.
(Courtesy of Atomic Energy of Canada)
660 ELECTRIC UTILITY POWER SYSTEMS

TABLE 248 TYPICAL LIGHT-WATER AND HEAVY-WATER REACTORS

Light-Water Reactor Heavy-Water Reactor

Reactor Vessel

external diameter 4.5 m 8m

length 12.5 m 8.25 m
vessel thickness 274mm 25.4 mm
weight empty 416 t 604 t
position vertical horizontal
number of fuel canals 157 390
type of fuel enriched U02 (3.3%) natural U0 2
total mass of fuel 75 t 104 t
Moderator

type light-water heavy-water

volume 13.3 nr' 242 m·'
Reactor Cooling

heat produced in reactor 1825 MW 1661 MW

coolant light-water heavv-water
volume 249 m' 130m 3
flow rate 128 t/s 7.73t/s
coolant temperature entering the reactor 285°C 249°C
coolant temperature leaving the reactor 306°C 294°C
coolant pumps 4 12
total pump power 12MW 14MW
Electrical Output

3-phase, 1800 r/min. 60 Hz synchronous generator 600MW 540MW

24.26 Principle of the fast a. The heat released by the fissioning core can be
breeder reactor used to drive a steam turbine.
b. Some atoms of 238 U in the surrounding blanket
A fast breeder reactor differs from other reactors capture the flying neutrons, thereby becoming
because it can extract more of the available en- fissionable 239 Pu. In other words, the passive
ergy in the nuclear fuel. It possesses a central core atoms of uranium 238 are transmuted into fis-
containing fissionable plutonium 239 (2 39 Pu). sionable atoms of plutonium 239.
The core is surrounded by a blanket composed of
substances containing nonfissionable uranium As time goes by, the blanket of nonfissionable
238 (2 38 U). No moderator is used; consequently, 238
U is gradually transmuted to fissionable 239Pu
the high-speed (fast) neutrons generated by the and waste products. The blanket is periodically re-
fissioning 239 Pu bombard the nonfissionable moved and the materials are processed to recover
atoms of 238 U. This nuclear reaction produces two the substances containing 239 Pu. The nuclear fuel re-
important results: covered is placed in the central core to generate heat
 GENERATION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY 661

and to produce still more fuel in a newly relined of the energy shortage because hydrogen is the most
blanket of substances containing uranium 238. common element on earth.
This process can be repeated until nearly 80 per-
cent of the available energy in the uranium is ex- Questions and Problems
tracted. This is much more efficient than the 2 per-
Practical level
cent now being extracted by conventional reactors.
The breeder reactor is particularly well adapted 24-1 Explain the difference between a base-
to complement existing light-water reactors. The
load and a peak-load generating plant.
reason is that a great deal of 238 U is available as a 24-2 Why are nuclear power stations not suited
byproduct in the manufacture of enriched n:;u to supply peak loads?
(see 24.28). This otherwise useless material 24-3 Referring to the coal mine in Fig. 24.4, we
(now being stored) could be used to surround the have the choice of hauling the coal to a
core of a fast breeder reactor. By capturing fast generating plant or installing the generat-
neutrons, it could be rejuvenated, as explained ing plant next to the mine mouth. What
above, until most of the potential energy in the factors come into play in determining the
uranium is used up. best solution?
24-4 What is the best indicator of stability (or
24.27 Nuclear fusion instability) of an electric utility system?

We have seen that splitting the nucleus of a heavy 24-5 What is meant by the term network?
element such as uranium results in a decrease in 24-6 Give two reasons why electric utility sys-
mass and a release of energy. We can also produce tems are interconnected.
energy by combining the nuclei of two light ele- 24-7 The river flow in Fig. 24.9 is 5000 m:'/s at
ments in a process called nuclear.fusion. For exam- a height of 24 m. Calculate the available
ple, energy is released by the fusion of an atom of hydraulic power.
deuterium with an atom of tritium. However, owing
24-8 Explain the operating principle of a ther-
to the strong repulsion between the two nuclei (both
mal plant, a hydropower plant, and a nu-
arc positive), they only unite (fuse) when they ap-
clear plant.
proach each other at high speed. The required ve-
locity is close to the speed of light and corresponds 24-9 Name two basic differences between a
to a thermodynamic temperature of several million light-water reactor and a heavy-water re-
degrees. If both the atomic concentration and speed actor.
are high enough, a self-sustaining chain reaction 24-10 Explain what is meant by moderator. fis-
will result. sion, fusion, neutron, and heavy water:
We can, therefore, produce heat by the fusion of
Intermediate level
two elements, and the hydrogen bomb is a good ex-
24-11 The Zai"re River, in Africa, discharges at a
ample of this principle. Unfortunately, we run into
constant rate 1300 knr' of water per year.
almost insurmountable problems when we try to
It has been proposed to build a series of
control the fusion reaction, as we must do in a nu-
dams in the region of Inga, where the river
clear reactor. Basically, scientists have not yet suc-
drops by 100 m.
ceeded in confining and controlling high-speed par-
ticles without at the same time slowing them down. Calculate
A major worldwide research effort is being de- a. The water flow [ m'/sJ
voted to solve this problem. If scientists succeed in b. The power that could be harnessed [MW]
domesticating nuclear fusion, it could mean the end c. The discharge in cubic miles per year
662 ELECTRIC UTILITY POWER SYSTEMS

24- 12 For how long does a 1500 MW generator 24- 18 A fuel bundle of natural uranium dioxide
have to run to produce the same quantity has a.mass of 22.2 kg when first inserted
of energy as that released by a 20 kiloton into a hea\/y-water reactor. If it releases an
atomic bomb? (See conversion charts in average of 372.5 kW of thermal energy
Appendix.) during its 19-month stay in the reactor,
24- 13 The demand of a municipality regularly calculate the following:
varies between 60 MW and 1 I 0 MW in a. The total amount of heat released [J J and
[Btu]
the course of one day, the average power
b. The reduction in weight of the bundle. due
being 80 MW. To produce the required en-
to the energy released [g]
ergy. we have the following options:
a. Install a base-power generating unit and a Advanced level
diesel-engine peaking plant. 24-19 a. Calculate the annual energy consumption
b. Install a base-power generating unit and a [TW ·h] of the electric utility system having
pumped-storage unit. the load duration curve given in Fig. 24.3.
What are the respective capacities of the b. If this energy were consumed at an ab-
base power and peaking power plants in solutely uniform rate, what would the peak
load be l GW]?
each case?
24-14 On a particular day, the head of Grand 24-20 Referring to Fig. 24.32, the temperature of
Coulee dam is 280 ft and the generators the heavy-water coolant drops from
deliver 6000 MYA at a power factor of 0.9 294 °C to 249°C in passing through the
lagging. Assuming the average turbine ef- heat exchangers. Knowing that the reactor
ficiency is 0.92 and the average generator is cooled at the rate of 7. 7 t/s of heavy wa-
efficiency is 0.98, calculate the following: ter. calculate the heat [MW] transmitted to
a. The active power output fMW] the heat exchangers (specific heat of
b. The reactive power supplied to the system heavy water is 4560 J/kg).
[Mvar]
Industrial Application
c. The amount of water flowing through the
turbines [yd~/s J 24-21 On November 12, 1992, at 10:09 AM a large
generator on the East Coast tripped out,
24-15 Explain the principle of operation of a
causing the interconnected power pool of
cooling tower.
18 823 MW to suddenly lose I 050 MW of
24-16 A modern coal-burning thermal station generating power. In a matter of seconds.
produces an electrical output of 720 MW. the system frequency fell from 60 Hz to
Calculate the approximate value of the 59.97 Hz. The power output of the other
following: generators on the system was selectively in-
a. The amount of coal consumed [tons (not
creased and the rated 60 Hz frequency was
tonnes) per day]
restored after an interval of about 7 .5 min-
b. The amount of smoke. gas, and fly ash re-
leased [tons per day] utes. The frequency was then raised above
c. The cooling water flowing through the con- 60 Hz for a time to recover the cycles lost.
denser. assuming a temperature rise of thereby correcting the electric clocks. The
I0°C lm'/s] behavior of the frequency before and after
24-17 In Problem 24-16, if a cooling tower is re- the incident is shown in Fig. 24.33.
quired, how much water must be drawn Calculate
from a local stream [m 3/s]? Can this water a. The average frequency during the 7.5-
be recycled? minute restoration period
 GENERATION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY 663

60.02 exactly one minute when the frequency is

exactly 60 Hz. How many turns did the
N' 60.01 minute hand make during the 7.5-minute
6 60.00 interval? What is the error in the minute-
>.
Q
i:::
(])
hand reading, expressed in milliseconds?
:::::s 59.99
er 24-22 In Problem 24-21 we assume that half the
f!!
LL 59.98 18 823 MW load consists of induction mo-
59.97 tors. Some motors drive fans and similar
loads wherein the power varies as the cube
09.50 10.00 10:10 10:20 10:30 of the speed. Calculate the drop in power
AM AM AM AM AM of a 10 000 hp blower motor when the fre-
Figure 24.33 quency falls from 60 Hz to 59.97 Hz.
Dry cell. 24-23 A summer camp is located near a 55 ft wa-
terfall. Tests show that the stream delivers
b. The number of cycles generated during the a minimum of 270 cubic feet per minute in
7.5-minute period
the course of a year. It is proposed to in-
c. The number of cycles that would have been
stall a 3-phasc induction motor and drive it
generated during the 6-minute interval if
the accident had not occurred and the fre- as a generator. Calculate the approximate
quency had stayed at 60 Hz horsepower of the motor that could har-
d. Electric clocks are designed so that the ness 80 percent of the capacity of the falls.
minute hand makes one complete turn in
 CHAPTER 25
Transmission of Electrical Energy

25.0 Introduction tern must satisfy some basic requirements. Thus.

the system must
he transmission of electrical energy does not
T usually raise as much interest as does its gener-
ation and utilization; consequently, we sometimes
1. Provide, at all times, the power that consumers
need
tend to neglect this important subject. This is unfor-
2. Maintain a stable, nominal voltage that does
tunate because the human and material resources
not vary by more than ± 10%
involved in transmission are much greater than
those employed in generation. 3. Maintain a stable frequency that does not vary
Electrical energy is carried by conductors such by more than ±0.1 Hz
as overhead transmission lines and underground ca- 4. Supply energy at an acceptable price
ble. Although these conductors appear very ordi-
5. Meet standards of safety
nary, they possess important electrical properties
that greatly affect the transmission of electrical en- 6. Respect environmental standards
ergy. In this chapter, we study these properties for
several types of transmission lines: high-voltage, Fig. 25.1 shows an elementary diagram of a
low-voltage, high-power, low-power, aerial lines, transmission and distribution system. It consists of
and underground lines. We then show some of the two generating stations G 1 and G~, a few substa-
ways whereby the voltage and power flow are con- tions, an interconnecting substation and several
trolled in an electric utility system. commercial, residential, and industrial loads. The
energy is carried over lines designated extra-high
25.1 Principal components voltage (EHV), high voltage (HV), medium volt-
age (MV), and /mv voltage (LV). This voltage clas-
of a power distribution system sification is made according to a scale of standard-
In order to provide electrical energy to consumers ized voltages whose nominal values are given in
in usable form, a transmission and distribution sys- Table 25A.

664
 TRANSMTSSTON OF ELECTRTCAL ENERGY 665

medium
I extra high voltage high voltage medium voltage low voltage
I I
~-~I I
I I
I

I I
to I I
I I I
I I I

• • •
765 kV
I I . I I
heavy medium
industry industr. .

generating transmission interconnection transmission distribution small industry

stations substation substation substations substations commerce
residences

Figure 25.1
Single-line diagram of a generation, transmission, and distribution system.

Transmission substations 25.1} change the faulted lines from the system. In addition, control
line voltage by means of step-up and step-down apparatus, power measuring devices, disconnect
transformers and regulate it by means of static var switches, capacitors, inductors, and other devices
compensators. synchronous condensers, or trans- may be part of a substation.
formers with variable taps. Electrical power utilities divide their power dis-
tribution systems into two major categories:
Distribution substations change the medium volt-
age to low voltage by means of step-down trans- I. transmission systems in which the line voltage
formers, which may have automatic tap-changing is roughly between 115 kV and 800 kV
capabilities to regulate the low voltage. The low 2. distribution systems in which the voltage gener-
voltage ranges from I 20/240V single phase to ally lies between 120 V and 69 kV. Distribution
600 V, 3-phase. It serves to power private resi- systems, in turn. are divided into medium-voltage
dences. commercial and institutional establish- distribution systems (2.4 kV to 69 kV} and low-
ments, and small industry. voltage distribution systems ( 120 V to 600 V)
Interconnecting substations tie different power
systems together, to enable power exchanges be- 25.2 Types of power lines
tween them, and to increase the stability of the
The design of a power line depends upon the fol-
overall network.
lowing criteria:
These substations also contain circuit breakers,
I. The amount of active power it has to transmit
fuses, and lightning arresters, to protect expensive
apparatus, and to provide for quick isolation of 2. The distance over which the power must be
carried
3. The cost of the power line
A network is "an aggregation of interconnel"led conductors
consisting of feeders. mains and service~,. (ref. IEEE 4. Esthetic considerations, urban congestion, ease
Standard Dictio11arr of'Elecrrical and Elecmmics T£·rn1s). of installation, and expected load growth
666 ELECTRIC UTILITY POWER SYSTEMS

TABLE 25A VOLTAGE CLASSES AS APPLIED TO INDUSTRIAL AND COMMERCIAL POWER

Nominal system voltage

Two-wire Three-wire

low voltage 120 120/240

single phase single phase 120/208
480V 277/480
LV 600V 347/600
medium voltage 2 400
4 160
4 800
MV 6900
13 800 7 200/12 470
23 000 7 620/13 200
34 500 7 970/13 800
46000 14 400124 940
69 000 D 19 920/34 500
high voltage 115 000 D
138 000 D
161 000
HV 230 000 D
extra-high voltage 345 000 D
500 000 D
EHV 735 000-765 000 D
All voltages are 3-phase unless indicated otherwise.
Voltages designated by the symbol D are preferred voltages.
Note: Voltage class designations were approved for use by IEEE Standards Board (September 4, 1975).

We distinguish four types of power lines. accord- In some metropolitan areas, the distribution
ing to their voltage class: system feeding the factories, homes, and com-
mercial buildings consists of a grid of under-
1. Low-voltage (LV) lines provide power to
ground cables operating at 600 V or less. Such
buildings, factories, and houses to drive mo-
a network provides dependable service, be-
tors, electric stoves, lamps, heaters, and air
cause even the outage of one or several cables
conditioners. The lines are insulated conduc-
will not interrupt customer service.
tors, usually made of aluminum, often extend-
ing from a local pole-mounted distribution 2. Medium-voltage (MV) lines tie the load centers
transformer to the service entrance of the con- to one of the many substations of the utility
sumer. The lines may be overhead or under- company. The voltage is usually between 2.4 kV
ground, and the transformer behaves like a and 69 kV. Such medium-voltage radial distribu-
miniature substation. tion systems are preferred in the larger cities. In
---------------------------------------- ~··---~

TRANSMISSION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY 667

radial systems the transmission lines spread out From an electric standpoint, insulators must of-
like fingers from one or more substations to feed fer a high resistance to surface leakage currents and
power to various load centers, such as high-rise must be sufficiently thick to prevent breakdown un-
buildings, shopping centers, and campuses. der the high-voltage stresses they have to with-
3. High-voltage (HV) lines connect the main stand. To increase the leakage path (and hence the
substations to the generating stations. The lines leakage resistance), the insulators are molded with
are composed of aerial conductors or under- wave-like folds. From a mechanical standpoint,
ground cables operating at voltages below 230 they must be strong enough to withstand the dy-
kV. In this category we also find lines that namic pull and weight of the conductors.
transmit energy between two power systems, to There are two main types of insulators: pin-type
increase the stability of the network. insulators and suspension-type insulators (Figs.
25.2 and 25.3). The pin-type insulator has several
4. Extra-high-voltage (EHV) lines are used
when generating stations are very far from the
load centers. We put these lines in a separate
class because of their special electrical proper-
ties. Such lines operate at voltages up to 800 kV
and may be as long as I 000 km.

25.3 Standard voltages

To reduce the cost of distribution apparatus and to
facilitate its protection, standards-setting organiza-
tions have established a number of standard volt-
ages for transmission lines. These standards, given
in Table 25A, reflect the various voltages presently
used in North America. Voltages that bear the sym- Figure 25.2
bol are preferred voltages. Unless otherwise in- Sectional view of a 69 kV pin-type insulator. BIL: 270
dicated, all voltages are 3-phase. kV; 60 Hz flash-over voltage under wet conditions:
125 kV.
25.4 Components of a HV (Courtesy of Canadian Ohio Brass Co. Ltd.)
transmission line
A transmission line is composed of conductors, in-
sulators, and supporting structures.
J. Conductors. Conductors for high-voltage lines
are always bare. Stranded copper conductors, or
steel-reinforced aluminum cable (ACSR) are used.
ACSR conductors are usually preferred because
they result in a lighter and more economical line.
Conductors have to be spliced when a line is very
long. Special care must be taken so that the joints
have low resistance and great n:!echanical strength.
Figure 25.3
2. Insulators. Insulators serve to support and anchor Sectional view of a suspension insulator. Diameter:
the conductors and to insulate them from ground. 254 mm; BIL: 125 kV, 60 Hz flash-over voltage, under
Insulators are usually made of porcelain, but glass and wet conditions: 50 kV.
other synthetic insulating materials are also used. (Courtesy of Canadian Ohio Brass Co. Ltd.)
668 ELECTRIC UTILITY POWER SYSTEMS

porcelain skirts (folds) and the conductor is fixed at salts to prevent it from rotting. For very high-voltage
the top. A steep pin screws into the insulator so it lines, steel to»'9rs are used, made of galvanized an-
can be bolted to a support. gle-iron pieces that,.are bolted together.
For voltages above 70 kV, suspension-type insu- The spacing between conductors must be suffi-
lators are used, strung together by their cap and pin cient to prevent arc-over under gusty wind conditions.
metallic parts. The number of insulators depends The spacing has to be increased as the distance be-
upon the voltage: for 110 kV, we generally use from tween towers and as the line voltages become higher.
4 to 7; for 230 kV. from 13 to 16. Fig. 25 .4 shows an
insulator arrangement for a 735 kV line. It is com- 25.5 Construction of a line
posed of 4 strings in parallel of 35 insulators each. to
provide both mechanical and electrical strength. Once we know the conductor size, the height of the
poles, and the distance between the poles (span), we
3. Supporting structures. The supporting structure can direct our attention to stringing the conductors.
must keep the conductors at a safe height from the A wire supported between two points (Fig. 25.5)
ground and at an adequate distance from each other. does not remain horizontal, but loops down at the
For voltages below 70 kV, we can use single wooden middle. The vertical distance between the straight
poles equipped with cross-arms, but for higher volt- line joining the points of support and the lowest
ages, two poles are used to create an H-frame. The point of the conductor is called sag. The tighter the
wood is treated with creosote or special metallic wire, the smaller the sag will be.

Figure 25.4
Lineman working bare-handed on a 735 kV line.
He is wearing a special conductive suit so that
his body is not subjected to high differences of
potential. In the position shown, his potential
with respect to ground is about 200 kV.
(Courtesy of Hydro-Quebec)
 TRANSMISSION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY 669

----span---.i

Figure 25.5
Span and sag of a line.

Before undertaking the actual construction of a

line, it is important to calculate the permissible sag
and the corresponding mechanical pull. Among other
things, the summer to winter temperature range must
be taken into account because the length of the con-
ductor varies with temperature. Thus, if the line is
strung in the winter, the sag must not be too great,
otherwise the wire will stretch even more during the
summer heat, with the result that the clearance to
ground may no longer be safe. On the other hand, if
the line is installed in the summer, the sag must not
be too small otherwise the wire, contracting in win- Figure 25.6
ter, may become so dangerously tight as to snap. During winter, steel towers must carry the combined
Wind and sleet add even more to the tractive force, weight of conductors and accumulated ice.
(Courtesy of Hydro-Quebec)
which may also cause the wire to break (Fig. 25.6).

25.6 Galloping lines length of the transmission line. In addition, corona

emits high-frequency noise that interferes with
If a coating of sleet is deposited on a line during nearby radio receivers and TV sets. To diminish
windy conditions, the line may begin to oscillate. corona, we must reduce the electric field (V/m)
Under certain conditions, the oscillations may be- around the conductors, either by increasing their
come so large that the line is seen to actually gallop. diameter or by arranging them in sets of two, three,
Galloping lines can produce short-circuits between or more bundled conductors per phase (see Figs.
phases or snap the conductors. To eliminate the 25.7a and 25.7b). This bundling arrangement also
problem, the line is sometimes equipped with spe- reduces the inductive reactance of the line, en-
cial mechanical weights, to dampen the oscillations abling it to carry more power. This constitutes an
or to prevent them from building up. important additional benefit.

25.7 Corona effect- 25.8 Pollution

radio interference Dust, acids, salts, and other pollutants in the atmos-
The very high voltages in use to,day produce a con- phere settle on insulators and reduce their insulating
tinual electrical discharge around the conductors, properties. Insulator pollution may produce short-cir-
due to local ionization of the air. This discharge, or cuits during storms or momentary overvoltages. The
corona effect, produces losses over the entire possibility of service interruption and the necessity to
 670 ELECTRIC UTILITY POWER SYSTEMS

clean insulators periodically is therefore a constant

concern to the. tJtility company.
In addition to p6llution, there is the problem of
lightning, discussed in the following sections.

25.9 Lightning strokes

During stormy weather, by a process not yet fully
understood, a charge separation takes place inside
clouds, so that positive charges move to the upper
part of the cloud while negative charges stay be-
low (Fig. 25.8). This transfer of electric charge
sets up an electric field within the cloud.
Furthermore, the negative charge at the base of the
cloud repels the free electrons on the ground be-
low. Consequently, region T becomes positively
charged, by induction. It follows that an electric
field and difference of potential will be established
between the base of the cloud and the earth.
Furthermore, another electric field exists between
the electrons repelled from region T and the posi-
Figure 25.7a tive charge at the top of the cloud.
Four bundled conductors make up this phase of a As more and more positive charges move up-
3-phase, 735 kV line. ward within the cloud, the electric field below the
(Courtesy of Hydro-Quebec) cloud becomes more and more intense. Ultimately,
it reaches the critical ionization level where air be-
gins to break down. Ionization takes place first at
the tips of church spires and the top of high trees,
and may sometimes give rise to a bluish light.
""7 steel strands (2.5 mm)
42 aluminum strands (4.6 mm)
Mariners of old observed this light around the
masts of their ships and called it St. El mo\ fire.
When the electric field becomes sufficiently in-
tense, lightning will suddenly strike from cloud to
earth. A single stroke may involve a charge transfer
457.mm of from 0.2 to 20 coulombs, under a difference of
potential of several hundred million volts. The cur-
rent per stroke rises to a peak in one or two mi-
croseconds and falls to half its peak value in about
50 µs. What is visually observed as a single stroke
is often composed of several strokes following each
other in rapid succession. The total discharge time
may last as long as 200 ms.
Discharges also occur between positive and neg-
Figure 25. 7b ative charges within the cloud, rather than between
Details of the bundled conductors. the base of the cloud and ground.
 TRANSMJSS/ON OF ELECTRJCAL ENERGY 671

Figure 25.8
Electric fields created by a thundercloud.

The thunder we hear is produced by a supersonic enormous overvoltage between the line and ground.
pressure wave. It is created by the sudden expansion The dielectric strength of air is immediately ex-
of air surrounding the intensely hot lightning stroke. ceeded and a flashover occurs. The line discharges
itself and the overvoltage disappears in typically
25.1 O Lightning arresters less than 50 µs.
on buildings Unfortunately, the arc between the line and
ground (initiated by the lightning stroke), produces
The simplest lightning arresters are metallic rods that a highly ionized path which behaves like a con-
rise above the highest point of a building, channeling ducting short-circuit. Consequently, the normal ac
the lightning toward a ground electrode by means of line voltage immediately delivers a large ac current
a conducting wire. This prevents the high current that follows the ionized path. This follow-through
from passing through the building itself, which might current may sustain the arc until the circuit breakers
cause a fire or endanger its occupants. A lightning ar- open at the end of the line. The fastest circuit break-
rester and anything connected to it can be dangerous ers will trip in about I/15th of a second, which is al-
to the touch: during a discharge, a very high voltage most 1000 times longer than the duration of the
can exist between the protective system and ground. lightning stroke itself.
The reason is that the resistance between the ground Direct hits on a transmission line are rare: more
rod and the ground itself is seldom less than 0.5 often, lightning will strike the overhead ground
ohms. Thus, a discharge current of I 0 kA can pro- wire that shields the line. In the latter case, a local
duce a momentary touch voltage of 5000 V. charge still accumulates on the line, producing a
Much more sophisticated lightning arresters are very high local overvoltage. This concentrated
used on electrical utility systems. They divert light- charge immediately divides into two waves that
ning and high-voltage switching surges to ground swiftly move in opposite directions at close to the
before they damage costly and critical electrical speed of light (300 m/µs). The height of the impulse
equipment. wave represents the magnitude of the surge voltage
that exists from point to point between the line and
ground (Fig. 25.9). The peak voltage (correspond-
25.11 Lightning and transmission
ing to the crest of the wave) may attain one or two
lines million volts. Wave front ab is concentrated over a
When lightning makes a direct hit on a transmission distance of about 300 m, while tail be may stretch
line, it deposits a large electric charge, producing an out over several kilometers.
672 ELECTRIC UTILITY POWER SYSTEMS

travelling wave ·. •
/ transmission line ...
substation

Figure 25.9
Flow of electric charge along a transmission line.

The wave also represents the point-to-point impulse voltage on station apparatus, lightning ar-
value of the current flowing in the line. For most resters must be installed on all incoming lines.
aerial lines the ratio between surge voltage and Lightning arresters are designed to clip off all
surge current corresponds to a resistance of about voltage peaks that exceed a specified level, say,
400 n. A surge voltage of 800 000 Vat a given point 400 kV. In turn, the apparatus within the substation
is therefore accompanied by a local surge current of is designed to withstand an impulse voltage, say
800 000/400 = 2000 A. 550 kV, that is considerably higher than the arrester
As the wave travels along the line, the PR and clipping voltage. Consequently, if a I 000 kV surge
corona losses gradually cause it to flatten out, and voltage enters a substation, the 400 kV station ar-
the peak of the surge voltage decreases. rester diverts a substantial part of the surge energy
Should the wave encounter a line insulator, the to ground. The residual impulse wave that travels
latter will be briefly subjected to a violent over- beyond the arrester then has a peak of only 400 kV.
voltage. The over-voltage period is equal to the time This impulse will not damage station apparatus
it takes for the wave to sweep past the insulator. The built to withstand an impulse of 550 kV.
voltage rises from its nominal value to several hun-
dred kilovolts in about 1 µs, corresponding to the 25.12 Basic impulse insulation
length of wavefront ab. If the insulator cannot with-
level (BIL)
stand this overvoltage, it will flash over, and the re-
sulting follow-through current will cause the circuit How do insulating materials react to impulse volt-
breakers to trip. On the other hand, if the insulator ages? Tests have shown that the withstand capabil-
does not fail, the wave will continue to travel along ity increases substantially when voltages are ap-
the line until it eventually encounters a substation. It plied for very brief periods. To illustrate, suppose
is here that the impulse wave can produce real we wish to carry out an insulation test on a trans-
havoc. The windings of transformers, synchronous former, by applying a 60 Hz sinusoidal voltage be-
condensers, reactors, etc., are seriously damaged tween the windings and ground. As we slowly raise
when they flash over to ground. Expensive repairs the voltage, a point will be reached where break-
and even more costly shut-downs are incurred while down occurs. Let us assume that the breakdown
the apparatus is out of service. The overvoltage may voltage is 46 kV (RMS) or 65 kV crest.
also damage circuit breakers, switches, insulators, On the other hand, if we apply a de impulse volt-
and relays, that make up a substation. To reduce the age of extremely short duration between the windings
 TRANSMISSION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY 673

peak voltage 1.2 X 50 microsecond wave of 900 kV, is said to

% possess a basic impulse insulation /el'(,/ (or BIL) of
i 100 900 kV. Fig. 25.11 shows an insulator string being
~
subjected to a BIL impulse test.
i The BIL of a device is usually several times
50
higher than its nominal ac operating voltage. For
1 example, the standards require that a 69 kV distrib-
00 1.2 ution transformer must have a BIL of 350 kV.
50 µs
-time However, there is no special relationship between
BIL and nominal voltage. As the BIL rises, we must
Figure 25.1 O increase the amount of insulation which, in turn, in-
Standard shape of impulse voltage used to determine creases the size and cost of equipment.
the BIL rating of electrical apparatus. In conclusion, the peak voltage at which an ar-
rester begins to conduct must always be lower than
and ground, we discover that it takes about twice the the BIL of the apparatus it is intended to protect.
peak voltage (or 130 kV) before the insulation breaks
down. The same phenomenon is observed in the case 25.13 Ground wires
of suspension insulators, bushings, spark gaps, and so In 25.6 we can discern two bare conductors
on, except that the ratio between impulse voltage and supported at the very top of the transmission-line
crest ac voltage is closer to 1.5. towers. These conductors. called ground wires. are
In the interest of standardization, and to enable a intended to shield the line and intercept lightning
comparison between the impulse withstand capa- strokes so they do not hit the current-carrying con-
bility of similar devices, standards organizations ductors below. Grounding wires normally do not
have defined the shape and crest values of several carry current; consequently, they are often made of
impulse waves. Fig. 25.10 shows one of these stan- steel. They are connected to ground at each tower.
dard impulse waves. It attains its peak after 1.2 µs
and falls to one-half the peak in 50 µs. The peak 25.14 Tower grounding
voltage has a defined set of values that range from
30 kV to 1550 kV (see Table 258). Transmission-line towers are always solidly con-
nected to ground. Great care is taken to ensure that
the ground resistance is low. In effect when light-
TABLE 258 TYPICAL PEAK VOLTAGES FOR ning hits a line, it creates a sudden voltage rise
1.2 x 50 µs BIL TESTS
across the insulators as the lightning current dis-
Values are in kilovolts charges to ground. Such a voltage rise may pro-
duce a flash-over across the insulators and a con-
1550 825 250 sequent line outage, as shown by the following
1425 750 200
example.
1300 650 150
1175 550 110
1050 450 90 Example 25-1 - - - - - - - - - - - - -
900 350 30 A 3-phase 69 kV transmission line having a BIL of
300 kV is supported on steel towers and protected
The peak voltage is used to specify the basic im- by a circuit breaker 25.1 The ground resis-
pulse insulation level (BIL) of"equi.pment. Thus. a tance at each tower is 20 n whereas the neutral of
piece of equipment (transformer, insulator. capaci- the transmission line is solidly grounded at the
tor, resistor, bushing. etc.) that can withstand a transformer just ahead of the circuit-breaker.
Figure 25.11
A 4 000 000 V impulse causes a flashover across an insulator string rated at 500 kV, 60 Hz. Such impulse tests in-
crease the reliability of equipment in the field. The powerful impulse generator in the center of the photo is 24 m
high and can deliver 400 kJ of energy at a potential of 6.5 MV.
(Courtesy of IREQ)

674
 TRANSMISSION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY 675

During an electric storm. one of the towers is hit by 3-phase short-circuit initiated by the lightning
a lightning stroke of 20 kA. stroke will continue to be fed and sustained by a
heavy follow-through current from the 3-phase
a. Calculate the voltage across each insulator
source. This short-circuit current r. c will trip the
string under normal conditions
circuit breaker, producing a line outage.
b. Describe the sequence of events during and af-
f n view of the many customers affected by such
ter the lightning stroke
a load interruption, we try to limit the number of
Solution outages by ensuring a low resistance between the
a. Under normal conditions, the line-to-neutral towers and ground. In this example, if the tower re-
voltage is 69 kV /V3 40 kV and the current sistance had been I 0 fl instead of 20 !l, the impulse
flowing in the tower ground resistance is zero. voltage across the insulators would have risen to
The steel tower is therefore at the same poten- 200 kV and no flashover would have occurred.
tial as the ground. It follows that the peak volt- Note that lightning currents of 20 kA are quite
age across each insulator string (line to tower) frequent, and they last only a few microseconds.
is 40V2 = 57 kV. Another way of avoiding a line outage is to use
b. When lightning strikes the tower, the voltage a circuit breaker that recloses automatically, a few
across the ground resistance suddenly leaps to cycles after it trips. By that time the disturbance due
20 kA X 20 fl = 400 kV. The voltage between to lightning will have disappeared and normal op-
the tower and solid ground is therefore 400 kV, eration of the system can resume.
and so the potential difference across all three
insulator strings jumps to the same value. 25.15 Fundamental objectives
Because this impulse exceeds the insulator BIL
of a transmission line
of 300 kV, a flashover immediately occurs
across the insulators, short-circuiting all three The fundwnental purpose of a transmission· or dis-
lines to the steel cross-arm. The resulting tribution line is to carry active power (kilowatts)

transformer

]~-,

solid solid
_.,,,_.-electrical _.,._..electrical
- ground - ground

Figure 25.12
Flash-over produced by lightning as it flows to ground.
676 ELECTRIC UT/l/TY POWER SYSTEMS

from one point to another. If it also has to carry re- dividual reactancesx1,. Similarly, the total capacitive
active power, the latter should be kept as small as reactance Xe is equai to the sum of the xc reactances,
possible. In addition, a transmission line should except they are connected in parallel. It is conve-
possess the following basic characteristics: nient to assume that the total capacitive reactance Xe
of the line is composed of two parts, each having a
I. The voltage should remain as constant as possi-
value 2 Xe located at each end of the line. The re-
ble over the entire length of the line, from
sulting equivalent circuit of Fig. 25.14 is a good ap-
source to load, and for all loads between zero
proximation of any 50 Hz or 60 Hz power line, pro-
and rated load
vided its length is less than 250 km. Note that Rand
2. The line losses must be small so as to attain a XL increase as the length of the line increases,
high transmission efficiency whereas Xe decreases with increasing length.
3. The PR losses must not overheat the conduc- The equivalent circuit of Fig. 25.14 can also be
tors used to represent one phase of a 3-phase line.
Current I corresponds to the actual current flowing
If the line alone cannot satisfy the above require-
in one conductor and E is the voltage between the
ments, supplementary equipment, such as capaci-
same conductor and neutral.
tors and inductors, must be added until the require-
ments are met.
25.17 Typical impedance values
25.16 Equivalent circuit of a line Table 25C gives typical values of the inductive and
capacitive reactances per kilometer for practical
In spite of their great differences in power rating,
transmission lines operating at 60 Hz. Surprisingly,
voltage levels, lengths, and mechanical construc-
the respective impedances per unit length are rea-
tion, transmission lines possess similar electrical
sonably constant for all aerial lines. Thus, xL is
properties. In effect, an ac line possesses a resis-
about 0.5 fUkm and xc is about 300 000 fl· km
tance R, an inductive reactance XL, and a capacitive
reactance Xe. These impedances are uniformly dis-
tributed over the entire length of the line; conse-
quently, we can represent the line by a series of
identical sections, as shown in Fig. 25. 13. Each sec-
tion represents a portion of the line (I km, for ex-
ample), and elements r, xL, Xe represent the imped-
ances corresponding to this unit length.
We can simplify the circuit of Fig. 25.13 by
lumping the individual resistances r together to yield Figure 25.14
a total resistance R. In the same way, we obtain a to- Equivalent lumped circuit of a transmission line.
tal inductive reactance XL equal to the sum of the in-

Figure 25.13
Distributed impedance of a transmission line.
 TRANSMISSION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY 677

whether the transmission line voltage is high or low, a. Determine the equivalent circuit, per phase.
or whether the power is great or small. b. Draw the complete equivalent circuit of the
3-phase line.
TABLE 25C TYPICAL IMPEDANCE VALUES PER Solution
KILOMETER FOR 3-PHASE, 60 HZ LINES
a. Referring to Tables 25C and 25D, the approxi-
Type of line .\Llf!J Xe [flJ mate line impedances per unit length are

aerial line 0.5 300 000 r 0.065 Wkrn

underground cable 0.1 3 000 XL 0.5 ntkm
The same can be said of underground cables, ex- Xe 300 k!1· km
cept that the inductive and capacitive reactances of The line impedances, per phase, are
3-phase cables are much smaller. Thus. xc is about
one hundred times smaller than that of aerial lines, R = 0.065 X 50 3.25 !1
whereas xL is about five times smaller. This fact has xL = o.5 x 50 = 25 n
a direct bearing on the maximum distance that ac
Xe = 300 000150 6000 !1
power can be transmitted by cable.
The resistance r per unit length depends upon the The capacitive reactance at each end of the line is
size of the conductor. However, the size varies over
2 Xe= 2 x 6000 12 kn
such a wide range that it is impossible to assign a
typical value to r. Table 25D gives the resistance The voltage per phase is 230/'13 = 133 kV at
and ampacity for several aerial conductors. the source and 2201'13 = 127 kV at the load.
The equivalent circuit per phase is shown in
Example 25-2 Fig. 25.15.
A 3-phase 230 kV transmission line having a length b. The complete equivalent circuit of the 3-phase
of 50 km is composed of three ACSR conductors line is shown in Fig. 25.16. Note that the line
having a cross-section of I 000 kcmil. The voltage capacitance acts as if it were composed of six
of the source is 230 kV (line-to-line) and that at the capacitors connected between the lines and
load is 220 kV. ground. This circuit arrangement holds true

TABLE 250 RESISTANCE AND AMPACITY OF SOME BARE AERIAL CONDUCTORS

Conductor size Resistance per conductor at 75°C Ampacity in free air''

AWG Cross-section [mm 2 1 Copper [H/kmj ACSR [H/km] Copper IAJ ACSR [Al

10 5.3 3.9 6.7 70

7 10.6 2.0 3.3 110
4 21.l 0.91 1.7 180 140
I 42.4 0.50 0.90 270 200
310 85 0.25 0.47 420 300
300 kcmil 152 0.14 0.22 600 500
600 kcmil 304 0.072 0.11 950 750
IOOO kcmil 507 0.045 0.065 1300 1050

*The ampacity indicated is the maximum that may be used without weakening the conductor by overheating. In
practice, the actual line current may be only 25 percent of the indicated value.
678 ELECTRIC UTILITY POWER SYSTEMS

3.25n 2sn elements shown in Fig. 25.14. The validity of this

simplification depends upon the relative magnitude
of the active and reactive powers P1 , QL, Qc asso-
ciated with the line, compared to the active power P
that it delivers to the load. Referring to Fig. 25.17,
these powers are
P active power absorbed by the load
P1 PR. active power dissipated in the line
Figure 25.15 QL = PxL, reactive power absorbed by the line
Equivalent circuit of one phase (Example 25-2).
Qc = E2"1Xc, reactive power generated by the
even when the neutrals of the source and load line. (We assume the source and load volt-
are not grounded. The result is that the volt- ages have the same magnitude)
age acros~ each capacitor is given by With the exception of P, these powers are all pro-
Ee £/\/3, where Eis the respective line portional to the length of the line. If one of them-
voltage at the source or load. Thus, knowing P1, QL, or Qc-is negligible compared with the ac-
that the line voltage is 230 kV at the source tive power P, we can neglect the corresponding
and 220 kV at the load, the voltages across circuit element that produces it.
the respective capacitors are For example, low-voltage lines are always short
2
Ecs 23043 133 kV and because the voltage is low, E 1Xc is always neg-
ligible. Low-voltage lines can therefore be repre-
= 220/\/3 127kV sented by the circuit of Fig. 25.18. If the conductor
happens to be small, such as in house-wiring cir-
cuits, the resistance predominates and the inductive
25.18 Simplifying the equivalent portion of Fig. 25.18 can also be neglected.
circuit On the other hand, extra-high-voltage lines are
always long, and so the reactive powers associated
We can often simplify the equivalent circuit of a
with the line capacitance and line inductance be-
transmission line by eliminating one, two, or all the
come important. Furthermore, because the effi-
ciency is high, it follows that the PR losses are
small. The equivalent circuit can therefore be rep-
resented by the circuit of Fig. 25.19.

2Xc

E E 1

Figure 25.16 Figure 25.17

Equivalent circuit of a 3-phase line. Active and reactive powers of a transmission line.
 TRANSMISSION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY 679

a. The active and reactive powers associated with

the line:
b. The approximate equivalent circuit, per phase.
Solution
Referring to Fig. 25.20a. we have:
a. The line-to-neutral voltage at the load is
E 230!V3 = 133 kH
Figure 25.18
Equivalent circuit of a short LV line. The active power transmitted to the load per
phase is
P 300 MW/3 IOO MW
The load current is
I= IOOMW/133kV 750A
If we temporarily neglect the presence of the
12 kf1 capacitor in parallel with the load, the line
current is equal to the load current (Fig. 25.20b).
PR losses in the line are
Figure 25.19 2
Equivalent circuit of a long HV line.
PJ =PR= 3.25 x 750
I .83 MW ( 1.8 percent of P)
In general, medium-voltage and high-voltage Reactive power absorbed by the line is
lines can be represented by a simple inductive reac- 2
tance. We will make use of this fact in developing QL PxL = 25 x 750
the properties of transmission lines. = 14.1 Mvar ( 14 percent of P)

Reactive power generated by the line at each

Example 25-3
end is
The transmission line shown in Fig. 25.16 delivers
300 MW to the 3-phase load. If the line voltage at Q E:!.IXc 133 000 2/12 000
both the sending end (source) and receiving end = 1.47 Mvar
(load) is 230 kV, determine the following:

25!1 3.25!1 25!1

~ 133 kV 12 k!l 12k!l

~
1000 MCM

(a) {b) (c)

Figure 25.20
Progressive simplification of a 735 kV line (Example 25-3).
680 ELECTRIC UTILITY POWER SYSTEMS

Total reactive power generated by the line is voltage Es is fixed, but the receiver voltage ER de-
pends upon tlw power drawn by the load.
Qc 2 X 1.47
= 3 M var ( 3 percent of P)
25.20 Resistive line
b. Comparing the relative values of P.i. QL, Qc,
The transmission line of Fig. 25.21 a possesses a re-
and P, it is clear that we can neglect the resis-
sistance R. Starting from an open circuit, we gradu-
tance and the capacitance of the line. The re-
ally reduce the load resistance until it becomes zero.
sulting equivalent circuit is a simple inductive
During this process we observe the receiver voltage
reactance of 25 n (Fig. 25.20c).
ER across the load, as well as the active power Pit
absorbs. If numerical values were given, a few sim-
25.19 Voltage regulation ple calculations would enable us to draw a graph of
and power-transmission ER as a function of P. However, we prefer to use a
capability of transmission generalized curve that shows the relationship be-
lines tween ER and P for any transmission line having an
arbitrary resistance R.
Voltage regulation and power-handling capacity are The generalized shape of this graph is given in
two important features of a transmission line. Thus, Fig. 25.21 b. It reveals the following information:
the voltage of a tnrnsmission line should remain as
constant as possible even under variable load con-
R
ditions. Ordinarily, the voltage regulation from zero
to fu!l-load should not exceed ::±::Ylc of the nominal
voltage (though we can sometimes accept a regula-
tion as high as ::±:: 10% ).
As regards power-handling capacity, it may come
as a surprise that a transmission line can deliver only
so much power and no more. The power that can be (al
transported from source to load depends upon the
impedance of the line. We are mainly interested in
transmitting active power because only it can do Es 1
0.95 Es ........... .
useful work. In order to determine the voltage regu-
lation and to establish their power transmission ca-
pability, we now examine four types of lines:

I. Resistive line
2. Inductive line
l
ER
o.5 Es .............. ~ .................................................................,

3. Inductive line with compensation

4. Inductive line connecting two large systems r-1
p max =Es2/4 RI
In our analysis the lines connect a load (or re-
o-+--=--'-~~~~~~~~~~
ceiver) R to a source (or sender) S. The load can 0 19 -P 100 %
have all possible impedance values. ranging from
no-load to a short-circuit. However, we are only in- (bl
terested in the actin' power the line can transmit.
Consequently, the load can be represented by a vari- Figure 25.21
able resistance absorbing a power P. The sender Characteristics of a resistive line.
 TRANSMISSION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY 681

a. There is an upper limit to the power the line Note that4.75 kW/25 kW= 0.19, or 19%,
can transmit to the load. In effect, which is the percentage predicted by the curve
R (25. I) of Fig. 25.2lb.

and this maximum is reached when the receiver

voltage is 25.21 Inductive line
= 0.5 Let us now consider a line having negligible resis-
tance but possessing an inductive reactance X (Fig.
b. The power delivered to the load is maximum
25.22a). The receiver again operates at unity power
when the impedance of the load is equal to the
factor, and so it can be represented by a variable re-
resistance of the line.
sistance absorbing a power P. As in the case of a re-
c. If we permit a maximum regulation of 5 per-
sistive line, voltage ER diminishes as the load in-
cent (ER 0.95 Es), the graph shows that the
creases, but the regulation curve has a different shape
line can carry a load that is only 19 percent of
(Fig. 25.22b). In effect, the generalized graph of ER
P max· The line could transmit more power, but
as a function of P reveals the following information:
the customer voltage ER would then be too low.
a. The line can transmit a maximum power to the
Note that the sender must furnish the power P
load given by
absorbed by the load, plus the PR losses in the line.
(25.2)
Example 25-4 - - - - - - - - - - - -
A single-phase transm1ss10n line having a resis- x
tance of I 0 !l is connected to a fixed sender voltage
of 1000 V.
Calculate
a. The maximum power the line can transmit to
the load
b. The receiver power for a receiver voltage of
(a)
950 v
Esr1_ _ _ _ __
Solution
0.95E ....................................... .
a. The maximum power that can be transmitted is 8

Pmax Es'.'./4 R
= 1000 2/(4 x 10)
25 kW
. 7T : 2
·--················-········r·························

b. When ER 950 V, the voltage drop in the line is

ER 1000 - 950 = so v p max = Es 2/2 X
The line current is, therefore, \_1
I (Es - ER)/R = 50/10 o~::_ ~
I
__ __.._______.__
0 60 100 %
SA -P
The receiver power is (b)

P = E5 / 950 X 5 = 4750 W
Figure 25.22
= 4.75 kW Characteristics of an inductive line.
682 ELECTRIC UTILITY POWER SYSTEMS

The corresponding receiver voltage is current /. Taking ER 950 V as the reference

ER= 0.707 phasor, we-draw the phasor diagram for the cir-
cuit of Fig. 25.2-3.
Thus, for a given line impedance and sender Current I is in phase with ER because the load
voltage, the reactive line can deliver twice as is resistive. Furthermore, we can write
much power as a resistive line can (compare
P E/12 X and P = Es 2 14 R). Es= ER j/X
b. The power delivered to the load is maximum 950 + IOjl
when the resistance of the load is equal to the
reactance of the I ine. This equation corresponds to the phasor dia-
gram of Fig. 25.24. From this diagram we can
c. If we again allow a maximum regulation of 5
percent. the graph shows that the line can carry write, by inspection
a load that is 60 percent of Pmax· Thus, for a E/ + (10 /)2
ER 2
given line impedance and a regulation of 5 per- 1000
2 2
950 + 100 t2
cent the inductive line can transmit six times as
much active power as a resistive line can. from which
The sender has to supply the active power P I = \'975 31.22 A
consumed by the load plus the reactive power
! 2 X absorbed by the line. The power to the receiver is, therefore,
P Es!= 950 X 31.22
Example 25-5
A single-phase transmission line having an induc- 29.66 kW
tive reactance of IO n is connected to a fixed sender Note that 29.66 kW is equal to 60 percent of
voltage of I 000 V. Pmax (50 kW), as predicted by the curve of Fig.
25.22.
Calculate
a. The maximum active power the line can deliver
to a resistive load 10 H

b. The corresponding receiver voltage

c. The receiver power when the receiver voltage
is 950 V
Solution
a. The maximum power that can be transmitted to
the load is
Figure 25.23
Prnax E,2/2 X See Example 25-5.
I 000 2/2 x IO
= 50kW

~
b. According to Fig. 25.22b the receiver voltage f,s ~
at maximum power is 10/

ER 0.707 Es 0.707 X IOOO

707 v I ER= 950V

c. In order to calculate the receiver power when Figure 25.24

ER 950 V, we first calculate the value of the See Example 25-5.
 TRANSMISSION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY 683

25.22 Compensated inductive line Beyond this limit. ER gradually decreases to zero in
a diagonal line, as shown by the graph of Fig.
We can improve the regulation and power-handling 25.25b. Note the following:
capacity of an inductive line by adding a variable ca-
pacitive reactance Xe across the load (Fig. 25.25a). a. The voltage regulation is perfect until the load
Indeed, we can get perfect regulation by adjusting power reaches the limiting value Pmax Es 2/X.
the value of Xe so that the reactive power Es 2/Xe b. The compensated inductive line can deliver
supplied by the capacitor is at all times equal to one- twice as much power (Pmax) as an uncompen-
half the reactive power {'x absorbed by the line. For sated line can. Moreover, it has the advantage
such a compensated line the value of the receiver of maintaining a constant load voltage.
voltage ER will always be equal to the sender volt- Capacitor Xe supplies one-half the reactive
age Es. irrespective of the active power P absorbed power PxL absorbed by the line; the remaining half
by the load. is supplied by the sender If necessary, we can
However, there still is an upper limit to the add a second capacitor Xe (dash line in Fig. 25.25a)
power the line can transmit. A detailed analysis at the input to the line. The source has then only to
shows that we can maintain a constant load voltage supply the active power P, while the reactive power
(ER = E 5 ) up to a maximum of is supplied by the capacitors at both ends.
(25.3)
Example 25-6 - - - - - - - - - - - -
A single-phase line possesses an inductive reac-
tance X of I 0 !! and is connected to a fixed sender
voltage of 1000 Y. If it is fully compensated, calcu-
late the following:
a. The maximum active power that the line can
deliver to a resistive load
b. The capacitive reactance that must be installed
(a)
on the receiver side, in (a)
c. The capacitive reactance that must be installed on
Es~1~~~~~~~~~--.2 the receiver side when the active power is 40 kW
Note: a change in Pc
Solution
requires a readjustment
of Xe
a. The maximum power that can be transmitted to
ER the receiver is
2
Pnw.x = E/!X = 1000 110
r lOOkW
b. Fig. 25.26 shows the compensated line with the
capacitive reactance carrying a current le. The
phasor diagram of Fig. 25.27 gives us the key
0-lL-~~~~-'-~~-~~~ to solving the value of Xe that is required.
0 50 100% Using ER 1000 Vas the reference phasor we
-P
reason as follows:
(b) The current in the resistive load is
Figure 25.25 IR PmaJER = 100000/1000
Characteristics of a compensated inductive line. = IOOA
684 ELECTRIC UTILITY POWER SYSTEMS

X= Consequently,
10 n
Ue 2 + I 00 2 )
- I
I OOO'fe
2
=
•
.5
5 le - 1000 le + 5 X 10
4

/R
100 A l Solving this quadratic equation we find
= 0

le= 100 A
The value of Xe is given by
Figure 25.26
See Example 25-6. Xe= ER/le
10001100
=JOO
In Fig. 25.27, the fact that le 100 A means
that current/ leads ER by 45°. Consequently,
must be 90° ahead of ER. Thus, the power
transfer is maximum when the phase angle be-
tween and ER is 90°. This is compatible with
Eq. 16.8 in Section 16.23.
c. When the load is 40 kW, the load current is
/R = PIER = 40 000/1000
= 40A

Letting the current in the capacitor be le, the

resulting line current is
/R = 100 A Ea = 1000 V I

Figure 25.27
See Example 25-6.
The reactive power generated by Xe is

The current le leads ER by 90°. Qc fc:ER

The reactive power generated by Xe is 1000 le

Qe ERie The reactive power absorbed by the line is

2
= 1000 le QL Px = (40 +I/HO
The current I in the line is Full compensation requires that
I Qc 0.5 QL
VI~ 100 2 1000 le 5 (40 2 + le 2 )
Solving this equation, we find
The reactive power absorbed by the line is
2 le 8.35 A
QL Px = Ue 2 100 ) JO
The value of Xe is
In a fully compensated line we have
fig 1000
Xe 119.8 H
le 8.35
 TRANSMISSION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY 685

10 H

-
I= 40.86 A

h A
8.35 i
R

\
\
\
h \
8.35 A _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _.....__ ___.,...ER=
\

1000 v Figure 25.29

E8 leads ER·
Figure 25.28
See Example 25-6.

The circuit and phasor diagram for this compen- Es and ER are fixed, each possessing the same mag-
sated line is given in Fig. 25.28. nitude £. Regarding the exchange of active power
We note that although the values of ER and are between the two regional consumers, we examine
the same, ER lags considerably behind Es. three distinct possibilities:

I. Es and ER in phase
25.23 Inductive line connecting
2. leading ER by an angle 3
two systems
Large cities and other regional users of electrical
3. Es lagging ER by an angle o
energy are always interconnected by a network of 1. Es and ER in Phase In this case, the line current
transmission lines. Such a network improves the is zero and no power is transmitted.
stability of the electric utility system and enables it 2. E 8 Leads ER by an Angle o (Fig. 25.29). Region
to better endure momentary short-circuits and other S supplies power to region R and, from the pha-
disturbances. Interconnecting lines also enable en- sor diagram, we can prove (Section 16.23) that the
ergy exchanges between electrical utility compa- active power transmitted is given by
nies. The 60 Hz frequency of such a network is E2
everywhere the same. P = X sin o (25.4)
The voltages of large regional users remain es- where
sentially independent of each other, both in value
and in phase. In effect, because of their enormous P = active power transmitted per phase [MWJ*
power, the regional consumers appear as if they E line-to-neutral voltage [k VJ
were independent infinite buses. What happens X = inductive reactance of the line, per phase [HJ
when an additional transmission line is put in ser-
3 phase angle between the voltages at each
vice between two such regions?.
end of the line [ 0 1
Fig. 25.29 shows the equivalent .s;\rcuit of such
an inductive line connecting two regional con- In this equation. if£ reprc;,ents the line voltage. P j;, the total
sumers S and R. We assume the terminal voltages power transmitted by the three phase;,.
686 ELECTRIC UTILITY POWER SYSTEMS

% p =£2/X power increases 18 = 0° a 90°)

100 __m_~- - -

r50

30 90 180 100 %
degrees
-e -P

Figure 25.30a Figure 25.30b

Power versus angle characteristic. Voltage versus power characteristic.

Fig. 25.30a shows the active power transmitted power versus phase angle is identical to that
from region S to region R as a function of the phase shown in Fig. 25.30a.
angle between the two regions. Note that the power If we compare Figs. 25.29 and 25.31, we note
increases progressively and attains a maximum that the direction of power flow does not depend
value of E2/X when the phase angle is 90°. In effect, upon the relative magnitudes of Es and ER (they are
just as in the other transmission lines we have stud- equal), but only upon the phase angle between
ied. a line connecting two power centers can trans- them. On inductive lines, active power always
mit only so much power and no more. The power flows from the leading to the lagging voltage side.
limit is the same as that of a compensated inductive
line. Although we can still transmit power when the 25.24 Review of power
phase angle exceeds 90°, we avoid this condition transmission
because it corresponds to an unstable mode of op-
eration. When oapproaches 90°, the two regions are In summary, there is always a limit to the amount of
at the point of pulling apart, and the line circuit power a line can transmit. The maximum power is
breakers will trip. proportional to the square of the sender voltage and
Fig. 25.30b shows the load voltage ER as a func-
tion of the active power transmitted. It is simply a
horizontal line that stretches to a maximum value
Pmax = E~/Xbefore falling back again to zero (dot-
ted line). This voltage regulation curve should be
compared with that of Fig. 25.25b for a compen-
sated line. REGIONS REGION R
Note that the line voltage drop Ex is quite large,
even though the terminal voltages Es and ER are
I
equal in magnitude (Fig. 25.29). Furthermore, it is
clear that Ex increases as the phase angle between
Es and ER increases.
3. Es Lags Behind ER by an Angle o (Fig. 25.31 ).
The active power has the same value as before,
but it now flows in the opposite direction, from Figure 25.31
region R toward region S. The graph of active ER leads E5 .
 TRANSMISSION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY 687

power transmittable
for a voltage regu la -
v
~~p
tion of 5%
1000~1~-==~....,...~~~...,-~~~..,-r-~--.,,

25kW 4.75 kW
1~
v
I"ffi
Es~P 50kW 30 kW

~
Es~PlOOkW 100kW

250 j 100kW

SO kW

o0~~~--'25~~------'50~~~~75~~ 100 kW
-P

Figure 25.32
Comparison of the power-handling properties of various transmission lines.

inversely proportional to the impedance of the line. 25.25 Choosing the line voltage
25.32 enables us to compare actual values of
power and voltage for the four transmission line We have seen that for a given transmission line and
models we have studied. Each model possesses an for a given voltage regulation the maximum power
2
Pmax that can be transmitted is proportional to E /Z,
impedance of 10 n and the sender furnishes a volt-
age E5 of I 000 V. It is clear that the ER versus P where E is the voltage of the line and Z, its imped-
curves become flatter and flatter as we progress from ance. Thus,
a resistive to an inductive to a compensated line.
The table next to the graph shows the maximum
power that can be transmitted assuming a regulation and so
of 5 percent or better. Thus, the resistive line can
transmit 4.75 kW, whereas the inductive line can Because Z is proportional to the length of the line,
transmit 30 kW. we deduce that the line voltage can be expressed by
Because all lines possess some resistance, we
also show the voltage-power curve of a compen- E k YPI (25.5)
sated line having a reactance of 9.8 fl and a resis- where
tance of2 fl (curve 5). This fifth line also has an im- E = 3-phase line voltage [kV]
pedance of I 0 fl, but the maximum power it can
transmit drops to 80 kW, compared to 100 kW for a P power to be transmitted [kWI
line possessing no resistance. l length of the transmission line lkmj
In practice, the voltages and' powe.rs are much k = coefficient that depends on the type of
higher than those given in these examples. line and the allowable voltage regula-
Nevertheless, the method of analysis is the same. tion. Typical values are
688 ELECTRIC UTILITY POWER SYSTEMS

k 0.1 for an uncompensated line having a From Table 25C we find

regulation of 5%
XL =··o.5 Wkm x 20km =ion
k 0.06 for a compensated line ..
c. The TR drop in the line is
Equation 25.5 is very approximate, but it does give
an idea of the order of magnitude of the line voltage TR 167 X 18 3006 V
E. The value finally chosen depends upon economic The IXL drop in the line is
factors as well as technical considerations; in gen-
eral, the actual voltage selected will lie between IXL 167 x 10 1670 v
0.6 E and 1.5 E. The line-to-neutral voltage across the load is
19 900 Y. The complete circuit diagram per
Example 25-7 - - - - - - - - - - - - phase is given in Fig. 25.33a. The correspond-
Power has to be carried over a distance of 20 km to ing phasor diagram is given in Fig. 25.33b. The
feed a I 0 MW unity power factor load. If the line is sender voltage may be calculated as follows:
uncompensated,
Es = 19 900 +
a. Determine the line voltage
b. Select an appropriate conductor size
22 967 v
c. Calculate the voltage regulation If the load were removed, ER would rise to
22 967 Y. The voltage regulation is, therefore,
Solution
a. Because the line is not compensated, we as- regulation (22 967 19 000)/19 000
sume k 0.1. A power of 10 MW is equal to = 3967119 000
IO 000 kW. Consequently,
0.209 or 20.9%
E = k VP! (25.5)
Note that this medium-voltage line is more re-
0.1 10000 x 20 sistive than inductive.
44.7 kV
Any voltage between 0.6 X 44.7 kV 27 kV)
and 1.5 x 44.7 kV 67 kV) is feasible. We
shall use a standard line voltage of 34.5 kV.
The line-to-neutral voltage is

E 34.5!\/3 = 19.9 kV
b. The conductor size depends mainly upon the Figure 25.33a
current to be carried. The line current is Transmission line under load.
l = S/(V3 E) (8.9)
6
x x
£,~~
10 10 /( 1.73 34 500)

~_J1670V
= 167 A
According to Table 250, we can use a No. I
ACSR conductor: 167 A 19 900 V J00sV
ampacity = 200 A Figure 25.33b
R = 0. 9 fl/km X 20 km = 18 fl Corresponding phasor diagram.
 TRANSMISSION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY 689

25.26 Methods of increasing

the power capacity
High-voltage lines are mainly inductive, possessing
a reactance of about 0.5 U/km. This creates prob-
lems when we have to transmit large blocks of
power over great distances. Suppose, for example,
that 4000 MW has to be transmitted over a distance
of 400 km. The reactance of the line is 400 km X
0.5 ntkm 200 !1, per phase. Since the highest
practical line-to-line voltage is about 800 kV, the
3-phase line can transmit no more than
Pmax £2/X
2
= 800 /200 (25.3)
3200 MW
Figure 25.34
To transmit 4000 MW, the only solution is to use Two 735 kV transmission lines in parallel carrying
two lines in pnrallel, one beside the other. Note that electrical energy to a large city. Each phase is com-
doubling the size of the conductors would not help, posed of 4 bundled conductors (see Fig. 25.7).
because for such a line it is the reactance and not (Courtesy of Hydro-Quebec)
the resistance of the conductors that determines the
maximum power that can be transmitted. With this arrangement, the maximum power 1s
Additional lines are also useful to provide sys- given by
tem security in the event that a parallel line trips
out, due to a disturbance. Thus, if one line is lost, (25.6)
the scheduled power can still be carried by the re- where Xe, is the reactance of the series capacitors
maining line. per phase. Such series compensation is also used to
To carry large blocks of power, we sometimes regulate the voltage of medium-voltage lines when
erect two, three, and even four transmission lines in the load fluctuates rapidly.
parallel, which follow the same corridor across the
countryside (Fig. 25.34). In addition to high cost,
the use of parallel lines often creates serious prob-
25.27 Extra-high-voltage lines
lems of land expropriation. Consequently, special When electrical energy is transmitted at extra-high
methods are sometimes used to increase the maxi- voltages, special problems arise that require the in-
mum power of a line. In effect, when we can no stallation of large compensating devices to regulate
longer increase the line voltage, we try to reduce the the voltage and to guarantee stability. Among these
line reactance XL by greatly increasing the effective devices are synchronous capacitors, inductive reac-
diameter of the conductors. This is done by using tors, static var compensators, and shunt and series
two or more conductors per phase, kept apart by capacitors.
spacers. Such bundled conductors can reduce the To understand the need for such devices, and to
reactance by as much as 40 percent. permitting an appreciate the magnitude of the powers involved,
increase of 67 percent in the pov..;,er-handling capa- consider a 3-phase, 735 kV, 60 Hz line. having a
bility of the line. length of 600 km. The line operates at 727 kV and
Another method uses capacitors in series with the inductive and capacitive reactances are respec-
the three lines to artificially reduce the value of XL. tively 0.5 n and 300 kn for each kilometer of
690 ELECTRIC UTILITY POWER SYSTEMS

length. We first determine the equivalent circuit of reactive power generated by XC2 (420 2 /1000 = 176
the transmission line per phase: Mvar) is entirdy absorbed by Xu. The latter must,
Sender voltage per phase (line-to-neutral) is therefore, have a cai)acity of 176 Mvar, per phase.
727/VJ = 420 kV Despite this inductive compensation, we still
have a reactive power of 176 Mvar, generated by
Inductive reactance per phase is Xc 1, which has to be absorbed by the synchronous
xL o.5 x 600 300 n generator G. However, a capacitive load at the ter-
minals of a generator creates overvoltages, unless
Capacitive reactance per phase is we reduce the alternator exciting current (Section
Xe 300 kH/600 = 500 0 16.13 ). But underexcitation is not recommended
because it leads to instability. Consequently, we
Equivalent capacitive reactance at each end of must install a second inductive reactance of I 76
the line is Mvar close to the generating station. In the case of
very long transmission lines (500 km to 1500 km),
Xe I = Xc2 2 x 500 n
several inductive reactances are installed along the
1ooon
line to distribute the inductive compensation evenly
The equivalent circuit, per phase, is shown in over its length.
Fig. 25.35. Let us now study the behavior of the line Inductive reactors (fixed or variable) are com-
under no-load and full-load conditions. posed of a large coil placed inside a tank and im-
No-Load Operation. At no-load the circuit formed mersed in oil (Fig. 25.37). A laminated steel core
by XL in series with Xc 2 produces a partial reso- split up into a series of short air gaps carries the
nance and the terminal voltage ER rises to 600 kV. magnetic flux. Intense magnetic forces are devel-
In effect, we obtain: oped across the air gaps. On a 60 Hz system, these
forces continuously oscillate between zero and sev-
eral tons, at a mechanical frequency of 120 Hz. The
core laminations and all metallic parts must, there-
IOOOQ fore, be firmly secured to reduce vibration and to
= 420 kV X - - - - 600 kV limit noise to an acceptable level.
IOOOQ - 300Q
Operation Under Load, Characteristic Impedance.
This represents an increase of 43 percent above the Returning again to the uncompensated line on open-
nominal voltage of 420 kV (Fig. 25.35 ). Such an ab- circuit (Fig. 25.35), let us connect a variable unity
normally high voltage is unacceptable. The only fea- power factor load across the receiver terminals. If
sible way to reduce it is to connect an inductive re- we progressively increase the megawatt load, re-
actance XL2 at the end of the line (Fig. 25.36). If we ceiver voltage ER will gradually decrease from its
make XL 2 equal to Xc 2 , the resulting parallel reso- open-circuit value of 600 kV and for one particular
nance brings voltage ER back to 420 kV. In effect, the load it will become exactly equal to the sender volt-

300.Q 300.Q

Es=
Xc1 Xc2 Ti
Es--
Xc1
XL
Xc2 c; XL2 T
0 ER= 420 kV
420 kV 1000!2 1000 .f2 ER = 600 kV 1000.n 0
420 kV 1ooon s
1
I
1
Figure 25.35 Figure 25.36
EHV transmission line at no-load. EHV reactor compensation.
 TRANSMISSION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY 691

Figure 25.37
Three large 11 O Mvar, single-phase reactors
installed in a substation to compensate the
line capacitance of a very long 3-phase 735
kV transmission line.
(Courtesy of Hydro-Quebec)

age (Fig. 25.38). This patticular load is called the active power generated by the capacitance of the
surge-impedance load. For most aerial lines the im- line is equal to that absorbed by its inductance. The
pedance of this load corresponds to a line-to-neutral line, in effect, compensates itself. If the load ex-
load resistance of about 400 n per phase. This par- ceeds the surge-impedance load, we can keep ER at
ticular load resistance (called surge impedance) is 420 kV by adding extra capacitors at the receiver
independent of the system frequency or the length end of the line. However, the maximum power is
of the line. The surge impedance load (SIL) of a still limited to the value given by Eq. 25.3, namely
3-phase transmission line is, therefore, given by the 2
approximate equation: Pmax 3 X (£ /X)
3 x (420 2/300)
SIL= £ 21400 (25.7)
= 1764 MW
where
SIL = surge impedance load [MWJ
E = 3-phase line voltage [kV]

In Fig. 25.38, the total surge-impedance load is

approximately 727 2 /400 1320 MW.
When a transmission line delivers active power
corresponding to its surge-impedance load, the re-

t's =
420 kV 1000 n 10oon

Figure 25.39
Figure 25.38 Static var compensator for HV line.
Surge impedance loading of a line. (Courtesy of General Electric)
692 ELECTRIC UTILITY POWER SYSTEMS

If the load is less than the surge-impedance load, we transmission lines (not shown) (Fig. 25.40). The re-
must add inductive reactance at the receiver end of the spective voltages E,, and Eb are equal, but leads
line to maintain a constant voltage. Conversely, if the Eb by an angle o. If we decide to connect the two
load is greater than the surge-impedance load, a ca- centers by an extra transmission line having a reac-
pacitive reactance must be added. Because the load tance X, the active power P will automatically flow
continually changes throughout the day, the magni- from A to B because E,. leads Eb (see Section
tude of the capacitive and inductive reactance must 25.23 ). Furthermore, phase angle o and reactance X
continually be varied to keep a steady voltage. This is will completely dictate the magnitude of the power
done by means of static var compensators (Fig. 25.39), transmitted because P (E 2 /X) sin o.
or rotating synchronous machines. The latter can de- However, the magnitude and direction of P may
liver or absorb reactive power, according to whether not correspond to what we want to achieve. For ex-
they are over- or under-excited (Section 17.15). ample, if we wish to transmit energy from region B
to region A, the installation of a simple line will not
25.28 Power exchange do, because E,, leads Eb.
between power centers However, we can force a power exchange in one
direction or the other by artificially modifying the
We sometimes have to install an additional trans- phase angle between the two regions. All we have to
mission line between regions that are already do is to introduce a phase-shift autotransformer
tightly interconnected. Such a line may be required (Section 12.ll) at one end of the line; by varying the
to meet the energy needs of a rapidly growing area phase angle of this transformer, we can completely
or to improve the overall stability of the network. In control the active power flow between the two centers.
such cases, we use special methods so that the ad-
ditional line will transmit the required power. Example 25-8
Consider, for example, two major power centers Fig. 25 .41 a shows the voltages and phase angle be-
A and B that are already interconnected by a grid of tween two regions A and B that are already inter-
connected by a network (not shown). Voltage Eb is
known to lead £,.by 11°, and both voltages have a
value of 100 kV. A new tie line having a reactance
n
x = 20 connects the two regions.
Calculate
a. The power transmitted by the line and the di-
rection of power flow, if no phase-shift trans-
former is employed
Figure 25.40
Power flow between two regions.

X=20n
= 100 kVl±1J~

Figure 25.41a
An ordinary transmission line causes power to flow in the wrong direction.
 TRANSMISSION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY 693

100 kV lQ'.' 100kV1+19° 100kV1+11°

T Ed
~
70MW

autotransformer

Figure 25.41 b
A phase-shift autotransformer can force power to flow in the desired direction (Example 25-8).

b. The required phase-shift of the transformer so from which

that the line will transmit 70 MW from A to B
o, = 8°
Solution Consequently, voltage Ed produced by the
a. The power transmitted in Fig. 25.41a is given by phase-shift transformer must lead Eb by 8° in
P = (E 2 /X) sin o (25.4) order that 70 MW may flow from A to B (Fig.
2 25.41 b ). Referring to the phasor diagram and
= (I 00 /20) sin 11 95.4 MW
noting that Eb already leads E" by 11°, it fol-
Because Eb leads E,I' the 95.4 MW will flow from lows that must be 11 + 8° = 19° ahead of
B to A. E". The autotransformer T must, therefore. pro-
b. Referring to Fig. 25 .41 b, let us first calculate duce a phase-shift of 19° between its primary
the phase angle o1 required between opposite and secondary windings, and the secondary
ends of the transmission line, so that it will voltage must lead the primary voltage
transmit 70 MW. We have We can put the autotransformer at either end of
the line or even in the middle.
P (E 2/X) sin o1 (25.4)
2
70 = (I 00 /20) sin 8 1
25.29 Practical example
sin 8 1 0.14 of power exchange
-"'. CONNECTICUT We now consider a practical application of a phase-
~-/· I Norwalk, shift transformer. To facilitate power exchange be-
· \ \ Stamford . tween the state of Connecticut and Long Island, New
York, six single-phase 138 kV submarine cables (two
per phase) were installed between Norwalk and
Northport, at the bottom of Long Island Sound (Fig.
25.42). Because the two regions were already inter-
connected by a grid of transmission lines above
ground, it was decided to install a phase-shift auto-
NEW YORK transformer at Northport to control a maximum
power flow of 300 MW. Variable taps enable a max-
dJ,. imum phase-shift of ±25 degrees. On the other side,
at Norwalk, a 300 MVA variable-voltage autotrans-
Figure 25.42 former was installed to provide voltage control of up
Six single-phase submarine cables join the State of to I0 percent, without phase-shift. By varying the
Connecticut to Long Island. phase-shift and the voltage at either end of the 19 km
694 ELECTRIC UTILITY POWER SYSTEMS

1.1.Q 1.3.Q line, it is possible to control the power flow between

---
630A
the two regions, in one direction or the other, de-
pending on the neecf The foUowing technical details
show the magnitude of the powers involved in such
a cable transmission system.
Each of the six single-phase cables (Fig. 25.44)
possesses a resistance of 1.3 n. an inductive reac-
Figure 25.43 tance of 1.1 n, and a capacitive reactance of 375 n.
Equivalent circuit of each submarine cable. The latter can be represented by two reactances of

~:-1-lllliilJ-- copper conductor

,:.:.;,~,,__,~~- carbon black screen
0~f-1'!$'ilJ--- paper insulation
metallized paper screen
~+.+-&n---- lead alloy sheath
~:.;:+;,;L__~;:+---- reinforcement

z~01~~~~~~m0112::.i~~=== polyethylene sheath

~!!iii.:J~lliiifl'--------- treated jute bedding

iJC~~~~~~~------- aldrey wire armoring

Figure 25.44
Cross-section view of submarine cable (138 kV, 630 A). This cable is one of seven cables submerged in Long
Island Sound between Northport (Long Island) and Norwalk (Connecticut).
(Courtesy of Pirelli Cables Limited)
 TRANSMISSION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY 695

750 n at each end of the cable. The full-load current a. Suspension-type insulator
per cable is 630 A, and the line-to-neutral voltage is b. Ground wire
80 kV. Referring to the equivalent circuit diagram c. Corona effect
for one cable (Fig. 25.43), we can readily calculate d. of a transmission line
e. Reactance of a line
the value of the inductive, capacitive, and resistive
powers associated with it. These powers QL, Qc, P1 25-3 Why must transmission line towers be
are listed in Table 25E. solidly connected to ground?
25-4 A 735 kV transmission line, 745 miles
TABLE 25E POWERS IN A SUBMARINE CABLE long, transmits a power of 800 MW.
a. Is there an appreciable voltage difference
Submarine cable Power Total
between the two ends of the line. measured
insrallacion per cable power
line-to-neutral?
12R losses: b. Is there an appreciable phase angle between
P1 630 2 X 1.3 corresponding line-to-neutral voltages?
0.516 MW 0.516 MW 3.1 MW 25-5 In some areas, two identical 3-phase
Reactive power generated: lines are installed side-by-side, supported
Qc = (80 000) 2/375 by separate towers. Could we replace
= 17.06 Mvar 17 Mvar 102 Mvar these two lines by a single line, by sim-
Reactive power absorbed: ply doubling the size of the conductors?
2
QL 630 X I.I Explain.
0.436 Mvar 0.44 Mvar 2.6 Mvar
25-6 Why do we seldom install underground
Active power transmitted:
cable (instead of aerial transmission lines)
p = 630 x 80 000
50MW 50MW 300MW between generating stations and distant
load centers?
In comparing them with the active power trans- 25-7 In Problem 25-4 the average line span is
mitted (300 MW), we can see that the capacitance 480 m. How many towers are needed be-
of the cable is far more important than are its resis- tween the source and the load?
tance or inductance. A cable behaves like an enor-
25-8 A 20 km transmission line operating at
mous capacitor, contrary to an aerial line which is
13.2 kV has just been disconnected from
mainly inductive. It is precisely the inherent large
the source. A lineman could receive a fatal
capacitance that prevents us from using cables to
shock if he does not first connect the line
transmit energy over long distances. This restriction
to ground before touching it. Explain.
does not apply when direct current is used because
capacitance then has no effect. 25-9 What is the ampacity of a 600 kcmil
High-voltage de transmission lines are covered ACSR cable suspended in free air? Why
in Chapter 28. can a copper conductor having the same
cross-section carry a current that is con-
Questions and Problems siderably greater?

Practical level Intermediate level

25-1 Standard voltages are grouped into four 25-10 Each phase of the two 735 k Y lines shown
main classes. Name them and state the ap- in Fig. 25.34 is composed of 4 bundled
proximate voltage range of .e.~ch. subconductors. The current per phase is
25-2 Explain what is meant by the following 2000 A and the resistance of each subcon-
terms: ductor is 0.045 Wkm.
696 ELECTRIC UTILITY POWER SYSTEMS

Calculate b. If a line is purely resistive. can we raise the

a. The total power transmitted by both lines at vol,tqge at the end of the line by connecting
unity power factor load a capacitrir across it'?
b. The total PR loss. knowing the lines are 25-17 The following information is given for
350 miles long 25.25a:
c. The ! 1 R loss;-; a percent of the total power a. Terminal voltage ER: 6000 V
transmitted b. Equivalent load resistance: 45 H
25-11 A single-phase transmission line possesses c. lnducti ve reaetance Xi. of the Iine: 15 H
a resistance R of 15 H (Fig. 25 .21 a). The d. Capaeitive reactance Xe in parallel with the
source Es is 6000 V. and the impedance of load: 150 n
the unity power factor load varies between Neglecting the dotted reactance Xe in paral-
285 n and 5 n. lel with the source, calculate the following:
a. Calculate the terminal voltage ER and the a. The reactive power supplied by the capacitor
power P absorbed by the load when the im- b. The line current I
pedance is successively 285 !1, 45 !1. 15 n, c. The reactive power absorbed by the line
and 5 n. d. The reactive power supplied by the sender
b. Draw the graph of the terminal voltage ER e. The apparent power supplied by the sender
as a function of the power P. f. The voltage Es of the sender
g. The voltage ER and the power P when Es is
25-12 In Problem 25-11, what is the phase 6 kV
angle between ER and Es when the load
25-18 In Problem 25-17, what is the phase angle
is 45 n?
between ER and
25-13 The transmission line in Problem 25-11 is
25-19 Referring to Fig. 25.13. each section of the
replaced by another having an inductive
circuit represents a transmission line length
reactance of 15 n (Fig. 25.22a).
of l km in which the impedances are
a. Calculate the voltage ER at the terminals of
the load and the power P it absorbs for the XL 0.5 {l r = 0.25 fl
same impedance values.
x~ = 300 kn
b. Draw the graph of ER as a function of P.
25-14 In Problem 25-13, what is the phase an- Calculate the values of XL· R, and Xe if the
gle between ER and Es when the load circuit is reduced to that shown in Fig. 25.14.
impedance is 45 !l? Does lead or lag 25-20 What is meant by the term surge imped-
behind Es? ance load?
25-15 A single-phase transmission line possesses Advanced level
an inductive reactance of 15 !l. It is sup- 25-21 A 3-phase 230 kV transmission line hav-
plied by a source of 6000 Y. ing a reactance of 43 ft per phase, con-
a. Calculate the voltage ER at the end of the
nects two regions that are 50 miles apart.
line for the following capacitive loads:
The phase angle between the voltages at
285 n. 45 n.
b. Calculate the phase angle between ER and the two ends of the line is 20°.
Es when the load is 45 !1. Calculate
25-16 The line in Problem 25-15 possesses a re- a. The accive power transmitted by the line
sistance of 15 n (instead of a reactance of b. The current in each conductor
15 fl). c. The total reactive power absorbed by the line
a. Calculate the voltage ER at the end of the d. The reactive power supplied to the line by
line for a capacitive load of 45 n. each region
 TRANSMISSION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY 697

25-22 A 3-phase aerial line connected to a 115 kV d. The total reactive power received by the
3-phase source has a length of 200 km. It is source
composed of three 600 kcmil-type ACSR e. The total i2R loss in the line
conductors. Referring to Fig. 25.17 and 25-23 a. In Problem 25-22, calculate the current drawn
Tables 25C and 250, if there is no load on from the source if a 3-phase short occurs
the line, calculate the following: across the end of the line.
a. The value of R, XL, and Xe, per phase b. Compare this current with the ampacity of
b. The voltage between conductors at the load the conductors.
(open end)
c. The current drawn from the source, per
phase
 CHAPTER 26
Distribution of Electrical Energy

26.0 Introduction consuming centers. The electrical equipment in such

distribution substations is similar to that found in sub-
n Chapter 25 we mentioned that an electrical
I power system is composed of high-voltage trans-
mission lines that feed power to a medium-voltage
stations associated with generating plants.

26.1 Substation equipment

(MY) network by means of substations. In North
America these MY networks generally operate at A medium-voltage substation usually contains the
voltages between 2.4 kV and 69 kV. In turn, they following major components:
supply millions of independent low-voltage sys- Transformers Surge arresters
tems that function between 120 V and 600 Y. Circuit breakers Current-limiting reactors
In this chapter, we cover the following main topics: Hom-gap switches Instrument transformers
Disconnect switches Relays and protective devices
I. Substations
Grounding switches
2. Protection of medium-voltage distribution In the description that follows. we study the ba-
systems sic principles of this equipment. Furthermore, to
3. Low-voltage distribution understand how it all fits together, we conclude our
4. Electrical installation in buildings study with a typical substation that provides power
to a large suburb.
SUBSTATIONS
Substations are used throughout an electrical sys-
26.2 Circuit breakers
tem. Starting with the generating station, a substa- Circuit breakers are designed to interrupt either nor-
tion raises the medium-voltage generated by the mal or short-circuit currents. They behave like big
synchronous generators to the high-voltage needed switches that may be opened or closed by local
to transmit the energy economically. pushbuttons or by distant telecommunication sig-
The high transmission-line voltage is then reduced nals emitted by the system of protection. Thus, cir-
in those substations located close to the power- cuit breakers will automatically open a circuit

698
 DISTRIBUTION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY 699

whenever the line current, line voltage, frequency, nected to the secondary of a current transformer.
and so on, departs from a preset limit. The primary carries the line current of the phase
The most important types of circuit breakers are that has to be protected. If the line current exceeds
the following: a preset limit, the secondary current will cause re-
lay contacts Ci. C 2 to close. As soon as they close,
I. Oil circuit breakers (OCBs)
the tripping coil is energized by an auxiliary de
2. Air-blast circuit breakers source. This causes the three main line contacts to
3. SF6 circuit breakers open, thus interrupting the circuit.
4. Vacuum circuit breakers 1. Oil Circuit Breakers. Oil circuit breakers are
composed of a steel tank filled with insulating oil.
The nameplate on a circuit breaker usually indi-
In one version (Fig. 26.2), three porcelain bushings
cates (I) the maximum steady-state current it can
channel the 3-phase line currents to a set of fixed
carry, (2) the maximum interrupting current, (3) the
contacts. Three movable contacts, actuated simulta-
maximum line voltage, and (4) the interrupting time
neously by an insulated rod, open and close the cir-
in cycles. The interrupting time may last from 3 to 8
cuit. When the circuit breaker is closed, the line cur-
cycles on a 60 Hz system. To interrupt large currents
rent for each phase penetrates the tank by way of a
this quickly, we have to ensure rapid deionization of
porcelain bushing, flows through the first fixed
the arc, combined with rapid cooling. High-speed
contact, the movable contact, the second fixed con-
interruption limits the damage to transmission lines
tact, and then on out by a second bushing.
and equipment and, equally important, it helps to
maintain the stability of the system whenever a con-
tingency occurs.
The triggering action that causes a circuit
breaker to open is usually produced by means of an
overload relay that can detect abnormal line condi-
tions. For example, the relay coil in Fig. 26.1 is con-

transmission line

current
transformer

teel tank
current
transformer

contact

Figure 26.2
Cross-section of an oil circuit breaker. The diagram
shows four of the six bushings; the heater keeps the
Figure 26.1 oil at a satisfactory temperature during cold weather.
Elementary tripping circuit for a circuit breaker. (Courtesy of Canadian General Electric)
700 ELECTRIC UTILITY POWER SYSTEMS

If an overload occurs, the tripping coil releases a 2. Air-Blast Circuit Breakers. These circuit
powerful spring that pulls on the insulated rod, caus- breakers intep:upt the circuit by blowing com-
ing the contacts to open. As soon as the contacts sep- pressed air at supersonic speed across the opening
arate, a violent arc is created, which volatilizes the contacts. Compressed air is stored in reservoirs at a
surrounding oil. The pressure of the hot gases creates pressure of about 3 MPa ( ~435 psi) and is replen-
turbulence around the contacts. This causes cool oil ished by a compressor located in the substation. The
to swirl around the arc, thus extinguishing it. most powerful circuit breakers can typically open
In modern high-power breakers, the arc is con- short-circuit currents of 40 kA at a line voltage of
fined to an explosion chamber so that the pressure 765 kV in a matter of 3 to 6 cycles on a 60 Hz line.
of the hot gases produces a powerful jet of oil. The The noise accompanying the air blast is so loud that
jet is made to flow across the path of the arc. to ex- noise-suppression methods must be used when the
tinguish it. Other types of circuit breakers are de- circuit breakers are installed near residential areas.
signed so that the arc is deflected and lengthened by 26.5 shows a typical 3-phase air-blast circuit
a self-created magnetic field. The arc is blown breaker. Each phase is composed of three contact
against a series of insulating plates that break up the modules connected in series. 26.6 shows a
arc and cool it down. Figs. 26.3 and 26.4 show the cross-section of the contact module.
appearance of two typical OCBs. 3. SF6 Circuit Breakers. These totally enclosed
circuit-breakers. insulated with SF6 , are used

Sulfur hexafluoride.

Figure 26.3 Figure 26.4

Three-phase oil circuit breaker rated 1200 A and Minimum oil circuit breaker installed in a 420 kV, 50 Hz
115 kV. It can interrupt a current of 50 kA in 3 cycles substation. Rated current: 2000 A; rupturing capacity:
on a 60 Hz system. Other characteristics: height: 3660 25 kA; height (less support): 5400 mm; length: 6200 mm;
mm; diameter: 3050 mm; mass: 21 t; BIL: 550 kV. 4 circuit-breaking modules in series per circuit breaker.
(Courtesy of General Electric) (Courtesy of ABB)
 DISTRIBUTION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY 701

fixed contact movable contact actuating rod

Figure 26.6
Cross-section of one module of an air-blast circuit
breaker. When the circuit breaker trips, the rod is driv-
en upward, separating the fixed and movable con-
tacts. The intense arc is immediately blown out by a
jet of compressed air coming from the orifice. The re-
sistor dampens the overvoltages that occur when the
breaker opens.
(Courtesy of General Electric)

Figure 26.5
Air blast circuit breaker rated 2000 A at 362 kV. It can
interrupt a current of 40 kA in 3 cycles on a 60 Hz
system. It consists of 3 identical modules connected
in series, each rated for a nominal voltage of 121 kV.
The compressed-air reservoir can be seen at the left.
Other characteristics: height: 5640 mm; overall length:
9150 mm; BIL 1300 kV.
(Courtesy of General Electric)

whenever space is at a premium, such as in down-

town substations (Fig. 26.7). These circuit breakers
are much smaller than any other type of circuit
breaker of equivalent power and are far less noisy
than air circuit breakers.
4. Vacuum Circuit Breakers. These circuit break-
ers operate on a different principle from other Figure 26.7
breakers because there is no gas to ionize when the Group of 15 totally enclosed SF 6 circuit breakers in-
contacts open. They are hermetically sealed; conse- stalled in an underground substation of a large city.
quently, they are silent and never become polluted Rated current: 1600 A; rupturing current: 34 kA; nor-
mal operating pressure: 265 kPa (38 psi); pressure
(Fig. 26.8). Their interrupting capacity is limited to
during arc extinction: 1250 kPa (180 psi). These SF 6
about 30 kV. For higher voltages, several circuit
circuit breakers take up only 1/16 of the volume of
breakers are connected in series. conventional circuit breakers having the same inter-
Vacuum circuit breakers are often used in under- rupting capacity.
ground distribution systems. (Courtesy of ABB)
702 ELECTRIC UTILITY POWER SYSTEMS

26.4 Disconnecting switches

Unlike air-break switches, disconnecting switches
are unable to interr~pt any current at all. They must
only be opened and closed when the current is zero.
They are basically isolating switches, enabling us to
isolate oil circuit breakers, transformers, transmis-
sion lines, and so forth, from a live network.
Disconnecting switches are essential to carry out
maintenance work and to reroute power flow.
Fig. 26.12 shows a 2000 A, 15 kV disconnecting
switch. It is equipped with a latch to prevent the
switch from opening under the strong electromagnetic
forces that accompany short-circuits. The latch is dis-
engaged by inserting a hookstick into the ring and
pulling the movable blade out of the fixed contact.
26.13 shows another "disconnect" that carries
a larger current, but at a much lower voltage. It, too, is
opened by means of a manual hookstick. Fig. 26.14
shows another type of disconnecting switch and Fig.
26. l S shows how the fixed and movable contacts en-
gage. Fig. 26.16 shows maintenance personnel work-
Figure 26.8 ing on a large disconnecting switch in a HV substation.
Three-phase vacuum circuit breaker having a rating of
1200 A at 25.8 kV. It can interrupt a current of 25 kA in
3 cycles on a 60 Hz system. Other characteristics: 26.5 Grounding switches
height: 2515 mm; mass: 645 kg; BIL: 125 kV.
Grounding switches are safety switches that ensure
(Courtesy of General Electric)
a transmission line is definitely grounded while re-
pairs are being carried out. Fig. 26. 17 shows such a
26.3 Airwbreak switches 3-phase switch with the blades in the open (hori-
zontal) position. To short-circuit the line to ground,
Air-break switches can interrupt the exciting cur- all three grounding blades swing up to engage the
rents of transformers, or the moderate capacitive stationary contact connected to each phase.
currents of unloaded transmission lines. They can- Grounding switches are opened and closed only
not interrupt normal load currents. when the lines are de-energized.
Air-break switches are composed of a movable
blade that engages a fixed contact; both are mounted 26.6 Surge arresters
on insulating supports (Figs. 26.9, 26. IO). Two arc-
ing horns are attached to the fixed and movable con- The purpose of a surge arrester* is to limit the over-
tacts. When the main contact is broken, an arc is set voltages that may occur across transformers and other
up between the arcing horns. The arc moves upward electrical apparatus due either to lightning or switch-
due to the combined action of the hot air currents it ing surges. The upper end of the arrester is connected
produces and the magnetic field. As the arc rises, it to the line or terminal that has to be protected, while
becomes longer until it eventually blows out (Fig. the lower end is solidly connected to ground.
26.11 ). Although the arcing horns become pitted and
gradually wear out, they can easily be replaced. * Also called lightning arrester. or surge diverter.
Figure 26.9
One pole of a horn-gap disconnecting switch rated 600 A, 27 kV, 60 Hz; (left) in the open position, (right) in the
closed position.
(Courtesy of Dominion Cutout)

Figure 26.1 O
One pole of a 3-phase 3000 A, 735 kV, 60 Hz horn-gap disconnecting switch in the open position (left); in the
closed position (right). The switc!l'can be operated manually by turning a hand wheel or remotely by means of a
motorized drive located immediately below the hand wheel. Other characteristics: height when closed: 12 400 mm;
length: 7560 mm; mass: 3 t; maximum current-carrying capacity for 10 cycles: 120 kA; BIL: 2200 kV.
(Courtesy of Kearney)

703
704 ELECTRIC UTILITY POWER SYSTEMS

Figure 26.11 Figure 26.13

The arc produced between the horns of a disconnect- Disconnecting switch rated 10 kA, 1 kV for indoor use.
ing switch as it cuts the exciting current of a HV trans- (Courtesy of Montell Sprecher and Schuh)
former provides the light to take this night picture.
(Courtesy of Hydro-Quebec)

Figure 26.12 Figure 26.14

This hookstick-operated disconnecting switch is rated Disconnecting switch rated 600 A, 46 kV for sidewise
2000 A, 15 kV and has a BIL of 95 kV. operation.
(Courtesy of Dominion Cutout) (Courtesy of Kearney)

Ideally, a surge arrester clips any voltage in ex- rester is, the.refore, a horizontal line whose level
cess of a specified maximum, by permitting a large corresponds to the maximum permissible surge
current if need be, to be diverted to ground. In this voltage. In practice, the E-1 characteristic slopes up-
way the arrester absorbs energy from the incoming ward (Fig. 26.18) but is still considered to be rea-
surge. The E-1 characteristic of an ideal surge ar- sonably flat.
 DISTRIBU710N OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY 705

current is limited by the resistance of the valve

blocks and the arc is simultaneously stretched and
cooled in a series of arc chambers. The arc is
quickly snuffed out and the arrester is then ready to
protect the line against the next voltage surge. The
discharge period is very short rarely lasting more
than a fraction of a millisecond.
A more modern type of arrester has valve blocks
made of stacked zinc-oxide discs without using
any air gaps or other auxiliary devices. Its E-1 char-
acteristic is similar to that of a silicon carbide ar-
rester, except that it is much flatter and therefore
more effective in diverting surge currents. These
metal-oxide varistor (MOY} arresters are largely
used today.
Lightning arresters with very flat characteristics
also enable us to reduce the BIL requirements of ap-
paratus installed in substations (Section 25.12). On
HY and EHV systems. the reduction in BIL signif-
icantly reduces the cost of the installed apparatus.
Fig. 26.19 shows a lightning arrester installed in an
EHY substation.
Figure 26.15
The blade of a vertical motion disconnecting switch is
in tight contact with two fixed contacts, due to the 26.7 Current-limiting reactors
pressure exerted by two powerful springs. When the The MY bus in a substation usually energizes sev-
switch opens, the blade twists on its axis as it moves
eral feeders. which carry power to regional load
upward. During switch closure the reverse rotary
movement exerts a wiping action against the fixed centers surrounding the substation. It so happens
contacts, thus ensuring excellent contact. that the output impedance of the MY bus is usually
(Courtesy of Kearney) very low. Consequently, if a short-circuit should oc-
cur on one of the feeders, the resulting short-circuit
current could be disastrous.
Some arresters are composed of an external porce- Consider. for example. a 3-phase 69 MVA, 220
lain tube containing an ingenious arrangement of kV/24.9 kV transformer having an impedance of
stacked discs, air gaps, ionizers, and coils. The discs 8% and a nominal secondary current of 1600 A. It
(or valve blocks) are composed of a silicon carbide supplies power to eight 200 A feeders connected to
material. The resistance of this material decreases dra- the common MY bus (Fig. 26.20). Each feeder is
matically with increasing voltage. protected by a 24.9 kV. 200 A circuit breaker hav-
Under normal voltage conditions, spark gaps ing an interrupting capacity of 4000 A. Because the
prevent any current from flowing through the tubu- transformer impedance is 8%, it can deliver a sec-
lar column. Consequently, the resistance of the ar- ondary short-circuit current of
rester is infinite. However, if a s~rious over-voltage
occurs, the spark gaps break down .and the surge I= 1600 X (1/0.08)
discharges to ground. The 60 Hz follow-through = 20 000 A
706 ELECTRIC UTILITY POWER SYSTEMS

Figure 26.16
Like all electric equipment, disconnecting switches have to be overhauled and inspected at regular intervals. During
such operations the current has to be diverted by way of auxiliary tie lines within the substation. The picture shows
one pole of a 3-phase disconnect rated 2000 A, 345 kV.
(Courtesy of Hydro-Quebec)

This creates a problem because if a feeder be- the feeder (Fig. 26.21 ). The reactance must be high
comes short-circuited, the resulting current flow enough to keep the current below the interrupting
could be as high as 20 000 A. which is five times capacity of the circuit breaker but not so high as to
greater than the interrupting capacity of the circuit produce a large voltage drop under normal full-load
breaker protecting the feeder. The circuit breaker conditions. Fig. 26.22 shows another application
could be destroyed in attempting to interrupt the cir- wherein three current-limiting reactors are con-
cuit. Furthermore. the feeder might be damaged nected in series with a HY line.
over its entire length, from the circuit-breaker to the
fault. Finally, a violent explosion would take place
26.8 Grounding transformer
at the fault itself. due to the tremendous amount of
thermal energy released by the burning arc. We sometimes have to create a neutral on a 3-phase,
To prevent this from happening, a current-limit- 3-wire system to change it into a 3-phase, 4-wire
ing reactor is connected in series with each phase of system. This can be done by means of a grounding
 DISTRIBUTION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY 707

Figure 26.17
Combined disconnecting switch and grounding switch rated at 115 kV. The grounding switch blades are shown in
the open, horizontal position. These blades pivot upward to engage three fixed contacts at the same time the line is
opened.
(Courtesy of Kearney)

transfonna It is basically a 3-phase autotrans-

former in which identical primary and secondary
windings are connected in series but in zigzag fash-
ion on a 3-legged core (Fig. 26.23).
kV If we connect a single-phase load between one
100 line and neutral, load current I divides into three
equal currents //3 in each winding. Because the cur-

===============--~
&
!? 80 I I
rents are equal, the neutral point stays fixed and the
0 I I
> I I line-to-neutral voltages remain balanced as they
.>t. I I
ti! I I
8. 60 I
I
I
I
would be on a regular 4-wire system. In practice.
I I
the single-phase loads are distributed as evenly as
I
I I

E~
I I

40 : t possible between the respective three phases and

i :
I I neutral so that the unbalanced load current I re-

~
I I
I I
20 J
I
i
I
mains relatively small.
I I
I I
I I
I I
0+--i--...--r~,..-...--+--...--r~....-+-~- 26.9 Example of a substation
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 kA
- peak current Fig. 26.24 shows the principal elements of a typical
modern substation providing power to a large sub-
Figure 26.18
Voltage-current characteristic of a· surge.arrester hav- urb. Power is fed into the substation at 220 kV and
ing a nominal rating of 30 kV (42.4 kV peak), used on is distributed at 24.9 kV to various load centers
a 34.5 kV line (28.5 kV peak, line-to-neutral). within about a 5 km radius.
 8 feeders rated 200 A

Figure 26.21
Current-limiting reactors reduce the short-circuit cur-
rent.

Figure 26.19
MOV surge arresters protect this EHV transformer.
(Courtesy of General Electric)

69MVA
24.9kV
circuit MV bus bar
breaker

Figure 26.22
8 feeders rated 200 A Three 2.2 n reactors rated 500 A are connected in se-
ries with a 120 kV, 3-phase, 60 Hz line. They are insu-
Figure 26.20 lated from ground by four insulating columns, and
MV busbar feeding eight lines, each protected by a each is protected by a surge arrester.
circuit breaker. (Courtesy of Hydro-Quebec)

708
 DISTRIBUTION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY 709

A
26.10 Medium-voltage distribution
B Thirty-six 3-phase feeders (30 active and 6 spares),
c rated at 24.9 kV, 400 A lead outward from the sub-
station. Each feeder is equipped with three current-
limiting reactors that limit the line to ground short-

'polarity
mark single
phase
load
circuit currents to a maximum of 12 kA. Some
feeders are underground, others overhead, and still
others are underground/overhead.
Underground feeders are composed of three sin-
1/31 gle-phase stranded aluminum cables insulated with
polyethylene. The insulation is in turn surrounded
by a spiral wrapping of tinned copper conductors
which act as the ground. The cable is pulled through
underground concrete duct 26.27) or simply
Figure 26.23 buried in the ground. Spare cables are invariably
Grounding transformer to create a 3-phase neutral. buried along with active cables to provide alternate
service in case of a fault.
The substation is fed by three separate transmis-
The 24.9 kV aerial lines are supported on
sion lines. all operating at 220 kV. It contains six
wooden poles. The latter also carry the LV circuits
3-phase transformers rated at 36/48/60 MVA,
and telephone cable. The 24.9 kV lines are tapped
220 kV/24.9 kV. The windings are connected in
off at various points to supply 3-phase and single-
wye-delta and automatic tap-changers regulate the
phase power to residences, commercial establish-
secondary voltage.
ments, and recreation centers (Fig. 26.28).
A neutral is established on the MV side by
For nearby areas the 24.9 kV line voltage is reg-
means of 3-phase grounding transformers. Conse-
ulated within acceptable limits by the tap-changing
quently, single-phase power can be provided at
transformers at the substation. In more remote dis-
24.9\/3 14.4 kV.
tricts. special measures have to be taken to keep the
Minimum oil circuit breakers having an inter-
voltage reasonably stable with changing load. Thus,
rupting capacity of 32 kA protect the HV side.
self-regulating autotransformers (Fig. 26.29) are
Conventional oil circuit breakers having an inter-
often installed.
rupting capacity of 25 kA are used on the MV side.
Furthermore, all the outgoing feeders are protected
by circuit breakers having an interrupting capacity 26.11 Low-voltage distribution
of 12 kA.
This completely automatic and unattended sub- At the consumer end of the MV feeders that spread
station covers an area of 235 m X 170 m. However, out from the substation, the voltage is stepped-
line switching and other operations can be carried out down by transformers from 24.9 kV to the much
by telecommunications from a dispatching center. lower voltages needed by the consumers. Two low-
The substation provides service to hundreds of voltage systems are provided on this typical subur-
single-family homes, dozens of apartment build- ban network:
ings, several business and shopping centers, a large I. Single-phase 120/240 V with grounded neutral
university, and some industrie~. Figs. 26.25 and
2. Three-phase 600/347 V with grounded neutral
26.26 show the basic layout and components of the
substation. We now study the distribution system The first system is mainly used in individual
that branches out from the substation. dwellings and for single-phase power ranging up to
Figure 26.24
Aerial view of a substation serving a large suburb. The 220 kV lines (1) enter the substation and move through dis-
connecting switches (2) and circuit breakers (3) to energize the primaries of the transformers (4). The secondaries
are connected to an MV bus (5) operating at 24.9 kV. Grounding transformers (6) and MV circuit breakers (7) feed
power through current-limiting reactors (8). The power is carried away by 36 aerial and underground feeders to en-
ergize the suburb (9).

Figure 26.25
This sequence of 12 photos on the right shows how energy flows through the substation, starting from the 220 kV
lines until it leaves by the 24.9 kV feeders.
1. 220 kV incoming line.
2. The line passes through three CTs (left) and the substation apparatus is protected by 3 lightning arresters (right).
3. Three HV disconnecting switches are placed ahead of the circuit breakers.
4. Minimum volume oil circuit breakers composed of three modules in series permit the line to be opened and
closed under load.
5. Three-phase transformer bank steps down the voltage from 220 kV to 24.9 kV. Lightning arresters on the right
protect the HV windings.
6. MV line from the transformer feeds the 24.9 kV bus.
7. Grounding transformer and its associated oil circuit breaker having an interrupting capacity of 25 kA.
8. Current-limiting reactors.
9. Three-phase circuit breaker having an interrupting capacity of 12 kA.
10, 11. MV underground feeder rated 400 A, 24.9 kV/14.4 kV leads into the ground toward a load center in the suburb.
12. All steel supports are solidly grounded by bare copper conductors to prevent overvoltages across equipment
due to lightning strokes and other disturbances. Typical station ground resistance: 0.1 fl.

710
 5 9

10

711
 HV LINE 1
220kV
. . . . d_.
!~~:~i~g
1 1
2hu rrent transformer
HV LINE 2
220 k..V
HV LINE 3
220 kV

(4 grounding switch h h
~~(
HV disconnect
3

HV disconnect ( 5 (30 ( (
(6
HV circuit breaker
32 kA
HV disconnect 7
HV tie line
(
31

32
( (
t-----'-'/o--/

.........

36/48/60 MVA, 60 Hz~

220 kV/24.9 kV A
grounding transformer 11
13 lightning
9-41• ,,._.
arrester
..... ..
MV circuit breaker 25 kA . 9 14 J
MV disconnect ;>15

( MV tie line (( (
( (( (

t
....__ __,circuit
line
reactor breaker
17 _12_kA
_ _ _.._.,___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ~--lo-----

~~1aT
feeder
'omo\:-/.,..
T24~ornef
.,..'t,.../ornef
19f '25

~~TtT2~ornef
~\-/T T:~ornef
21 27
~\...ef.,.. T:'t,.../ornef
22+ 28
'otno\...ef.,.. tvornef
23+ 29
24.9 kV FEEDERS LEADING TO SUBURB

Figure 26.26
Schematic diagram of the substation in Fig. 26.24.

712
 DISTRIBUTION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY 713

Figure 26.27
MV underground feeders in concrete duct.

Figure 26.29
Automatic tap-changing autotransformer maintains
steady voltages on long rural lines.
(Courtesy of General Electric)

150 kVA. The second is used in industry. large

buildings, and commercial centers where the power
requirement is under 2000 kVA.
For single-phase service, the transformers are
usually rated between I 0 k VA and 16 7 k VA and
they are pole-mounted. The voltage rating is typi-
cally 14 400 V/240-120 V. The transformers pos-
sess a single high-voltage bushing connected to one
side of the HY winding. The other side of the wind-
ing is connected to the steel enclosure which. in
turn, is connected to the neutral conductor and also
to ground (Fig. 26.30).
In the case of 3-phase installations. 3 single-
phase transformers rated at 14 400 V/34 7 V are
used. The units are connected in wye-wye and the
neutral on the primary side is solidly grounded.
The secondary side provides a line voltage of
600 V, and it may or may not be grounded. Such
Figure 26.28 standard distribution transformers have no taps,
MV aerial feeder serving a residential district. and no circuit breakers or fuses are used on the
714 ELECTRIC UTILITY POWER SYSTEMS

Figure 26.30 Figure 26.31

A fused cutout (top left) and lightning arrester (top Expulsion type fused cutout rated 7.5 kV, 300 A
right) protect a single-phase transformer rated (Courtesy of Dominion Cutout)
25 kVA, 14.4 kV/240 V-120 V, 60 Hz.

secondary side. The primary HV terminal is, how- studies reveal that 70 percent take place between
ever, protected by a cutout in order to prevent ex- one line and ground. Finally, short-circuits involv-
cessive damage to equipment in case of a fault (see ing all three phases of a transmission line are rare.
26.30 and 26.31 ). The methods of protection are based upon these sta-
tistics and on the necessity to provide continuity of
service to the customers.
PROTECTION OF MEDIUM-
VOLTAGE DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
26.12 Coordination of the
Medium-voltage lines must be adequately pro-
protective devices
tected against short-circuits so as to limit damage to
equipment and to restrict the outage to as small an When a fault occurs. the current increases sharply.
area as possible. Such line faults can occur in vari- not only on the faulted line, but on all lines that di-
ous ways: falling branches, icing, defective equip- rectly or indirectly lead to the short-circuit. To pre-
ment, lines that touch, and so forth. According to vent the overload current from simultaneously trip-
statistics, 85 percent of the short-circuits are tem- ping all the associated protective devices, we must
porary, lasting only a fraction of a second. The same design the system so that the devices trip selectively.
 D!STRTBUTTON OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY 715

Figure 26.32
Protective devices must be coordinated.

A well-coordinated system will cause only those 1. Fused cutouts

devices next to the short-circuit to open, leaving the 2. Reclosers
others intact. To achieve this, the tripping current
3. Sectionalizers
and tripping time of each device is set to protect the
line and associated apparatus, while restricting the
26.13 Fused cutouts
outage to the smallest number of customers.
Consider, for example, the simple distribution Afused cutout is essentially a fused disconnecting
system of Fig. 26.32 composed of a main feeder F- switch. The fuse constitutes the movable arm of the
F from a substation, supplying a group of subfeed- switch. It pivots about one end and the circuit can
ers. The subfeeders deliver power to loads A, B, C, be opened by pulling on the other end of the fuse
D, and E. A protective device is installed at the input with a hookstick (Fig. 26.31 ). Cutouts are relatively
to each subfeeder so that if a short-circuit occurs, it inexpensive and are used to protect transformers
alone will be disconnected from the system. For in- and small single-phase feeders against overloads.
stance, a short-circuit at point 1 will trip device P 1 They are designed so that when the fuse blows, it
but not P 2 . Similarly, a fault at point 2 will open P 3 automatically swings down, indicating that a fault
but not P~, and so on. A short-circuit must be cleared has occurred on the line.
in a matter of a few cycles. Consequently, the coor- Fused cutouts possess a fuse link that is kept taut
dination between the protective devices involves de- by a spring. The fuse link assembly is placed inside
lays that are measured in milliseconds. We must a porcelain or glass tube filled with boracic acid,
therefore know the tripping characteristics of the oil, or carbon tetrachloride. The fuse link must be
fuses and circuit breakers througho.u~ the system. replaced every time it blows, which often results in
The most important protective devices used on MY a relatively long outage. To ensure good coordina-
lines are the following: tion, the current/time characteristics are selected
716 ELECTRIC UTILITY POWER SYSTEMS

very carefully for each cutout. A burned-out fuse the internal control setting of the recloser. If the
link must always be replaced by another having ex- short-circuit cjqes not clear itself after two or three
actly the same rating. attempts to reclose,'the line, the recloser opens the
circuit permanently. A repair crew must then locate
26.14 Reclosers the fault, remove it, and reset the recloser.
Reclosers rated at 24.9 kV can interrupt fault cur-
A recloser is a circuit breaker that opens on short- rents up to 12 000 A. They are made for either single-
circuit and automatically recloses after a brief time phase or 3-phase lines, and are usually pole-mounted
delay. The delay may range from a fraction of a sec- (Fig. 26.33). Reclosers are self-powered, drawing
ond to several seconds. The open/close sequence their energy from the line and storing it in powerful
may be repeated two or three times, depending on actuating springs by means of electromagnets.

26.15 Sectionalizers
When a main feeder is protected by several fuses
spotted over the length of the line, it is often difficult
to obtain satisfactory coordination between them,
based on fuse-blowing time alone. Under these cir-
cumstances, we resort to sectionalize rs. A sectional-
izer' is a special circuit breaker that trips depending
on the number of times a rec loser has tripped further
up the line. In other words, a sectionalizer works ac-
cording to the "instructions" of a recloser.
For example, consider a recloser R and a sec-
tionalizer S protecting an important main feeder
(Fig. 26.34 ). If a fault occurs at the point shown, the
recloser will automatically open and reclose the cir-
cuit, according to the predetermined program. A
recorder ir.side the sectionalizer counts the number
of times the recloser has tripped and, just before it
trips for the last time, the sectionalizer itself trips-
but permanently. ln so doing, it deprives customers
Figure 26.33 C and D of power but it also isolates the fault.
Automatic recloser protecting a 3-phase feeder. Consequently, when the recloser closes for the last

------,
circuit I
breaker I recloser sectionalizer

I
_____ JI
substation
A B

Figure 26.34
Recloser/sectionalizer protective system.
 DISTRIBUTION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY 717

time. it will stay closed and customers A and B will and finally by LY circuits. In this section we briefly
continue to receive service. Unlike reclosers, sec- cover the organization of a low-voltage (LY) distrib-
tionalizers are not designed to interrupt line cur- ution system.
rents. Consequently, they must trip during the inter-
val when the line current is zero, which coincides
with the time when the recloser itself is open. 26.17 LV distribution system
Sectionalizers are available for single-phase and The most common LY systems used in North
3-phase transmission lines. They offer several ad- America are
vantages over fused cutouts. They can be reclosed
on a dead short-circuit without fear of exploding, 1. Single-phase, 2-wire, 120 V
and there is no delay in searching for a fuse link 2. Single-phase, 3-wire, 240/120 V
having the correct caliber. 3. Three-phase, 4-wire, 208/ I 20 V
4. Three-phase, 3-wire, 480 V
26.16 Review of MV protection 5. Three-phase, 4-wire, 480/277 V
If we examine the single-line diagram of a typical dis- 6. Three-phase. 3-wire, 600 V
tribution system, we find it contains dozens of auto- 7. Three-phase, 4-wire, 600/347 V
matic rec losers, sectionalizers, and hundreds of fused
cutouts. The reclosing of circuit breakers at the sub- In Europe and other parts of the world, 3-phase
station may be coordinated with reclosers and sec- 380/220 V, 50 Hz systems are widely used. Despite
tionalizers elsewhere in the system. The variety of de- the different voltages employed, the basic princi-
vices available makes it possible to provide adequate ples of LY distribution are everywhere the same.
protection of MY lines by using combinations such as Single-Phase, 2-Wire, 120 V System. This simple
distribution system is only used for very small loads.
I. Circuit breaker-fuse When heavier loads have to be serviced. the 120 V
2. Circuit breaker-fuse-fuse system is not satisfactory because large conductors
3. Circuit breaker-recloser-fuse are required. Furthermore. the line voltage drop under
load becomes significant even over short distances.
4. Circuit breaker-recloser-sectionalizer
Single-Phase, 3-Wire, 2401120 V System. In order
5. Circuit breaker-sectionalizer-recloser-section-
to reduce the current and hence conductor size, the
alizer-fuse, etc
voltage is raised to 240 V. However, because the
In urban areas the lines are relatively short and 120 V level is still very useful. the 240 V/120 V
the possibility of faults is rather small. Such lines 3-wire system was developed. This type of distrib-
are subdivided along their length into three or four ution system is widely used. Fig. 26.35 is a highly
sections, each protected by single-pole fused schematic diagram. showing the essential elements
cutout. Reclosers and sectionalizers are not re- of such a system. The dual voltage is produced by a
quired. On the other hand, in outlying districts, a distribution transformer having a double secondary
24.9 kV line may be quite long and consequently winding (Section 11.1 ). The common wire. called
more exposed to faults. In such cases. the line is neutral. is solidly connected to ground. When the
subdivided into sections and protected by reclosers "live" lines A and Bare equally loaded. the current
and sectionalizers to provide satisfactory service. in the neutral is zero. When the loading is unequal,
the neutral current is equal to the difference be-
LOW-VOLTAGE DISi::RIBUTION
tween the line currents /A - / 8 (Fig. 26.35). We try
We have seen that electrical energy is delivered to the to distribute the 120 V loads as equally as possible
consumer via HY substations through MY networks between the two live wires and the neutral.
718 ELECTRIC UTILITY POWER SYSTEMS

distribution
transformer X1 A
~~~- ,~~ ......~~-I
H,
120 v
3
120 v 2

x. B

Figure 26.35
Single-phase 240 V/120 V distribution system.

120 V secondary A
2400 V primary

;~
B

ov

neutral

ground single phase loads

3-phase loads

Figure 26.36
Three-phase, 4-wire, 208 V/120 V distribution system.

What are the advantages of such a 3-wire system? and, moreover, the intensity will vary as refrigera-
tor motors, electric stove elements, and so forth, are
1. The line-to-ground voltage is only 120 V,
switched on and off. Another reason is that when
which is reasonably safe for use in a home
the neutral conductor is open, the line fuses are ren-
2. Lighting and small motor loads can be ener- dered useless.
gized at 120 V, while larger loads such as elec-
Three-Phase, 4- Wire, 2081120 V System. We can
tric stoves and large motors can be fed from the
create a 3-phase, 4-wire system by using three
240 V line.
single-phase transformers connected in delta-wye.
Both live lines are protected by fuses or circuit The neutral of the secondary is grounded, as shown
breakers. However, such protective devices must in Figure 26.36.
never be placed in series with the neutral conductor. This distribution system is used in commercial
The reason is that if the device trips, the line-to- buildings and small industries because the 208 V
neutral voltages become unbalanced. The voltage line voltage can be used for electric motors or other
across the lightly loaded 120 V line goes up, while large loads, while the 120 V lines can be used for
that across the more heavily loaded side goes down. lighting circuits and convenience outlets. The
This means that some lights are dimmer than others single-phase loads between the three respective
 DISTRIBUTION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY 719

600 v
600 v
600 v

M M

Figure 26.37
Three-phase, 3-wire, 600 V distribution system.

"live" lines and neutral are arranged to be about metal housing of electrical equipment is systemati-
equal. When the loads are perfectly balanced, the cally grounded on HV, MV, and LV systems.
current in the neutral wire is zero.
Three-Phase, 3-Wire, 600 V System. A 600 V, 26.19 Electric shock
3-phase, 3-wire system is used in factories where
It is difficult to specify whether a voltage is danger-
fairly large motors are installed, ranging up to 500 hp
ous or not because electric shock is actually caused by
(Fig. 26.37 ). Separate 600 V /240-120 V step-down
the current that flows through the human body. The
transformers. spotted throughout the premises, are
current depends mainly upon the skin contact resis-
used to service the lighting loads and convenience
tance because, by comparison, the resistance of the
outlets.
body itself is negligible. The contact resistance varies
Three-Phase, 4- Wire, 4801277 V System. In large with the thickness, wetness, and resistivity of the skin.
buildings and commercial centers, a 480 V, 4-wire
It is generally claimed that currents below 5 mA
distribution system is used because it enables motors
are not dangerous. Between I0 mA and 20 mA the
to run at 480 V while fluorescent lights operate at
current is potentially dangerous because the victim
277 V. For 120 V convenience outlets, separate trans-
loses muscular control and may not be able to let
formers are required, usually fed from the 480 V line.
go; above 50 mA, the consequences can be fatal.
The same remarks apply to 600/347 V, 4-wire
The resistance of the human body, taken be-
systems.
tween two hands, or between one hand and a leg,
ranges from 500 !1 to 50 kH. If the resistance of a
26.18 Grounding electrical
dry hand is, say, 50 kf!, then momentary contact
installations with a 600 V line may not be fatal (I 600 V/50 k!!
The grounding of electrical systems is probably one = 12 mA). But the resistance of a clammy hand is
of the less well understood aspects of electricity. much lower, so that an ac voltage as low as 25 V
Nevertheless, it is a very important subject and an could be dangerous if the person is unable to let go.
effective way of preventing accidents. When ac current flows through the body, the
As we have seen, most electrical distribution muscular contractions may prevent the victim from
systems in buildings are grounded, usually by con- letting go. The current is particularly dangerous
necting the neutral to a water pi.pc or the massive when it flows in the region of the heart. It induces
steel structure. On low-voltage· systems, the pur- temporary paralysis and, if it flows long enough,
pose of grounding is mainly to reduce the danger of fibrillation may result. Fibrillation is a rapid and un-
electric shock. In addition, for reasons of safety, the coordinated heart beat that is not synchronized with
720 ELECTRIC UTILITY POWER SYSTE1WS

14.4 kV 14.4 kV

neutral neutral·· •

{a) (b}

Figure 26.38
Transformer capacitance may produce high voltages on the LV side of a transformer.

the pulse beat. In such cases. the person can be re- could touch either one of them without harm because
vived by applying artificial respiration. there is no ground return. However. this is not true.
Statistical investigations* have shown that there First, the capacitive coupling C 1, between the
is one chance in ten that a current may cause death primary, secondary, and ground can produce a high
if it satisfies the following equation: voltage between the secondary lines and ground.
Depending upon the relative magnitude of C 1 and c~.
I 116/vt (26.1)
it may be as high as 20 to 40 percent of the primary
where voltage. If a person touches either one of the sec-
ondary wires, the resulting capacitive current (could
I= current flow through the body [mA]
be dangerous. For example, if le is only 20 mA the
time of current flow Lsl person may no longer be able to let go (Fig. 26.38b ).
116 = an empirical constant. expressing the Even more serious. suppose that a high-voltage
probability of a fatal outcome wire accidentally touches a 120 V conductor. This
could be caused by an internal fault in the trans-
The time t is restricted to between 8 ms and 5 s.
former, or by a branch or tree falling across the MY
For example. a current of 58 mA flowing for 4 s
and LY lines. Under these circumstances. the Iow-
could be fatal.
voltage system would be subjected to 14.4 kV. This
high voltage between the secondary conductors and
26.20 Grounding of 120 V ground would immediately produce a massive flash-
and 240 V/120 V systems over. The flash-over could occur anywhere on the
secondary network, possibly inside a home or fac-
Suppose the primary winding of a distribution trans- tory. Consequently. an undergrounded secondary
former is connected between the line and neutral of a system is a potential fire hazard and may produce se-
14.4 kV line (Fig. 26.38a). lf the secondary conduc- rious accidents under abnormal conditions.
tors are ungrounded, it would appear that a person On the other hand. if one of the secondary lines
is firmly grounded. the accidental contact between
Daziel. CF.. 1968 "Reevaluation of Lethal Electric
a HY and a LY conductor produces a short-circuit.
Currents." IEEE. Transactions on Industry and Gcneral The short-circuit current follows the path shown in
Application, Vol. IGA-4. No. 5. pages 467-475. Fig. 26.39. The high current will blow the fuse on
 DISTRIBUTION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY 721

----------------,
14.4 kV

-----\
I
I
I
I
I
I 1 neulral
I L _ _ ~ conductor
I
I
I service
I h entrance
I
r panel boa'd

+I
I 120 v
=- service
- entrance
I ground
I
I
I
I~-,__~
'---,I Figure 26.40
: 3 Undergrounded metallic enclosures are potentially
I
I dangerous.

Suppose the motor is part of an appliance, such as a

Figure 26.39 refrigerator, and that the motor frame is connected
A HV to LV fault is not dangerous if the secondary is
to the ungrounded metal enclosure. If a person
solidly grounded.
touches the enclosure, nothing will happen if the
equipment is functioning properly. But should the
the MY side, thus effectively disconnecting the motor winding insulation become faulty, resistance
transformer and secondary distribution system Re between the windings and the motor frame may
from the MY line. In conclusion, if the neutral on drop from several megohms to only a few hundred
the 120 Y system is solidly grounded, the potential ohms or less. A person having a body resistance Rh
difference between the ground and live conductor would complete the current path to ground as
l will only slightly exceed 120 V. However, if the shown in Fig. 26.40. If Re is small, the leakage cur-
ground electrode has a high resistance (say, 50 f!), rent /L flowing through the person's body could be
the voltage on conductor I produced by an MY-LY dangerously high. This system is unsafe.
short-circuit current may still be large and poten- As a first approach, we could remedy the situa-
tially dangerous. tion by bonding the metal enclosure to the grounded
neutral wire (Fig. 26.41 ). The leakage current now
26.21 Equipment grounding flows from the motor windings, through the motor

The consumer of electricity is constantly touching

electrical equipment of all kinds, ranging from do-
mestic appliances and hand-held tools to industrial
motors, switchgear, and heating equipment. As we
have seen, the voltages and currents associated with
this equipment far exceeds those the human body can
tolerate. Consequently, special precautions are taken
to ensure that the equipment is safe to the touch.
In order to understand the safety features of
modern distribution systems, let us begin with a
simple single-phase circuit coniposed of a 120 Y
source connected to a motor M (Fig. 26.40). The Figure 26.41
neutral is solidly grounded at the service entrance. Bonding the enclosure to the neutral wire appears safe.
722 ELECTRIC UTILITY POWER SYSTEMS

frame and the enclosure, and straight back to the enclosure and is led to the system ground at the ser-
neutral wire. Because the enclosure remains at vice entranc~ panel (Fig. 26.43). With this arrange-
ground potential a person touching the enclosure ment, the enclosu.C is forced to remain at ground po-
would not experience any shock. tential. A faulty connection such as that in Fig. 26.42
The trouble with this solution is that the neutral would result in a short-circuit, causing the fuse to
wire may become open, either accidentally or due blow. In grounded systems the neutral wire must
to a faulty installation. For example, if the switch never be connected to the enclosure, except for spe-
controlling the motor is inadve1tently connected in cial cases permitted by the National Electrical Code.
series with the neutral rather than the live wire, the The ground wire may be bare, or, if insulated, it
motor can still be turned on and off. However, a per- is colored green. In armored-cable and conduit in-
son touching the enclosure while the motor is off, stallations, the armor and conduit serve as the
could receive a bad shock (Fig. 26.42). The reason ground conductor. The locknuts, squeeze-connec-
is that when the motor with the defective windings tors, threads, and bushings must be screwed on tight
is off, the potential of the motor frame and the en- so as to make a good electrical connection between
closure rises to that of the live conductor. the service entrance ground and the hundreds of
To get around this problem, we install a third wire. outlets that sometimes make up a large installation.
called ground wire. It is bonded (connected) to the Most electrical outlets are now provided with re-
ceptacles having three contacts-one live, one neu-
L switch "off • tral, and one ground (Fig. 26.44). Consequently,
electrical appliances and portable hand tools such
as electric drills are equipped with a 3-conductor

=- service
entrance
ground

Figure 26.42
Enclosure-to-neutral bonding can still be dangerous.

= service
- entrance
ground

Figure 26.43
A separate ground conductor bonded to the enclosure Figure 26.44
is safe. The metal housing of hand tools must be grounded.
 DISTRIBU110N OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY 723

cord and a 3-prong plug. One exception is the will produce a hazardous leakage current throughout
double-insulated devices that are completely en- the pool, even if the frame of the toaster is securely
closed in plastic enclosures. They are exempt from grounded. Devices have been developed that will cut
the ground wire requirement and so they are the source of power as soon as such accidents occur.
equipped with 2-prong plugs. These gmundJault circuit breakers will typically trip
in 25 ms if the leakage current exceeds 5 mA. How do
26.22 Ground-fault circuit breaker these protective devices operate?
A small current transformer surrounds the live
The grounding methods we have covered so far are and neutral wires as shown in Fig. 26.46. The sec-
usually adequate, but further safety measures are ondary winding is connected to a sensitive elec-
needed in some cases. Suppose for example, that a tronic detector that can trigger a circuit breaker CB
person sticks his finger into a lamp socket (Fig. that is in series with the 120 V line. Under normal
26.45). Although the metal enclosure is securely conditions the current lw in the line conductor is ex-
grounded, the person will stiJJ receive a painful shock. actly equal to the current /N in the neutral, and so
Or suppose a 120 V electric toaster tumbles into a the net current Uw /N) flowing through the hole
swimming pool. The heating elements and contacts in the toroidal core is zero. Consequently, no flux is
.. •••••••••u••••••H••••nH••••uo••••n••••
produced in the core, the induced voltage EF is zero,
and breaker CB does not trip.
Suppose now that a fault current fi-- leaks directly
line from the live wire to ground. This could happen if
someone touched a live terminal (Fig. 26.45). A fault
neutral current /L would also be produced if the insulation
broke down between a motor and its grounded enclo-
ground sure. Under any of these conditions, the net current
flowing through the hole of the CT is no longer zero
but equal to /p or 11.. A flux is set up and a voltage
is induced, which trips CB. Because an imbalance of
only 5 mA has to be detected, the core of the trans-
Figure 26.45 former must be very permeable at low flux densities.
Special case where a grounding wire does not afford Su permalloy TM is often used for this purpose because
protection_

line S

metal
enclosure 1

/N- '-i
IL-
ground conductor

Figure 26.46
Ground fault circuit breaker trips when leakage currents /L or /F exceed about 5 mA.
724 ELECTRIC UTILITY POWER SYSTEMS

it has a relative permeability of typically 70 000 at a In general. the Pt factor can be calculated know-
flux density of only 4 mT. ing (a) the cFoss s~ction of the conductor, (b) its
composition (copper or aluminum), and (c) the
26.23 Rapid conductor heating: maximum temperature it can tolerate. The !21 factor
for copper and aluminum conductors are given by
the / 2 t factor
the following equations:
It sometimes happens that a current far greater than for copper conductors,
normal flows for a brief period in a conductor. The
12 R losses are then very large and the temperature of
,
Ft 11.5 X 104A 2log 10 (234 + 0111) (26.4)
~-~--
234 + 00
the conductor can rise several hundred degrees in a
for aluminum conductors,
fraction of a second. For example, during a severe
short-circuit, intense currents can flow in conduc- Pt 5.2 X 104 A 2 log0 ( 23~~~1 r1 ) (26.5)
tors and cables before the circuit is opened by the 234 + 00
fuse or circuit breaker. where
Furthermore. the heat does not have time to be I short-circuit current [AJ
dissipated to the surroundings and so the tempera-
ture of the conductor increases very rapidly. What is
t = duration of the short-circuit rs I
the temperature rise under these conditions? A net cross-section of conductor without
Suppose the conductor has a mass m, a resis- counting the empty spaces [mm 2 ]
tance R, and a thermal heat capacity c. Moreover, 00 initial temperature of conductor [°C J
suppose the current is I and that it flows for a period em = final temperature of conductor [0 C]
t that is typically less than 15 seconds. The heat gen-
erated in the conductor is given by Example 26-1
2 An overhead line made of aluminum conductor No.
Q I Rt (26.2)
3 AWG has a cross-section of 26.6 mm 2 . Under nor-
From Eq. 3.17, we can calculate the temperature mal conditions this conductor can continuously
rise flt for a given value of Q: carry a current of 160 A.
Q = mcflt a. Calculate the maximum permissible Pt factor
hence during a short-circuit, knowing that the initial
temperature is 80°C and that the maximum
temperature should not exceed 250°C.
from which b. A maximum short-circuit current of 2000 A is
R foreseen on this overhead line. For how long
flr -u-n
me
1
c26.3) can it circulate without exceeding the 250°C
It follows that for a given conductor the temperature temperature limit?
rise depends upon the I 2 t factor. Solution
It is well known that high temperatures damage a. Using Eq. 26.5 we find
the insulation that covers a conductor. The I 2 t factor
is. therefore, very important because it determines Pt 5.2 x I 0 4 A 2 log 0
( 23 ~~±_!·11 )
the temperature rise under short-circuit conditions. ' .234 + 00
For example, a No. 2 AWG copper conductor, ini-
tially at a temperature of 90°C, cannot endure an I 2 t 5.2 X 104 X 26.6 2 X loglO (234
. + 250)
~-
factor in excess of 22 X I0 6 A 2 s if its temperature is 234 + 80
to be limited to 250°C during a short-circuit.
 DISTRIBUTION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY 725

b. The 2000 A current can flow for a time t given by 26.25 Electrical installation
Pt= 7 x 10 6 in buildings
2 The electrical distribution system in a building is
2000 t = 7 x 106
the final link between the consumer and the original
t = 1.75 s
source of electrical energy. All such in-house distri-
bution systems, be they large or small, must meet
Example 26-2
certain basic requirements:
It is proposed to use a No. 30 AWG copper wire as
a temporary fuse. If its initial temperature is 50°C, I. Safety
calculate the following:
a. Protection against electric shock
a. The Pt needed to melt the wire (copper melts at b. Protection of conductors against physical
1083°C) damage
b. The time needed to melt the wire if the short c. Protection against overloads
circuit current is 30 A d. Protection against hostile environments

Solution 2. Conductor voltage drop

a. From Eq. 26.4 we have
It should not exceed 1 or 2 percent.
')
h = 4
11.5 X 10 X 0.0507- log 10 7 (234 + 1083)
----- 3. Life expectancy
234 + 50
The distribution system should last a mini-
mum of 50 years.

b. For a current of 30 A we obtain 4. Economy

The cost of the installation should be mini-

Pt= 197
mized while observing the pertinent standards.
30 2 t = 197
Standards are set by the National Electrical Code*
t = 0.22 s
and every electrical installation must be approved by
Thus, the fuse will blow in approximately 220 ms. an inspector before it can be put into service.

26.24 The role of fuses 26.26 Principal components

of an electrical installation
In order to protect a conductor from excessive tem-
peratures during a short-circuit, a fuse must be Many components are used in the makeup of an
placed in series with the conductor. The fuse must electrical installation. The block diagrams of Figs.
be selected so that its Pt rating is less than that 26.47 and 26.48, together with the following defin-
which will produce an excessive temperature rise of itions:, will help the reader understand the purpose
the conductor. In effect, we want the fuse to blow of some of the more important items.
before the conductor attains a dangerous tempera- 1. Service Conductors. These are the conductors
ture, usually taken to be 250°C. In practice, the Pt that extend from the street main feeder or from a
rating of the fuse is such as to.produce conductor
temperatures far below this maximum limit.
Nevertheless, the Pt rating of the conductor is an * In Canada. by the Canadian Electrical Code.
important element in the choice of the fuse. Some taken from the National Electrical Code.
726 ELECTRIC UTILITY POWER SYSTEMS

service service
conductors conduc~ors

service equipment service equipment

feeder feeder

metering equipment

feeder switchboard

branch circuits

panel board

feeder

branch
circuits

9 9 q outlets panel board

~ utilization
LJ equipment

branch circuits
Figure 26.47
Block diagram of the electrical system in a residence.
In many cases the meter is installed upstream from Figure 26.48
the service equipment. Block diagram of the electrical system in an industrial
or commercial establishment.

transformer to the service equipment on the con- 3. Metering Equipment. Various meters and
sumer premises. recorders to indicate the electrical energy consumed
2. Service Equipment. The necessary equipment, on the premises.
usually consisting of a circuit breaker or switch and 4. Panel Board. A single panel or group of panel
fuses, and their accessories, located near the point units designed for assembly in the form of a single
of entrance of service conductors to a building or panel; including buses, automatic overcurrent de-
other structure, or an otherwise defined area, and in- vices, and with or without switches for the control
tended to constitute the main control and means of of light, heat, or power circuits; designed to be
cutoff of the supply. placed in a cabinet or cutout box placed in or
 DISTRIBUTION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY T27

against a wall or partition and accessible only the steel structure if the station is hit by a
from the front. 50 kA lightning stroke.
5. Switchboard. A large single panel, frame, or as- 26-7 What is the purpose of the following
sembly of panels on which are mounted on the face, equipment:
back, or both, switches, over-current, and other pro- fuse cutout receptacle
tective devices buses, and usually instruments. recloser ground wire
Switchboards are generally accessible from the rear current-limiting reactor surge arrester
as well as from the front and are not intended to be
installed in cabinets. Intermediate level
6. Feeder. All circuit conductors between the ser- 26-8 A lightning arrester having the character-
vice equipment, or the generator switchboard of an istics shown in 26. l 8 is connected to
isolated plant, and the final branch-circuit overcur- a line having a line-to-neutral voltage of
rent device. 34.5 kV.
7. Branch Circuit. The circuit conductors be-
tween the final overcutTent device protecting the Calculate
circuit and the outlet( s ). a. The peak voltage between line and neutral
b. The current flowing in the arrester under
8. Outlet. A point on the wiring circuit at which
these conditions
current is taken to supply utilization equipment.
26-9 In Problem 26-8 an 80 kV surge appears
9. Receptacle. A contact device installed at the
between line and neutral.
outlet for the connection of a single attachment plug.
10. Utilization Equipment. Equipment which uti- Calculate
lizes electrical energy for mechanical, chemicaL a. The peak current in the arrester
heating, lighting, or similar services. b. The peak power dissipated in the arrester
The greatly simplified diagrams of Figs. 26.47 c. The energy dissipated in the arrester if the
and 26.48 indicate the type of distribution systems surge effectively lasts for 5 µs
used respectively in a home and in an industrial or 26-10 Fig. 26.26 is a schematic diagram of a
commercial establishment. substation and Fig. 26.25 shows the ac-
tual equipment. Can you correlate the
Questions and Problems symbols of the schematic diagram with
Practical level the equipment?
26-1 What is the difference between a circuit 26-11 Repairs have to be carried out on HY cir-
breaker and a disconnecting switch? cuit breaker No. 6 shown in Fig. 26.26. If
the three 220 kV lines must be kept in ser-
26-2 Name four types of circuit breakers.
vice, which disconnecting switches must
26-3 The disconnecting switch shown in Fig. be kept open?
26.13 can dissipate a rated maximum of
26-12 The current-limiting reactors (8) shown
200 W. Calculate the maximum allowable
in Fig. 26.25 limit the short-circuit cur-
value of the contact resistance.
rent to 12 kA on the 24. 9 kV feeders.
26-4 What is the purpose of a grounding switch? Calculate the reactance and inductance of
26-5 Name some of the main components of a each coil.
substation. " 26-13 In Fig. 26.35 resistive loads, I, 2. and 3
26-6 The ground resistance of a substation is respectively, absorb 1200 W. 2400 W. and
0.35 n. Calculate the rise in potential of 3600 W. Calculate the current:
728 ELECTRIC UTILITY POWER SYSTEMS

a. In lines A and B a. Calculate the currents in the secondary

b. In the neutral conductors wjnj:lings.
c. In the HV line b. Calculate the line currents and power factor
26-14 In Fig. 26.37 the lighting circuit is off and on the 2400 V side.
the two motors together draw 420 kVA 26-19 Jn Fig. 26.37 a sensitive voltmeter reads
from the 600 V line. Calculate the current 300 V between one 600 V line and
in the MY lines. ground. even though the 600 V system
26-15 Draw a graph(/ versus t) of Eq. 26.1 for is not grounded. Can you explain this
currents between IO mA and 2 A. phenomenon?
Crosshatch the potentially mortal regions. 26-20 The oil in the big power transformer shown
State whether the following conditions are on the extreme left-hand side of Fig. 26.26
dangerous: has to be filtered and cleaned. Without in-
a. 300 mA for 10 ms terrupting the power tlow from the three
b. 30 mA for 2 min 220 kV incoming lines, state which circuit
26- I 6 Explain the operation of a ground fault breakers and which disconnecting switches
circuit breaker. have to be opened. and in what order?
26-21 Referring to Fig. 26.25, items 10. 11, the
Advanced level
three aluminum conductors that make up
26-17 The following loads are connected to the
the 3-phase, 24.9 kV feeder (14.4 kV line-
240 V/120 V line shown in Fig. 26.35.
to-neutral) each have a cross-section of
load I: 6 kW. cos e= 1.0 500 MCM. The cable possesses the fol-
load 2: 4.8 kW. cos 0 = 0.8 lagging lowing characteristics. per phase, and per
kilometer of length:
load 3: 18 kYA, cos 0 = 0.7 lagging
a. Calculate the currents in lines A and B. and
resistance: 0.13 n
the neutral. inductive reactance: 0.1 n
b. What is the current in the MV line? capacitive reactance: 3000 n
c. What is the power factor on the MV side?
a. Draw the equivalent circuit of one phase if
26-18 Referring to Fig. 26.36, the connected the line length is 5 km.
loads have the following ratings: b. If no current-limiting line reactors are used.
single phase loads: 30 kW each calculate the short-circuit current if a fault
occurs at the end of the line.
motor M I : 50 k VA. cos 0 0.5 lagging c. Given the 12 kA rating of the circuit breakers.
motor M2: 160 kVA, cos 0 = 0.80 lagging is a line reactor needed in this special case?
 CHAPTER 27
The Cost of Electricity

27 .0 Introduction sion, and distribution of electrical energy. These in-

vestments represent enormous sums measured in
n 1999 the electric power utilities in the United
I States supplied approximately 3130 TW·h of elec-
trical energy to their industrial, commercial. and
hundreds of billions of dollars.
Operating costs include salaries, fuel costs, ad-
ministration, and any other daily or weekly expense.
residential customers (Table 27 A). This enormous Bearing in mind the relative importance of these
amount of energy represents I. I kW of power con- two types of costs, utility companies have estab-
tinually at the service of every man, woman. and lished rate structures that attempt to be as equitable
child, 24 hours a day. The production, transmission, as possible for their customers. The rates are based
and distribution of this energy involves important upon the following guidelines:
costs that may be divided into two main cate-
gories-fixed costs and operating costs. I The amount of energy consumed rkW·hl
fixed costs comprise the depreciation charges
against buildings, dams, turbines, generators, cir- 2. The demand. or rate at which energy is con-
cuit breakers, transformers, transmission lines, and sumed [kW]
other equipment used in the production, transmis- 3. The power factor of the load

TABLE 27 A CONSUMPTION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY IN THE UNITED STATES (1999)*

Type of Number of Total amount Monthly consumption

customer consumers consumption [TW·h] per consumer [kW·h]

industrial 527 000 1018 161 000

commercial 13 964 000 971 5 792
residential 109 817 000 1141 866

*These statistics for 1999 were drawn from information supplied hy the Energy Information Administration (www.eia.doe.gov).
It is expected that the yearly increase in energy consumption will be about 2 percent. Thus. in 2005 the total energy will amount
to 3525 TW·h.
729
730 ELECTRIC UTILITY POWER SYSTEMS

27.1 Tariff based upon energy night and day, including Saturdays and Sundays,
constantly drawing 1000 kW ofactive power. Atthe
The cost of electricity depends, first. upon the end of the month (J.20 h), it has consumed a total of
amount of energy (kW· h) consumed. However, even 1000 kW X 720 h = 720 000 kW·h of energy.
if a customer uses no energy at all, he has to pay a Factory B consumes the same amount of energy,
minimum service charge, because it costs money to but its load is continually changing. Thus. power
keep him connected to the line. fluctuates between 50 kW and 3000 kW, as shown
As consumption increases, the cost per kilowatt- in the figure. Obviously, the capacity of the trans-
hour drops, usually on a sliding scale. Thus, the do- former and the transmission line supplying factory
mestic tariff may start at 20 cents per kilowatt-hour B must be greater than that supplying factory A.
forthe first one hundred kW·h, fall to lOcents/kW·h The electric utility must, therefore, invest more cap-
for the next two hundred kW·h, and bottom out at 8 ital to service factory B; consequently, it is reason-
cents/kW· h for the rest of the energy consumed. The able that factory B should pay more for its energy.
same general principle applies to medium-power It is advantageous, both to the customer and the
and large-power users of electrical energy. utility company that energy be consumed at a con-
stant rate. The steadier the power, the less the cost.
27 .2 Tariff based upon demand
The monthly cost of electricity supplied to a large
27.3 Demand meter
customer depends not only upon the energy con- The graphs of Fig. 27.1 show a number of power
sumed, but also upon the rate at which it is used. In spikes that last for a very short time. These spikes
other words, the cost also depends upon the active correspond to the high power drawn by motors
power (kW) drawn from the line. To understand the when they are started up. However, the high start-
reason for this dual rate structure, consider the fol- up power does not last long enough to warrant the
lowing example. installation of correspondingly large equipment by
Two factories A and B are respectively con- the utility company. The question then arises: How
nected to a high-voltage line by transformers TA long does the power surge have to last, in order to
and TB (Fig. 27. I). Factory A operates at full-load, be considered significant? The answer depends

kW I motor
I start-up
energy: 720 000 kW·h
maximum demand: 1000 kW

1 1ooor_._..._~_.__.....r~~'__..17_=C"--~l_.____~-
P

00~--------1-------1-4 _______2_1_______2_8___
3o d
factory A
-time

kW energy: 720 000 kW·h

4000 maximum demand: 3000 kW
pi 3000
Te AAAAAA
2000

If]jmb factory B
1000
O+-----"r==r;-__;;;__r==r;.---_;:_~:;....;...x..........z..~~-+--
0 7 14 21 28 30 d
-time

Figure 27.1
Comparison between two factories consuming the same energy but having different demands.
 THE COST OF ELECTRICITY 731

upon several factors, but the period is usually taken ing large industrial loads. The printout constitutes a
to be 10, 15, or 30 minutes. For very large power permanent record of the demand and is used for
users, such as municipalities, the averaging period both diagnostic and billing purposes.
may be as Jong as 60 minutes. It is called the de-
mand interval. Example 27-1 - - - - - - - - - - - -
To monitor the power drawn by a plant, a special The graph in Fig. 27.4 represents the active power
meter is installed at the customer's service entrance. It drawn by a large factory between 7:00 and 9:00 in
automatically measures the average power during suc- the morning. The demand meter has a 30 min de-
cessive demand intervals ( 15 minutes, say). The aver- mand interval. Let us assume that at 7:00 the first
age power measured during each interval is called the pointer reads 2 MW while the second (pushed)
demand. As time goes by, the meter faithfully records
the demand every 15 minutes and a pointer moves up
and down a calibrated scale as the demand changes. In
order to record the maximum demand, the meter car-
ries a second pointer that is pushed upscale by the first.
The second pointer simply sits at the highest position
to which it is pushed. At the end of the month, a util-
ity employee takes the maximum demand reading and
resets the pointer to zero.
This special meter is called a demand meter. and
it is installed at the service entrance of most indus-
tries and commercial establishments (Fig. 27.2).
Fig. 27.3 shows a printing demand meter for meter-

Figure 27.3
Printing demand meter.
(Courtesy of General Electric)

10H--+--IH-+-l--+-+-t+-r++-
p 8 l-+-+-1-+-+-++-t-+-+-+-+-....

r 4~-+--lf-+·+-t--+-+-+-1--~-·+-',....._,

21-+~i"-1-""""'1-+-t-+-t--t-~t-t--t-1H-T1-t-r-t-rr-r:

15 30 45 60 75 90 105 120 mm
7 00 800 900
_____....time

Figure 27.2 Figure 27.4

Combined energy and demand meter. Instantaneous record of the active power absorbed by
(Courtesy of Sangamo) a plant.
732 ELECTRIC UTILITY POWER SYSTEMS

pointer indicates 3 MW. What are the meter read- c. The demand between 8:00 and 8:30 is
ings at the following times?
(7 x.. 5 + g x 5+4 x 5+3 x 5 +
a. 7:30 5 x5 I x 5)/30
b. 8:00 = 4.67 MW
c. 8:30
d. 9:00 Thus, at 8:30 both pointers have moved up to
4.67 MW.
Solution d. The demand between 8:30 and 9:00 is
a. According to the graph, the average power (or
demand) between 7:00 and 7:30 is 2 MW. Pd = (I X 5 + 12 X 5 + I X 20)/30
Consequently, pointer I continues to indicate = 2.83 MW
2 MW at 7:30 and pointer 2 stays where it was
During this 30-minute interval, pointer I drops
at3MW.
from 4.67 MW to 2.83 MW, but pointer 2 sits at
b. The average power (or demand) between 7:30
4.67 MW, the previous maximum demand.
and 8:00 is equal to the energy divided by time:
PJ = (7 MW x 5 min + 2 MW X 5 min +
4 MW X 20 min)/30 min 27.4 Tariff based upon power factor
4.17MW Many alternating-current machines, such as induc-
During this 30-minute interval, pointer I gradu- tion motors and transformers, absorb reactive
ally moves from 2 MW (at 7:30) to 4.17 MW power to produce their magnetic fields. The power
(at 8:00), pushing pointer 2 to 4.17 MW. factor of these machines is, therefore, less than
Consequently, at 8:00 both pointers indicate unity and so, too, is the power factor of the factory
4.17 MW. Note that the demand reading is con- where they are installed. A low power factor in-
siderably less than the 7 MW peak which oc- creases the cost of electrical energy, as the follow-
curred during this interval. ing example shows.

1000 kW
1000kVA b
Q TA
k~~::1r-A
1;i]mh factory X
'(

00
_ __,/'-P-,_s_ _ _ _ _ _1_o_o_o_k_w_ _ _1_oo_o_k_v_A_

7 14 21 28 30 d
-time

1000 kW

I---:--P_::______
2000 kVA
Q Te AAAAAA P,S
kW, kVA
2000 s 2000 kVA
f _~W
i111Db factory Y
1ooot-:
0 ~0-~~.........
1----,-4----2-,----2·8--30-d
-time
1_00_0

Figure 27.5
A low plant power factor requires larger utility company lines and equipment.
 THE COST OF ELECTRICITY 733

Consider two factories X and Y that consume the 27.5 Typical rate structures
same amount of energy (kW· h) and. in addition,
Electrical power utility rates vary greatly from one
have the same maximum demand (kW). However,
area to another, and so we can only give a general
the power factor of X is unity while that of Y is 50
overview of the subject. Most companies divide
percent (Fig. 27.5).
their customers into categories, according to their
The energy and demand being the same. the
power demand. For example, one utility company
watthourmeters and demand meters will show the
distinguishes the following four power categories:
same reading at the end of the month. At first glance
it would appear that both users should pay the same I. Domestic pmver-power corresponding to the
bill. However, we must not overlook the apparent needs of houses and rented apartments
power drawn by each plant. 2. Small power-power of less than I00 kilowatts
Apparent power drawn by factory X:
3. Medium pmver-power of I00 kilowatts and
S P/cos 0 (7.7) more, but less than 5000 kilowatts
1000/1.0 4. Large power-power in excess of 5000 kilo-
1000 kVA watts

Apparent power drawn by factor Y: Table 27B shows, on a comparative basis. the
type of rate structures that apply to each of these
S = P/cos 8 I 000/0.5 categories. In addition, a contract is usually drawn
2000 kVA up between the electrical utility and the medium- or
large-power customer. The contract may stipulate a
Because the line current is proportional to ap- minimum monthly demand, a minimum power fac-
parent power, factory Y draws twice as much cur- tor, the voltage regulation, and various other clauses
rent as factory X. The line conductors feeding Y concerning firm power, growth rate, liability, off-
must, therefore, be twice as big. Worse still, the peak energy. seasonal energy, price increases, and
transformers. circuit breakers, disconnect switches, so forth. However, in the case of residences, the rate
and other devices supplying energy to Y must have schedule is quite straightforward (see Table 27B).
twice the rating of those supplying X.
The utility company must, therefore, invest more
capital to service factory Y~ consequently, it is logical
27 .6 Demand controllers
that it should pay more for its energy. even though it For industrial and commercial consumers the
consumes the same amount. In practice. the rate struc- maximum demand plays an important role in com-
ture is designed to automatically increase the billing piling the electricity bill. Substantial savings can
whenever the power factor is low. Most electrical util- be made by keeping the maximum demand as low
ities require that the power factor of their industrial as possible. Thus, an alarm can be installed to
clients be 90 percent or more. in order to benefit from sound a warning whenever the demand is about to
the minimum rate. When the power factor is too low, exceed a pre-established maximum. Loads that are
it is usually to the customer's advantage to improve it. not absolutely essential can then be temporarily
ratherthan pay the higher monthly bill. This is usually switched off until the peak has passed. This proce-
done by installing capacitors at the service entrance to dure can be carried out automatically by a demand
the plant. on the load side of the metering equipment. controller that connects and disconnects individ-
These capacitors may supply pai;t, or all, of the reac- ual loads so as to stay within the prescribed maxi-
tive power required by the plant: Indu~trial capacitors mum demand (Fig. 27.6). Such a device can easily
for power factor correction are made in single-phase save thousands of dollars per year for a medium-
and 3-phase units rated from 5 kvar to 200 kvar. power customer.
734 ELECTRIC UTILITY POWER SYSTEMS

TABLE 278 TYPICAL RATE STRUCTURES

Residential rate structure

Typical clauses:
I. " ... This rate shall apply to electric service in a single private dwelling ...
2 .... This rate applies to single-phase alternating current at 60 Hz ... "

Rate schedule

Minimum monthly charge: $5.00 plus

first 100 kW·h per month at 5 cents/kW·h
next 200 kW·h per month at 3 cents/kW·h
excess over 200 kW·h per month at 2 cents/kW·h

General power rate structure (medium power)

Typical contract clauses:

I. " ... The customer's maximum demand for the month. or its contract demand. is at least 50 kW but not more than
5000 kW ...
2.... Utility Company shall make available to the customer !000 kW of firm power during the term of this contract ...
3.... The power shall be delivered at a nominal 3-phase line voltage of 480 V, 60 Hz ...
4 .... The power taken under this contract shall not be used to cause unusual disturbances on the Utility Company's
system. In the event that unreasonable disturbances, including harmonic currents. produce interference with commu-
nication systems. the customer shall at his expense correct such disturbances ...
5. . .. Voltage variations shall not exceed 7 percent up or down from the nominal line voltage ...
6 .... Utility Company shall make periodic tests of its metering equipment so as to maintain a high standard of accuracy ...
7 .... Customer shall use power so that current is reasonably balanced on the three phases. Customer agrees to take
corrective measures if the current on the more heavily loaded phase exceeds the current in either of the two other
phases by more than 20 percent. If said unbalance is not corrected, Utility Company may meter the load on individ-
ual phases and compute the billing demand as being equal to three times the maximum demand on any phase ...
8 .... The maximum demand for any month shall be the greatest of the demands measured in kilowatts during any
30-minute period of the month ...
9 .... If90 percent of the highest average kVA measured during any 30-minute period is higher than the maximum de-
mand, such amount will be used as the billing demand ... "

Rate schedule

Demand charge: $3.00 per month per kW of billing demand

Energy charge: 4 cents/kW·h for the first I 00 hours of billing demand
2 cents/kW·h for the next 50 000 kW·h per month
1.2 cents/kW·h for the remaining energy

General Power Rate Structure (large power)

Typical contract clauses:

I. " ... Customer's maximum demand for the month or its contract demand is greater than 5000 kW .. :·
2. Clauses similar to clauses 2 to 8 listed in the General Power (medium power) contract given above.
3.... Contract shall be for a duration of I 0 years ...
4 .... The minimum bill for any one month shall equal 70 percent of the highest maximum demand charge during the
previous 36 months ...
5.... Utility Company shall not be obligated to furnish power in greater amounts than the customer's contract demand ... "
 THI:. COST OF l:LHTl?ICITY 7JS

TABLE 278 TYPICAL RATE STRUCTURES

Rate Schedule

Demand charge: First 75 000 kW ol demand per month al $2.SO per kW

Excess over 75 000 kW of demand per month at $2.00 per kW
Extra charge for any demand in excess of customer's contract demand at S2.20 per month per kW
Energy charge: First 20 million kW·h per month at 6.1 mills per kWh'''
r\ext 30 million kW·h per month at 6.0 mills per kW·h
Additional energy at 5.9 mills per kW·h

I mill one thou~andth of a dollar. or one tenth of a cent.

Example 27-2 apparent power (k VA). Calculate the electricity bill

using the medium-power rate schedule (Table 278).
Bi/lint-; <Jf'a domestic customer
A homeowner consumes 900 kW·h during the Solution
month of August. Calculate the electricity bill using Clause 9 is important here because 90(k of the kVA
the residential rate schedule given in Table 27B. demand is equal to 90'1<· X 1700 1530 kVA. which
is greater than the maximum demand of 1200 kW.
Solution
Consequently, the demand for billing: purposes is
Minimum charge = $5.00
15 30 kW and not 1200 kW. The power factor of the
First 100 kW·h@ 5 cents/kW·h 5.00
Next 200 kW·h @ 3 cents/kW·h 6.00
Remaining energy consumed
(900 300) 600 kW·h
600 kW·h @ 2 cents/kW·h = 12.00
TOTAL bill for the month $28.00

This represents an average cost of 2800/900

= 3.11 cent/kW·h.
Demand meters are not usually installed in
homes because the maximum demand seldom ex-
ceeds 10 kW.
Table 27C shows the energy consumed by vari-
ous electrical appliances found in a home. Fig. 27.7
is an example of an all-electric home heated by
baseboard heaters.

Example 27-3 - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Billi111<for a medium-power customer
Figure 27.6
A small industry operating night and day. 7 days a
Automatic demand controller that sheds nonessential
week. consumes 260 000 kW·h µer month. The max- loads whenever the demand reaches a preset level or
imum demand is 1200 kW. and the-maximum kVA according to a set schedule. This model can control
demand is 1700 k VA. Note that the demand in this up to 96 loads.
factory is measured for both active power (kW) and (Courtesy of Gentec Inc.)
736 ELECTRIC UTILITY POWER SYSTEMS

TABLE 27C AVERAGE MONTHLY CONSUMPTION OF HOUSEHOLD APPLIANCES

Average monthly consumption of a family of five people in a modern house equipped .With an automatic washing machine
and a dishwasher

Appliance kW-h consumed Appliance kW-h consumed

Hot water heater (2000 gallons/month) 500 Automatic washing machine 100
Freezer 100 Coffee maker 9
Stove JOO Stereo system 9
Lighting JOO Radio 7
Dryer 70 Lawn mower 7
Dishwasher 30 Vacuum cleaner 4
Electric kettle 20 Toaster 4
Electric skillet 15 Clock 2
Electric iron 12

plant is low; consequently. the billing demand ( 1530

kW) is higher than the metered demand ( 1200 kW).
Applying the rate schedule. the demand charge is
1530kW@$3.00/kW $4590
The energy charge for the first I 00 h is
1530 kW X 100 hours
153 000 kW·h@ 4 cents/kW·h
= 153 000 x 0.04 6 120
The energy charge for the next 50 000 kW-his
50 000 kW·h@ 2 cents/kW·h I 000
The remainder of the energy is
(260 000 - 153 000 50 000) 57 000 kW·h
Figure 27.7
The energy charge for the remainder of the energy is All-electric home that consumes a maximum of 9400
57 000 kW·h @ 1.2 cents/kW·h 684 kW·h in January, and a minimum of 2100 kW-h in July.
TOTAL bill for the month $12 394
The average cost of energy is peak demand of 43 000 kW. Calculate the monthly
unit cost = 12 394/260 000 bill using the large-power rate schedule given in
4.77 cents/kW·h Table 27B.
27.8 shows a plant equipped with both a de- Solution
mand controller and power-factor correcting ca- a. The demand charge is
pacitors. 43 000 kW@ S2.50/kW = $ 107 500
b. The energy charge for the first
Example 27-4 - - - - - - - - - - - - - 20 million kW·h is
Billinf.? of'a largc-pmver customer 20 million kW·h @ 6.1 mill/kW·h
A paper mill consumes 28 million kilowatt-hours of 20 x 106 x 6.1/1000 122 000
energy per month. The demand meter registers a The energy charge for the next
 THE COST OF ELECTRICITY 737

27. 7 Power factor correction

Power factor correction (or improvement) is econom-
ically feasible whenever the decrease in the annual
cost of electricity exceeds the amortized cost of in-
stalling the required capacitors. In some cases the cus-
tomer has no choice but must comply with the mini-
mum power factor specified by the utility company.
The power factor may be improved by installing
capacitors at the service entrance to the factory or
commercial enterprise. In other cases it may be de-
sirable to correct the power factor of an individual
device, or machine, if its power factor is particu-
larly low.

Example 27-5
A factory draws an apparent power of 300 kVA at a
Figure 27.8 power factor of 65% (lagging). Calculate the kvar
All-electric industry covering an area of 1300 m2 . It is capacity of the capacitor bank that must be installed
heated by passing current through the reinforcing wire at the service entrance to bring the overall power
mesh embedded in the concrete floor. A load con- factor to
troller connects and disconnects the heating sections
(nonpriority loads) depending on the level of produc- a. Unity
tion (priority loads). The demand is thereby kept below b. 85 percent lagging
the desired preset level. Annual energy consumption:
375 000 kW.h; maximum demand in winter: 92 kW; Solution
maximum demand during the summer: 87 kW. a. Apparent power absorbed by the plant is
(Courtesy of Lab-Volt)
S 300 kVA
Active power absorbed by the plant is
p s cos 0 (7.7)
(28 20) = 8 million kW·h is = 300 x 0.65 195 kW
8 million kW·h @ 6.0 mill/kW·h
8 x 106 x 6.0/1000 = 48 000
Reactive power absorbed by the factory is
-----------

TOTAL bill for the month $ 277 500

Average cost per kW·h = 228 kvar
277 500/28 X 106 9.9 X I0- 3 = 9.9 mill
To raise the power factor to unity, we have to
or about I cent/kW·h
supply all the reactive power absorbed by the
A monthly bill of nearly $300 000 may appear load (228 kvar). The 3-phase capacitors must.
high, but we must remember that it probably repre- therefore, have a rating 228 kvar. 27.1 Oa
sents less than 5 percent of the., selling price of the shows the active and reactive power flow.
finished product. b. The factory continues to draw the same amount
Fig. 27.9 gives an idea of the power and energy of active power ( 195 kW) because the mechan-
consumed by a large city. ical and thermal loads remain unchanged.
738 ELECTRIC UTILITY POWER SYSTEMS

Figure 27.9
In 1998, the city of Montreal with 908 343 customers consumed 26 335 GW.h of electrical energy. Maximum de-
mand during the winter, 6695 MW; during the summer, 3591 MW. Residential customers: 834 935; general and in-
stitutional customers: 67 234; industrial customers: 6174.
(Courtesy of Hydro-Quebec and of Service de la C.!.D.E.M., Ville de Montrea~

Consequently, because the new overall power the same active and reactive power, irrespective
factor is to be 0.85 lagging, the apparent power of the size of the capacitor installation.
drawn from the line must be The demand of commercial and industrial cus-
tomers varies greatly throughout the day. As a re-
S = P/cos 0
sult, it is common practice to install a variable ca-
= 195/0.85 230 kVA pacitor unit at the service entrance. In the case of
The new reactive power supplied by the line is large customers, an automatic controller switches
capacitor units in and out so that the power factor
Q Y2302 - 195 2 121 kvar
always lies slightly above 95 percent.
Because the plant still draws 228 kvar and the
line furnishes only 121 kvar, the difference
Example 27-6
must come from the capacitors. The rating of
A 600 kW induction furnace connected to an 800 V
these units is
single-phase line operates at a power factor of 0.6
Q = (228 121) 107 kvar lagging. It is supplied by a 4 kV line and a step-
down transformer (Fig. 27 .11 ).
Thus, if we can accept a power factor of 0.85
(instead of unity), we can install a smaller capac- a. Calculate the current in the 4000 V line.
itor bank and, hence, reduce the cost. Fig. 27. IOb b. If a 500 kvar capacitor is installed on the HY
shows the new power flow in the transmission side of the transformer, calculate the new
line and the factory. Note that the factory draws power factor and the new line current.
 P Q 195kW) S
.300 kVA

(a)
PQ 195kW Q Q 228 kvar

228 kvar
0
Q
T

Pl'.>195 kW J s
(bl
pQ1•s•w) • 230skVA 300 kVA

0()121 kvar QQ22e""" •

107 kvar
oT Q

Figure 27 .10
a. Overall power factor corrected to unity (Example 27-5).
b. Overall power factor corrected to 0.85.

-•w ,~ .671 s
300 kvar or>
l kVA
4kV

Q
p

600 kW
Q
800 kvar
I•S-= 1000 kVA
induction
cJI
0
molten iron
1§.ZA. 250 A 0 0
0

6T 600kW

800 kvar r> transformer

0
0
eddy currents
induction furnace
0
0

Figure 27 .11
Individual load power factor correction (Example 27-6).

739
740 ELECTRIC UTILITY POWER SYSTEMS

Solution The new line current is

This is an interesting example where individual
t~ S1 IE= 671 000/4000
power factor correction must be applied. The reason ..
is that the induction furnace is a single-phase device = 168A
whereas the plant is certainly energized by a 3-phase By installing a single-phase capacitor bank, the line
line. We cannot correct the power factor of single- current drops from 250 A to 168 A, which repre-
phase equipment by adding balanced 3-phase ca- sents a decrease of 33 percent. It follows that the l 2 R
pacitors at the service entrance. loss and voltage drop on the supply line will be
a. Active power absorbed by the furnace is greatly reduced. Furthermore, the power factor
rises from 60% to 89% which will significantly re-
P = 600kW duce the monthly power bill. Finally, the 3-phase
line currents are more likely to be reasonably bal-
Apparent power absorbed by the furnace is
anced at the service entrance despite the presence of
S = Pfcos 0 = 600/0.6 this large single-phase load.
1000 kVA The reader may want to refer to Chapter 8,
Section 8.22, wherein it is shown how a single-
Current in the 4 kV line is phase load can be made to appear as a balanced.
l = SIE 1000/4 unity power-factor 3-phase load by using capacitors
and inductors.
= 250A

b. Reactive power absorbed by the furnace is 27.8 Measuring electrical energy,

Q= the watthourmeter
= v 1000 2 - 600 2 We have already seen that the SI unit of energy is
the joule. However, for many years, power utilities
800 kvar
have been using the kilowatt-hour to measure the
Reactive power supplied by the capacitor is energy supplied to industry and private homes. One
kilowatt hour (kW·h) is exactly equal to 3.6 MJ.
Qc 500 kvar
Meters which measure industrial and residential
Reactive power that the line must supply is energy are called watthourmeters; they are designed
to multiply power by time. The electricity bill is usu-
Q1, = Q Qc
ally based upon the number of kilowatt hours con-
= 800 500 300 kvar sumed during one month. Watthourmeters must,
Active power drawn from the line is therefore, be very precise. Induction watthourmeters
are practically the only types employed for residen-
P1,=600kW tial metering.
Apparent power drawn from the line is 27. l 2 shows the principal parts of such a
meter: a potential coil Br wound with many turns of
SL= + QL fine wire; a current coil Be; an aluminum disc D
supported by a vertical spindle; a permanent mag-
= \/600
2
+ 3002
net A; and a gear mechanism that registers the num-
671 kVA ber of turns made by the disc. When the meter is
New power factor is of the line connected to a single-phase line, the disc is sub-
jected to a torque which causes it to turn like a high-
cos 0 Pt/S1, 600/671 0.89 precision motor.
 THE COST OF ELECTRICITY 741

27.9 Operation of the

watthourmeter
The operation of a watthourmeter can be understood
by referring to Fig. 27.13. Load current I produces
an alternating flux <1>0 which crosses the aluminum
disc, inducing in it a voltage and, consequently,
eddy currents / 1. On the other hand, potential coil BP
produces an alternating flux <Pr, which intercepts
current / 1• The disc is therefore subjected to a force
(Section 2.22), and the resultant torque causes it to
rotate. It can be shown that the torque is propor-
tional to flux <PP and current Ir and the cosine of the
angle between them. Because <PP and / 1are respec-
tively proportional to voltage E and load current/,
it follows that the motor torque is proportional to
Figure 27.12a El cos 0, which is the active power delivered to the
Complete watthourmeter. load. This. however, is only part of the story.
(Courtesy of General Electric)

(b)

rotating disc D

Figure 27.12b
Components making up the meter.
(Courtesy of General Electric)
742 ELECTRIC UTILITY POWER SYSTEMS

LOAD

Figure 27.13
Principle of operation of watthourmeter.

As the disc moves between the poles of perma- Example 27-7

nent magnet A, a second whirlpool of eddy-currents The nameplate of a watthourmeter shows K1i 3.0.
is induced in the disc. The interaction of the flux from If the disc makes 17 turns in 2 minutes, calculate the
the permanent magnet and these eddy currents pro- energy consumed by the load during this interval
duces a braking torque whose value is proportional to and the average power of the load.
the speed of the disc. Because the motor torque is al-
Solution
ways equal to the braking torque (see Section 3.11 ),
Each turn corresponds to an energy consumption of
it follows that the speed is proportional to the motor
3.0 W·h. Energy consumed during the 2-minute in-
torque. The latter, we have seen, is proportional to the
terval is
active power supplied to the load. Consequently, the
number of turns per second is proportional to the Eh Kh X number of turns
number of joules per second. It follows that the num- 3.0 x 17
ber of turns of the disc is proportional to the number
= 51 W·h
of joules (energy) supplied to the load.
Average power absorbed by the load during this in-
27 .1 O Meter readout terval is

In addition to other details, the nameplate of a P Ehlt 5112 W·h/min

watthourmeter lists the rated voltage, current and = 51/(1/30) W·h/h
frequency, and a metering constant Kh. Constant K1i = 51 x 30 w
is the amount of energy, in watt hours, which flows
1530W
through the meter for each turn of the disc.
Consequently, we can calculate the amount of en- Most watthourmeters have four dials to indicate the
ergy that flows through a meter by counting the amount of energy consumed. The dials are read from
number of turns. Then, dividing energy by time, we left to right and the number so obtained is the num-
can calculate the average value of the active power ber of kilowatthours consumed since the meter was
supplied to the load during the interval. first put in service. In reading the individual dials,
 THE COST OF ELECTRICITY 743

- B
- C

Figure 27.14
Reading the dials of a watthourmeter.

we always take the number which the pointer swept die and using a single register (Fig. 27 .15). The cur-
over last. For example, in Fig. 27 .14, the reading is rent and potential coils are connected to the line in
1-5-9-0, or 1590 kW·h. To measure the energy con- the same way as those of two watt meters.
sumed during one month, we simply subtract the Fig. 27 .16 is a 3-phase, solid-state watthour-
readings at the beginning and end of the month. meter having a precision exceeding that of induc-
Some modern watthourmeters give a digital readout tion-type watthourmeters. Electronic watthour-
which, of course, is much easier to read. meters are now being developed that will monitor
harmonic content and phase unbalance as part of the
27.11 Measuring 3-phase energy metering process to meet special contractual re-
and power quirements.

The energy consumed by a 3-phase load (3-wire sys-

Questions and Problems
tem) can be measured with two single-phase
watthourmeters. The two meters are often combined Practical level
into one by mounting the two discs on the same spin- 27-1 Explain what is meant by the following
terms:
demand billing demand
maximum demand fixed cost
mill demand interval
27-2 Using the rate schedule given in Table 27B,
calculate the power bill for a homeowner
who consumes 920 kW·h in one month.
27-3 Explain why a low power factor in a fac-
tory results in a higher power bill.
27-4 Explain the behavior of a demand meter.
27-5 Using the rate schedule given in Table
278 for a medium-power customer, calcu-
late the monthly power bill under the fol-
lowing conditions:
demand meter reading 120kW
Figure 27 .15
billing demand ISO kW
Watthourmeter for a 3-phase, 3-wire circuit.
(Courtesy of General Electric) energy consumed 36 000 kW·h
744 ELECTRIC UTILITY POWER SYSTEMS

other one having a demand interval of 15

minut.e.s, calculate the new value of the
maximum.demand at 8:00.
27-8 a. Give an estimate of the energy consumed in
one year by a modern city of 300 000 inhab-
itants in North America (refer to Fig. 27.9).
b. If the average rate is 40 mill/kW·h. calcu-
late the annual cost of servicing the city.
27-9 A motor draws 75 kW from a 3-phase line
at a cos 0 = 0.72 lagging.
a. Calculate the value of Q and S absorbed by
the motor.
b. If a 20 kvar. 3-phase capacitor is connected
in parallel with the motor. what is the new
value of P and Q supplied by the line?
c. Calculate the percent drop in line current
after the capacitor is installed.
27-10 A plant draws 160 kW at a lagging power
factor of 0.55.
a. Calculate the capacitors [kvarl required to
raise the power factor to unity.
b. If the power factor is only raised to 0.9 lag-
ging, how much less would the capacitor
bank cost (in percent)'?
Figure 27.16
This high-precision electronic watthourmeter gives a 27-11 a. Assuming that power in a large industry can
numerical readout of the energy delivered by a 3-phase be purchased at 15 mill/kW·h. estimate the
transmission line. It has an accuracy of 0.2 percent, hourly cost of running a 4000 hp motor
which compares favorably with the 0.5 percent accu- having an efficiency of 96 percent.
racy of some of the best induction-type watthourme- b. If the motor runs night and day. 365 days
ters. This meter is used on high-power lines where the per year. what would the annual saving be if
monthly consumption exceeds 10 GW h. the motor were redesigned to have an effi-
(Courtesy of Siemens) ciency of 97%.
27-12 a. Referring to the residential rate schedule
Intermediate level given in Table 27B, calculate the cost per
27-6 The demand meter in a factory registers a kW·h if only 20 kW·h are consumed during
maximum demand of 4300 kW during the a given month.
month of May. The power factor is known b. The heating element on an electric stove is
to be less than 70 percent. rated at 1200 W. Using the same rate sched-
a. If capacitors had been installed so as to ule, what is the least possible cost of run-
raise the power factor to 0.9. would the ning it for one hour?
maximum demand have been affected? 27-13 A barrel of oil costing 32 dollars contains
b. Would the billing demand have been af- 42 gal (U.S.) having a heating value of
fected'1 115 000 Btu/gal. When the fuel is burned
27- 7 According to Example 27-1, the maximum in a thermal generating station to produce
demand registered at 8:00 is 4.17 MW. If electricity, the overall efficiency is typi-
the demand meter were replaced by an- cally 35 percent. Calculate the minimum
 THE COST OF ELECTRICITY 745

cost per kilowatt-hour, considering only Industrial application

the price of the fuel. 27-19 A 200 hp induction motor driving a cen-
27-14 Describe the construction of a watthourme- tifugal pump delivers IO 000 gallons of
ter. Explain why the disc rotates. water per minute when running at 1760
27-15 The disc in 27.13 turns at I0 r/min r/min with the valve fully open. When less
for a load of I 0 kW. If a 5 k var capacitor water is needed, the valve is partly closed
is connected in parallel with the load, so as to throttle the flow.
what is the new rate of rotation? It is proposed to use a variable speed
inverter drive and leave the valve wide
27- 16 We want to determine the power of an elec-
open at high- and low-water flows.
tric heater installed in a home by means of
The following information regarding the
a watthourmeter. All other loads are shut
three modes of operation is given in
off and it is found that the disc makes 10
Table 270:
complete turns in I minute. If Kh = 3.0,
calculate the power of the heater. I. Valve fully open
27-17 a. The flux created by the permanent magnet 2. Valve throttled
in Fig. 27.13 decreases by 0.5 percent in 10 3. Inverter drive with valve fully open.
years. What is the effect on the speed of ro-
tation and the precision of the meter? The cost of a variable speed inverter for
b. The resistance of coil B" changes with tem- the 200 hp motor is $32 000. The cost of
perature. Does this affect the speed of rota- energy is 6 cents/kWh and the throttled
tion if the ::ictive load remains fixed? condition is on 17 hours per day, every
27-18 A domestic watthourmeter has a precision day of the year. Referring to Table 270,
of 0.7 percent. Calculate the maximum answer the following questions:
a. How much energy is saved per day by using
possible error if the monthly consumption
an inverter instead of throttling the valve?
is 800 kW·h.
b. How much money is saved per year by in-
stalling the inverter?

TABLE 270

Motor input [kW] Motor losses [kW] Pump losses [kW] Valve losses [kW] Flow [gal/min)

(I) 135 10 25 0 10 000

(2) 133 10 27 32 8000
{3) 89 9 16 0 8000
 CHAPTER 28
Direct-Current Transmission

28.0 Introduction teract and dampen out the power oscillations.

Quick power control also means that de short-
he development of high-power, high-voltage
T electronic converters has made it possible to
transmit and control large blocks of power using di-
circuit cuJTents can be limited to much lower
values than those encountered on ac networks.

rect current. Direct-current transmission offers 2. DC power can be transmitted in cables over
unique features that cornplement the characteristics great distances. We have seen that the capaci-
of existing ac networks. We cover here some of the tance of a cable limits ac power transmission to
various ways it is being adapted and used, both in a few tens of kilometers (Section 25.29).
North America and throughout the world. However, Beyond this limit. the reactive power generated
before undertaking this chapter. the reader should by cable capacitance exceeds the rating of the
first review the principles of power electronics cov- cable itself. Because capacitance does not come
ered in Chapter 21. into play under steady-state de conditions, there
is theoretically no limit to the distance that
28.1 Features of de transmission power may be carried this way. As a result.
power can be transmitted by cable under large
What are the advantages of transmitting power by bodies of water. where the use of ac cables is
de rather than by ac? They may be listed as follows: unthinkable. Furthermore, underground de ca-
I. DC power can be controlled much more ble may be used to deliver power into large ur-
quickly. For example, power in the megawatt ban centers. Unlike overhead lines, under-
range can be reversed in a de line in less than ground cable is invisible, free from
one second. This feature makes it useful to op- atmospheric pollution, and solves the problem
erate de transmission lines in parallel with exist- of securing rights of way.
ing ac networks. When instability is about to oc- 3. We have seen that ac power can only be trans-
cur (due lo a disturbance on the ac system), the mitted between centers operating at the same
de power can be changed in amplitude to coun- frequency. Furthermore, the power transmitted

746
 DIRECT-CURRENTTRANSMISSJON 747

depends upon line reactance and the phase an- tern. Furthermore, the power flow between the
between the voltages at each end of the Iine systems can be modified and even reversed in a
(Section 25.23). But when power is transmitted matter of milliseconds-much faster than could
by de, frequencies and phase angles do not be achieved on an ac system.
come into the picture, and line reactance does
Unlike ac transmission lines, it is not easy to tap
not limit the steady-state power flow. If any-
power off at different points along a de line. In ef-
thing, it is only the resistance of the line that
fect, de lines are usually point-to-point systems, ty-
limits the flow. This also means that power can
ing one large generating station to one large power-
be transmitted over greater distances by using
consuming center. Electronic converters are
de. However, this is a marginal benefit because
installed at each end of the transmission line, but
large blocks of ac power are already being car-
none in between. However, a multiterminal de line
ried over distances exceeding 1000 km.
originating at Radisson, near James Bay, has been
4. Overhead de transmission lines become eco- built to supply power to New England and three
nomically competitive with ac lines when the other points in Quebec.
length of the line exceeds several hundred kilo-
meters. The width of the power corridor is less,
and experience to date has shown that outages 28.2 Basic de transmission system
due to lightning are somewhat reduced. A de transmission system consists basically of a de
Consequently, de transmission lines are being transmission line connecting two ac systems. A
used to carry bulk power directly from a gener- converter at one end of the line converts ac power
ating station located near a coal mine or water- into de power while a similar converter at the other
fall. to the load center. end reconverts the de power into ac power. One
5. At the opposite extreme of great distance are converter acts therefore as a rectifier, the other as an
back-to-back converters, which interconnect inverter.
large adjacent ac systems with a de transmis- Stripped of everything but the bare essentials,
sion line that is only a few meters long. Back- the transmission system may be represented by
to-back converters enable the two systems to the circuit of Fig. 28.1. Converter I is a 3-phase,
operate at their respective frequencies and 6-pulse rectifier that converts the ac power of line
phase angles. As a result. disturbances on one I into de power. The de power is carried over a
system do not tend to destabilize the other sys- 2-conductor transmission line and reconverted to

converter 2
,
................................................................
-------tD:Ji-------.---!i A2 j
1;- 1+ I 02 I

E!~ I
I ~lih¥2~
!
......_.,._____~! I
L. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .J
Firing angle a1 Firing angle a 2

Figure 28.1
Elementary de transmission system connecting 3-phase line 1 to 3-phase line 2.
 748 ELECTRIC UT/Uff POWER SYSTEMS

ac power by means of converter 2, acting as an in- 28.3 Voltage, current, and power
verter. Both the rectifier and inverter are line- relation~hips
commutated by the respective line voltages to
which they are connected (Sections 21.9, 21.20, In a practical tran~mission line. smoothing induc-
21.28, and 21.29). Consequently, the networks tors L 1 and L 2 (Fig. 28.2) must be used as a buffer
can function at entirely different frequencies between the ripple-free de voltage Ed and the undu-
without affecting the power transmission between lating output of the converters (Sections 21. l 0.
them. 21.26. and 21.31 ). Thus. the potential difference be-
Power flow may be reversed by changing the fir- tween E 1G and Ec1 appears across inductor L 1•
ing angles a 1 and a 2 • so that converter I becomes Similarly, the difference between and Ed ap-
an inverter and converter 2 a rectifier. Changing the pears across L 2 • The inductors also reduce the ac
angles reverses the polarity of the conductors, but harmonic currents flowing in the transmission line
the direction of current flow remains the same. This to an acceptable level.
mode of operation is required because thyristors If we neglect commutation overlap. the wave-
can only conduct current in one direction. shape of E 1c; on the de side of the rectifier is as
The de voltages Ed 1 and Ed 2 at each converter shown in Fig. 28.3a. Similarly, the waveshape of
station are identical, except for the JR drop in the E 2G is as shown in Fig. 28.3b. We have assumed fir-
line. The drop is usually so small that we can ne- ing angles of a 1 15° and a 2 150°, respectiv.ely.
glect it, except insofar as it affects losses, effi- for the rectifier and inverter. Consequently, the de
ciency, and conductor heating. line voltage is given by
Due to the high voltages encountered in trans- Ec1 = 1.35 E 1 cos a 1
mission lines, each thyristor shown in Fig. 28.1 is
1.35 E1 cos 15° = 1.304
actually composed of several thyristors connected
in series. Such a group of thyristors is often called a Similarly,
valve. Thus, a valve for a 50 kV, 1000 A converter
Ed= 1.35 E 2 cos a 2
would typically be composed of 50 thyristors con-
nected in series. Each converter in Fig. 28.1 would, In the case of de transmission lines, the rectifier
therefore, contain 300 thyristors. The 50 thyristors angle a 1 is simply designated a. Furthermore, the
in each bridge arm are triggered simultaneously, so inverter firing angle is not considered as a delay
together they act like a super-thyristor. (a 2 ) with respect to the rectifier zero firing point.

converter 1 converter 2

network 1 network 2

line
voltage E1 ! i voltage £ 2

firinq anqle a 1 (or a) firing angle a 2 (or /3)

Figure 28.2
Smoothing inductors L 1 and L2 are required between fluctuating de voltages E1G, E2 G, and ripple-free voltage
 01 02 03 04 05 Q6 01
fires fires fires fires fires fires fires
a= 15° 80 T T T T T T T
05 ~ t--06, 01--+-01, 02--+-02, 03~3, 04............. 04, 05_,.._05, 06--l
, . Iconducting I conducting I conducting 1conducting I conducting I conducting I
con d uctmg I I I I I I I
1.414 £ 1 K1 1

Figure 28.3a
Rectifier voltage waveshape E1G for a= 15° (neglecting commutation overlap).

01 02 03 04 05 06 01
fires fires fires fires fires fires fires

Figure 28.3b
Inverter voltage waveshape for~ 30° (neglecting commutation overlap).

749
 750 ELECTRIC UTILITY POWER SYSTEMS

but as an angle of advance 13. Thus, as regards the 11, 12 =effective values of the rectangular
inverter, instead of stating that a 2 = 150° (as we .. ,currents in ac lines I and 2 [A]
have done in all previous inverter circuits in E 1, E 2 = eff~ctive values of the respective ac
Chapters 21. 22, and 23), we now refer to it as an line voltages [VJ
angle of advance 13 30° (Fig. 28.3b). The value of
Q 1 , Q2 reactive powers absorbed by con-
13 is related to a 2 by the simple equation
verters I and 2 [var]
180 a2 a rectifier angle of delay [0 ]
Note that the inverter voltage is zero when 13 is 13 inverter angle of advance [0 1
90° and maximum when 13 0°.
In order to keep the reactive powers Q1 and Q 2
The voltage, current, and power relationships of
as low as possible, we attempt to make a. and 13 ap-
a de transmission system are the same as those for
proach 0°. However, for practical reasons, and tak-
any circuit containing ac/dc power converters.
ing account of commutation overlap, the effective
Referring to Fig. 28.2, and based upon equations we
value of a is about 25°, while that of 13 is about
have already seen, the relationships may be stated
35°. ** Using these values, we can calculate the rel-
as follows:
ative magnitudes of the voltages and currents in a
P = Eiu scale model of a transmission line. In this modeL
Ec1 1.35E 1 cosa (21.17) we assume the line delivers I 000 A at a potential of
I 00 kV (Fig. 28.4 ).
1.35 E 2 cos 13
1, 12 0.816(, (21.6)
The ejfectin• firing angles a* and 13* depend upon the fol-
Q1 = P tan a (21.18) lowing:
Q2 P tan 13 1. The actual firing angles tx and f3
2. The commutation overlap angle µ
where
3. The extinction angle -y
P active power transmitted [W] The approximate relationship between these quantities is
cos a* = 112 (cos a cos (a µ))
= de line voltage [V]
cos f3* 1/2 (cos f3 + cos (f3 µ))
/u de line current [A] f3 'Y µ

converter1 converter2
(rectifier) (inverter)
/1 "'820 A .------....

£ 1 :::::: 82 kV o-----4
t Ed
i
= 100 kV P = 100 MW

Q 1 :::::: 47 Mvar .__ _ ___. _ _ _ _ ___, Q2"' 70 Mvar

P1 100 MW = 35° P2 = 100 MW

Figure 28.4
Scale model of a simple de transmission system.
 DIRECTCURRENT TRANSMISSION 751

Thus, we have Solution

Using the scale model of 28.4 and multiplying
E<l = 1.35 £ 1 cos a
by the appropriate ratios, we find the following:
100 kV = 1.35 £ 1 cos 25°
a. The ac line voltages are
£1 = 82 kV
(150 kV/JOO kV} X 82
Furthermore,
123 kV
E<l = 1.35 E2 cos 13
100 kV = 1.35 £ 2 cos 35° (150 kV/100 kV} x 90
E2 = 90kV 135 kV

also b. The effective value of the line current is

11 !2=0.816/<l 1, 12 (40011000) x 820

328 A
= 0.816 x 1000
820A c. The active power absorbed by the rectifier is
pI = 150 k v x 400 A
p Ei<l 60 000 kW

100 kV x IOOOA =60MW

IOOMW d. The reactive power absorbed by each converter
is

QI P tan a QI = (60/100) X 47
I 00 tan 25° = 28 Mvar
47 Mvar
Q2 = (60/100) x 70

Q2 P tan 13 = 42 Mvar
100 tan 35°
70 Mvar 28.4 Power fluctuations
on a de line
Figure 28.4 may thus be used as a scale model to
determine the order of magnitude of the voltages, In order to ensure stability in transmitting de power.
currents, and power in any de transmission system. the rectifier and inverter must have special voltage-
current characteristics. These characteristics are
Example 28-1 shaped by computer-controlled gate-firing circuits.
A de transmission line operating at 150 kV carries a We can best understand the need for such controls
current of 400 A. Calculate the approximate value by studying the behavior of the system when the
of the following: controls are absent.
Fig. 28.5 shows a de transmission line having a
a. The ac line voltage at each c~nverter station
resistance R. The converters produce voltages £d 1
b. The ac line current
and and the resulting de line current is given by
c. The active power absorbed by the rectifier
d. The reactive power absorbed by each converter
752 ELECTRIC UTILITY POWER SYSTEMS

converter 1 converter2

network 1
network 2

Figure 28.5
A small change in either Ed 1 or Ed 2 produces a very big change in /d.

The line resistance is always small; conse-

quently, a very small difference between Ed and 1

Ed 2 can produce full-load current in the line.

Furthermore, a small variation in either E" 1 or E'd 2
can produce a very big change in /d. For example, if
Ed 1 increases by only a few percent, the line current
can easily double. Conversely, if Ed 2 increases by
only a few percent, the line current can fall to zero.
Unfortunately. both Ed 1 and Ed 2 are subject to (a)
0: = 90°
sudden changes because the associated ac line volt-
/
ages E 1 and may fluctuate. The fluctuations may
be due to sudden load changes on the ac networks or
_,d I,

to any number of other system disturbances that can Figure 28.Sa

occur. Owing to the almost instantaneous response Rectifier E-1 characteristic.
of the converters and transmission line, the de cur-
rent could swing wildly under these conditions, pro-
ducing erratic power swings between the two net- line voltage E 1, the de output voltage E,11 is kept
works. Such power surges are unacceptable because constant until the line current /d reaches a value / 1.
they tend to destabilize the ac networks at each end, Beyond this point. Ed 1 drops sharply, as can be seen
and because they produce misfiring of the SCRs. on the curve. This E-1 characteristic is obtained by
It is true that the firing angles a and ~ could be keeping a constant until current /d approaches the
modulated to counteract the ac line voltage fluctua- desired value / 1• The firing angle then increases (au-
tions. However, it is preferable to design the system tomatically) at a very rapid rate, so that Id is equal
so that large, unpredictable de power surges are in- to / 1 , when Ed 1 0. In other words, if a short-circuit
herently impossible. We now show how this is done. were to occur across the de side of the rectifier, the
resulting de current would be equal to / 1 •
28.5 Typical rectifier and inverter As regards the inverter, it is designed to give the
E-1 curve shown in Fig. 28.6b. Assuming a fixed ac
characteristics
line voltage voltage Ed 2 is maintained at zero
In a practical de transmission system. the computer- until the de line current reaches a value /". This
controlled rectifier circuit is designed to yield the E- means that from zero to / 2 , the firing angle~ = 90°.
l curve shown in Fig. 28.6a. Assuming a fixed ac As soon as the de current approaches the desired
 DIRECT-CURRENT TRANSMISSION 753

mined by the inverter characteristic). The differ-

ence between / 1 and 12 is called the current nw1:i;in
!ii. It is held constant and equal to about 10 percent
of the rated line current.
If the line has appreciable resistance. the IR drop
modifies the effective rectifier characteristic so that
it follows the dash line in Fig. 28.7a. This. however,
does not affect the operating point under normal
(bl conditions. The effective power input to the inverter
is, therefore, given by the product Ed 2 / 1.

28.6 Power control

Figure 28.6b To vary the power flow over the de line, the recti-
Inverter E-1 characteristic. fier and inverter E-1 characteristics are modified si-
multaneously. Voltages Ed 1 and are kept con-
value 12 • the firing angle [3 decreases (automati- stant but / 1 and 12 are varied simultaneously while
cally) to a limiting value of about 30°. keeping the current margin fixed. Thus, 28.7b
Under normal operating conditions the inverter shows the new E-1 characteristics for a transmission
voltage level is kept slightly below the rectifier line current /J smaller than that in Fig. 28.7a. By
voltage level. Furthermore. limiting current 12 is thus shifting the E-1 characteristics back and forth.
made slightly smaller than / 1• The effect of these we can cause the de power to vary over a wide
constraints can best be seen by superposing the rec- range. Note that the line voltage E" 2 is constant. and
tifier and inverter characteristics (Fig. 28.7a). The that it is always determined by the inverter. On the
actual transmission-line voltage and the actual cur- other hand, the magnitude of the line current is de-
rent correspond to the point of intersection of the termined by the rectifier.
two curves. It is obvious that the line current /d is At this point, the reader may wonder why the
equal to / 1 (determined by the rectifier characteris- E-1 characteristics have been given such odd shapes
tic) while the line voltage Ed is equal to Ed 2 (deter- to attain such a simple result. The reason is that the
line IR drop

operating point operating point

Ed2

inverter

Figure 28.7a Figure 28. 7b

Operating point when the transmission line delivers Operating point when the line delivers 20 percent of
rated power. rated power.
754 ELECTRIC UTILITY POWl:R SYSTEMS

de system must be able to accommodate serious ac Finally, one of the worst conditions that can arise
voltage fluctuations al either end of the line without is a short-circ.µjt on the de line. Here again. the rec-
affecting the de power flow too much. It must also tifier supplies a maximum current / 1 while the in-
limit the magnitude of the fault cunents. should a verter draws a maximum current / 2 . Consequently,
short-circuit occur on the de line. We will now ex- the fault current
plain how this is achieved.
Ii:= U1 - 12)

28.7 Effect of voltage fluctuations is only IO percent of the normal line current (Fig.
28.9). Fault currents are, therefore, much smaller
Referring to Fig. 28.7a, let us assume that the de than on ac transmission lines. In addition, because
line carries full-load current / 1 • If the ac voltage of E 01 and Ed 2 are close to zero, the power delivered to
line I increases suddenly, rises in proportion, the fault is small.
but this has no effect on / 1 or Consequently, the It is now clear that the special shape of the E-1
power flow over the line is unaffected. characteristics prevents large power fluctuations on
On the other hand. if line voltage decreases, the line, and limits the short-circuit currents. In
Ec1 2 decreases in proportion. The de line current is practice, the actual E-1 characteristics differ slightly
unaffected. but because Ec1"Y. is smaller than before. from those shown in Fig. 28.7. However, the basic
the de power carried by the line is also less. principle remains the same.
However. the percent change in power cannot ex-
ceed the percent change in ac voltage 28.8 Bipolar transmission line
Next, if a large disturbance occurs on line I, E, 11
may fall drastically. This produces a new operating Most de transmission lines are bipolar. They pos-
point, shown in Fig. 28.8. The de line current de- sess a positive line and a negative line and a com-
creases suddenly from / 1 to 12 • while the de voltage mon ground return (Fig. 28.1 Oa). A converter is in-
decreases equally suddenly from Ed 2 to Ed 1 • With a stalled at the end of each line, and the line currents
current margin of I 0 percent, the drop in current is /d 1 and /d 2 flow in the directions shown. Converters

not excessive. Consequently. the power flow is I and 3 act as rectifiers while converters 2 and 4 are
again not affected too much. As soon as the distur- inverters. Power obviously flows over both lines
bance is cleared, the E-1 characteristics return to the from ac network l to ac network 2. The ground cur-
original curves given in 28.7a. rent is /d 1 /d 2 . rt is usually small because the con-
verters automatically maintain equal currents in the
positive and negative lines.
The bipolar arrangement has three advantages.
First, the ground current is small, under normal con-
Edl operating point ditions. Consequently, corrosion of underground

converter 1 converter 2
(rectifier) (inverter)

network 1 network 2
6.1

Figure 28.9
Figure 28.8 The short-circuit current at the fault cannot exceed 10
Change in operating point when E1 falls drastically. percent of the rated line current.
 DIRECT-CURRENT TRANSMISSION 755

pipes, structures, and so forth, is minimized. 1,12 continue to flow in the same direction as before
Second, the same transmission-line towers can (Fig. 28. I Ob).
carry two lines, thus doubling the power, with a rel-
atively small increase in capital investment. Third, 28.1 O Components of a de
if power flow on one line is interrupted, the other transmission line
can continue to function, delivering half the normal
power between the ac networks. In order to function properly, a de transmission sys-
tem must have auxiliary components, in addition to
28.9 Power reversal the basic converters. Referring to Fig. 28. I 1, the
most important components are
To reverse power flow in a bipolar line, we change
the firing so that all the rectifiers become in- 1. DC line inductors (L)
verters and vice versa. This reverses the polarity of 2. Harmonic filters on the de side (FdJ
the transmission lines, but the line currents ( 11 and 3. Converter transformers (T 1• T 2 )

converter 1 positive line converter 2

fen
+ +

i Eo1
~
-
J_
a 1 = 25°
- p {J2 = 350

£2

+ - - +

t
a 3 = 25°
/02

£02 negative line {J4

~
= 350
J_
-
Figure 28.1 Oa
Bipolar line transmitting power from network 1 to network 2.

converter 1 converter

i
{JI = 350
+ +
~
a 2 = 25°

- -

{J,
t
=35°
+ +
~
a. 25°

Figure 28.1 Ob
Power reversal from network 2 to network 1 is obtained by reversing the line polarities.
 756 ELECTRIC UTILITY POWER SYSTEMS

r)))-------- m<eCOW"' oomm"m'°"OO> lmk ~((cl

L L
network 1 network 2

Fu fL2

converter 2

Facr r r ~
(inverter)
0: = 250 {3 350

4-J Q,
ground
electrode
ground
electrode

Figure 28.11
Schematic diagram showing some of the more important components of an HVDC transmission system.

4. Reactive power source (Q 1

• Q2 ) cur. This enables the thyristors to establish control
5. Harmonic filters on the ac side (F,,J before the current becomes too large to handle elec-
tronically.
6. Microwave communications link between the
converter stations
7. Ground electrodes (Gd) 28.12 Converter transformers
The need for these components is explained in the The basic purpose of the converter transformer on the
following sections. rectifier side is to transform the ac network voltage
Eu to yield the ac voltage E 1 required by the con-
28.11 Inductors and harmonic filters verter. Three-phase transformers, connected in either
on the de side (6-pulse wye-wye or wye-delta, are used. A lower-voltage ter-
tiary winding (Section 12.5) is sometimes added for
converter)
direct connection to a source of reactive power (Q 1).
Voltage harmonics are produced on the de side of As we have seen, the de line voltage Ed is kept
both the rectifier and inverter (Section 21.31 ). They essentially constant from no-load to full-load.
give rise to 6th and 12th harmonic cutTents, and such Furthermore, to reduce the reactive power absorbed
cutTents, if allowed to flow over the de line, could by the converter, firing angle a should be kept
produce serious noise on neighboring telephone small. This means that the ratio between ac voltage
lines. Consequently. filters are required to prevent input and de voltage output of the converter is es-
the currents from flowing over the line. The filters sentially fixed. Because Ed is constant, it follows
consist of two inductors Land a shunt filter The that E 1 must also be cssentiall y constant.
latter is composed of two series LC circuits, each Unfortunately, the network voltage may vary
tuned to respectively short-circuit the 6th and 12th significantly throughout the day. Consequently, the
harmonic currents to ground (Fig. 28.11 ). converter transformers on the rectifier side arc
The inductors L also prevent the de line current equipped with taps so that the variable input voltage
from increasing too rapidly if a line fault should oc- will give a reasonably constant output voltage E 1•
 DIREC1~CURRENTTRANSMISSION 757

The taps are switched automatically by a motorized 28.16 Ground electrode

tap changer whenever the network voltage Eu
changes for a significant length of time. For the same Particular attention is paid to the ground electrode
reasons, taps are needed on the converter transform- at each end of the de line. Direct currents in the
ers on the inverter side. ground have a corrosive effect on pipes, cables and
metallic structures. Consequently, the actual ground
electrode is usually located several kilometers from
28.13 Reactive power source the converter station. to ensure that de ground cur-
The reactive power Q absorbed by the converters rents create no local problem around the station.
must be supplied by the ac network or by a local re- The de ground wire between the station and the ac-
active power source. Because the active power tual grounding site is either pole-mounted or en-
transmitted varies throughout the day, the reactive closed in a shielded cable. At the grounding site,
source must also be varied. Consequently, either special means are used to minimize electrode resis-
variable static capacitors or a synchronous capaci- tance. This is particularly important when a bipolar
tor are required (Section 17.15). system operates temporarily in the monopolar
mode. Under these circumstances. the ground cur-
28.14 Harmonic filters on the ac side rent may exceed I 000 A, and the heat generated
may eventually dry out the grounding bed, causing
Three-phase, 6-pulse converters produce 5th, 7th, the ground resistance to increase.
11th, 13th (and higher) current harmonics on the The best grounds are obtained next to, or in.
ac side. These harmonics are a direct result of the large bodies of water. But even in this case, elabo-
choppy current waveforms (Section 21.11 ). Again rate grounding methods must be used.
for reasons of telephone interference, these cur-
rents must not be allowed to flow over the ac 28.17 Example of a monopolar
lines. Consequently, the currents are bypassed converter station
through low-impedance filters F"" connected be-
tween the 3-phase lines and ground. The filters for Fig. 28.12 shows the elementary circuit diagram of a
each frequency are connected in wye, and the monopolar mercury-arc inve11er station. The incom-
neutral point is grounded. On a 60 Hz network, dc line operates at 150 kV. and power is fed into a
each 3-phase filter is composed of a set of series- 230 kV, 3-phase, 60 Hz power line. Two smoothing
resonant LC circuits respectively tuned to 300. inductors, each having an inductance of 0.5 H. are
420, 660, and 780 Hz. connected in series with the de line. The two LC filters
At 60 Hz these LC circuits are almost entirely ca- effectively sho11-circuit the 6th and 12th harmonic
pacitive. Consequently, they also furnish part of the voltages generated on the de side of the conve11er. The
reactive power Q absorbed by each converter. 9 Q and I I Q resistors make the filters less sensitive
to slight frequency changes on the outgoing ac line.
Three single-phase transformers connected wye-
28.15 Communications link
wye (with a tertiary winding) are connected to the
In order to control the converters at both ends of ac side of the converter. A 160 M var synchronous
the line, a communications link between them is capacitor, connected to the tertiary winding, pro-
essential. For example, to maintain the current vides the reactive power for the converter.
margin /J.l (Fig. 28.7). the inverter at one end of Filters for the 5th, 7th, 11th, and I 3th harmonic
the line must "know" what the r~ctifier current set- currents are connected between the three ac lines
ting 11 is. This information is continually relayed and neutral of the 230 kV system. As previously ex-
by a high-speed communications link between the plained, the filters shunt the ac harmonic currents so
two converters. that they do not enter the 230 kV line.
758 ELECTRIC UTILITY POWER SYSTEMS

group of 3 single phase transformers.

I 323 MVA, 230 kV/127 kV/17 kV
--1----

0.5 0.2
µF µF
inverter incoming
(6 pulse) 9.Q 11n line
150 kV de

0.39 H

17 kV
3 PH

synchronous capacitor
160 Mvar, 17 kV
I ac
I filter
I I
L...*...J
Figure 28.12
Simplified circuit of a 150 kV, 1800 A, 60 Hz mercury-arc inverter. See components illustrated in Figs. 28.13 to 28.17.

Figure 28.13
These 12 single-phase harmonic fil-
ters at an inverter station are tuned
for 300 Hz, 420 Hz, 660 Hz, and 780
Hz. They are connected between the
three lines and neutral of the outgo-
ing 230 kV, 60 Hz transmission line.
The filter in the foreground is tuned
to 720 Hz. It is a series circuit com-
posed of a 2 n resistor, a group of
capacitors having a total capacitance
of 0.938 µF, and an oil-filled inductor
of 44.4 mH. The 720 Hz reactive
power associated with the LC circuit
amounts to 18.8 Mvar.
(Courtesy of GEC Power Engineering
Limited, England)

28.13 through 28.17 give us an idea of the has become almost standardized. Thus, each pole
size of these various components, and of the im- is composed of two 6-pulse converters. Fig.
mense switchyard needed to accommodate them. 28. l 8a shows how two 200 kV converters are
connected to produce a 400 kV de output. The de
sides are connected in series, while the ac sides
28.18 Thyristor converter station
are essentially connected in parallel across the
Mercury-arc converters have been supplanted by 230 kV, 3-phase line. This means that converter 2
thyristor converters and the design of the latter (and the secondary winding of transformer T2)
Figure 28.14
Three-phase converter transformer bank rated 230
kV/127 kV/17 kV composed of 3 single-phase trans-
formers each rated 323 MVA.
(Courtesy of Manitoba Hydro)

Figure 28.16
Portion of the 3-phase, 6-pulse mercury-arc inverter
rated 270 MW, 150 kV.
(Courtesy of Manitoba Hydro)

Figure 28.15
View of one 0.5 H smoothing inductor on the 450 kV
de side of the inverter station. Th~'Second inductor
can be seen in the distance (lower right~hand corner). Figure 28.17
The space between the two units permits installing Partial view of the refrigeration unit needed to cool the
the filters on the de side. inverters.
(Courtesy of Manitoba Hydro) (Courtesy of Manitoba Hydro)
759
760 ELECTRIC UTILITY POWER SYSTEMS

functions at a de potential of 200 kV. The wind- single-conductor cable operates at 100 kV and trans-
ings must be especially well insulated to with- mits 20 MW. Tbe ground current returns by the sea.
stand these de voltages, in addition to the 180 kV
3. English Channel. In 1961 a bipolar submarine
ac voltage.
link was laid in the English Channel between
The 180 kV windings of transformer TI are
England and France. Two cables, one operating at
connected in wye-delta. while those of trans-
+JOO kV and the other at l 00 kV, laid side-by-
former T2 are connected in wye-wye. This pro-
side, together carry 160 MW of power in one direc-
duces a 30° phase shift between the secondary
tion or the other. The power exchange between the
voltages of Tl and T2. Consequently. the thyris-
two countries was found to be economical because
tors in converter 1 and converter 2 do not fire at
the time zones are different and, consequently. the
the same time. In effect, the two converters act as
system peaks do not occur at the same time.
a 12-pulse converter.
Furthermore, France has excess hydro generating
One important result of the 30° shift is that the
capacity during the spring. thus making the export
5th and 7th harmonic currents generated by the two
of power attractive.
converters tend to cancel each other on the primary
side of TI and T2 and do not, therefore. appear in 4. Pac(fic Intertie. In 1970 a bipolar link operat-
the 230 kV line. Consequently. the filtering equip- ing at ±400 kV was installed between The Dalles.
ment for these frequencies is substantially reduced. Oregon, and Los Angeles, California. The overhead
Furthermore. the 30° phase shift eliminates the 6th line transmits a total of 1440 MW over a distance of
harmonic on the de side. which reduces the filtering 1370 km. Power can be made to flow in either di-
equipment needed for Fdc rection, depending upon the requirements of the re-
Fig. 28.18b shows the three valves that make up spective NW and SW regions. The de link also
a 12-pulse converter, together with the ac and de helps stabilize the 3-phase ac transmission system
connections. The valves are called quadruple connecting the two regions.
valves because each is composed of four bridge
5. Nelson River. The hydropower generated by
arms. Fig. 28.21 b illustrates the impressive size of
the Nelson River. situated 890 km north of
these valves.
Winnipeg, Canada, is transmitted by means of two
bipolar lines operating at ±450 kV. Each bipolar
28.19 Typical installations line carries 1620 MW, which is converted and fed
into the ac system near Winnipeg. According to
Power transmission by direct current is being used
studies made, it was slightly more economical to
in many parts of the world. The following installa-
transmit power by de rather than by ac over this
tions give the reader an idea of the various types of
considerable distance.
systems that have been built over the years, and the
particular problem they were designed to solve. 6. Eel River. The back-to-back station at Eel River.
Canada. provides an asynchronous intertie between
I. Schenectady. Of historical interest is the 17
the 230 kV electrical systems of Quebec and New
mile. 5.25 MW. 30 kV transmission line installed
Brunswick. Although both systems operate at a
between Mechanicville and Schenectady, New
nominal frequency of 60 Hz, it was not feasible to
York. in 1936. Using mercury-arc converters, it tied
connect them directly. due to stability considera-
together a 40 Hz and 60 Hz system.
tions. In this application, the de "transmission line"
2. Gotland. The first important de transmission line is only a few meters long, representing the length of
was installed in Sweden. in 1954. It connected the the conductors to connect the rectifiers and invert-
Island ofGotland (in the middle of the Baltic Sea) to ers. Power may flow in either direction. up to a max-
the mainland by a 96 km submarine cable. The imum of 320 MW (see Figs. 28.19 and 28.20).
 primaries secondaries

• • ' - - - - - - - - - o d e line

I <D
I
T2 l
I
I
I
r--...1...--,
filters I I
Fae @+200 kV I I
I filters I
I Fdc I 400 kV (de)
I I
I I
.___ -T- __,
T1 I
I
I
I
static var @ I
compensator

230 kV
3-phase
line

Figure 28.1 Ba
Schematic diagram of one pole of a ::*::400 kV converter station. It consists of two 200 kV converters connected in
series on the de side. The converters are 6-pulse units, respectively connected to 3-phase voltages that are 30° out
of phase. The de filter is tuned to the 12th harmonic. The ac filters prevent the 11th, 13th, and higher harmonics
from entering the 230 kV system. The static var compensator supplies the reactive power needed by the converter.

I
/I
I
I
Y1 Y2 I
I
I
I
I

01 02

I
l ___ J

quadruple quadruple quadruple

valve 1 valve 2 valve 3

Figure 28.1 Sb
Schematic diagram of the 12-pulse converter showing the two 6-pulse converters and line connections. Three
quadruple valves constitute the main components in one pole of the valve hall.

761
762 ELECTRIC UTILITY POWER SYSTEMS

Figure 28.19
This converter station and switchyard at Eel
River connects the ac networks of Quebec
and New Brunswick by means of a de link.
The rectifier and inverter are both housed in
the large building in the center. It pioneered
the commercial use of solid-state thyristors in
HVDC applications.
(Courtesy of New Brunswick Electric Power
Commission)

Figure 28.20
View of one 6-pulse thyristor valve housed in
its rectangular cubicle. It is fed by a 3-phase
converter transformer and yields an output of
2000 A at 40 kV. The hundreds of individual
thyristors it contains are triggered by a reliable,
interference-free fiber-optic control system.
Eight such cubicles, together with three syn-
chronous capacitors and four converter trans-
formers, make up the entire converter terminal.
(Courtesy of General Electric)

This pioneering station was the first to use ±400 kV. A metallic ground return is provided, in
thyristors in a large commercial application. the event that one line should be out for a prolonged
period (see Fig. 28.21 a). Fig. 28.21 b shows the
7. CU Project. The power output of a generating
three quadruple valves that make up one 12-pulse
station situated next to the lignite coal mines near
converter.
Underwood, North Dakota, is converted to de and
transmitted 436 miles eastward to a terminal near 8. Chiiteauguay Substation. The Chateauguay
Minneapolis, Minnesota, where it is reconverted to substation, located near Montreal, is a back-to-back
ac. The bipolar line transmits l 000 MW at 1250 A, converter station rated at I 000 MW (Fig. 28.22). In
 DIRECT-CURRENT TRANSM !SS/ON 763

Coal Creek Terminal Dickinson Terminal

702 km (436 miles)
North Dakota Minnesota

Pole 1 Pole 1
TCC valve hall valve hall TD

500MW

* *
* * 345kV
system

500MW
230kV
* *
* *
system
308/339 Pole 2 Pole 2 292/321
MVA valve hall valve hall MVA

Figure 28.21a The positive and negative transmission lines con-

Simplified schematic diagram of the bipolar HVDC sist of two bundled conductors (2 x 1590 MCM,
transmission system that links the Coal Creek ACSR). The de grounds are situated at 10.3 km and
Terminal in North Dakota to the Dickinson Terminal in 20 km from the respective terminals. Under normal
Minnesota. The ::t::400 kV line delivers 1000 MW over conditions the line currents are controlled automati-
a distance of 702 km. The output from two 500 MW cally so that the ground current is 20 A or less.
turboalternators is stepped up to 230 kV and transmit- However, if one pole is out of service for short peri-
ted to the Coal Creek Terminal where the ac power is ods, the ground current can be as high as 1375 A.
converted to de. The on-load tap-changing converter The 12-pulse inverter station (Dickinson Terminal)
transformers TCC are connected wye-wye and wye- feeds into a 345 kV, 60 Hz system and tap-changing
delta for 12-pulse converter operation. converter transformers TD are used to regulate the in-
The 0.4 H smoothing inductors are in series with verter voltage level.
the grounded lines, thus significantly reducing the in- The control system is arranged to operate each
sulation requirements. The de filters Fdc, each com- terminal unmanned from a telecommunications con-
posed of a 48.8 mH inductor in series with a 1 µ,F ca- trol center located in Minnesota.
pacitor bank, prevent the 12th harmonic voltage from
reaching the de lines.

Figure 28.21b
View of three quadruple valves being in-
stalled in one of the Coal Creek Terminal
valve halls. Together they constitute one pole
of the 400 kV system.
(Courtesy of United Power Association)
 Figure 28.21 c
Aerial view of the Coal Creek Terminal show-
ing the two valve halls that respectively pro-
duce the +400 kV and -400 kV de voltage.
The switchyard contains circuit breakers,
transformers, and filters.
(Courtesy of United Power Association)

Figure 28.22a
A quadruple valve, rated at 140 kV, 1200 A
de, being tested at IREQ, the Hydro-Quebec
research center. The valve is 12 m high, 6.9
m wide, and 2.7 m deep. It is designed for
the Chateauguay substation and contains a
total of 400 thyristors.
(Courtesy of Hydro-Quebec)

764
 DIRECT-CURRENTTRANSMISSION 765

Figure 28.22b
..
View of one 500 MW, 140 kV, 3600 A de back-to-back converter at the Chateauguay substation. It is composed of 6
quadruple valves. The three valves on the right usually operate as rectifiers, and the three on the left usually func-
tion as inverters. The valve hall is 17.5 m wide and 18 m high.
(Courtesy of Hydro-Quebec)

order to ensure high reliability, it is composed of The thyristors are water-cooled, using deionized
two independent valve halls, each rated at 500 MW. water and an elaborate water/glycol/air-heat ex-
Power usually flows from the Hydro-Quebec changer.
735 kV ac system to the 765 kV ac system in the
state of New York. Owing to the rectifier/inverter Questions and Problems
link. frequency changes on one ~ystem do not affect
the other system. Furthermore, tbe direction of Practical level
power flow can be reversed, depending upon the 28-1 Give three examples where de power
circumstances. transmission is particularly useful.
766 ELECTRIC UTILITY POWER SYSTEMS

28-2 Name the principal components making a. Calculate the de current per valve (bridge
up a de transmission system. arrp}.
b. What is !he approximate peak inverse volt-
28-3 Which harmonics occur on the ac side of a
age across each valve?
converter? On the de side?
28-11 Referring to Section 28.19, calculate the
28-4 What is the purpose of the large de line in-
line current per pole on the Pacific
ductors?
Intertie, and using the model of Fig. 28.4,
28-5 A de transmission line operating at 50 kV, estimate the total reactive power absorbed
carries a current of 600 A The terminal con- by each converter station.
tains a single 3-phase. 6-pulse converter.
28-12 The ground electrode of a bipolar con-
a. Calculate the approximate value of the sec-
ondary ac line of the converter
verter station is located 15 km from the
transformer. station, and possesses a ground resis-
b. What is the effective value of the secondary tance of 0.5 n. If the line currents in
line current? each pole are respectively 1700 A and
28-6 The bipolar line shown in Fig. 28.1 Oa op- 1400 A, calculate the power loss at the
erates at a potential of :::!::: 150 kV. If the de electrode.
line currents are respectively 600 A and 28-13 Referring to 28.11, it is given that Ed
400 A calculate the following: 450 kV, Id 1800 A, and the two de
a. The power transmitted between the two ac smoothing inductors Leach have an in-
networks ductance of 0.5 H. If a short-circuit oc-
b. The value of the ground current curs between line and ground close to the
28-7 The transmission line shown in Fig. 28.5 rectifier station, calculate the magnitude
possesses a resistance of 10 n. The recti- of the rectifier current after 5 ms, assum-
fier (converter I) produces a de voltage of ing the gate triggering remains unaltered.
102 kV while the inverter generates 96 kV. 28-14 Each pole of the bipolar Nelson project
a. Calculate the de line current and the power (Fig. 28.18) is composed of two conduc-
transmitted to network 2. tors (2-conductor bundle) of ACSR cable.
b. If the gates of the inverter are fired a little
Each conductor is composed of 72
earlier in the cycle. will the de line current
strands of aluminum (diameter 0.16 in)
increase or decrease? Explain.
c. If the inverter gates are fired so that the in-
and a central 7-strand (diameter 0.1067
verter generates 110 kV, will the power in) steel core. Each 2-conductor bundle
flow reverse? Explain. carries a nominal current of 1800 A over
a distance of 550 miles. The voltage at
28-8 When a short-circuit occurs on a de line,
the rectifier terminal is 450 kV.
the current in the fault itself is less than
Neglecting the presence of the steel core.
the full-load current. Explain.
calculate the following:
28-9 Why is a communications link needed be- a. The effective cross section of the 2-
tween the converter stations of a de line? conductor bundle [in 2 ]
b. The line resistance of the 2-conductor bun-
Intermediate level
dle at a temperature of 20°C
28-10 The converters shown in Fig. 28.2 are c. The corresponding PR loss
identical 3-phase, 6-pulse units, producing d. The de voltage at the inverter terminal
a voltage Ed of 50 kV and a current Id of e. The efficiency of the line (neglecting
1200A. corona losses)
 DJRECT-CURRENTTRANSMJSSJON 767

Advanced level 28-16 a. In Problem 28-15, if the 6th harmonic volt-

28-15 Referring to 28.12, calculate the fol- age generated on the de side of the inverter
is 20 kV, calculate the approximate value of
lowing:
the corresponding harmonic current.
a. The resonant frequency of the two de filters
b. Calculate the value of the 6th harmonic
b. The value of the series imped-
voltage across the 0.5 H inductor.
ances
c. What is the value of the 360 Hz at
c. What is the de across the capacitors?
the input to the second 0.5 H line inductor?
 CHAPTER 29
Transmission and Distribution
Solid-State Controllers

29.0 Introduction without compromising reliability and stability. The

idea is to load them up to their thermal limit and to
he successful development of thyristors, GTOs,
T and other electronic switches is promoting major
changes in controlling power flow in the transmission
utilize them all to carry the electrical load.
One of the important problems is that instabili-
ties occur very quickly and can build up and spread
and distribution sectors of electric power utilities. out throughout an entire system in a matter of sec-
With the exception of circuit breakers, tap-chang- onds. Thus, circuit breakers must be brought into
ing transformers, and static var compensators, trans- play to disconnect devices and loads that might oth-
mission and distribution systems have comprised rel- erwise exacerbate the situation.
atively passive elements. On the other hand, the It is now possible to envisage power lines that
multiplicity of transmission and distribution lines has are "active," in the sense that they can react almost
made it ever more difficult to predict the amount and instantaneously to any contingency and counteract
direction that power flows will take. Furthermore, a potentially dangerous situation. This rapid action
the complexity of these transmission systems has is possible thanks to the existence of thyristors and
made it necessary to allow wide margins of safety so GTOs that can now handle currents of several
that instabilities created by equipment failures, thousand amperes and several thousand volts.
switching surges, and sudden load shedding do not Indeed, we have seen in Chapter 28 that they are
create stability problems that might get out of hand. already being used in HVDC systems of several
The special problem of electric utilities is that hundred kilovolts. These switching devices are
the demand for electric power continues to grow, now being incorporated into equipment such as se-
while it is becoming more difficult to obtain rights ries capacitors, var compensators, harmonic fil-
of wav to erect more transmission and distribution ters, and ultra-high-speed switches.
circui~s. For these and other reasons, electric utili- In this chapter we will cover some of the impor-
ties are looking for ways whereby they can increase tant solid-state controllers that have been developed
the power-handling capacity of their existing lines recently and which have undergone tests in the field.

768
 TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION SOLID-STATE CONTROLLERS 769

We begin with power flow controllers for transmis- The derivation of this equation was showr: in
sion. which are classified under the acronym Section 16.23.
FACTS (Flexible AC Transmission System). fol- The new TCSC approach is to vary the transmis-
lowed by power electronic controllers for distribu- sion line power capability in accordance with im-
tion. The FACTS program was pioneered by the mediate requirements. This is accomplished by
Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) of Palo varying the capacitance in series with the line on an
Alto. California. in collaboration with equipment instantaneous as and when required basis.
manufacturers and electric power utilities. Consider, for example, Fig. 29.1 a in which two
capacitors having a reactance xc. are connected in
TRANSMISSION POWER series with a transmission line having an inductive
FLOW CONTROLLERS reactance X, per phase. Each capacitor can be con-
In the transmission sector we will look at the fol- nected to an inductive reactance Xa by means of
lowing equipment:
B
~)
a. Thyristor controlled series capacitor (TCSC)
b. Static synchronous compensator (STATCOM)
c. Unified power flow controller (UPFC)
d. Static frequency converter
01 02
29.1 Thyristor-controlled series
Figure 29.1 a
capacitor (TCSC) One phase of a series-compensated line.
In Chapter 25. Section 25.26. we saw that the
back-to-back thyristor valves labeled Q. The reac-
power-handling capability of a 3-phase transmis-
tance x" is considerably smaller than xc
sion line can be increased by introducing a fixed ca-
When valves QI, Q2 are blocked. only the ca-
pacitor in series with each phase. This reduces the
pacitors are in the circuit and so the effective reac-
effective series reactance and. therefore. the power
tance of the line is (X - 2xJ. On the other hand. if
of the transmission line can be raised. We recall that
the QI valve is triggered '"on" so that uninterrupted
the power is given by
conduction takes place, Xa falls in parallel with .re.
£2
P = X sin o (25.4) The resulting impedance between points 1, 2 be-
comes inductive (Fig. 29.1 b). with value equal to
wherein Jxc_x:j(xc - xa). The effective reactance Xcn of the
line is then the sum of the impedances seen in the
P = active power transmitted [MW]
figure, namely
E = line-to-line voltage at each end of the
line [kYJ (29.2)
x= inductive reactance per phase rn1
o = phase angle between the voltages at
each end of the line [ 0 ] -j Xe
2 B
In the more general case. where the voltages £ 5 • ER
(
at each end of the line are not equal, the power 01 02
equation becomes
.. closed open

(29.1) Figure 29.1 b

Impedance when line is partially compensated.
770 ELECTRIC UTILITY POWER SYSTE/'v!S

The thyristor valves Q 1. Q2 can be switched on and Fig. 29.3. In practice, for over-voltage protection,
off independently: consequently. for a given phase metal oxide v.aristors (MOY) and a circuit breaker
angle between points A and B, the active power are also included jg. the circuit. They do not appear
transported can be varied as required. The switch- in the figure.
ing can be done within one cycle, which means that We wish to determine the following:
the power flow can be very quickly controlled.
a. The effective impedance of a single
The following example will illustrate the switch-
capacitor/inductor unit when the thyristors con-
ing process, and the results that can be achieved.
duct fully
b. The maximum nominal power that the trans-
Example 29-1
mission line can carry
A 230 kV, 3-phase. 60 Hz transmission line con-
c. The best configuration of the series compensa-
necting two strong regions S and R has an imped-
tion circuit (number of valves QI, Q2, etc., in
ance of 54 H. per phase (Fig. 29.2). The line is 110
action) when the S region voltage is 218 kV, the
km long and comprises three ACSR conductors
R region voltage is 237 kV, and the phase angle
having a cross-section of I 000 kc mil. The thermal
between them is 15°
limit of the conductors is I 050 A.
The voltages in both regions vary randomly be- Solution
tween 215 kV and 246 kV. Furthermore. the phase a. The inductive impedance xP of the capacitor in
angle between the two regions varies randomly be- parallel with the inductor is given by
tween 8° and 17°. with region S always leading re-
gion R. As we learned in Section 25.23, this means (29.3)
that region Swill always deliver active power to re-
gion R. 12 x l.71
In addition to its role as a stabilizing link be- 12 l.71
tween the two regions, the transmission line is a
2 f!
revenue-producing facility~ consequently, every at-
tempt is made to transport as much power as possi- b. The maximum nominal power is determined by
ble within the thermal limit of the conductors. the nominal current and nominal voltage of the
To meet these objectives, the transmission line is transmission line:
equipped with four capacitors in series, each having ;·
?nominal = Efv 3
an impedance of 12 Q. Each capacitor can be con-
nected in parallel with an inductive reactance of 230 000 x 1050 x
1.71 n by means of thyristor valves Q. as shown in 418MW
x
54n
-····•
region region x Xe Xe Xe Xe

s R s 541! 12n 12n 12n 121! F

215to 215to
246 kV 246 kV

110 km o8' to 19° 1000 kcmil

ACSR thermal limit 1050 A 01 02 Q3 Q4

Figure 29.2 Figure 29.3

Transmission line connecting two regions S (sender) Transmission line with four thyristor-controlled series
and R (receiver). capacitors.
 TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION SOLID-STATE CONTROLLERS 77 l

c. In order to carry the desired nominal power of The 393 MW is quite close to the maximum
418 MW, given Es= 218 kV, ER= 237 kV, rated power of 418 MW. The phasor diagram for
and 8 = I 5°, the effective line impedance Xcff this condition is shown in Fig. 29.4b.
can be calculated using the expression This example shows that the thyristor-controlled
series capacitors can be switched in and out to meet
EE
P = s......R. sin 8 (29.4) any power requirement within the thermal capabil-
xcff ity of the transmission line.
218 x 237
418 = sin 15°
Xerr 29.2 Vernier control
whence
In some applications it is useful to reduce the con-
xeff = 32 n duction period of the thyristors so that the effective
By trial, the closest configuration approaching reactance Xa of the inductors is higher than its actual
this result is given by Fig. 29.4a. It can be seen value. This vernier control enables the TCSC con-
that two thyristor valves Q3, Q4 are conduct- troller to vary the effective impedance of the trans-
ing while the remaining two are not. The result- mission line over a much wider range.
ing net reactance of the transmission line is Referring back to Example 29-1, suppose that
54 24 + 4 34 n. The actual power trans- the conduction period is shortened so that the effec-
mitted is, therefore, tive reactance of the inductor is 4 n instead of
I. 71 f!. The combination of the 12 n capacitor in
Es ER
P = - - sin 8 (29.4) parallel with the 4 n reactor gives an inductive re-
Xerr actance of 6 n. as follows:
218 x 237
sin I 5° (29.3)
34
P 393 MW
12 x 4
x Xe Xe Xp Xp
12 4
S 54Q 12Q 12Q 2Q 2Q R
~t---1~ +6 n (inductive)
218 kV - 1 = 1058A 237 kV
On the other hand, if the conduction period is short-
.oo P= 393 MW -15°
ened even more, the effective reactor impedance
(a) can be raised to 36 n. Under these conditions the re-
sulting LC parallel combination yields a rnpacitfre
reactance of 18 n, as follows:
I
1058 A xexa
(29.3)
Xe Xa

12 x 36
---

12 36
n
18 (capacitive)
Thus, the TCSC vernier technique is seen to offer
(b)
an additional advantage as compared to a conven-
Figure 29.4 tional series compensation arrangement.
Circuit configuration for a given sender/receiver condi- However, care must be taken to prevent the short-
tion. ened conduction period from creating a condition of
772 ELECTRIC UTILITY POWER SYSTEMS

parallel resonance wherein the reactance of the in- 1. Nominal system voltage (line-to-line): 500 kV
ductor approaches that of the capacitor. This means
2. Nominal line current: 2900 A
that a forbidden band must be skipped as the reac- ..
tance of the inductor is progressively increased 3. Nominal 3-phase compensation: 202 Mvar
above its base value of 1.71 n. 4. Nominal capacitive reactance, per phase (in-
Vernier control is particularly advantageous when ductors not in circuit): 8 n
stability problems arise between two regions. The
low-frequency power oscillations that take place can 5. Maximum effective capacitive reactance, per
be damped out by modulating the power flow over the phase (inductors in delayed conduction mode):
transmission line in such a way as to counteract the os- 240
cillation. The almost instantaneous action of the 6. Effective inductive reactance, per phase (induc-
thyristors, supported by feedback signals and com- tors in full conduction mode): 1.22 n
puter algorithms, makes such a maneuver feasible.
7. The TCSC is designed to withstand the follow-
29.5 shows a large TCSC system installed in
ing overload conditions:
the C.J. Slatt Substation in Northern Oregon, on
the Bonneville Power Administration's 500 kV. 30-minute overload current: 4350 A
3-phase, 60 Hz transmission system. It is composed I 0-second overload current: 5800 A
of six identical TCSC modules that are individually maximum fault current through module:
protected by metal oxide varistors. The thyristor- 20.3 kA
controlled series capacitor unit has the following maximum crest fault current in thyristor
rating and components: valve: 60 kA

Figure 29.Sa
Overall view of the TCSC at the C.J. Slatt Substation in Northern Oregon. Disconnect switches are at the right, and
bypass breakers are at the left. The capacitors, reactors, and thyristor valves are mounted on three platforms to
isolate them from ground. On each platform, capacitors are at the right, reactors are in the middle, and thyristors
are in the boxes at the left.
The TCSC is part of EPRl's Flexible AC Transmission System (FACTS) program. The project was developed by
the Electric Power Research Institute in collaboration with the Bonneville Power Administration and General
Electric Company.
(Courtesy of EPR~
 TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION SOLID-STATE CONTROLLERS 773

Bypass
Disconnect
To Buckley ToSlatt

~~------1
Isolation
Disconnect

~ TCSC
Module

Varistor ~ 'Isolation
Disconnect

~Reactor

'
Thyristor
Valve

Bypass Breaker

Figure 29.Sb
Schematic circuit diagram of one phase of the TCSC system, installed in series with the 500 kV transmission line.
(Courtesy General Electric Company)

It is worth noting that this installation is the first of reactive power is needed to prevent further voltage
its kind in the world. collapse.
Switching converters were discussed in Section
29.3 Static synchronous 2 I .44, and a 3-phase PWM version was described
compensator in Section 21.49. However, the converters we are
interested in do not make use of high-frequency
In Sections 25.22 and 25.27 we saw that the voltage PWM techniques because the megawatt powers in-
of a transmission line can be controlled by means of volved require the use of GTOs. and these switch-
a compensator located at the receiver end of the line. ing devices can only operate at frequencies of a few
The compensator delivers or draws reactive power hundred hertz. For this reason the converter oper-
in order to stabilize the voltage. Traditionally. these ates in the rectangular wave mode in which the
compensators have been rotating machines (Fig. on/off switching is done at the 60 Hz line frequency.
I 7.24) or static var compensators that require large The basic STATCOM converter is represented in
capacitors and inductors (Fig. 25.39). Fig. 29.6 together with the rectangular waves it pro-
Today, it is possible to replace these machines duces. It is essentially identical to the 6-step con-
and devices by a switching converter. a de capaci- verter described in Section 23.10.
tor, and a group of transformers. This static syn- The rectangular line-to-line voltages contain a
chronous compensator, or STATCOM, has numer- fundamental component whose peak value is
ous advantages over previous compensators. First, equal to I. I 0 where EH is the de voltage at the
it acts much faster and can respond to voltage fluc- input to the converter. It follows that the effective
tuations in a matter of one cycle. Second, it can gen- line-to-line voltage is I. I 0 E11 I = 0.78 EH
erate far more reactive power when the system volt- and the effective line-to-neutral voltage is
age is low-which is just the moment when a lot of 0.78 E 11 I = 0.45
774 ELECTRIC UTILITY POWER SYSTEMS

3 3 3 XYZ
.--- -.---~---~,....__.....--------.
3

+:
01
01
01
r------
: EH',
' ,_, '
+;
/, .•.,\ +
I + 3-phase B x v
Ee~
~ EH : c dc-to-ac ......_ T
02
converter

~r:_ _ _ _
ls
2 2 2
w

~
~~

-· le

f. £32

Figure 29.7
Principle of operation of a static synchronous com-
o- pensator.

the GTO gate pulses g I, g2, Thus, the phase an-

gle of the converter voltage can be set to any value
between zero and 360c, with respect to the trans-
mission line voltages U, V, Won the secondary side
of the transformer.
To understand what happens in the circuit, let us
consider one phase of the 3-phase system. We select
the line-to-neutral voltages for terminals A and U,
namely and Euw Because this is a var compen-
sator, we are only interested in generating reactive
Figure 29.6 power. Consequently, the line current I A must lag or
Converter and waveshapes for static var compen- lead the line-to-neutral voltages by 90°. To obtain
sator.
this result, the phase angle of converter voltage
is arranged so it is in phase with the corresponding
Because the line voltages are rectangular, they
transmission line voltage We now examine
contain the 5th, 7th, and higher odd multiples of the
three cases.
fundamental 60 Hz frequency. Harmonics that are
multiples of three, called triplens, are absent. I. If £An Ecn no current will flow in the reac-
Fig. 29.7 is a schematic diagram of a converter tance x and so the compensation is nil (Fig.
installation. It comprises a 3-phase high-voltage 29.8a).
transmission line X, Y, Z: an ideal 3-phase step- 2. If £An is less than a current /A will flow
down transformer T: three reactances x; a 3-phase that lags 90° behind (Fig. 29.8b). Its mag-
converter: a capacitor C; and a de voltage source EH. nitude is given by
The magnitude of the ac voltage between termi-
nals A, B, C, is controlled by varying EH, and the IA = (29.5)
phase angle is controlled by appropriate timing of x
 TRANSM!SSTONAND DISTRIBUTION SOLID-STATE CONTROLLERS 775

0 Ecn tions-from the de side to the ac side and vice versa.

This feature can be put to remarkably good use.
(a) EAn Suppose that the phase angle of the converter is
delayed so that it lags slightly behind the transmis-
sion line voltage by, say. I 0 • This will cause the con-
EAn Eun verter to receive active power from the transmission
)II )II

L
line and this power will have to be absorbed by the
de power supply, minus the losses in the conve1ter.
On the other hand. if the phase angle of the converter
(b) voltage is arranged to lead the transmission line

r
voltage by, say. I 0 , active power will be delivered
from the converter to the transmission line. This can
only occur at the expense of the de power supply
Eun which must now deliver de power to the converter.
)II
By adjusting the phase control, the current /H
(c) drawn from the power supply can be set to zero. All
that is required is to set the phase angles of con-
Figure 29.8 verter voltages A, B, C so they lag slightly behind
Phasor relationships of Eun and I depend upon the
the corresponding transformer voltages U, V, W-
value of EAn·
just enough to provide the losses in the converter.
The power supply EH can therefore be dispensed
As a result, the compensator draws reactive with altogether, leaving only the capacitor C to
power from the transmission line. The compen- maintain the required de voltage. The voltage
sator behaves like a large inductance even across the capacitor can be increased or reduced by
though no coils are present and no magnetic simply advancing and retarding the small phase an-
field is produced. gle mentioned above.
3. If is greater than Ecn• current I A will lead In this way the capacitor is charged up to a de
by 90° (Fig. 29.Sc). The magnitude of /A is voltage level E 11 so that the resulting ac voltage
again given by Eq. 29.5, except that it is nega- across terminals A, B, C has precisely the value
tive. As a result, the converter delivers reactive needed to produce the required var compensation.
power to the transmission line. The converter
then behaves as if it were a large capacitor even Example 29-2
though no electrostatic plates and no electric The converter in 29. 7 is rated to generate a fun-
field are present. damental line voltage ranging from 4 kV to 6 kV at
an effective current of 2000 A per phase.
In practice. transformer T always has a certain
The 230 kV transmission line voltage is stepped
leakage reactance. Therefore, under real-life condi-
down to 4.8 kV by means of a transformer. The
tions, it is the leakage reactance of the transformer
leakage reactance x of the transformer, referred to
that constitutes the reactance x in Fig. 29.7. It fol-
the secondary side, has a value of 0.2 n. The ca-
lows that the transformer fills a dual role: trans-
pacitor bank on the de side of the converter has a ca-
forming the voltage, while providing the reactance
pacitance of 500 µF.
needed to permit compensation to take place.
Next, let us look at the de power.supply EH and a. Calculate the converter line voltage EAB needed
the associated capacitor C. We have already learned so as to deliver a total of 6.4 M var to the trans-
that the converter can transfer power in both direc- mission line.
776 ELECTRIC UTILITY POWER SYSTEMS

b. Calculate the de voltage across the capacitor by the leakage reactance of the transformers ensures
bank under these conditions. correspondingly low harmonic currents.
Fig. 29.9 showi.;· a commercial installation of a
Solution
100 Mvar STATCOM connected to a 161 kV
a. The current needed to produce 6.4 Mvar is
transmission line. It contains eight converters.
Q 6 400000 whose voltages are phase-shifted to reduce the har-
I 770A
Euv \3 4800 monic voltages and currents on the high-voltage
The voltage drop across the reactance is side of the transformers. It was developed by EPRI
E, = Ix = 770 x 0.2 154 v in collaboration with TVA and Westinghouse
Electric Corporation.
Line-to-neutral voltage induced on the sec-
ondary side of the transformer is
29.5 Unified power flow controller
Eun 4800 /V3 2771 v (UPFC)
The converter line-to-neutral voltage must
Consider two electric utility regions A and B that
exceed EL1n by 154 V: hence
are individually so strong that their voltages are es-
EAn 277 I -!- 154 = 2925 V sentially fixed in magnitude and in phase. Let us
Converter line-to-line voltage further assume that the line-to-neutral voltages
and EB are equal and in phase (Fig. 29.10). Under
E;\ 13 2925 V3 5066 V
these conditions, if the regions are linked by a trans-
b. Capacitor de voltage is mission line having an impedance X, there can be
EH 2925/0.45* = 6500 v no active or reactive power exchange between
them. because the line current I would be zero.
29.4 Eliminating the harmonics Adding capacitors in series with the line would not
help because there would be no driving voltage be-
The rectangular waves generated by a single tween the two ends of the line.
3-phase converter, such as that shown in Fig. 29.7, This is unfortunate because one of the regions
would produce large current harmonics in the trans- may have excess generating capacity that could be
mission line. a situation that could not be tolerated. used in the neighboring region. Again, a sudden dis-
For this reason. instead of only one converter, sev- turbance in one of the regions might require extra
eral converters are used. active and reactive power in order to maintain sta-
Each converter produces a rectangular output bility. It would be most useful if the other region
voltige, but the respective voltages are shifted from could then help out to manage the contingency.
each other by definite, specified angles. These phase- Speed is of the essence during such emergencies.
shifted voltages are isolated from each other and can, and so the flow of active and reactive power over
therefore. be applied individually to low-voltage the transmission line should be rapidly and selec-
transformer windings. The windings on the high- tively controlled.
voltage side are connected in series in such a way as To meet these objectives. suppose that an ac
to cancel out most of the harmonics (5th, 7th, etc.), voltage source Ee. whose magnitude and phase can
while successively adding up the fundamental 60 Hz be varied, is somehow connected in series with the
components. The result is a composite sinusoidal line. One solution is to use a dc/ac switching con-
voltage containing only the fundamental and high- verter on the region A side of the line (Fig. 29.11 a).
frequency harmonics. The high impedance offered The resulting voltage Er ahead of the line reactance
is now the phasor sum of EA and rather than its
0.45 drawn from page 773. former value EA. If the phase angle between £ 1 and
 TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION SOLID-STATE CONTROLLERS 777

Liquid-to-air Heat Exchangers

Power Electronics Room

I

00000000~
I 0
E Disconnect Support
I > > > 8 Switch Structure
I ~ 0 0 §
I (.'.) (.'.) (.'.) g
(14.629) I DC BUS Capacitors Magnetic Main Transformer
48.00 DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD Interface
I Room
I
I
I
I
I Dimensions in feet (meters)

__l __ ----------------------- --- ---- -

(5.029)
16.50

(27.43) 90.00

Figure 29.9a
Physical layout of the components of a ± 100 Mvar static synchronous compensator (STATCOM) installed in the
Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) Sullivan Substation near Johnson City, Tennessee. This project represents a joint
collaboration between the Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI), TVA, and the Westinghouse Science and
Technology Center.
(Courtesy of Westinghouse Electric Corporation)

E8 is 8, it follows that active power will be trans- Note that when and E 8 are equal and in
mitted over the line, given by phase, phasor I is always at right angles to
Consequently, no real power is delivered or ab-
p E1EB.
Stn b (29.6) sorbed by the converter. However, the converter de-
x livers reactive power equal to Qc = Eel vars. This
The phasor diagram (Fig. 29. 11 b) shows that if is precisely the reactive power absorbed by the line
the phase angle <P of Ee is varied while keeping Ee reactance X. Note also that if the phase of is set
constant. the tip of ET will follow the dotted circle. so that <P 90°, active power at unity power factor
As a result, angle 8 will progressively change from a will be delivered by region A.
maximum positive to a maximum negative value, Suppose now that E"' and EB are in phase but
during which it will pass through zero. Thus, the ac- have different values, with EA being smaller than
tive power transported over the line can be positive E 8 (Fig. 29.12). As before. the phase angle of
or negative, which means that powq <;an flow in ei- can be varied over a complete circle. pivoting
ther direction. Moreover, its magnitude can be varied around the end of phasor EA. The voltage drop
as needed by varying the magnitude and phase of Ee. across the line impedance is Er - EB. and current I
 '
I
I
Figure 29.9b
This is one of eight switching converters used in the TVA Sullivan Substation to control the reactive power of a
161 kV transmission line. The converter has a rating of 12.5 Mvar and operates from a nominal de bus of 7600 V.
The 3-phase, 60 Hz output voltage has a rating of 5.1 kV. Five GTOs rated at 4.5 KV and 4000 A turn-off current
are connected in series for each switch arm. The entire converter station occupies an area 48 feet wide and 90 feet
long.
(Courtesy of Westinghouse Electric Corporation)

a x b
A
+
EA
---·
1 i

Es
+
B

_J____________________________l_

Figure 29.1 O

778
 TRANS!VlfSSION AND DISTRIBUTION SOLID-STATE CONTROLLERS 779

must obviously lie 90° behind it. As a result, in Fig.

29.12b I will lead EA and bye degrees. The fol-
lowing power equations can be written:
x Active power PA delivered by region A is
A B
+I Ee + t ~,_.. + PA= EAI cos e (29.7)
EA ET EB
Active power PB received by region B is
-J_ _------------~ ---~~~!~~I- --J_ _ Ps E 8 / cos 0 (29.8)
(a)
Active power Pc delivered by the converter is
Pc= Ee/cos(<\> 0) (29.9)
Thus, region A supplies active power PA• the con-
verter supplies active power P0 and the sum of the
two is equal to the active power P 8 absorbed by re-
gion B. Because the converter delivers active power
to the system. it must in turn draw real power from the
battery, which will gradually discharge. However, in-
stead of using a battery, power can be taken directly
from the transmission line at the region A end.
(b)
This elegant solution requires two converters
Figure 29.11
connected by a de link, as shown in Fig. 29.13. Both
converters are equipped with isolating transform-
ers. They are included along with the converters on
the ac side of the boxes labeled conv I and conv 2.
Converter I rectifies the ac power at rated voltage
EA and delivers it to the de link, whereupon con-
verter 2 draws power from the de link and injects it
into the transmission line at voltage
A B The converters must be fully reversible as far as
+ power flow is concerned. This requirement is ob-
EB tained automatically because it is one of the properties
----___t PA PA+ Pc
(a)

A B

·1
EA
£1Pc
~

Es
T

conv 1 conv 2
___ LI
n
(b) neutral

Figure 29.12 Figure 29.13

EA and in phase but unequal; phaser relationships. Unified power flow controller.
780 ELECTRIC UTILITY POWER SYSTEMS

of all switching converters. Converter 2 is able to fur- filters also produce the reactive power ab-
nish any voltage and phase angle that is required. sorbed by the converters.
In addition to delivering real power to converter
3. Series-tuned tUters to provide a low imped-
2 (via the de link), converter 1 can simultaneously
ance path for the harmonic currents generated
absorb or deliver reactive power to region A, just
by the converters (5). Principal harmonic fre-
like a static var compensator.
quencies are 550 Hz, 650 Hz, and higher.
Thus, the two-converter arrangement of Fig.
29.13 constitutes a very versatile power controller 4. Three-phase feeder to each 6-pulse converter.
and has indeed been named un{fied power flow con- The two converters together produce a 12-
troller (UPFC). It can replace phase-shifting trans- pulse output, which reduces the voltage and
formers. Furthermore, on account of its extremely current harmonics.
rapid operation, which depends only on the switch-
5. Two 3-phase, 6-pulse ac/dc converter
ing speed of the GTOs, the controller can be made
bridges, connected in series, with grounded
to respond to any power flow contingency.
intermediate point. The converters are de-
signed for reversible power flow, hence the
29.6 Static frequency changer back-to-back thyristors. This permits energy
to be returned to the 150 kV source when
Frequency changers have been in service for many
trains regenerate braking power on downhill
years, mainly to provide low-frequency power for
runs. The converters are line-commutated
railway transportation systems. The low frequencies
and feed the de link between points 1, 2. The
were needed to reduce the reactance and, hence, the
de link operates at a nominal voltage of
voltage drop, along the overhead power lines. A fur-
2650 V. Thyristor rating: Repetitive peak
ther reason was to permit satisfactory commutation
off-state voltage: 4400 V; mean on-state
of ac series motors that were the prime movers of
current: 1650 A.
electric locomotives at the time. These frequency
converters always involved rotating machines, an ex- 6. An inductive filter (6) reduces the harmonic
ample of which is given in Chapter 17, Fig. 17.2. It ripple of the de current flowing through it.
shows a rotary frequency converter that transforms
7. A de circuit breaker offers protection in the
the 50 Hz power of an electric utility to the 16 2/3 Hz
event of commutation failure of converters (5)
power needed for a railway system.
when they are operating in the inverter mode
Today, the availability of high-power switching
(power being fed back toward the 150 kV
converters has made it possible to effect the fre-
line).
quency conversion without using any rotating ma-
chines at all. Fig. 29.14 shows the basic circuit dia- 8. A harmonic filter tuned to 33 1/3 Hz, which is
gram of a 20 MW static frequency converter. It twice the 16 2/3 Hz output frequency. It re-
comprises the following numbered components: duces the 33 1/3 Hz ripple of the de link volt-
age. The single-phase power output of the
I. Transmission line, 150 kV, 3 phase, 50 Hz, that
converter station obliges the de link to deliver
delivers power to the converter station. A circuit
pulsed power to the switching converters (I 0).
breaker permits disconnection of the HY line.
9. The capacitor at the input to each single-phase
2. Two 3-phase wye-delta-delta, and wye-delta-
converter acts as a filter and ensures that the
star transformer banks that reduce the 150 kV,
converters operate in the voltage-source mode.
50 Hz line voltage to 1190 V for each con-
verter bridge. The tertiary windings are in par- I0. The 16 2/3 Hz switching converter modules are
allel. connected to harmonic filters (3). The single-phase water-cooled units. The GTOs in
 @3

1190V ©
v 66 kV
16 2/3 Hz
~ 1 ph
-;;-1
50 Hz
20MVA
CD 1190 v 20MW

02

Figure 29.14
Schematic diagram of a 50 Hz to 16 Hz static frequency converter station. (Diagram adapted from a circuit dia-
gram in the ABB Review, 5195 edition)

781
782 ELECTRIC UTILITY POWER SYSTEMS

synchronous compensators (STATCOMs). These

units are cor1n):cted in parallel with the line. The
possibility also ex,j'sts of injecting a voltage in se-
ries with the line, using a UPFC. The latter can con-
trol both the active and reactive power flowing
over the transmission line, in addition to providing
local var control.
Similar controllers are being developed for the
distribution sector, where individual consumer needs
are particularly important. In this sector, disturbances
such as voltage sags, voltage swells, harmonic dis-
tortion, power interruptions, and power factor have
Figure 29.15 to be dealt with (Fig. 29.16). Table 29A lists some of
These water-cooled GTO converter modules are in- the problems that have to be addressed. Some distur-
stalled in the 50 Hz to 16 % Hz Giubiasco converter bances originate on the consumer side, others on the
station in Switzerland.
utility side, and still others can be traced to both.
(Courtesy of ABB)
For example, a tree that falls on a 24 kV feeder
the converters operate at a carrier frequency of creates a disturbance that clearly originates on the
150 Hz. Thus, the frequency modulation ratio utility side. On the other hand, an arc furnace that
is 9. GTO rating: Repetitive peak off-state volt- produces random and violent changes in current can
age: 4500 V: peak turn-off current: 3000 A. distort the voltage feeding the foundry, as well as
The outputs of the 12 converters are connected that of neighboring consumers. Such voltage pollu-
to the two primary windings of six transformers tion is produced on the consumer side, but a cus-
( 11 ). The secondary windings are connected in se- tomer on the same network plagued with flickering
ries to produce the 66 kV, 16 213 Hz single-phase lights sees it as a utility disturbance. Thus, the link
output ( 12). The converters are triggered sequen- between consumer and utility at the point of com-
tially so that the output voltages are out of phase. As mon coupling is the reason why it is often impossi-
a result, most of the harmonics are eliminated and ble to distinguish between the two as far as the ori-
the resulting waveshape is almost a perfect sine gin of a disturbance is concerned.
wave. Under full-load and unity power factor, the Having said this, both the customer and the utility
harmonic distortion is less than 0.35%. want to have distortion-free and reliable power. In
The converter station is designed to operate many instances consumers have installed uninter-
separately or in parallel with an existing 16 213 ruptible power supplies (UPSs) to prevent distur-
network. In one special mode of operation, the sta- bances from reaching sensitive electronic equipment
tion serves as a sinRle-phase static var compen- (Fig. 29.17). In hospitals, operating rooms, and air-
sator to stabilize the voltage of the network. In this port landing fields, where power interruption of any
mode the converter station is disconnected from kind cannot be tolerated, the UPS includes diesel-
the 150 kV transmission line. electric generators and de batteries to provide long-
term emergency power in the event of a prolonged
DISTRIBUTION CUSTOM utility outage.
POWER PRODUCTS Owing to the proliferation of nonlinear loads,
29. 7 Disturbances on distribution electronic drives, and other harmonic generating
devices, some studies have shown that consumers
systems would prefer to have the utility ensure the supply of
We have seen that the voltage on high-voltage quality power rather than doing so themselves.
transmission lines can be regulated by using static However, the reality of the situation is constantly
 random distortion power interruption

4000 10000
3000 E
2000 Cl>
5000
C)
.'!!
~ 1000
0 0
0 >
c 00
:! -1 oob E
:; :; -5000
0 ·2000 Cl>
<:
-3000
B • 10000
·4000 .;,
:.§
·5000 -15000

sag and swell brownout

15000
10000
E E 8000
10000
Cl> Cl> 6000
C)
C)
.'!! .'!! 4000
0 0 2000
> >
0 0
~ ~
:; -5000 :; -2000
Cl> Cl>
<: <: ·4000
2 ·10000 2 ·6000
.;, a.
:.§ ·8000
.::
·15000 ·10000

switching transient 7th harmonic distortion, 14%

20000 15000
E 15000
Cl>
~ 10000

~ 5000

0 .fl.-~-A-~~tJ-~-4A-~---i{--~-4.-~--t

·500~

· 15000

Figure 29.16
Typical disturbances that occur in distribution and transmission systems.

783
784 ELECTRIC UTILITY POWER SYSTElv!S

TABLE 29A DISTRIBUTION DISTURBANCES

Nature of dislllrbance Duration Origin Compensation

consumer side (C) utility side (Ul (shunt or series)

low power factor hours c shunt

voltage swells and sags cycles c u shunt or series
harmonics (current) hours c shunt
harmonics (voltage) hours c u series
random voltage distortion hours c u shunt or series
voltage transients cycles c u shunt or series
high short-circuit current cycles c u series
voltage regulation hours u shunt or series
power interruption cycles u shunt or series SSB 1
power interruption seconds u shunt or series + SBB 1
power interruption hours u shunt + SSTS 2
1
Solid-state breaker (SSB)
]Solid-state transfer switch (SSTS)

evolving, especially in the context of the pending is particularly attractive in distribution systems
deregulation of the electric utility industry. For in- because of the harmonics that are present in both
stance, the lowest cost solution may be that Power voltages and currents. These harmonics must be
Quality becomes a service provided by third parties kept to a minimum and, when they appear, means
to either the distributors of electricity or the indus- must be taken either to eliminate them or to divert
trial, commercial, and residential consumers. The them into paths where they can do no harm. The
institutional changes that are occurring will, there- harmonics are usually multiples of 60 Hz, and
fore, affect both the approach to the solution and the their magnitude diminishes with increasing fre-
choice of products that are utilized to improve quency. Thus, in many cases it is deemed accept-
power quality. able if all harmonics below the 13th (780 Hz) are
Toward this end, manufacturers, research insti- suppressed.
tutes, and universities-in collaboration with elec- If the highest harmonic of interest is the 13th, it
tric utilities-are developing pulse-width modu- means that the carrier frequency should be about JO
lated converters in the kilowatt to the megawatt times as great. The carrier frequency must therefore
range. These PWM converters are based upon tech- be about I 0 X 13 X 60 = 7800 Hz, or about 8 kHz.
nology used in electric drives, such as those covered This is within the capabilities of high-power IGBTs.
in Chapters 21 to 23. The reader may want to refer Converters operating at these carrier frequencies in-
to these chapters to review the basic properties of troduce their own high-frequency distortion and
these converters. means must be taken to limit the resulting carrier
current.
Another reason that favors PWM converters is
29.8 Why PWM converters? their ability to generate sinusoidal 60 Hz voltages
PWM converters are extremely versatile because rather than the rectangular waves produced by GTOs.
they can generate a voltage of any shape, any fre- Consequently, PWM converters can be interfaced di-
quency, and any phase by simply applying an ap- rectly with the distribution network without having to
propriate gating signal to the IGBTs. This feature filter or phase-shift the harmonics of the 60 Hz rec-
 TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION SOLID-STATE CONTROLLERS 785

static bypass switch

input ~ output
rectifier inverter 1--...__ _
electric circuit critical
utility breaker load

T
Figure 29.17a
This rudimentary single-line diagram shows the ba-
sic elements of an on-line UPS. Power from the
electric utility is rectified and the output is connected
to the terminals of a battery. The battery serves as a
permanent standby source of energy and also en-
sures a ripple-free de input to the inverter. The in- Figure 29.17b
verter generates the regulated, high-quality, 60 Hz This 18 kVA, 120/208 V, 3-phase, 60 Hz on-line UPS
voltage to power the critical load. generates an output of 120/208 V, 60 Hz at output
If a utility power interruption occurs, the inverter power factors ranging from 0.7 lagging to 0.7 leading.
continues to operate, typically for several minutes, The THO is less than 5 percent, even with nonlinear
drawing its energy from the battery. The static bypass loads. The full-load efficiency is about 90 percent. The
switch serves to automatically connect the electric util- low noise level and small size are due to the high
ity to the load in the event of a failure in the conver- switching frequency (=16 kHz) of the IGBT inverter. If
sion components. power is interrupted, or exceeds the input tolerance
window, the internal battery supplies power to the in-
tangular pulses. However, in the case of large power verter for up to 10 minutes with no interruption to load.
converters, where more than one converter unit is re- (Courtesy Square D/Groupe Schneider)
quired, phase-shift methods can be used to advantage.
A final reason for using PWM converters is that
many distorted waveshapes produced by industrial 3-ph, 60 Hz output
processes contain voltage and current harmonics c converter +
carrier
that bear no relationship to the 60 Hz line fre-
quency. PWM switching converters are able to gen- error-correcting
erate voltages and currents in opposition to these triggering signals
random distortions and thereby neutralize them. limit _ desired voltage
settings - gate or current
The signals driving the IGBT gates are derived triggering
from feedback circuits wherein the actual voltage or other processor _ actual voltage
current waveshape is compared with the wanted inputs - or current
waveshape. The instantaneous difference between
Figure 29.18
the two becomes the correction signal that triggers Generating a 3-phase voltage or current that is very
the gates (Fig. 29.18). close to the desired voltage or current.

diagram of one phase of a 13.2 kV. 3-phase distribu-

29.9 Distribution system
tion system composed of a radial feeder and its
In order to see the context in which shunt and series branches. The feeder emanates from a substation.
compensators operate, Fig. 29.19 shows a schematic where it is protected by a recloser, such as described
786 ELECTRIC UTIL!TY POWER SYSTEMS

residential

X6
---~machine-tool
MFG
® center
high voltage
transmission
line 6km

~~1 .
neutral
x5
.q
substation
transformer+
4km
rectoser X] xz
indus-
3km 5 km
...
:............®
~,.
8 km
trial
park
,.................. .:-. x7
: : ,, .

~ foundry f..... /
+
'·················· EHJ

shunt
neutral
__ ~ ______ -~~~tral

Figure 29.19

in Section 26.14. The feeder and its branches furnish ta! 60 Hz component and any residual harmonics,
power to a manufacturing area, a residential area, a switching surges, and other minor disturbances that
precision machine-tool center, and an industrial park. the compensator has not been able to eliminate or sup-
In addition, a foundry equipped with arc furnaces is press. The waveshape eb is, therefore, excellent,
to be serviced in the near future. Each section of the thanks to the presence of the compensator.
feeder and its branches is several kilometers long and A solid-state breaker SSB permits the immediate
possesses a certain inductive reactance, designated disconnection of the industrial park under certain
by Xi. x2' ... x 6 . We neglect the resistive component critical conditions that will be described later.
of the line impedance. Turning our attention to the machine-tool center,
A shunt compensator is connected at the input to it is protected by a series compensator SC2, located
the industrial park. The compensator is composed of at the service entrance. The compensator is com-
a transformer Tl, a PWM converter SCI, and its bat- posed of three individual converters connected in
tery/capacitor power supply. The transformer has a series with each line and isolated therefrom by three
leakage reactance Xa referred to the secondary side. transformers T2. The diagram shows only one con-
The converter generates a voltage which consists of a verter. The leakage reactance xa of the transformer,
carrier modulated by the much lower frequency com- the voltage eb across the primary, and the voltage ea
ponent ea that we are interested in. We assume that the generated by the converter bear the same symbols
carrier frequency is adequately filtered so that its volt- as in the case of the shunt compensator. However, it
ages and currents can be ignored. The voltage eb at the is understood that their values differ from those in
entry to the industrial park consists of the fundamen- the shunt compensator.
 TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION SOLID-STATE CONTROLLERS 787

The proposed foundry is a particularly disturb-

t¢
load because of the arc furnaces it contains.
They produce random changes in current, which or-
dinarily produce corresponding fluctuations in the
terminal voltage. As we will see, a shunt compen-
sator is able to overcome this problem.
converter
The electrical activity of such a distribution sys-
tem is continually changing, and so the voltages and (a) (b)
currents fluctuate. Among the many disturbances
Figure 29.20
that occur. we cite the following:
Equivalent circuit diagram and symbol of a switching
• Power interruption when the recloser suddenly converter. Optional energy storage is represented by
opens and recloses on a transient fault battery.

• Sudden disconnection of an important load

agrams the transformers have a ratio of I: I and that
• Across-the-line start of a large induction motor the base per-unit voltage corresponds to the rated
• Switching surge when capacitors are turned on compensator voltage.
• Transient line-to-ground fault on one phase The choice of shunt or series compensation de-
pends upon several factors, which will be discussed
• Major disturbance on the high-voltage transmis-
in the ensuing sections. We begin our study with the
sion line that supplies power to the substation
shunt-type PWM distribution compensator (DSTAT-
COM). sometimes referred to as distribution static
condenser, or DSTATCON.
29.10 Compensators and circuit
analysis 29.11 The shunt compensator:
principle of operation
The PWM converter used in both shunt and series
compensators is similar to the converter described The PWM shunt compensator has several applica-
in Sections 21.45 to 21.49. We assume a 3-phase tions. It can be used as a voltage regulator: short-
unit operating at a carrier frequency of 6 kHz. term power source: harmonic distortion suppressor:
However, to simplify the explanations we assume a power factor corrector and active filter. This section
single-phase converter applied to only one phase of illustrates these applications.
the 3-phase system (Fig. 29.20a). The compensator Consider the circuit of Fig. 29.21 a. which shows
is simplified even further in 29.20b. where it is the shunt compensator for the industrial park and a
shown as a simple voltage source ea associated with portion of the distribution circuit around it. It is
an optional energy storage battery. identical to the system of Fig. 29.19, except that the
To understand the impact of a compensator on a entire network to the left of point 6 has been re-
distribution system. it is useful to make a circuit placed by an equivalent reactance Xeq and an equiv-
analysis. This is relatively easy. despite the many sub- alent voltage Eeq· This simplification is possible by
circuits and disturbances that occur in such a system. virtue of Thevenin's theorem. The equivalent volt-
In a circuit analysis involving transformers, it is age Eeq comprises the fundamental 60 Hz compo-
best to use the per-unit approach. which reduces nent e" and all the transient and harmonic distor-
everything to a single voltage lel{el. The transform- tions ed that occur upstream from point 6.
ers "disappear"' and the resulting circuit is much Fig. 29.21 b is a replica of Fig. 29.21 a in which
easier to visualize and easier to solve. To achieve the compensator has been replaced by its equivalent
this result, we simply assume that in our circuit di- symbol and the industrial park is represented by an
788 ELECTRIC UTILITY POWER SYSTEMS

SSB Xe

0 ~ ..·
indus-
trial +
le
Xa l
ia
+
park
eb z

T
shunt
' - neutral N
----. ------- -J_ (a)
(a)

®
0

+
z

Figure 29.22
Voltage regulation by means of shunt compensator.

(b)
The first circuit equation is taken around the
Figure 29.21 right-hand loop of Fig. 29.22a:
Deducing the equivalent circuit for the shunt compen-
sator and the industrial park. -ea Paxa + eh = o
which can be cast in the form
impedance Z. The SSB is closed. The equivalent (29. IO)
voltage E..,ci has been replaced by a 60 Hz compo-
nent e, and a disturbance voltage ed. We can now Because eb is regulated and hence constant, we take
begin our study of voltage regulation, distortion, it as the reference phasor (Fig. 29.22b). The value of
and other matters of interest. xa is fixed and the magnitude of ia can range from
Voltage Regulation. The purpose of the compen- zero to ia(max)' the maximum rated current of the
sator is to maintain a constant 60 Hz voltage eb at converter. As the magnitude and phase angle of ea
the service entrance of the industrial park in the face are varied with respect to eh, it is seen that the mag-
of a varying voltage e, and a varying industrial load. nitude and phase angle of i,1 will also change, subject
For the moment we will neglect ed. The compen- to 29.10. In particular. if ia is kept at its rated
sator attempts to keep eh constant by varying the value ia(max) while varying ea, the phasor jia(maxrta
voltage ea (Fig. 29.22a). Varying ea will change the will trace out the locus of a circle. Thus, by making
compensator current ia, which in turn will modify i"' a relatively small change in the magnitude and phase
and hence eh. In the following explanation we write of ea, we can cause ia to rotate through 360°. This ob-
the pertinent equations to determine what happens servation leads us to a second circuit equation, this
under these changing conditions. The phasor dia- time taken around the left-hand loop of Fig. 29.22a:
grams will be of particular help. -er.:+ j(x, +eh 0
 TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION SOLID-STATE CONTROLLERS 789

Xe ia(max) Xe ia(maxl,
\

p · JiaXe
~.·.·~.···a

··;
·.·.... liibXe

OIE'-;..._..,.-;:-~~~~~~~~~--1.,...._~__..
...... ·

Figure 29.23a Figure 29.23b

Relationship between the source voltage ec and the Voltage regulation limits for a given load.
regulated voltage eb.
regulation should be effected without demanding
hence any real power from the compensator. Referring
to Fig. this means that (, must be at right
angles to ea. In turn. according to Eq. 29.10, this
however, implies that e 11 -the voltage generated by the com-
pensator-must be in phase with the voltage eb
across the load.
We can, therefore, write Fig. 29.23b shows the resulting phasor rela-
tionships. It is seen that for the given load condi-
(29. I I) tion eh, ih, the minimum value of ec corresponds
Referring now to Fig. 29.23a, the phase angle 0 to phasor OP and the maximum to phasor OQ.
between eh and ih is determined by the power fac- This is quite a broad range, but it depends upon
tor of the industrial park. Consequently, for a given the value of the line reactance xc- If the line reac-
load condition, the phasor OM eh + jihxJ is tance is small, the diameter of the circle will be
fixed. Phasor ec is, therefore, the sum of phasor small, which reduces the regulatable range of ec
OM plus phasor ji,,xc. But we have just seen that Therefore, if a large sag or swell occurs in ec, the
phasor ia can swing through 360° and that it can compensator may be unable to keep the voltage eb
have any value between zero and ia(maxJ· It follows from changing. It is, therefore. difficult to regu-
that the locus of xJ,<maxJ is again a circle. At rated late the variable voltage of a "stiff'' feeder by
(,<max)' the extremity of phasor ec follows the out- means of a shunt compensator whose kVA rating
line of the circle. as shown in Fig. 29.23b. is small compared to that of the feeder. As we will
However, because i" can be varied from zero to see, this problem can be resolved by using a series
it follows that the tip of ec can lie anywhere compensator.
within the bounding circle without in any way af- Power Interruption. The industrial park represents
fecting the magnitude of eh. a load of several megawatts, and the service con-
As far as the deli very of power to load Z is con- tract stipulates that power shall not be interrupted
cerned, the phase angle between ec and eh is unim- by transients lasting I 0 seconds or less. Power can
portant. We are only intereste,.d in knowing the be interrupted by either a sudden short-circuit or an
maximum and minimum values of ec- that will still open circuit on the feeder. In such cases the shunt
enable the compensator to produce the constant compensator can be equipped with a battery to sup-
output voltage eh. Furthermore, in order to elimi- ply energy for the brief period that the feeder is dis-
nate the necessity for energy storage, the voltage connected. However, before supplying power the
790 ELECTRIC UTILITY POWER SYSTEMS

conductors feeding the park must be isolated from sator. which immediately converts it to 60 Hz power
the main feeder by means of a solid-state circuit and delivers it_tp the industrial park.
breaker SSB (Figs. 29.19 and 29.24). It consists of A few cycles atkr the start of the intense short-
thyristors connected back-to-back. as previously circuit, the recloser opens for, say, 30 cycles ( 1/2 s)
explained in Section 21.23. The reason for the iso- and then recloses again. at which time the fault has
lation is evident: The compensator was designed to cleared. Sensing the new situation, the SSB recloses
meet the emergency needs of the industrial park and and the compensator returns to its normal state.
not that of other clients connected to the system. Suppose that the park represents a load of 8 MW.
What might cause a power interruption? Suppose During the power interruption, the converter must
that a snowstorm or hurricane has produced a mo- supply 8 MW X 0.5 s 4 MW·s 4 MJ of energy.
mentmy line-to-ground fault on the main feeder. 4 km This is quite within the capability of such energy
from the substation (Fig. 29.19). This will cause the storage systems, which can typically provide as
recloser to open after two or three cycles. However, much as 100 MJ.
before it can open, the short-circuit will cause the The phasor relationships when only the compen-
voltage across the affected lines to collapse, which sator is supplying power to the park are illustrated
will impact all consumers. To get around this prob- in Fig. 29.24b. The compensator automatically
lem, the solid-state breaker (SSB) opens the circuit so keeps voltage e 0 at its rated value. which means that
quickly (within one-half cycle) that the voltage at it must generate a voltage e,,.
point 6 has not had time to collapse. Simultaneously, Voltage Distortion. Looking now at voltage dis-
the battery begins furnishing energy to the compen- tortion, consider Fig. 29.25. wherein a harmonic
voltage ed appears in the distribution system. We
direct our attention to it alone, neglecting the 60
Hz voltage. The impedances are now higher than
at 60 Hz and are therefore labeled Xcd and Xad· The
compensator will react to eliminate the harmonic
+ SSB voltage from appearing across the load, and so e 0d
0. As a result. the distortion current i 0 d circu-
lating in the load is also zero. It follows that a har-
monic current id will flow in both the source and
T

(a)
Xcd

-.•
IJ
+
-
ibd 0

+
i+
ebd z

(b)
Figure 29.25
Figure 29.24 Behavior of compensator when source produces a
Behavior of compensator during a power interruption. voltage distortion ed.
 TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION SOLID-STATE CONTROLLERS 79 I

the compensator. We can write the following

equations:
- ed + jidxcd + ehd 0 (29.12)
+
-ead - Jidxad + ehd 0 (29.13)
From these equations. and because ehd is zero, we
z
obtain
T
(29.14)
(a)
In most cases Xad is considerably larger than xcd;
consequently, to prevent the harmonic voltage from
appearing across the load, the compensator must
generate a greater harmonic voltage ead than the
originating harmonic voltage ed.
It should be noted that a similar analysis applies to
transient voltages, such as switching surges. For ex-
ample, suppose that the manufacturing sector (Fig. (b)
29.19) has a power-factor correction system that in-
volves the on/off switching of capacitors. When the Figure 29.26
Power factor correction.
capacitors are switched on, it generates for a few cy-
cles a surge of perhaps 5 kV. at approximately 900 Hz.
This transient rides on top of the 60 Hz voltage (see
29.16). As it travels along the feeder, its amplitude same time it furnishes the compensator with active
will diminish rapidly but may still be substantial when power P = e)a cos¢. Under these conditions. the
it reaches the input of the industrial park. Again the battery supplying the de input is not necessary. The
compensator comes to the rescue, because its 6 kHz capacitor is kept charged to the desired de voltage
carrier frequency is considerably higher than 900 Hz level by controlling e.. so that it slightly lags or leads
and so the transient voltage can be suppressed. eh, as was previously described for the STATCOM
Power Factor Correction. The shunt compensator converter.
can be used to correct the power factor at the input to Nonlinear Load. We now examine the proposed
the industrial park. To do so, the compensator voltage foundry installation. It is fed by a line leading
ea is arranged so that current ia lags 90° behind volt- from point 2 on the main feeder (Fig. 29.19). A
age eh (Fig. 29.26). Referring to the figure, suppose foundry is a nonlinear load Z (Fig. 29.27a) because
that the compensator has losses represented by resis- the arc furnaces draw a highly fluctuating current
tance 'a·
We can then write the following equation: (during certain phases of their operation. As a re-
sult, the voltage drop along the distribution feeder
is nonlinear, which in turn produces a distorted
hence voltage ehd at the service entrance to the foundry.
Indeed, the current changes so erratically that it
(29.15)
is impossible to express the voltage in terms of
The corresponding phasor di~gram is shown in harmonics and frequency-dependent reactances.
Fig. 29.26b. Note that e.. is greater tba.n eh and lags However, the instantaneous voltage drop along
slightly behind it. Consequently, the distribution the line is always equal to its inductance L times
system receives reactive power Q ehia and at the the rate of change of current. The instantaneous
792 ELECTRIC UTILITY POWER SYSTEMS

L voltage end at the foundry is. therefore. given by

® the equation ...

+ ehd 0
+ +
t'ht!
hence
L L\ (29.16)
L\ t
For example, in this equation. if a feeder has a 60
Hz reactance x7 of 11 H, its inductance Lis given by
(a)
11
0.029 H
21T x 60
Fig. 29.27b shows the current and voltage at the
(b) E, I at foundry prior to shun! compensation input to the foundry before any corrective measures
are taken. The jagged current has an effective value
12000
of about 2300 A while the voltage reaches peaks of
8000 12 kV.
4000 Fig. 29.27c again shows the current ic. together
with the fundamental component of voltage ec at
point 2. Although ec is sinusoidal, the actual voltage
> ·4000 at this point of common coupling will be polluted to
·8000
a certain extent because of the distorted current. The
amount of pollution will depend upon the imped-
• 12000
ance upstream from point 2. If the impedance is sub-
stantial, the waveshape could be unacceptable as far
as other consumers are concerned. It is therefore im-
portant to improve the waveshape of the current
flowing in the feeder, in addition to improving the
voltage waveshape at the input to the foundry itself.
(c) voltage and current at source 29.28 shows the foundry, the feeder, and the
shunt compensator SC3, together with transformer
T3. A current transformer CT monitors the instanta-
neous current ic in the feeder, and this signal is fed
4000 into the gate triggering processor. A second input
provides the wanted instantaneous sinusoidal cur-
rent. The processor compares the two signals and
-4000
generates the triggering pulses to correct the wave-
·8000 shape of ic
As a result, the current in the feeder approaches a
-120001
sine wave. Consequently, the voltage drop along the
feeder is now sinusoidal and so. too, is the voltage at
Figure 29.27 the entrance to the foundry. However. the current ih
Equivalent circuit of foundry, voltages, and currents delivered to the foundry is still distmted because the
prior to installation of shunt compensator. load is inherently nonlinear. This means that the cur-
 TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBU110N SOLID-S1ATE CONTROLLERS 793

® C.T.

____ t __ ~~utral
wanted gate actual
triggering
current processor current

foundry
error-correcting
gate signals

_. l. _____ -~:utral

Figure 29.28
Shunt compensator at entrance to foundry.

rent i" supplied by the shunt compensator is actually will still be felt by the residential sector even though
the distorted portion of the factory current. The com- it has been eliminated at the entrance to the industrial
pensator is now acting as an active filter. park. A study of the related consequences of in-
Fig. 29.29a shows the voltage eh at the factory stalling a compensator is always advisable.
entrance and the sinusoidal current flowing in the
feeder. Fig. 29.29b shows the same voltage, along 29.12 The series compensator:
with the distorted current supplied to the foundry. principle of operation
Fig. 29.29c shows the current (, supplied by the
compensator (about 800 Arms) and the correspond- The series compensator* is similar to a shunt com-
ing instantaneous power that it delivers. Note that the pensator; the main difference is that it is connected
power of the compensator fluctuates continuously be- in series with the feeder instead of in parallel. We re-
tween positive and negative values. reaching momen- call that in Fig. 29.19 a series compensator is con-
tary peaks of 10 MW during the 80 ms interval cov- nected at the input to a machine-tool center. The
ered by the graph. However, the net power, averaged equivalent circuit is derived the same way as was
over a few 60 Hz cycles, is zero because of the ran- done for the shunt compensator. Thus, in Fig. 29.30,
dom nature of the alternating current (,. the machine-tool factory is represented by imped-
In conclusion, it is seen that the shunt compen- ance Z, the compensator by voltage e,,, the effective
sator can respond to many different electrical distur- line reactance by xc, and the source by a 60 Hz sinu-
bances and thereby ensure quality power to the con- soidal voltage e.., and a distortion voltage ed. We now
sumer. However, correcting a po~er quality problem examine the behavior of the compensator-first, as
at one point on the distribution syste.m of Fig. 29.19
does not benefit everyone to the same degree. Thus. Sometimes called dynamic 1·0/toge ffstoffr (DVR). or sra-
a disturbance created by the manufacturing group tic series 1·0/tagl' regulator (SSVR).
 794 ELECTRIC UTILITY POWER SYSTEMS

(a) voltage and current ahead of compensator +

10000
8000
6000 +
4000 z
2000

>
-2000
·4000
-6000
·8000
·10000 Figure 29.30
Series compensation.

a voltage regulator, and second, as a supply-side dis-

tortion neutralizer.
Voltage Regulation. Consider 29.3 la in which
the 60 Hz source voltage ec acts alone in the circuit
10000
(no distortion), and the voltage eb across the load is
8000 held constant by means of the series compensator.
6000
The load draws a current ib. We can write the fol-
4000
~
lowing equation:
~ 2000
~
;
<( -2000
> ·4000
hence
·6000
·8000 (29.17)
·10000
Suppose that ih lags behind eh and that the com-
pensator generates a constant voltage ea<maxJ' equal
to its rated voltage. This yields the phasor diagram
of Fig. 29.31 b. The phase of ea( max> can be varied
as desired, and so its locus describes a circle with
(e) power and current In compensator
center M.
Given that eb is held constant, phasor ec of the
10000
8000
source can have any value and phase angle, pro-
6000 vided that its extremity falls within the circle for
4000 ea(max)· The phase angle between ec and eh is unim-
.. 2000
portant; the only objective is to keep the magnitude
~ of eh constant. In achieving this result, the maxi-
·20 00
I ·4000 mum possible value of ec is given by phasor OP and
-6000 the minimum by phasor OQ (Fig. 29.28c). Thus.
-8000
even if ec sags and swells over this wide range, the
·10000
series compensator can still hold the voltage con-
stant across the load.
Figure 29.29 However, the phasor diagram reveals that the
Voltages, currents, and converter power after the compensator must supply real power to the system
shunt compensator is installed. when the magnitude of phasor ec is equal to OQ.
-------------------------------- ---·-

TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION SOLID-STAIE CONTROLLERS 795

The reason is that phasor -ea(max) has a component

that is 180° out of phase with current i 0 . It is only
when -ea(max) is in quadrature with i 0 that the ac-
tive power of the converter is zero. Similarly, the
+
compensator must absorb real power when ec is
z equal to OP. If this happens to be a short-term situ-
ation lasting, say. for 10 seconds, the battery will be
able to supply or receive the required power. Thus,
the full range of ec from OQ to OP can be regulated.
(a) But it cannot be a long-term solution.
Voltage regulation is still possible on a long-term
locus of ea( max) ,
\ basis without the compensator drawing or deliver-
ing real power. This implies that phasor e,. must be
. , ea(max)
kept at right angles to phasor ib (Fig. 29.31 a). The
\ tip of phasor e" must then follow the line PQ shown
in 29.3 Id. The magnitude of ec can, therefore.
vary from length OP to length OQ, which is a nar-
rower range than that in Fig. 29.28c. Note that the
series compensator can regulate the voltage of even
a very stiff (low impedance) feeder.
(b) It should be noted that the voltage disturbances on
the three phases may be quite different. For example.
a single-phase line-to-ground fault on the network
will generate unbalanced voltages on the three
Q : _ea(ma:x) M ea\ma:xl
.•........,..
phases. Therefore, the three converters that make up

""'<J!:~.
!:'========e=c===.,.._=·~-·_··_·--·~-·:...,·~/-.j·;~ Xe
the compensator must operate independently of each
0 p other in order to produce balanced line-to-line volt-
e ib ages at the entrance to the machine-tool center.
According to statistics, voltage sags account for
about 90 percent of the disturbances affecting criti-
(c)
p
cal loads on a distribution system. The series com-
pensator can be specifically designed to resolve this
problem because it does not have to provide the en-
tire power (or energy) during such a disturbance.
Notably, the inverter power rating can be mini-
j ibXc M f mized by tailoring its output voltage to the expected
0"""'=::-:--------------1 depth of sag, while the energy storage is determined
ea(max) by its expected duration.
Consider, for example. a 480 V, 3-phase, 60 Hz
Q
feeder that delivers 600 kVA to a critical load.
(d) Suppose the expected worst-case voltage sag is 15
percent of the line-to-neutral voltage and that its ex-
Figure 29.31
pected duration is 20 cycles. The series compen-
a. Voltage regulation with series com(lensator.
b. Voltage regulation with series compensator.
sator must, therefore, boost the voltage by 15 per-
c. Sag and swell compensation. cent during the sag while still carrying the same line
d. Quadrature series compensator. current. Consequently. its power rating need only
796 ELECTRIC UTILITY POWER SYSTEMS

Figure 29.32
This ±2 MVA converter assembly can be used in either a shunt or series compensator (DSTATCON or DVR).
(Courtesy of Westinghouse Electric Corporation)

be 15% X 600 kVA = 90 kVA, and the energy stor- current flow to an arbitrary low value until the main
age required is 90 kW X 20 cycles X ( 1/60) s = 30 circuit-breaker trips.
kW·s = 30 kJ. Both the power rating and energy
storage requirements are modest. In practice, the 29.13 Conclusion
series compensator can typically provide boost
voltages of 25, 50, 75, and 100 percent. We have seen that series compensators, shunt corn-
Thus, a series compensator is often a more cost- pensators, and static circuit breakers enable almost
effective solution to the sag problem than using a instantaneous control of the power flowing over
solid-state breaker and a fully-rated shunt compen- transmission lines and distribution systems. In
sator plus energy storage. every case this is rendered possible by the rapid re-
sponse of switching converters. Some of these con-
Current Limiting. In some applications the series
verters are also able to control the waveshape of
compensator can be preset to limit the short-circuit
voltages and currents, thereby filling the role of ac-
current in a stiff feeder. Its reaction time is so fast
tive harmonic filters.
that it can immediately introduce a voltage in oppo-
The converters can also be used as high-power
sition to the feeder voltage and thereby limit the
frequency converters in the megawatt range.
 TRANSlv!lSSION AND DISTRIBUTION SOLID-STATE CONTROLLERS 797

Figure 29.33
This 13.8 kV, 3-phase solid-state circuit breaker (SSB) comprises both GTOs and thyristors. The GTOs are rated
600 A and the thyristors are rated for 8000 A.
(Courtesy of Westinghouse Electric Corporation)

These new high-power devices will have a pro- 29-3 A conductor carrying a 60 Hz current also
found impact on the management of power in elec- bears a 23rd harmonic. What is the fre-
tric utility systems. As well. they enable dynamic quency of the harmonic?
control of system disturbances. thereby increasing 29-4 The solid-state switches in Fig. 29. la
the stability of the network. Finally. they enhance the carry an effective ac current of 684 A.
control of electric power, improve power quality, and Calculate the peak current that flows
enable currently unused capacity to be mobilized. through one of the thyristors.

Questions and Problems 29-5 What is meant by a st(ff'feeder?

29-6 A 3-phase switching converter operates
Practical level
from a de bus of 2400 V. Calculate the ap-
29-1 What is the main distinction between a proximate rms line-to-line voltage if the
GTO and a thyristor? ...
converter operates
29-2 Explain why a GTO cannot be used in a a. in the rectangular wave mode
high-frequency PWM converter. b. in the PWM mode with m I.
798 ELECTRIC UTILITY POWER SYSTEMS

29-7 In Problem 29-4 calculate the longest time 29-17 A 6 700 kW load is backed up by a shunt
needed to interrupt the 60 Hz current. compepsator connected to a group of bat-
29-8 What is meant by vernier control of a teries opewiting at 240 V. The energy stor-
TCSC? age is designed to be 40 MJ. Calculate the
ampere-hour capacity of the battery pack.
29-9 Explain what is meant by
a. Switching surge 29-18 In Problem 29-17, for how many seconds
b. Brownout can the battery deliver power to the load
c. Voltage swell before its terminal voltage will suddenly
d. UPS begin to fall?

Intermediate level Advanced level

29-10 A cable carries a 60 Hz current of 870 A 29-19 Referring to 29 .31, we want to main-
and a 5th harmonic of 124 A. Calculate tain a line-to-line voltage of 24 kV across
the effective value of the current. the input of a conglomerate 3-phase load
29-11 In Problem 29-10 calculate the maximum having a capacity of 6.8 MW at unity
possible value of the peak current. power factor. The feeder has a reactance
of 5 n per phase. It is known that the
29-12 Referring to Fig. 29.3, calculate the capac-
source voltage may vary between 25 kV
itance of the condensers and the induc-
and 26.4 kV.
tance of the inductors.
29-13 In Fig. 29.6 calculate the peak 60 Hz line- Calculate
to-neutral ac voltage if the voltage across a. The maximum voltage required, per phase.
the capacitor is 3400 V. for the series compensator, on the under-
standing that it neither absorbs or delivers
29- 14 Referring to the series compensator of any long-term active power
Fig. 29.12, it is known that EA 6.9 kV b. The rated power of the compensator
and EB = 7.4 kV. The series compensator c. If a brief sag occurs, what is the minimum
can develop a maximum voltage of 1.5 kV voltage it can reach before the compen-
and its rated current is 800 A. Calculate sator is unable to keep the output voltage
the maximum active power that can be ex- at 24 kV?
changed between regions A and B, know- d. If a brief swell occurs, what is the maxi-
ing that EA and EB are in phase. mum voltage it can reach before the com-
pensator is unable to keep the output volt-
29-15 Explain the principle of operation of a age at 24 kV?
UPFC. e. If the compensator can deliver active and
29-16 Referring to Fig. 29.14, calculate the cur- reactive power for a brief period. what is
rent flowing in the 150 kV transmission the minimum voltage in part (c) and the
lines when the converter delivers rated maximum voltage in part (d)?
single-phase power at 66 kV. The power
factor of the 150 kV line is 0.96 lagging.
 CHAPTE 30
Harmonics

30.0 Introduction

V oltages and currents in industry are often dis-

torted. The subject of distortion was first dis-
cussed in Chapter 2, Section 2.12 and we recom-
A
+100
,...

mend the reader review it briefly. As was \

mentioned, the distortion may be caused by mag- +50 f J ""' . ' I'

netic saturation in the core of a transformer, by the I \/- ~-~

I
switching action of thyristors, or by any other non-
0
I
linear load. A distorted wave is made up of a funda-
mental and one or more harmonics. For example,
Fig. 30.1, reproduced from Fig. 2.23, shows a dis- -50 "
Au
.
1
~ '\I\
y .; .
J\a,
I
J

torted alternating current that contains a 5th and 7th \ I

harmonic and several other higher harmonics.
-100
\/ y

30.1 Harmonics and phasor

0 60 120 180 240 300 360 420
diagrams
We can represent a distorted wave by a composite Figure 30.1
Waveshape of a distorted 60 Hz current having an ef-
phasor diagram. It indicates the frequency, ampli-
fective value of 62.5 A. The current contains the follow-
tude. and initial value of each ..sinusoidal compo- ing components: fundamental (60 Hz): 59 A; 5 1h har-
nent. The amplitude is equal to the PS::<Jk value of the monic: 15.6 A; 7th harmonic: 10.3 A. Higher harmonics
voltage or current. For example, the phasor diagram are also present but their amplitudes are small.

799
800 ELtXTRIC U71LITY POWER SYSTEMS

EH v
120

A
20V, 300 Hz
100
(].)
59°
l_ _ _
O'l 80
$
0 60
>
100 V 60 Hz 40

Figure 30.2
A distorted voltage can be represented by phasors re-
I 20 I
0
0
7\30
,_/60
-20-
volving at different speeds. Their initial angular posi- -40 -degrees
tion also affects the waveshape. -60
-80
of Fig. 30.2 represents a distorted voltage com- -100
posed of two components: -120

I. a fundamental voltage El" having an amplitude Figure 30.3

of I 00 V, a frequency of 60 Hz and an initial Waveshape of the voltage generated by the phasors
in Fig. 30.2.
angle of 0°. We can consider that the phasor ro-
tates ccw at 60 revolutions per second.
2. a 5th harmonic having an amplitude of 20 V,
a frequency of 300 Hz, and an initial angle of v
120
59°. This phasor also rotates ccw but 5 times
100
faster than the fundamental. (].)

$ 80
The fundamental can be expressed by the equation: ~ 60

E 1• = I00 sin (8 + 0°) = l 00 sin 36Qft

t 40
20
Similarly, the harmonic can be expressed by:
EH = 20 sin (58 59°) = 20 sin (5 X 360ft + 59°) --degrees
The distorted wave can therefore be expressed by -60
the equation: -80
-100
E I00 sin 0 + 20 sin (5 0 + 59°) -120
where
Figure 30.4
e 360 ft = 360 x 60 x 1 Waveshape of the voltage when the initial angle of the
5th harmonic is 180°.
The angles are expressed in degrees. The wave-
shape of one complete cycle is shown in Fig. 30.3.
The waveshape depends not only on the fre-
quency and amplitude of the harmonics but also on 30.2 Effective value of a distorted
their angular position with respect to the funda- wave
mental. For example, if the initial angle of the 5 1h
The effective value of a distorted voltage is given
harmonic in Fig. 30.2 is changed from 59° to 180°,
by the equation:
the resulting voltage will have the flat-topped shape
illustrated in Fig. 30.4. E= (30.1)
 HARMONICS 80 I

where c. Using Eq. 30.1 we obtain:

E effective value of the distorted voltage [Yl E
EF = effective value of the fundamental [VJ
E~
1
2
EH effective value of all the harmonics [V] 66 = V 59.4 +
The effective value E 11 of all the harmonics is given from which EH = = 28.8 v
by the equation:
The effective value of all the harmonies is 28.8 V.
E" (30.2)

where E 2 , E 4 . ••. E 11 arc the effective values of 30.3 Crest factor and total
the 2"d, 3'd, 4th ... nth harmonics.
harmonic distortion (THO)
Combining equations 30.1 et 30.2, we obtain the
expression: There are several ways of describing the degree of
distortion of a current or voltage. Two that are fre-
E= (30.3)
quently used are crest factor and total harmo11ic
Similar equations apply in the case of distorted distortion (THD ).
currents. By definition, the crest factor of a voltage is
equal to the peak value divided by the effective
Example 30-J _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ (rms) value.
Calculate the effective value of the distorted volt-
age in Fig. 30.3.
(30.4)
Solution
Effective value of the fundamental:
In the case of a sinusoidal voltage (which evidently
EF = 1001"12 70.7 v has no distortion) the crest factor is '12 = 1.41. A
Effective value of the 5th harmonic: wave having a crest factor less than 1.4 tends to be
flat-topped. On the other hand, a crest factor
= 20!'12 14.I V greater than 1.4 indicates a voltage that tends to be
Effective value of the distorted voltage: pointy.
By definition, the total harmonic distortion
E=
(THD) of a current or voltage is equal to the effec-
V5197 = 72,I V tive value of all the harmonics divided by the effec-
tive value of the fundamental. In the case of a dis-
Example 30-2 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ torted current, the equation is:
A square wave has an amplitude of 66 V. The am-
plitude of the fundamental is 84 V. Calculate:
Total harmonic distortion (THD) = £u (30.5a)
a. the effective value of the square wave /F
b. the effective value of the fundamental
c. the effective value of all the harmonics In the case of a distorted voltage, the THD is given by:

Solution
a. Effective value of the square wave is clearly Total harmonic distortion (THD) = (30.5b)
Ei.
66 Y.
b. Effective value of the fundamenra1:
From these expressions, it is seen that sinusoidal
EF E 111 ,,/'12 = 84/'12 59.4 V voltages and currents have a THD of zero.
802 ELECTRIC UTILITY POWER SYSTEMS

Example 30-J _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
The distorted current shown in Fig. 30.1 has an ef-
fective value of 62.5 A. Knowing that the funda-
mental has an effective value of 59 A calculate:
a. the effective value/Hof all the harmonics
b. the total harmonic distortion, in percent
c. the effective value of all the harmonics above
the 7th
100 v
60 Hz

51 v
l
j source
voltage
24n

300 Hz 18.6 mH
d. the amplitude of the 7th harmonic

Solution 2
a. Effective (or rms) value of all the harmonics:
Figure 30.5
(30.1) Distorted voltage applied to an RL circuit.
20.6 A

b. Total distortion factor: of the effective fundamental current and the effec-
tive values of the individual harmonic currents.
/H
THD (30.5)
/F Example30-4_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
20.6 Figure 30.5 shows a distorted voltage source com-
= 0.349 34.9 % posed of a fundamental of I 00 V, 60 Hz, and a 5th
59
harmonic of 51 V, 300 Hz.* The source is connected
c. Noting the values of the 5•h and 7th harmonics to a resistor of 24 n
in series with an inductance of
given in 30.1. the effective value of har- 18.6 mH. At 60 Hz the latter has a reactance:
monics is:
x6o 27rfL = 27f' x 60 x 0.0186 = 7 n
I >7H =
However, at 300 Hz the reactance is 5 times greater:

X300 = 5 x 7 n 35 n
= V74.9 8.66 A
Since the fundamental and 5th harmonic act inde-
d. Amplitude of the 7th harmonic = I 0.3'12 pendently of each other, we can draw separate cir-
14.6A. cuits to calculate the respective currents and powers
(Fig. 30.6 and 30.7). We recall that whenever a volt-
age source is ignored, it is replaced by a short circuit.
30.4 Harmonics and circuits
Referring to Fig. 30.6, the impedance of the 60 Hz
It is imp011ant to know how a circuit responds to circuit is:
harmonics. In linear circuits composed of resistors,
inductors. capacitors. and transformers, the various
z6() = 25 n
harmonics act independently of each other. The fun- The fundamental current is:
damental and each harmonic behaves as if the oth-
100
ers were not there. In solving such a circuit for a =4A
particular harmonic, the voltage sources of the 25
other harmonics. including that of the fundamental,
are replaced by a short-circuit. Then, the total rms In the absenee of information to the contrary. the values of
current in each branch is equal to the algebraic sum voltages and currents are rms values.
 HARMONICS 803

-
(ln these calculations, the 300 Hz source was short-
circui ted.)
4A Let us now consider the circuit of Fig. 30.7 as re-
384 w gards the 5th harmonic. Proceeding the same as be-
24Q fore but with the 60 Hz source in short-circuit. we
100 v obtain the following results:
60 Hz Impedance of the circuit at 300 Hz:

z, 00 = v24 2 + 35 2 = 42.4 n
7Q
The 5th harmonic current:
2
51
= 1.2 A
Figure 30.6 42.4
Impedances and resulting fundamental current
Active harmonic power dissipated in the resistor:
component.
P_, 00 = l 300 2R = 1.2 2 X 24 = 34.6 W

-
1,2 A

34.6W
Reactive powers and apparent powers are not de-
fined for harmonic voltages and currents. Conse-
quently, we ignore them. Only active harmonic
24Q powers are considered.
51 v The harmonic current lags behind the harmonic
300 Hz voltage by an angle:
X, 35
35 Q 8 300 = arctan -·00
- = arctan -- = 55.6°
R 24
2
We can now combine the fundamental and har-
monic currents and voltages as follows:
Figure 30.7 Total effective current in the circuit:
Impedances and resulting 5th harmonic current.
I= \;)~ 0 + /~ 00 = V4 2 + 1.2 2 = 4.18 A
Active power dissipated in the resistor: The 60 Hz voltage across the resistor:
P60 = / 60 2R = 4 2 X 24 = 3 84 W
£R60 = R 16() = 24 x 4 = 96 v
Reactive power absorbed by the reactance:
The 300 Hz voltage across the resistor:
Q60 = / 60 2X 60 = 4 2 x 7 = 112 var
Apparent power at 60 Hz:
£R300=R1100 = 24 x 1.2 = 28.8 v
Total effective voltage across the resistor:
560 = £ 60/ 60 = 100 X 4 = 400 VA
ER= V£~60 + £~300 = \ 196 + 28.8 = 100.2 v
2 2
Power factor at 60 Hz:
p60 384 Total effective voltage of the source:
PF60 = - = - = 0.96 or 96 %
560 400 E = V'E~0 +£~00 =V100 2 + 51::> = 112.2 V
The fundamental current lags .'behind the funda- The current of 4.18 A and the voltage of 112.2 V
mental voltage by an angle: (Fig. 30.8) are the values that would be measured
8 60 = arccos 0.96 = 16.3° by instruments designed to give rms readouts.
804 ELECTRIC UTILITY POWER SYSTEMS

Since the total active power in our example is 418.6 W,

--;..
we obtain:
4.18A 418.6 w
24n PFtotal

112.2 v 418.6W
0.893 OU 89.3 %
469VA
18.6 mH However, the traditional power factor is given by
the cosine of the angle between the fundamental
2
voltage and the fundamental current. When har-
monics are present, this power factor is called dis-
Figure 30.8 placement power/actor:
Effective voltages and currents due to the fundamen-
tal and harmonic components. (30.7)

In Example 30.4, and referring to 30.6, the dis-

Total power dissipated in the resistor: placement power factor is equal to cos 16.3° 0.96
or 96 %. When no harmonics are present, the dis-
?total= Pw + P:i,oo 384 + 34.6 418.6 W
placement power factor, the total power factor, and
This is also the total active power supplied by the the traditional power factor all have the same value.
source. It corresponds to the power that a wattmeter
would indicate if it were connected in the circuit. 30.6 Non-linear loads
Consider a sinusoidal voltage E connected to a non-
30.5 Displacement power factor linear load (Fig. 30.9). The load may be a saturable
and total power factor reactance, a rectifier, or a set of mechanical switches
that open and close periodically.
The concept of power factor was first discussed in On account of the non-linearity, the current wi II
Section 7.9, Chapter 7. Its meaning must be en- not be sinusoidal. It will contain a fundamental
larged when distorted voltages and currents are pre- component /F and harmonic components /H. The
sent. The terms displacement power factor and to- fundamental component is produced by the sinu-
tal power.factor are then used. soidal voltage E, but the harmonic components are
In a single-phase circuit, the total apparent
power is equal to the product of the effective volt-
age times the effective current. In Example 30.4 and -IF
referring to Fig. 30.8, we have

stolal = ERMS of source x /RMS of source non-linear

112.2 X 4.18 = 469 VA load

The total power factor is equal to the total active

power divided by the total apparent power:
Figure 30.9
A sinusoidal source connected to a non-linear load
PF = !'total (30.6) produces a fundamental current /F and the load gen-
total slotal
erates harmonic currents /H.
 HARMONICS 805

generated by the load. Clearly, the harmonic cur- assume the switch is ideal, producing no sparks
rents flow in the sinusoidal source E as well as in and having no losses.
the load. If the switch were always closed, the voltage
As far as the fundamental component of current is across the resistor would be sinusoidal, and the cur-
concerned, it can lag, lead, or be in phase with volt- rent would be 1000 V/I 0 !! JOO A. The power
age E. Thus, we can attribute traditional active and dissipated in the form of heat would be:
reactive powers to this non-linear load. However, the P = J2 R 1002 X I0 = I00 kW
product of the fundamental voltage and any one of
the harmonic currents produces zero power. However, because the switch is open half the time,
the power dissipated will be one-half of JOO kW,
namely 50 kW. It follows that the chopped sinu-
30.7 Generating harmonics
soidal current has an effective value of 70.7 A, be-
The process whereby harmonics are created is cause p =PR= (70.7 A) 2 x JO = 50 kW. n
quite remarkable. Consider, for example, the cir- The synchronous switch does not heat up be-
cuit of Fig. 30.1 Oa in which a I 000 V, 60 Hz si- cause the current is zero when the switch is open
nusoidal voltage is connected to a I 0 fl resistor in and the voltage across its terminals is zero when-
series with a switch. The switch opens and closes ever it is closed. Consequently, the switch doesn't
periodically in synchronism with the 60 Hz fre- absorb any net active power.
quency. Figure 30. I Ob shows that the switch is If we decompose the chopped current into its
closed during the last half of each half-cycle. We fundamental and harmonic components, we dis-
cover that it contains a fundamental 60 Hz com-
ponent of 59.3 A that lags 32.5° behind the volt-
synchronous age 30.11 ). Its peak value is 59.3 '12 = 84 A.
switch
The displacement power factor is cos 32.5° =
3

50 kW 200 1500
1000 v R 10Q
- - 1414V
60 Hz
c=:) 31.9 kvar 150
1000
(a)
2 $ 100
~
c 50
, . fundamental
'' ,_../ component
500 (])
Cl
~ l'!l
~ 0
u >
0
+ ' 0 •

""''..'I/~-500
0 ,30 60
-50 90 120150180

-100

-150 J -1000

Figure 30.10 -200 -1500

a. A synchronous switch in series with a resistor ab- Figure 30.11
sorbs reactive power when current flow is delayed The chopped current contains a fundamental 60 Hz
by the switching action. component whose amplitude is 84 A and that lags
b. Waveshape of the chopped current. 32.5° behind the voltage of the source.
806 ELECTRIC UTILITY POWER SYSTEMS

0.843 or 84.3 %. Consequently. we obtain the fol- PH

--
lowing results: 14,8 kW
/F 59.3 A 1-32:5°
Apparent fundamental power supplied by the
source:
Q
S El 1000 V x 59.3 A= 59.3 kVA 31.9 kvar

Active fundamental power supplied by the source:

P S X PF 59.3 X 0.843 = 50 kW

Reactive fundamental power supplied by the

source:
Figure 30.12
Q V59.3 2 - 501 = 31.9 kvar Circuit showing the flow of active and reactive funda-
mental power and the harmonic power PH.
This indicates that the load consisting of the syn-
chronous switch and resistor absorbs reactive
power even though there is no magnetic field at all. It is now evident that the switch behaves like afre-
The resistor cannot absorb reactive power and so quency converte1: It converts the fundamental 60 Hz
the synchronous switch must be absorbing it. That active power into a series of harmonic powers. It can
is a finding of great importance. be shown that the series is composed of all odd-num-
As far as the I 0 n resistor is concerned, it ab- bered harmonics starting with the third harmonic fi1
sorbs ajimdamental active power: 3 X 60 Hz 180 Hz.
Since we know the switch carries a fundamental
P = PR 59.3 2 x 10 n 35.2 kW current of 59.3 A and that it absorbs Pswitdi 14.8
Since the source delivers a fundamental active kW and Qswii.:h = 31.9 kvar, we can represent it by
power of 50 kW and the resistor only absorbs 35.2 a resistance Ri in series with an inductive reactance
kW of it, the synchronous switch must be absorbing X 1 (Fig. 30. I 3a). Their values are respectively:
the remainder: Pswit.:h (50 35.2) 14.8 kW. R1 P/1 2 14.8 x 1000/59.3 2 = 4.21 !1
Furthermore. since the source delivers 31.9 kvar
and the resistor absorbs none of it, the switch must
xi Q!P 31.9 x 1000159.3 2
9.07 n
also be absorbing it: Qswitdi 31. 9 kvar. As far as the fundamental (60 Hz) components are
We have just found that the switch absorbs 14.8 concerned, the model of Fig. 30. I 3a is a perfect rep-
kW of fundamental active power. But if it absorbs resentation of the circuit. However, the "resistance"
14.8 kW it must delii'er an equal amount, otherwise Ri merely simulates the fundamental active power
it would rapidly become very hot. But we know this absorbed which is immediately converted into har-
ideal switch does not heat up at all. So what has monic power.
happened to the fundamental power? We saw that the effective value of the current in
The answer is that it is immediately converted the circuit is 70.7 A and that its fundamental com-
into harmonic power of equal magnitude. The har- ponent has a value of 59.3 A. Consequently, the ef-
monic power PH of 14.8 kW generated by the fective value of all the harmonic currents is:
switch is then absorbed by the I 0 fl resistor. 1
\ 70.7 2 - 59.3 2 38.5 A
The fundamental and harmonic power flows are
illustrated in Fig. 30.12. Note that the sum of the The harmonic voltage across the I 0 resistor is n
fundamental power of 35.2 kW plus the harmonic therefore E JR 38.5 Ax I 0 fl = 385 V. Thus.
power of 14.8 kW does indeed equal the 50 kW dis- as far as harmonics are concerned, the synchronous
sipated by the resistor. switch can be considered to be a distorted voltage
 HARMONICS 807

switch (fundamental)
-
63.1 A
1
70.7 A

synchronous
3

1000 v switch 10'2

/~AT
60 Hz
1000 v /F
10 n
60 Hz 59.3A
' /H = 38.5 A
2
/H
-+· -~-

= 38.5 A
2 Figure 30.14
Figure 30.13a The capacitor can furnish the reactive power ab-
Equivalent circuit for the fundamental components. sorbed by the synchronous switch.

switch (harmonics) 200 1500

~

3 150
1000 ~
? 100
c
~ 50
1on :::l
<.,)

2 -500
-100
Figure 30.13b
-1000
Equivalent circuit for all the harmonic components. -150

-200 -1500
source of 385 V (Fig. 30. I 3b ). The harmonic power Figure 30.15
developed by this source is 385 V X 38.5 A 14.8 Waveshape of the current flowing in the 1000 V
kW and it comes from the fundamental 60 Hz source when the capacitor (Fig. 30.14) is in the circuit.
power that was transformed by the switch.

changed. However. the harmonic component of

30.8 Correcting the power factor
38.5 A continues to flow in the 1000 V source be-
Given that the synchronous switch absorbs a reac- cause it appears as a short-circuit for all harmon-
tive power of 31.9 kvar, it is reasonable to assume ics. As a result, with the capacitor installed. the
that a capacitor could supply this reactive power. new effective current flowing in the source is
2 2
Let us connect a capacitor of 31.9 kvar in parallel I '1(50 + 38.5 ) 63.1 A.
with the source (Fig. 30.14 ). The capacitor will Thus, the addition of the capacitor reduces the
draw a current of 31.9 kvar/I 000 V = 31.9 A. The current in the I000 V source from 70.7 A (Fig. 30.10)
source will then only have to supply an active to 63.1 A 30.14 ). The waveshape of the crnTent
power of 50 kW, which means a fundamental cur- in the source is equal to the sum of the chopped cur-
rent of 50 A in phase with the 1000 V source. renl flowing in the resistor and switch. plus the sinu-
But the presence of the cagacitor does not in soidal current drawn by the capacitor (Fig. 30.15).
any way affect the voltage betwe.en terminals I The peak value of the latter is 31.9 = 45 A.
and 2. Consequently, the chopped current flowing The example we have studied demonstrates the
in the switch and the I 0 nresistor remains un- nature and origin of harmonics. It also shows the
808 ELECTRIC UTILITY POWER SYSTEA1S

ongm of reactive power in non-linear circuits. can only come from the switch because the linear
These concepts permit a better understanding of the resistor can cs;i:tainly not provide it.
harmonics generated by electronic converters and As regards the..fundamental components, they
other non-linear devices. can be represented by the circuit of Fig. 30. l 8a. The
switch behaves like a resistance in series with a ca-
30.9 Generation of reactive power pacitor. even though the "capacitor" does not pro-
duce any electrostatic field. As in the case of Fig.
In the previous section we saw that a non-linear 30. l 3a, the resistance of 4.21 n represents the ele-
load can absorb reactive power. Depending upon ment that absorbs the fundamental power of 14.8 kW.
the relationship between the fundamental voltage which is immediately converted into harmonic
and fundamental current, a non-linear load can also power. As a matter of interest, we show the phasor
generate reactive power. diagram of the fundamental and currents
Consider the circuit of Fig. 30.16. It is identical 30.18b).
to Fig. 30. I0 except that the synchronous switch is The fact that a non-linear device such as a syn-
closed during the first half of each half-cycle in- chronous switch can absorb or deliver reactive power
stead of the last half. The fundamental component opens many interesting possibilities. Such at1ificial
of the current in the circuit is again 59.3 A but it capacitors and inductors, created by switching. are
leads the voltage by 32.5° (Fig. 30.17) instead of less bulky than their real-life counterparts and store
being 32.5° behind. As a result, the I 000 V source only minimal amounts of energy (joules). Because the
again delivers 50 kW of active power but absorbs energy stored is so small, the reactive powers can be
31.9 kvar of reactive power. This reactive power changed almost instantaneously. The static synchro-
nous compensator studied in Section 29.3, Chapter 29
is a practical example of how reactive power is gener-
synchronous ated and absorbed by using electronic switches.
switch

--
70.7 A

50kW
3

200 1500
1000V
60 Hz
R 10 U
150
~'0~9'
-141 A
31.9 kvar 1000
_ chopped current
g 100 ~
2 c \ fundamental 500
(j)
CJ)
~
:; 50 , , / , , current
''
.s0
--------- 1410 v 0
\
\ >
i ' 1'ao 270300 i

/
0 0
0 30 60 90 120150 330 I
-50 ' ,,.. ,,' -500

~
(b)
-100 ... -1000
-150

-200 -1500
Figure 30.16
a. A synchronous switch in series with a resistor deliv- Figure 30.17
ers reactive power when the switching action ad- The chopped current contains a fundamental 60 Hz
vances the current flow. component having a peak value of 84 A. The current
b. Waveshape of the current in the circuit. leads the applied voltage by 32.5°.
 HARMONICS 809

switch Example30-5~~~~~~~~~~~~­
A442 µF, 600 V, 60 Hz capacitor has losses of20W
3 when rated sinusoidal voltage is applied across its
4.21 n 9.07 n terminals. The capacitor is installed in a factory
1000 v where it simultaneously carries a fundamental cur-
60 Hz 59.3 Al 10 n
rent of I 00 A, 60 Hz and a harmonic current of 80 A.
300 Hz. The harmonic current is 25° ahead of the
2
fundamental. Because the peak is '12 times the ef-
(a) fective value, the distorted current can be described
by the following equation:
593 v I= 100 '12 sin 8 + 80 '12 sin (58 + 25°)
We wish to calculate:
£12
1000 v a. the effective value and THO of the current in
the capacitor
b. the effective value and THO of the voltage
593 v across its terminals
c. the approximate value of the losses
(b)
Solution
Figure 30.18 a. The effective value of the distorted current is:
a. Equivalent circuit for the fundamental components
of Fig. 30.16. I= '1(100 2 + 80 2 ) = 128A
b. Phaser diagram of the fundamental voltages and
THO= /H//F = 80 A/100 A= 80 %1
currents.
b. Reactance of the capacitor at 60 Hz:
X60 = l/27TjC = 106 /(27T X 60 X 442) = 6 fl
EFFECT OF HARMONICS Reactance at 300 Hz:
Now that we know the nature of harmonics, what is X_, 00 = (60 Hz/300 Hz) X 6 H = 1.2 H
their effect on electrical equipment? To illustrate,
Fundamental voltage across the capacitor:
we will study a few practical examples.
£ 1. =I X60 = 100 X 6 = 600 Y

30.10 Harmonic current in a Harmonic voltage across the capacitor:

capacitor EH = I X:100 = 80 x 1.2 = 96 v
When a capacitor carries a distorted current, the Total effective voltage across the capacitor:
voltage across its terminals does not have the
same waveshape as the current. The reason is that E = \! E ~ + E ~ = \/ 600 2 + 96 2 = 608 V
the capacitive reactance is not the same at the THO of voltage:
fundamental and harmonic frequencies.
THO = EHIEF = 96/600 = 16 o/r
Harmonics also affect the losses in the dielectric
separating the metal plates. Tq, a first approxima- Note that the THO of voltage ( 16%) is much less
tion, the losses are proportional tc;> .the frequency than the THO of current (80% ).
and to the square of the corresponding voltage The equation of the terminal voltage Eis de-
across the capacitor. duced from current /, while recalling that the
 810 ELECTRIC UTILITY POWER SYSTEMS

fundamental and harmonic voltages are respec- Total losses are 20 W + 2.6 W = 22.6 W. The pres-
tively 90° behind the corresponding currents: ence of the ·harmonic current has increased the
E 600--J2 sin (0 - 90c) + losses by 13 %.
96--J2 sin (50 + 25° - 90°)
30.11 Harmonic currents in a
from which
conductor
E = 600--J2 sin (0 90°) +
Whenever a harmonic current !lows in a conductor,
96--J2 sin (50 - 65°)
it increases the losses and raises its temperature.
Fig. 30.19 shows the waveshape of the capacitor
Example30-6~~~~~~~~~~~~~
current and voltage. It is seen that the voltage is
less distorted than the current. This is to be ex- A No 4 AWG cable having a length of 75 m has a
pected because the rcactance at 300 Hz is 5 times resistance of 25.7 mf1 when it carries a 60 Hz cur-
less than that at 60 Hz. rent of 100 A. Its temperature is then 70 °C in an
c. Knowing that the harmonic and fundamental ambient of 25 °C.
voltages can be treated separately, we can esti- After the installation of an electronic drive, the
mate the losses associated with each. We recall cable was found to carry an additional 7th harmonic
that the losses at 600 V, 60 Hz 20 W. current of 50 A, 420 Hz. We wish to calculate the
The losses due to the 5th harmonic will be new losses in the cable and the approximate tem-
calculated on the basis of the 60 Hz losses. We perature rise.
assume they are proportional to the frequency Solution
and the square of the voltage. Consequently, the a. Original copper losses due to the current of
losses at 96 V, 300 Hz are: IOOA:

P.<OOHt = 20 w x
300H~ x
60 Hz
(-9._6
600 V
v)2 PF= IF2 R 100
2
x 0.0257 257 w
Assuming the resistance of the cable remains the
2.6W same when it carries the additional harmonic
current, the losses caused by the harmonic com-
ponent are
A v
2
300 1000 PH= IH]R = 50 x 0.0257 64 w
c:El: 200
(!)
Ol The new losses are 257 + 64 321 W, which is
600 lS!
:::; an increase of 25 % compared to 257 W.
I
(.)

100
0
>
•I Consequently, the temperature rise will increase
by 25 %. Since the previous temperature rise
00 was (70 25} 45 cc, the new temperature rise
-200 will be about 1.25 X 45 °C 56 °C. It follows
-100 that the temperature of the cable will increase to
about (25 °C + 56 °C) 81 °C.
-200 -600

30.12 Distorted voltage and flux in

a coil
Figure 30.19
Distorted current in a capacitor and resulting voltage In Section 9.2. Chapter 9 we saw that the peak flux
across its terminals. See Example 30-5. <b in a coil is given by the equation:
 HARMONICS 811

E v
(9.2) 500
4.44jiV
Q) 400
Ol
wherein E is the effective sinusoidal voltage, f is !9
0 300
the frequency, and N is the number of turns on the >
200
coil. What happens if the applied voltage is dis-
torted? To answer the question, we consider the
following example.
I 100

-200
Exampk30-7~~~~~~~~~~~~­
A distorted voltage is connected across the termi- -300
nals of a coil having 1200 turns. The voltage has a -400
(a)
fundamental component of 150 Y, 60 Hz and a 3rd -500
harmonic of 120 V, 180 Hz. The harmonic lags 135°
behind the fundamental. The respective voltages µWb
can therefore be expressed by the equations: 500 ~495µWb

400 peak
EF = 150v'2 sine 212 sine ><
:::i
;: 300
EH = 120~2 sin (38 135°) = 170 sin (38 - 135°)
We wish to determine: I 200
100
0
a. the waveshape and effective value of the dis- 0
torted voltage -100
b. the waveshape of the flux and its peak value -200
-300
Solution
-400
a. The waveshape of the distorted voltage is (b)
-500
shown in 30.20a. Its effective value is:
Figure 30.20
a. Distorted voltage applied to a coil.
As in previous examples, the respective funda- b. Resulting magnetic flux and its components. See
mental and harmonic voltages act independently Example 30-7.
of each other. Consequently, we can determine
the flux created by each, using Eq. 9.2. The fun-
damental flux has a peak value: In the same way, the peak value of the 3rd har-
E monic flux is given by:
4>60 max = 4 .44,iN E
4>nm max (9.2)
150 4.44JN
4.44 x 60 x 1200 = 469 µWb 120
125 µWb
4.44 x 180 x 1200
The flux is sinusoidal but it lags 90° behind the
voltage (as seen in Fig. 9.1, Chapter 9). The This flux also lags 90° behind the harmonic volt-
equation of the fundamental.4-lux, in microwe- age and so its equation is:
bers. is therefore:
4>H 125 sin (38 l 35° 90°)
4>F = 469 sin (0 90°) 125 sin (30 - 225°)
812 ELECTRIC UTILITY POWER SYSTEMS

The total flux inside the coil is equal to the sum of A

the instantaneous fluxes (Fig. 30.20b ). It reaches a 200
peak value of 495 µWb. Note that its waveshape is ~ 150
far different from that of the applied voltage. :s
(..) 100
Furthermore, the flux waveshape is less dis- + 50
torted. The reason is that for a given voltage, the
amplitude of the flux is inversely proportional to the 0
780
frequency. -50
If the coil contains an iron core, the core will
-100
heat up on account of the hysteresis and eddy cur-
rent losses. To a first approximation, the total iron -150
losses are equal to the sum of the fundamental and -200
harmonic losses. To calculate them, the loss curves
Figure 30.21
of the core material must be consulted. Distorted current of 113 A and 3rd harmonic compo-
nent of 15 A flowing in each line of a 3-phase, 4-wire
30.13 Harmonic currents in a feeder.
3-phase, 4-wire distribution
the waveshape of the line current it was found to
system have the following components:
The lighting systems of commercial and industrial
fundamental (60 Hz): 112A
buildings often use fluorescent and halogen lamps
that are connected between the line and neutral of
:r1 harmonic: 15A
5th harmonic: 6.6A
a 3-phase, 4-wire feeder. The same is true of com-
harmonic: 2.4A
puters and other single-phase electronic devices.
The problem is that these devices usually draw The test results confirm that the 3rd harmonic cur-
non-sinusoidal currents that contain a strong 3rt1 rent in the neutral (45 A) is indeed 3 times that in the
harmonic. When the loads on the three phases are lines ( 15 A).
balanced, the fundamental components cancel out It is easy to understand why the 3rd harmonic
in the neutral conductor because their phasor sum line currents add up in the neutral. Figure 30.21
is zero (see Section 8.8, Chapter 8). The same is shows the waveshape of one of the line currents and
true for all harmonics except those that are multi- its harmonic component. Comparing the har-
ples of three. Unfortunately. instead of cancelling monic with the distorted wave, we see that it repeats
out, the 3ru, 9 111, I 5t 11 , etc., harmonics add up in the every 120°. Since the distorted line currents are
neutral conductor. Consequently. these triplen themselves displaced by 120°. it follows that the 3'"
components are 3 times greater in the neutral con- harmonic currents in the three lines are all in phase.
ductor than they are in the lines. Consequently, they add up in the neutral.
30.21 shows the waveshape of the current In some cases the harmonic is so great that the
flowing in one phase of a 3-phase, 4-wire feeder neutral overheats and special measures must be
that powers the lighting system in a hangar. The taken to reduce the current. One way to block it is to
lights are connected between line and neutral of the interpose a transformer connected in delta-star be-
347 V/600 V system. The currents in the other two tween the source and the load. Under these condi-
lines have the same waveshapes except they are dis- tions. the 3'" harmonic on the primary side (delta
placed by 120°. connection) cannot flow in the lines because the
The rms line current is 113 A and the current in neutral return is absent. However, the 3rd harmonic
the neutral was found to be 45 A. After analyzing current will continue to flow in the star-connected
 HARMONICS 813

windings as well as in the delta-connected windings.

In effect. the transformer acts as a filter as far as the IMPEDANCE OF A
r 1
harmonic is concerned. Unfortunatelv, the other THREE-PHASE FEEDER
harmonics (5 1h, 7 1h, etc.) flowing in the- secondary The impedance of a 3-phase feeder is usually
feeder continue to flow in the primary feeder. inferred from its short-circuit capability (or
short-circuit MVA). It is given by the formula:
30.14 Harmonics and resonance
Harmonics created by non-linear loads such as elec- (30.8a)
tronic converters can produce resonance condi-
tions. In order to understand the problem, we begin or
with a brief introduction, followed by an industrial
application. (30.8b}

Example 30-8_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ where

Figure 30.22 shows a factory that is supplied by a
Ssc = short-circuit capability of the feeder
medium-voltage 60 Hz feeder that provides a volt-
[MVAJ
age The feeder has an impedance X5 (see box).
=line-to-line voltage of the feeder !kV]
The feeder is connected to a step-down trans-
X5 = impedance of the feeder per phase [Q]
former T having a turns ratio of a: I. Its total leakage
The impedance is considered to be entirely re-
active. For example, a 3-phase, 25 kV feeder
having a short-circuit capability of 52 MVA has
an impedance given by:

load 25 2
T Xe (factory)
12Q
52

a: 1

Figure 30.22
Medium voltage source and transformer connected to
reactance XT is referred to the secondary side. The
a factory that contains some non-linear loads. plant is equipped with a variable capacitor bank Xe
to keep the power factor at an acceptable level. The
value of Xe corresponds to the 60-Hz reactance.
The plant also contains some non-linear loads that
generate a harmonic current /H.
Transposing all elements on the primary side of
load the transformer to the secondary side, we obtain the
Xe
equivalent circuit of Fig. 30.23. The procedure for
shifting impedances was explained in Section 9.10.
Combining XT and X5 /a 2 , we obtain the single 60 Hz
inductive reactance XL.
Figure 30.23 What is the nature of the circuit seen by the har-
Circuit of Fig. 30.22 in which the reactances are trans- monic current /H? First, the fundamental voltage
ferred to the secondary side of the transformer. £ 5 /a becomes a simple short circuit (Fig. 30.24).
814 ELECTRIC UTILITY POWER SYSTEMS

•
XLH /H
.---------~

--fl /H
.,.__

/L

lei XeH EH
r load T
XT

lei
I
Xe EH load
{/ t (/
l ' i
a:1

Figure 30.24 Figure 30.25

Circuit as seen by the harmonic currents. Harmonic voltages and currents on the primary and
secondary side of the transformer.

The value of the harmonic inductive reactance

Xu1 increases in proportion to the harmonic order h of ability to carry useful power. Second. the harmonic
the harmonic, ie. with the frequency. Consequently, may produce telephone interference; and third, it
may upset sensitive electronic devices of other cus-
we can write XLH hXL.
On the other hand. the harmonic reactance XcH tomers connected to the same f ceder.
of the capacitor bank decreases inversely with the In order to appreciate the importance of the res-
frequency. Consequently. XcH Xclh. onance effect Table 30A shows several Xc 1./XLH
Note that XLH is effectively in parallel with Xrn. ratios in the vicinity of resonance and the corre-
Because the latter is variable, and because the har- sponding lcfIH and li.f111 multipliers. We see that
monic frequency can have different values. it is clear even partial resonance can multiply the harmonic
that a parallel resonance condition is possible for at current IH many times. For example, when the
least one of the harmonics. Perfect resonance occurs XcHIXu 1 ratio is equal to 0.9, the current in the ca-
when X1.H = XcH· but even partial resonance (XLH pacitors is IO times greater than /H. The current in
nearly equal to XcH) can have important effects. the transformer is 9 times greater. Thus, the multi-
Under resonance conditions, current le in the ca- plier effect means that a moderate harmonic current
pacitor as well as current fr~ in the secondary of the Iii of 30 A, say, can produce a capacitor current le
transformer can become several times greater than of 300 A and a transformer current IL of 270 A. That
the harmonic current IH. Consequent!;. there is a is no trivial matter.
risk of overheating the capacitor as well as the pri-
mary and secondary windings of the transformer. TABLE 30A AMPLIFICATION OF CURRENT /H
Furthermore. it is well known that in a condition
of resonance. the parallel impedance can be very Xn/Xu1 fc/IH / 1 // 11

high. Consequently. the harmonic voltage EH (Fig. 0.7 3.33 2.33

30.24) can reach high values because it is equal to 0.8 5 4
the harmonic current IH times the parallel imped-
0.9 10 9
ance. A high harmonic voltage will distort the volt-
age throughout the plant. 0.95 20 19
Finally. the harmonic current IL flowing in the I >20 >20
secondary of the transformer is reflected into the 1.05 20 21
primary and from there into the feeder and the util- I. I 10 II
ity network (Fig. 30.25). This may be unacceptable 1.2 5 6
to the electric utility. First the harmonic will in-
1.3 3.33 4.33
crease the losses in the feeder. thereby reducing its
 HARMONICS 815

The following example will show the importance of 6. Total active power of the load: 480 kW
resonance in an industrial context. It represents the 7. Total reactive power of the load: 360 kvar
potential situation of thousands of installations that
contain electronic drives or other loads that gener- 8. Harmonic currents IH generated by the load:
ate harmonics. 3rd harmonic: negligible
5th harmonic: 90A
Example30-9_____________
7th harmonic: 60A
A factory, built in the 1980s, is powered by a 11th harmonic: 25A
I 000 k VA, 25 kV /600 V transformer that has an im-
pedance of 6.5 %. In order to keep the plant power 9. Short-circuit capability of the 25 kV, 3-phase
factor above 95 %, four 3-phase 60 kvar capacitors, feeder that supplies power to the factory:
located at the service entrance, are automatically 140MVA
switched in and out.
In 1995, after several electronic drives had been Analysis of the 60 Hz circuit_ _ _ _ _ _ __
installed, the fuses protecting the capacitors began Before considering the harmonics, let us make a
to blow occasionally. Furthermore, it was found that few calculations regarding the 60 Hz aspects in the
the 3-phase voltage was sometimes distorted. The plant. Fig. 30.27 shows the load conditions for one
distortion was particularly noticeable whenever the phase (line-to-neutral).
load drew 600 k VA at a power factor of 80 %. All 4
IO. Apparent power of the load: 600/3 200 kVA
capacitors were then in service, raising the power
factor of the plant to above 95 %. It was also found 11. Active power of the load: 480/3 160 kW
that the capacitor currents were sometimes consid- 12. Reactive power of the load: 360/3 120 kvar
erably higher than normal.
13. Capacitive reactance of one capacitor:
An analysis of the situation yielded the follow-
ing information (Fig. 30.26): I 106
Xe = ·---·~··· 6 !l (2.11)
2TrjC 2Tr x 60 x 442
I. Number of capacitors in service: 4
2. Nominal 3-phase rating of each capacitor: 14. Capacitive reactance of all four capacitors:
60 kvar 6 !U4 = 1.5 n
3. Line-to-neutral capacitance of each capacitor: 15. Reactive power generated by the four capacitors:
442 µF
360 2
4. Line-to-neutral voltage (measured): 360 V 86.4 kvar
1.5
5. Total apparent power of the load: 600 kVA

140 MVA 200 kVA

r·.,.. 160 kW

9 T Jsoov load
-
120 kvar

1000 kVA
3 ph
Z= 6.5 %
i iii
T T T T
4 x 60 kvar
600 kVA
480 kW
360 kvar
PF= 80 %
2
T 360 v
611
_( _( _( ~

""
5 56A

360 v load

442 ,uF, 6 n, 60 A, 21.6 kvar

Figure 30.26
Single-line diagram of a factory with its power factor Figure 30.27
correcting capacitors. See Example 30-9. Equivalent circuit of the fundamental components.
816 ELECTRIC UTILITY POWER SYSTEMS

16. Reactive power supplied by the transformer: 26. Inductance of the feeder referred to the sec-
QT = 120 kvar 86.4 kvar 33.6 kvar ondary side of the transformer:

17. Active power supplied by the transformer: LL

x/<i 0.0026
7µH
27rf 27r x 60
Vr 160 kW
27. Total of the feeder inductance and leakage
18. Apparent power supplied by the transformer:
inductance:
~(160 +33.6 )= 163kVA
2 2
ST
L101a1 62 +7= 69 µH
19. Fundamental current on the secondary side of
the transformer: 30.28 shows that the 69 µH is effectively in
parallel with the capacitors. Their capacitance can
IT ST/E 163 000/360 = 454 A vary from zero to 1768 µF in 4 steps of 442 µF. Let
20. Line-to-neutral voltage on the primary side of us calculate the resonant frequency for each step.
the transformer: using the formula:
ETP 360VX(25kV/600V) 15kV
(30.9)
21. Fundamental current in the primary of the
transformer: where
/LF 454 A (600 V/25 000 V) 10.9 A L = inductance of the LC circuit [HI
22. Impedance of the 25 kV feeder: C =capacitance of the LC circuit [F]
When L = 69 µH and C 442 µF, the resonant fre-
140 = 4.5 n (30.8b)
quency is:
23. Impedance of the feeder referred to the sec-
ondary side of the transformer: (30.9)
2TI\LC
2
Xs!c?- 4.5 H (600/25 000f = 2.6 mfl
24. Impedance of the transformer referred to the x 442 x 10-
secondary side (see Sections I0.12 to I0.14 ):
912 Hz
X 1 = 6.5 % X = 6.5 % x ( 10.9)
Then, as C successively switches from 884 µF to
S"
1326 µF to 1768 µF. we obtain the corresponding
600 2 resonant frequencies of 644 Hz, 526 Hz, and 456 Hz.
6.5 % x
1 000000 The resonant frequency of 456 Hz is very close
= 0.0234 n 23.4 mn to the 7' 11 harmonic frequency (420 Hz}. Similarly,

This impedance is effectively equal to the leakage 90 A,._ 5th

69 µH 60 A..-- 7th
reactance of the transformer. 25 A -----11th
This terminates the 60 Hz analysis (see Fig. 30.27).
Let us now consider the impact of the harmonics.
442 to 1768
load
_( ~IF
Analysis of the harmonic circuits_ _ _ _ __ c
25. Leakage inductance of the trans\mm~-r. neutral

0.0234 Figure 30.28

Lr = 2Trf = 21T X 60 = 62 µH Equivalent circuit of the harmonic components.
 HARMONICS 817

644 Hz is very close to the 11th harmonic frequency in the secondary is reflected into the primary in the ra-
(660 Hz). Thus. the 7th and I I th harmonics are po- tio of transformation. The primary harmonic current
tentially dangerous. is 401 X (600 V/25 000 V) = 9.6 A. This unwanted
Suppose the four capacitors are in service as harmonic current is almost as large as the load current
shown in Fig. 30.29. As expected. the ih har- of 10.9 A that was calculated previously (Fig. 30.27).
monic then creates a problem. At 420 Hz. the The effective current in the primary winding (and
in the 25 kV feeder) is I= .J( 10.9 + 9.6 ) = 14.5 A.
2 2
transformer and feeder inductances have a reac-
tance of 2TI x 420 x 69 µH = 182 mn. At this The transformer will be hotter and the losses greater
frequency. the capacitive reactance of the capaci- than if the harmonic were absent.
tors is l/(27T X 420 X 1768 µF) = 214 m!l. As far as the four capacitors are concerned. they
The impedance of the two reactances in parallel is: each carry a harmonic current of 341/4 = 85 A. This
current is even greater than the nominal fundamen-
182 x 214 tal current of 60 A. Thus, the total rms current car-
zparallcl = 214 - 182 (2.17)
2 2
ried by each capacitor is .J(85 + 60 ) = I 04 A. The
1217 mil= 1.22 n capacitors will overheat. If they are protected by 75 A
fuses, the fuses will blow after a certain time. This is
The 7th harmonic has a value of 60 A and so it a worrisome situation, particularly when the har-
will produce a voltage of 60 A x 1.22 !l = 73 V monic problem is not immediately apparent.
across the capacitors as well as across the two in- Next. the 73 V, 420 Hz harmonic voltage across the
ductances in series. The harmonic current flowing capacitors will be superimposed on the 360 V. 60 Hz
in the four capacitors is therefore 73 V/214 m!! = line-to-neutral voltage in the factory. The resulting
2 2
341 A. Also. the harmonic current flowing in the line-to-neutral voltage will be .J(360 + 73 ) = 367 Y.
secondary of the transformer is 73 V/182 mfl = Compared to the usual 360 Y. this is not a significant
40 I A. The 60 A harmonic is therefore amplified in increase and would not be noticed by reading an ordi-
both the capacitor bank and the transformer on ac- nary voltmeter. However. an instrument that can mea-
count of parallel resonance (Fig. 30.29). sure harmonic content would indicate that the voltage
The secondary winding of the transformer car- THO is 73 V/360 V = 20.3 %. The distortion will be
ries a total rms current: present throughout the plant and could affect sensitive
devices such as computers and electronic drives.
We saw that the 25 kV feeder carries a 420 Hz har-
= \ 454 2 + 40 I 2 = 605 A monic current of 9.8 A and a useful 60 Hz current of
I 0.9 A. This is an undesirable situation as far as the
This is much higher than the load current of 454 A. electric utility is concerned because the presence of
The primary winding also carries a current that is pro- the harmonic diminishes the loading capacity of the
prntionally greater. Thus. the 40 I A harmonic current feeder. Furthermore, the distortion could affect the
quality of the voltage supplied to other customers.
401 A 60 A Note that the 73 V distortion across the secondary
is not reflected into the primary according to the ra-
tio of turns. To calculate the harmonic voltage across
7.2 v 1768~1F
73 v load the primary we note that the voltage across the feeder
214 ml.2 impedance of 18 mH is 401 AX 18 mH = 7.2 V
l (Fig. 30.29). On the primary side. the harmonic volt-
age is therefore 7.2 V X (25 000 V/600 V) = 300 V.
Figure 30.29 The resulting distortion is 2 o/r of the line-to-neutral
Equivalent circuit for the ih harmonic. Note the large voltage of 2S kV/.J3 = 14.4 kV. which may be just
currents flowing in the transformer and the capacitors. barely acceptable.
818 ELECTRIC UTILITY POWER SYSTEMS

163 kVA 200 kVA

We have only examined the effect of the har-
160 kW 1160 kW
monic. A fuller study would require analyzing the
impact of all the harmonics. For example, a reso-
33kvar
r 637.uH, I 120kvar
o.24n .

nant situation can occur when two capacitors are

in service. In this case. the 11th harmonic creates a T 360V load
resonance problem.
In more complex situations a computer program
is mandatory to identify the problems that can arise. 442 .uF. 6 Q, 60 A

For example, induction motors appear as inductive Figure 30.30

reactances between the line and neutral. As the Equivalent circuit of the fundamental components when
number of motors in service changes throughout the tuned coils are installed in series with the capacitors.
day. random resonances may occur which compli-
cate the matter even further. For this reason, har-
I. Reactance of each capacitor at 60 Hz is 6 f!;
monic filters are often used to provide a specific
consequently, the reactance at the 300 Hz 5th
low-impedance path for the harmonic currents.
harmonic 6 f!/5 I .2 f!.
In effect, when it is impossible to suppress the
harmonics, they can be channeled through paths 2. Desired reactance of the coils at 300 Hz = 1.2 n
where they can do no harm. We briefly examine the 3. Inductance needed:
nature of these filters in the following section.
l Xi,12-rrf 1.2/(2-rr x 300) = 637 µH
Having installed these coils, let us determine the
30.15 Harmonic filters behavior of the system as regards the 60 Hz volt-
We have seen that power factor correcting capaci- ages and currents.
tors can create a resonance problem when harmon- 4. Reactance of the coils at 60 Hz:
ics are present. In three-phase circuits the 5th har-
monic is usually the lowest harmonic of interest. x60 2 -rrfL 27T x 60 x 637 x 1o- 6 0.24 n
Consequently, it is the lowest harmonic that could 5. Impedance of the series LC circuit at 60 Hz is
produce a resonance condition. 6 f! - 0.24 H = 5.76 H. The fundamental
One way to eliminate the problem is to add an in- current flowing in each capacitor is therefore
ductance Lin series with each capacitor C so that the I 360 V/5.76 f! = 62.5 A. The 60 Hz line-
combined LC circuit is tuned to the 5 111 harmonic. to-line voltage across the capacitor terminals is
Under these conditions the series circuit provides a
£ 60 62.5 A X 6 f! X '13 = 650 V.
low-impedance path for the 5th harmonic current. As
a result, the 5th harmonic will flow by way of the LC This is about I 0% higher than rated voltage of
circuit rather than in other parts of the network. 600 v.
As regards harmonics higher than the 5th. the LC The addition of the coils does not significantly
circuit will always be inductive. Consequently, it is affect the power delivered by the transformer.
impossible to produce a resonance condition. The Referring to Fig. 30.30, we assume the secondary
following example, based upon Example 30-9, continues to deliver 163 kVA and 454 A per
shows how this "blocking filter" eliminates the res- phase, as it did in 30.27. However, the fun-
onance problem. damental current flowing in the capacitors is
somewhat greater than before, as is the voltage
Example 30-/0_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ across their terminals.
Figure 30.30 shows the inductances (coils) that are With the LC blocking filters now in place, let
added in series with each of the 442 µF capacitors. us examine rhe new flow of the harmonics gen-
Their values are calculated as follows: erated by the load.
 HARMONICS 819

111 Consequently. the current in the capacitor bank

6. As regards the 5 harmonic with the four ca-
pacitors in service. we obtain the equivalent is now 60 AX 182/( 182 + 206) = 28. I A. This
circuit shown in 30.31. The 90 A current is a huge drop from the previous value of 341 A.
flows entirely in the resonant LC branch he- The current in the transformer has likewise
cause its impedance at that 300 Hz is effec- fallen to 31.9 A from the previous value of
tively nil. As a result. the 5th harmonic current 401 A (see 30.29).
in the transformer drops to zero. Each capacitor In large capacitor banks of several thousand k vars.
111
carries a 5 harmonic current of 90/4 = 22.5 A. some of the capacitor groups are tuned to the 5111
The harmonic voltage across the terminals of harmonic while others are tuned to higher harmon-
the capacitors is ics such as the , 11 111 • and I 3t 11 • The objective is to
E 1 oo 90A x 0.3 fl x = 46.8 v. channel the harmonic flows to specific paths and to
minimize them everywhere else in the network. in-
7. As regards the 7th harmonic. and based upon the cluding that of the electric utility.
circuit of Fig. 30.31, the impedance of the coils is
0.3 n x (420 Hz/300 Hz) 0.42 while that of n 30.16 Harmonics in the supply
the capacitors becomes 0.3 fl x (300 Hz/420 Hz)
= 0.214 fl. The impedance of the LC circuit to network
the harmonic is therefore inductive: Harmonics that are generated in a manufacturing
plant may find their way into the electric utility
XL = 0.42 0.214 = 0.206 n 206 mn network. This produces a voltage distortion that af-
(Fig. 30.32). fects the quality of service for all customers con-
8. The 7 111 harmonic current of 60 A divides be- nected to the same feeder. To understand the prob-
tween the 182 mfl and 206 mi! impedances. lem. consider the one-line diagram of 30.33a.
It shows the voltage source Es of an electric utility
that provides power to a numher of customers A I.
0.13 il A2. A3. A4 by way of a main feeder having a 60 Hz
reactance Xs. The feeder terminates at a point o{
common coupling (PCC)*. Fig. 30.33b shows one
1.2 W4 0.3 n phase of the 3-phase circuit. Among the customers
1.2W4 0.3f2
on the line is a large manufacturing plant A I. It
draws a fundamental current / but. on account of
1

some non-linear loads. it also injects a harmonic

Figure 30.31
Equivalent circuit of the 5th harmonic components when
current /H into the distrihution system. The other
the coils are installed in series with the capacitors. customers respectively draw fundamental currents
12 • 1.,. t+· but their harmonic contributions are neg-
ligible. The feeder therefore carries a total funda-
182mn mental current 11- where / 1 11 + I~ + /3 { 4 • and
60 A, 7th H
a harmonic current /H.
The fundamental current 11: produces a voltage

0.42 !.! l XL=

drop hXs along the length of the feeder. Similarly.

0.214 n J 2 Q6 mn
By definition. a PCC j, the point oflhc puhlic ,upply net-
Figure 30.32 work. clcclrically neare'l to a particular con>umcr·, in,tal-
Equivalent circuit of the J'h harmonic components when lation. and at which other con,umcrs· in,tallation' arc. or
the coils are installed in series with the capacitors. may be. COllllL'ClC<l.
820 ELECTRIC UTILITY POWER SYSTEMS

Example 30-J J_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
Factory A 1 )P Fig. 30.33a absorbs an apparent
power of 4600 k'iA from a 25 kV, 60 Hz network.
Non-linear loads in the plant produce a 5th and 29th
harmonic current. Compared to the fundamental
current, the 5th harmonic has a value of 0.12 pu
(1 and the 29th harmonic has a value of 0.024 pu
'-----•PCC (2.4% ). The feeder at the point of common coupling
has a short-circuit capacity of 97 MVA.
A1 Calculate
a. The reactance Xs of the feeder
b. The value of the 5th and 29th harmonics
(a) c. The value of the harmonic voltages at the PCC
d. The relative values, with respect to the 25 kV
feeder voltage, of the harmonic voltages at the
Xs PCC PCC
e. The THD at the PCC
/H

E.o, ti A1 A2 A3 A4
Solution
'-13 It t t t a. Referring to Fig. 30.33, the 60 Hz reactance of
f1 12 13 14 the feeder is:

N
(b) = 6.44 n (30.8b)
97
Figure 30.33
a. Point of common coupling PCC. b. Fundamental current drawn by factory A I:
b. Harmonic voltages created at the PCC on account
of the harmonic currents generated by load A 1 . II = -
s 4600 x 103
106A
25 ooov3-
The 5th harmonic current:
current /H produces a harmonic voltage drop EH
given by 15 0.12 X 106 12.7 A

EH /HhXs The 29th harmonic current:

where h is the order of the harmonic. For example, / 29 0.024 x I 06 = 2.5 A

if/His a 7th harmonic, h = 7. c. The 5rh harmonic voltage, line-to-line:
For a high value of h the voltage drop EH could
be quite large. Because the supply voltage Es con- = 15 hXs v'3
tains no harmonics, it follows that EH must appear at = 12.7 X 5 x 6.44 x '\f3 708V
the PCC. Thus. the harmonic current IH generated
by factory A I affects the quality of the voltage sup- ANSI/EEE Standard No. 519-1992 entitled "IEEE
plied to all customers connected to the same PCC. Recommended Practices and Requirements for Harmonic
Control in Electrical Power Systems'" gives guidelines con-
It is therefore important to limit the magnitude of
cerning the maximum harmonic currents that a customer
the harmonic currents that flow into the electric util- may inject into a power system. This IOO-page document
ity network. In general, the THD of the voltage at also gives a general overview of harmonic-related problems
the PCC should not exceed 3 % .* in a distribution system.
 HARMONICS 821

The 29th harmonic voltage, line-to-line: </JF

E29 = I20hXs \/3

= 2.5 x 29 x 6.44 x \/3 = 809 y
d. Relative value of £ 5 :
£ 5 (pu) = 708/25 000 = 0.028 = 2.8 %
Relative value of £ 29 :
Figure 30.34
£ 29 (pu) = 809/25 000 = 0.032 = 3.2 % The leakage flux at fundamental frequency induces
eddy currents iFs in the copper windings.
Note that the voltage distortion due to the 29th
harmonic is greater than that due to the 5th har-
Suppose, for example, that a fundamental cur-
monic even though the 29th harmonic current is
rent of 40 A flowing in the primary winding pro-
5 times smaller than the 5 1h.
duces stray losses of 4 W. A 7th harmonic current of
e. Total voltage distortion at the PCC: the same value would produce stray losses of 7 2 X
4 W = 196 W. Clearly, a distorted current can pro-
THO = -i(0.028 2 + 0.032 2 ) = 0.043 = 4.3 %
duce serious stray losses in the windings, which, in
This THO is considered to be high. turn, affects their temperature rise.
Fig. 30.34 displays a short portion of one turn in
30.17 Transformers and the K factor a transformer winding. It carries a 60 Hz undis-
torted current Ip. A portion <PF of the leakage flux
In a transformer, some of the leakage flux lines sur-
produced by Ip pierces the turn, inducing in it an
rounding the windings intercept the turns of the pri-
eddy current ips· The sum of these eddy currents
mary and secondary windings. As a result, these
along the length of the winding produces the funda-
flux lines induce feeble voltages inside the copper
mental frequency stray losses.
(or aluminum) conductors which, in turn, produce
Suppose that the de resistance of the winding is
eddy currents.
R 0 ohms. The Joule effect losses due to this resis-
These eddy currents produce additional losses in 2
tance are equal to R 0 1F . Let the stray losses repre-
the windings over and above the usual Joule effect
sent a fraction g of these Rof / losses. Depending
PR losses. These additional losses are called stray upon the size of the transformer, the value of g can
losses. Stray losses are particularly important when
vary from 2 % to 15 %.
the windings carry distorted currents.
The total losses PT at the fundamental frequency
Distorted currents produce harmonic leakage
can therefore be expressed by the equation:
fluxes in addition to the fundamental leakage flux.
When these harmonic fluxes pierce the copper con- total losses = Joule effect losses + stray losses
ductors, they induce harmonic voltages and there-
PT= P.1 +PK
fore harmonic eddy currents. Unfortunately, for a
given flux density, harmonic leakage fluxes of order = R 0 1 1~ + gR 0 1~
h induce voltages that are h times greater than those
thus
induced by the fundamental leakage flux. The cor-
responding harmonic eddy currents are also h times (30.10)
greater. Consequently, because.)osses increase as
the square of the current, it follows that stray losses Exampk30-12~~~~~~~~~~~­
increase as the square of the harmonic order of the The primary of a transformer carries an undistorted
leakage flux density. current IF of 85 A. The de resistance of the winding
822 ELECTRIC U11UTY POWER SYSTEiW.5

is 0.04 H. The stray losses amount to 9 ck of the ! 2R thus.

losses. Calculate the value of the Joule effect losses. (30.11)
the stray losses. and the total losses.
Comparing Eq. 30.11 with Eq. 30.10. we see that
So/11ticm the factor K represents the multiplier effect on stray
Joule effect losses: P1 R1/ 1 = 0.04 X 85 2 losses due to the presence of harmonics. The value
= 289W of K is given by the equation:

Stray losses: PK 9 'le X 289 = 26 W K =

12, + + + ... + h21
Total losses: P1 = 289 + 26 = 315 W I~+ n l;.+l~+···+l1i

that is
Fig. 30.35 shows the same winding section when
the winding carries a distorted current composed of K = I~+ +- 3"1.; + .... +
' -
h 21].
h (30.12)
a fundamental component /~ and several harmonics /T
12 • l.i· I+· ... l1i. The distorted current has an effec-
tive value / 1 . Thus. This equation is sometimes expressed in abbrevi-
ated form:
/T =\ /!;. + (30.13)
Note that the leakage flux comprises fundamen- where
tal flux lines <l>i-: and harmonic flux lines cPH· They
respectively induce eddy currents ii-:s et iHs· K stray loss factor due to harmonics
The total stray losses are equal to the sum of the h = order of the harmonic
individual stray losses contributed by the compo- / 11 (pu> relative value of the harmonic with re-
nents of /T. As mentioned above, the individual spect to the total effective current Ir
losses are proportional to the square of the respec- It is seen that the K factor is a prope11y of the distorted
tive currents and the square of their harmonic orders current and not of the transformer. Neve11heless. it in-
(frequencies). We can therefore write: dicates the potential heating effect when the disto11ed
P, P, +PK current flows in a transformer. For this reason, some
transformers are designed with a specific K factor to
= R1/~ + gR 0 Uf: + 27f'· + 32n + ... + 11 1~) 2
indicate the level of distortion they can tolerate with-
out overheating.
+ When the current carried by the windings is
undistorted, K = I. On a 60 Hz system. harmonics
higher than the 31 ' 1 are usually ignored. For exam-
ple, the K factor of a 60 Hz square wave (Table 2A)
is about 13. Figure 30.45 shows an instrument that
can measure the K factor of a current.

Example 30-JJ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
The primary winding of a transformer carries a dis-
torted current having the following components:

Figure 30.35 fundamental current: 520A

The harmonic leakage fluxes induce eddy currents Yd harmonic: 270A
in the copper windings. 23•<l harmonic: 47 A
 HARMONICS 82}

The winding has a de resistance of 3 mil and the

stray losses are equal to 4 % of the Joule effeet losses.
Calculate 3.380
= 251 x 140W
a. The effective value /T of the current 6.06
b. The K factor In this example, the stray losses are 251 W/1037 W
c. The Joule effect losses in the primary winding 0.24 or 24 % of the Joule effect losses, commonly
d. The stray losses and the total losses in the pri- caJled the ( 1R losses. This illustrates that one must
mary winding be prudent when calculating the losses in a trans-
e. The component in /T that produces the largest former that carries a distorted current. The situation
Joule effect loss is particularly serious because stray losses are not
f. The component in /T that produces the largest uniformly distributed over the surface of the wind-
stray loss ings. Rather they are concentrated in certain re-
gions, often near the top and bottom of the wind-
Solution
ings. Thus, some regions may become considerably
a. Effective value of /T:
hotter than others. These overheated regions can
IT V520 2 + 2702 + 47 2 significantly reduce the service life of the trans-
former. Special transformers are built in which the
588A
K factor they can tolerate is specified.*
b. The K factor:
HARMONIC ANALYSIS
K (30.12) 30.18 Procedure for analyzing a
12T
periodic wave
5202 + 3 2 x 270 2 + 23 2 x 47 2
588 2 We have seen that harmonics play an important role
in electrical installations. Although speeial instru-
0. 782 + 1.898 + 3.380 = 6.06 ments are available to measure them in the field, we
c. The Joule effect losses: now describe a method whereby any distorted wave
can be decomposed into its harmonic components
P1 Ii-Ro 588 2 X 0.003 = 1037 W using a simple hand calculator. The procedure is
d. The stray losses: based on Fourier series analysis.

PK gP.1K 4% x 1037 x 6.06 = 251 w I. Given a distorted wave you want to analyze,
decide which harmonic H you are interested
The total losses: in. For example, if it is the 7th harmonic,
PT P.1 PK 1037W+251W=l288W H 7; if it is the fundamental. H = I.

e. The largest Joule effect losses are produced by 2. Multiply the harmonic order H by 10. The
the 520 A fundamental current: number 10 H is the minimum number of read-
ings required per cycle to ensure that the ac-
P,1 (fundamental) Ruf~ curacy will be of the order of 5 %. For ex-
0.003 x 520 2 ample, in the case of the ?1 11 harmonic, 10 H
= I0 X 7 70 readings.
811 w
See ANSI/IEEE C57. l IO-l 986 Standard en1itlcd .. IEEE
f. The largest stray losses are produced by the 23rd Recommended Practice For Establishing Transformer
harmonic: Capability When Supplying Nonsinusoidal Load Currents ...
824 ELECTRIC UTIUTY POWER SYSTEMS

3. Since one cycle comprises 360°. the approxi- For example. if 0 = 235°. A= 49. and H 7.
mate interval D between readin!!s is D we obtai1;i for this row:
360°/10 H. In the case of a 7 ~mnonic. D
111

8
360 /70 5.14°. This number can be rounded A sin (HO) 49 X sin (7 X 235")
to 5°. which simplifies the listing in degrees. 49 sin 1645° -20.7
4. Prepare a 4-column table similar to that 8. In column f4l headed by '>ymbol A co!-. (HO).
shown in Table 30B. The crosses indicate the calculate for each row the product of
numbers you will be filling in. A x cos (Htll.
For example. if tt = 235°, A 49. and
In column [ 11 headed by the symbol tt. write
H 7,weobtainAcos(HttJ 49X
down the angles from zero to 360°, spaced by
cos (7 x = 49 x cos 1645° -44.4
intervals of D degrees. If D 5° the column
will list the numbers 0, 5, l 0. 15 ... up to 9. Calculate the sum S 1 of the values in column
360. They represent the angles, in degrees. of [31. excluding the value corresponding to tt =
the distorted wave during one 360c. Then calculate the value of X according
to the equation:
5. Select a starting point on the distorted
wave. It is usual (although not necessary) (30.14)
to choose the moment when the wave
I 0. Calculate the sum S,., of the values in column
passes through zero.
[4 J. excluding the value corresponding to tt =
However. no matter where the starting point is.
360 8 • Then calculate the value of Y according
it is always designated as the 0° angle.
to the equation:
6. In column [2] headed by symbol A, write
(30.15)
down the values of the distorted wave corre-
sponding to the angles listed in column [I]. 11. The amplitude AH of the desired harmonic
component is then given by:
7. In column 131 headed by symbol A sin (Htl),
calculate for each row. the product AX sin (Htt).
(30.16)

12. The angular position a of the harmonic with re-

TABLE 308 HARMONIC ANALYSIS spect to the starting point (8 O") is given by:

harmonic H = D a = arctan YIX (30.17)

[JJ 121 [3[ f41 The following rule applies to 30.17:

il A A -,in HO A cm Htl
If' the m!tte (>/' X is negative. 180° must be
() x x x added to the angle.
x x x x 13. The harmonic component you are seeking is
given by the expression:
harmonic H AH sin (Htt + a) (30.18)

The effective or rms value of the component

x x x
is equal to A 111>J2.
sum So
14. In some cases. the wave may contain a de com-
Y = S 2 D/180
ponent A0 , in addition to the ac components. To
----------------------- ---

HARMONICS 825

determine its value, calculate the sum S 0 of the

TABLE 30C HARMONIC ANALYSIS
values in column f 21. excluding the value for 0
= 360°. The value of A 0 is given by harmonic H = I D = 30"

(30.19) fll [2] 131 [4]

fl A A ~in Hfl Arn'> Hfl
The above calculations can be done by hand,
but the task is much easier using a computer
() 0 (} 0
or spreadsheet. 30 7.5 3.75 6.5
60 15 13 7.5
Example30-J4_~~~~~~~~~~~ 90 22.5 22.5 0
Figure 30.36 displays an unusual waveshape. The 120 30 26 -15
positive half of the wave is triangular and the nega- 150 37.5 18.75 32.5
tive half is rectangular. We wish to determine: 180 0 0 ()

a. the amplitude and position of the fundamental 210 0 () ()

111 240 -20
b. the amplitude and position of the 4 harmonic 17.3 10
270 -40 40 ()
Solution
300 -40 34.6 -20
a. We want to analyze the fundamental; conse-
quently. H I and I 0 H I0 X I I 0. Thus. 330 0 0 ()

at least I 0 readings must be taken during one 360 0 () ()

cycle of the distorted wave. The interval Dis s, 175.9 s"' = -43.5
therefore 360°/l 0 36°. Let us make D 30°, x 29.3 Y = S2 D/180 -7.3
which will improve the accuracy slightly. We
must therefore take 360°/30° = 12 readings
during one cycle.
Note that the value of the wave changes angle is determined and listed in column l2J. The
abruptly at 160°. 240°, and 320°. In such cases, necessary calculations are then made to complete
we take the average of the maximum and mini- columns [3J and [4J.
mum values. Thus, at 160° the average value is The sum S 1 in column [3J 175.9. Conse-
(40 + 0)/2 + 20. The average value at 240° quently, we obtain:
(and at 320°) is 20.
Table 30C is the four-column table mentioned X = S 1D/180 = 175.9 X 30/180 29.3
previously. Column [ I] shows the angles from 0° Similarly. the sum of the values in column [4]
to 360" in intervals D of 30°. By tracking the yields S 2 = - 43.5. Consequently. we obtain:
waveshape. the value A corresponding to each
Y S:;D/180 -43.5 x 30/180 = - 7.3
Applying 30.16 and 30.17. we obtain the
40 amplitude A 1 and phase angle a of the funda-
mental
240° 320° ;-,.,--:o
0 0 vx-+ y- 30.2
-40
a = arctan ( r) = arc tan
Figure 30.36
Analysis of a distorted wave. arctan ( 0.249) = 14°
826 ELECTRIC UTILITY POWER SYSTEMS

40 Ill [2] [3] 141

u A A sin HU A cos Hfl
30 fundamental
component 45 11.25 0 -11.25
ii5 20
:::l / 4th harmonic 54 13.5 -7.94 10.92
~ 10
63 15.75 14.98 -4.87

t1:-20
72
81
18.0
20.25
-17.12
-11.9
5.56
16.38
90 22.5 0 22.50
-30 99 24.75 14.55 20.02
-40 108 27.0 25.68 8.34
Figure 30.37 117 29.25 27.82 -9.04
Fundamental and 41h harmonic components of the 126 31.5 18.52 -25.48
wave illustrated in Fig. 30.36.
135 33.75 0 -33.75
144 36.0 -21.16 -29.12
153 38.25 --36.38 11.82

The fundamental can therefore be expressed by 162 0 0 0

the equation: 171 () 0 ()

180 () 0 0
H1 A 1 sin (H0 +a) 30.2 sin (8 - 14°)
189 0 0 ()
The effective value of the fundamental 1s 198 0 0 ()
30.21'12 21.3.
207 0 () ()
Figure 30.37 shows the fundamental super-
posed on the original wave. 216 0 0 0
b. Let us now consider the 4 1h harmonic. In this 225 0 0 0
case, we must select at least IO H = 10 X 4 = 234 0 0 ()

40 readings on the distorted wave. The inter- 243 -40 38.04 12.36
val D must therefore be no greater than 252 -40 38.04 12.36
360°/40 = 9°
261 -40 23.51 -32.36
270 -40 0 -40.0
279 -40 -23.51 -32.36
TABLE 300 HARMONIC ANALYSIS 288 -40 -38.04 --12.36

harmonic H 4 D = 9°
297 -40 -38.04 12.36
306 -40 -23.51 32.36
Ill 121 131 141
-40
315 0 40.0
u A A~in HU A cos HU
324 0 0 ()
0 0 0 0
333 0 () 0
9 2.25 1.32 1.82
342 0 () 0
18 4.5 4.28 1.39
351 0 0 ()
27 6.75 6.42 -2.09
360 0 0 ()
36 9.0 5.29 -7.28
s, = -29.11 s~ = -101.96
(continued)
 HARlvfONICS 827

Table 300 again lists the 4 columns. In this case, 60

the sum S of column [31 gives - 29.11 and that
1

of column [4J gives S2 = - I0 I. 96. It follows that 4o

X S 1D/180 -29.11 x (9°)/180 1.46
~
J'
Y S"'D/180 101.96 x (9°)/180
The amplitude of the 4th harmonic is therefore:
-5.10
~
2-
(j)
Ol
_:-g
20

0 J
v \ ,., /\ !\
v - I 1~

~ 0 40 80 120 160 200 240 280 320 360 400

A4 = \X y \(-1 5.30
- 20+----+--
and the phase angle is:

a arctan (~) arc tan (

-1.46
-5.10)
-so~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

arctan 3.49 74°

Figure 30.38
However, since Xis negative, we must add I 80° Waveshape obtained by summing the fundamental
to the calculated value of 74°. The true angle is and the first 12 harmonics of Fig. 30.36.
therefore a 74° 180° = 254°.
The 4th harmonic can be expressed by the
(see Table 30E). The sum of the fundamental and
equation:
the first twelve harmonics is shown graphically in
H4 5.3 sin (48 + 254°) Fig. 30.38. The resulting waveshape is quite close
to the original \vaveshape even though the m1111-
Figure 30.37 shows the 4th harmonic superposed
ber of harmonics is quite limited.
on both the original waveshape and the funda-
mental wave.
Questions and Problems
By repeating the same exercise, we can find
expressions for harmonics from the 2m1 to the 12th Practical level
30-1 A 60 Hz distorted current contains a 5th
harmonic of 20 A and a fundamental of 30
TABLE 30E HARMONIC COMPONENTS A (rms values). Calculate:
a. the effective value of the distorted current
Fundamental 30.2 sin (ti - 14°)
b. the frequency of the fundamental
2nt1 H 7.7 sin (20 + 100°) c. the frequency of the harmonic
H 7.4 sin (30 + I l 9°) 30-2 A 60 Hz voltage having an effective value of
H 5.3 sin (40 + 254°) 485 V contains several harmonics. The
4.1sin(5H+110°) fundamental has an effective value of 481 V.
Calculate the effective value of all the
4.6 sin (60 + 239°)
harmonics.
H 2.1 sin (70 -+- 269°)
30-3 In Problem 30-2, calculate the THO in
8t1i H 3.3 sin (80 - 8°) percent.
9th H 1.4 sin (90 184°) 30-4 A current has the following components:
10 H111
,.1.0 sin (I 00 + I 0 ) fundamental: 960 A: 5th harmonic: 156 A:
11 111 H 1.5 ~in (I I 0 - 97°) 7 1h harmonic: 235 A. Calculate:
a. the effective value of the current
H l.9sin(l20-'- 117°)
b. the distortion factor, in percent
828 ELECTRIC UTILITY POWER SYSTEMS

30-5 Jn Problem 30-4, the current flows in a 30°. Compare your value with the exact
2 n resistor. Calculate the total power value. given in Table 2A, Chapter 2.
dissipated and the power associated 30-12 The triang.Ular wave of 30.39 has a
a. with the fundamental current peak value of I 00 V. Determine the ap-
b. with the 5th harmonic proximate rms value of the fundamental.
c. with the 7th harmonic
30-6 A sinusoidal voltage of 480 V is applied to
a non-linear load. The resulting current of +100
85 A contains a fundamental of 74 A that
270°
lags 32° behind the voltage. Calculate: goo 180° : 360°
a. the displacement power factor
b. the active power supplied by the source .V
c. the total power factor
30-7 A 3-phase, 4-wire cable feeds a group of Figure 30.39
halogen lamps that are connected between See Problem 30-12.
line and neutral. The current in the lines has
an effective value of 320 A of which 47 A Advanced level
is due to a 3rd harmonic. Calculate the 30-13 In 30.40, using the method of Section
value of the current flowing in the neutral. 30.18, determine the peak values of
a. the fundamental
Intermediate level
b. the harmonic
30-8 A voltage of 4300 V has a THO of 26 %. c. the 5th harmonic
Calculate the rms values of:
a. the fundamental
b. all the harmonics
30-9 A 60 Hz source contains a fundamental of
730 V and a 5th harmonic of l 08 V. The
source is connected to an inductance of
5 mH in series with a resistance of I 0 f!.
Calculate the effective values of the fol-
lowing currents and voltages:
a. fundamental current
b. 5th harmonic current
0 90 180 270 360
c. current in the circuit
d. voltage across the resistor Figure 30.40
c. voltage across the inductor See Problem 30-13.
30-10 A 3-phase cable carries a distorted current
of 830 A that contains a 7 111 harmonic of 60 30-14 In Fig. 30.41, determine the peak values
A. The resistance of the cable is 2 mn. If of
the harmonic is suppressed, by how much a. the fundamental
will the losses in the cable decrease? b. the 310 harmonic
30-11 A square wave has an amplitude of I 00 V. c. the 5th harmonic
Using the method described in Section 30-15 In Problem 30-13, determine:
30.18. determine the peak value of the a. the effective value of the current
fundamental component. Take intervals of b. the effective value of the fundamental
 HARMONICS 829

A ,.--~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~--. 30-18 A distorted voltage is represented by the

100 following equation (angles expressed in
degrees, tin seconds):

E = 850 sin 18 000 t

340 sin (I 26 000 t 30°)

Calculate
-100- a. the frequency of the fundamental and the har-
monic
0 90 180 270 360
b. the effective value of the fundamental and the
Figure 30.41 harmonic
See Problem 30-14. c. the effective value of the distorted voltage
d. the instantaneous voltage when t = I ms
e. Draw a phasor diagram that represents the dis-
c. the effective value of all the harmonics
torted voltage and sketch its waveshape.
d. the THO
30-16 A three-phase 24 kV feeder that supplies 30-19 A non-linear load generates the following
power to a commercial building has a short- harmonics when it is connected to a 50 Hz
circuit capacity of 60 MYA. source:

Calculate
a. the reactance of the feeder, per phase
The currents flow in a circuit that contains an in-
h. the current per phase if a short-circuit occurred
ductance of 1300 µH in parallel with a capacitor of
at the service entrance to the building upstream
40 µF.
from the step-down transformer
Calculate
30-17 In Fig. 30.42 the rectangular current has a
a. the value of the respective harmonic voltages
peak value of I 00 A. Its amplitude is zero
across the terminals of the inductance
during successive intervals of 36°, as shown.
b. the effective value of all the harmonic voltages
a. Calculate the effective value of the fun-
across the inductance
damental
c. the effective value of the current flowing in the
b. Show that the 5 111 harmonic is essentially
capacitor
zero
30-20 In 30.11, determine the amplitude and
phase angle of the fundamental compo-
A
100 nent of the chopped current. Use intervals
of 6°.
30-21 Figure 30.43 shows a periodic voltage
0 180° 360° consisting of a succession of sinusoidal
0 goo 162° pulses having an amplitude of I 00 V.
18c
Using intervals D of 6 , determine:
a. the amplitude and phase angle of the
-100 - . fundamental
b. the de component
Figure 30.42 c. the effective value of the voltage
See Problem 30-17. d. the effective value of all the harmonics.
830 ELECTRIC UTILITY POWER SYSTEMS

.10o:ru0 90° 180° 360°

Figure 30.43
See Problem 30-21.

Figure 30.45
This portable instrument, the "Power Harmonics
Figure 30.44 Analyzer" can measure the total harmonic distortion
This portable instrument, the "Scopemeter" incorpo- (THO) of a voltage or current up to the 31st harmonic.
rates an oscilloscope, a multimeter, and a recorder. It It can also measure the active, reactive and apparent
is used to verify control systems including variable- power in a 3-phase circuit, and its power factor. It also
speed electronic drives (courtesy of Fluke Electronics gives a readout of the K factor of a current (courtesy
Canada Inc.). of Fluke Electronics Canada Inc.).
 CHAPTER 31
Programmable Logic Controllers

31.0 Introduction Today, the programmable logic controller (some-

times called programmable controller) is the main
f all the devices that are used to control manu-
O facturing operations, the programmable logic
controller (PLC) is one of the most important. The
control device used in industry. More than 50 man-
ufacturers offer hundreds of different models.

first PLCs were introduced in the early 1960s,

31.1 Capacity of industrial PLCs
mainly by the automobile industry. Up until then
the automatic control of manufacturing equipment In the beginning, PLCs were mainly used to replace
was achieved by using hundreds, and even thou- hard-wired physical relays. This offered many ad-
sands, of relays enclosed in metal cabinets. vantages because the PLCs took up less space than
The annual automobile-model changes required conventional relay cabinets and consumed much
frequent modifications to the production lines and less energy. Furthermore, they were programmable
their associated relay-control systems. Because the and equipped with LED (light-emitting diode) indi-
control systems were complex, the modifications cators that made it easy to check the operation of the
took a lot of time, and errors often occurred when control system and to diagnose problems.
making connections. For these reasons, control en- Today, thanks to the evolution in electronics and
gineers developed a computerized programmable computer technology, the performance of PLCs is im-
system to replace the relay racks. pressive. While they are still used to replace relays,
This presented a big challenge for many compa- PLCs can now perform mathematical operations and
nies. In effect, computers that had previously been control and regulate industrial processes. For in-
used to do accounting jobs were modified to re- stance, they can regulate temperature, pressure, flow
spond to the needs of industry. Little by little, the rates, motor drives, and so forth. In addition, PLCs
techniques were improved and more users of the can now communicate with each other as well as with
new technology were found. However, a full decade a central computer. The latter can collect data, change
went by before the new concept was' systematically the operating parameters, and even modify the PLC
adopted by manufacturers. programming.

831
832 ELECTRIC UTILITY POWER SYSTEMS

A
L1 T1

A
L2 disconnecting
1-4~~~~~~---+-<J-f
switch
A
L3

B
stop

Figure 20.24a (reproduction)

Simplified schematic diagram of a starter with plugging control.

31.2 Elements of a control system

Some programmable controllers can accommo-
date more than :moo inputs and outputs. These During our study of control systems in Chapter 20.
PLCs can easily replace more than I 0 000 con- we saw that a few pushbuttons, relays, and low-
ventional relays. Consequently, it is possible to power auxiliary contacts were able to control big
control a complete factory with a single PLC. contactors to start and stop electric motors.
However. in the case of larger factories, it is al- Furthermore. in examining the schematic diagrams
ways preferable to install several PLCs throughout of Figs. 20. I 6b. 20.24a, and 20.25 in Chapter 20.
the plant and link them by a communications net- we perceive that they are very similar. If we ignore
work. By using individual PLCs to handle specific the number of control devices that are used in each
production processes. the PLCs can be made case, we see that the fundamental difference be-
smaller. faster. and easier to program. tween the three diagrams lies in the way the control
In the following sections we will explain the ba- devices are interconnected.
sic principle of the programmable logic controller Suppose that we have a "black box" inside which
using a very simple model. This is then followed by various connections can be made between the con-
a closer look at the actual physical construction of a trol devices (pushbuttons, auxiliary contacts) and
PLC. Finally, we will examine how PLCs are ap- the controlled devices (holding coils of contactors.
plied in industry and how the transition from hard- pilot lights). In the case of Fig. 20.24a (reproduced
wired relays to PLCs is made. here for convenience). this approach results in the
 PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLERS 833

control
devices
i input terminals output terminals i controlled
devices

A B
_J_
-0 0- -0

-.a.la:-
--
start stop
-- -©-
-H- -H- -- connection box
Ax1 Bx1 ("black box")
--
+ + -- -©
Bx2
Ax2
L
--
R --o r o---- F

Figure 31.1
An automated system is composed of control devices and controlled devices. These on/off devices are all of the
same nature, irrespective of the type of automated system. The systems differ only as to the number of devices
and the connections between them.

set-up shown in Fig. 31.1. The control devices (start power

and stop pushbuttons, auxiliary contacts, and zero- supply
speed switch) are connected to the input terminals of
the black box. In the same way, the devices that are
controlled (holding coils A and B) are connected to CPU
input central output
the output terminals on the right-hand side of the
module processing module
black box.
unit
Suppose the black box is a computer. The com-
puter is designed to simulate the relays, relay coils,
relay contacts, as well as the connections between
programming
them. This approach opens up enormous possibili- unit
ties because the computer can simulate hundreds of
relays having thousands of contacts. The number is Figure 31.2
only limited by the computer's memory capacity. The five parts of a PLC.
The control system can therefore take the general
form shown in 31.2. A programmable logic
controller consists of five basic parts. 2. An input module. which serves as an interface
between the actual control devices and the CPU.
I. A central processing unit tCPU), which is a
computer that can simulate the required relay 3. An output module, which serves as an interface
contacts and relay coils. as well as the connec- between the CPU and the actual devices that
tions between them. are being controlled.
834 ELECTRIC UTILITY POWER SYSTEMS

input output
module CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CP~), module

RELAY COILS RELAY CONT ACTS

(i) for output relays (4) (i) for output relays
(ii) for internal relays (ii) for internal relays
(conventional) (50) (conventional)
(iii) for internal relays (iii) for internal relays
(time delay) (10) (time delay)
(iv) for input relays
-( } -Q=n}
11 f - - - - 0 - - - - ' -4f- or -#- oc
24V IC 120 v

Figure 31.3
The central processing unit (CPU) contains in its memory a "stock" of elements such as "relay coils," "contacts,"
"counters;' etc. The "relay coils" in the CPU are represented by truncated circles.

4. A programming unit consisting of a keyboard (NC). On the other hand, "coil" IO l is normally
and monitor to program the CPU. It enables us to "not excited'' because the pushbutton associated
select different types of "relays" and "contacts" with it is normally open (NO). In the same way,
that the computer can simulate, as well as the "coil" I 03 is normally "not excited" because the
way they are to be connected. auxiliary contact associated with it is NO. The
"contacts" associated with ''coils" IO I. 102, and
5. A power supply that furnishes the power
103 are in the CPU, where they form part of the vir-
needed by the CPU, by the input/output (1/0)
tual (i.e., simulated) control circuit. The simulated
modules, and by the programming unit.
control circuit is not shown in Fig. 31.3.
Let us examine the construction and the role played The output module (Fig. 31.3) has four terminals
by the first four components listed above. To simplify 0 I, 02, 03, and 04, as well as a common terminal
matters, we choose a very simple PLC having only OC. The four terminals are associated with four
3 input terminals and 4 output terminals (Fig. 31.3 ). normally-open contacts that bear reference num-
The input module has three terminals labeled I 1, bers 111, 112, 113, and 114. These NO contacts are
12, and 13, and a common terminal IC. The real ex- sometimes the mechanical contacts of relays. In
ternal control devices are respectively connected other cases, they are electronic switches (such as
between the 11, 12, and 13 terminals and one side of triacs) that will open or close depending on the sig-
a 24-V source. The other side of the source is con- nal received from a "relay coil'' in the CPU.
nected to terminal IC. as shown in the figure. A Figure 31.3 shows two external contactor coils A
small rectangle bearing a reference number (ad- and B and a pilot lamp, respectively connected be-
dress) is associated with each terminal. For exam- tween three of these output module terminals and
ple, the address I 02 is associated with terminal 12. one side of a 120- V ac source. The other side of the
To understand the operation of the input module, ac source is connected to terminal OC. Terminal 04
it is useful to imagine that each rectangle corre- is not connected to anything. The reference numbers
sponds to a "relay coil" that is "excited" by the as- on the input and output modules are "addresses" es-
sociated external control device. For example, tablished by the manufacturer of the PLC.
"coil'' 102 is normally "excited" because the push- The central processing unit has a memory func-
button with which it is associated is normally closed tion and an operating function. We can imagine that
 PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLERS 835

it contains an enormous stock of "contacts" and "re- bus bars

lay coils." This inventory of parts is stored in the
memory of the CPU. The simple model of Fig. 31.3 input (+)
, ~
(-) output
module module
contains the following virtual (simulated) compo-
nents in its memory: 101 112
r--(
1. The "contacts" that correspond to the relay
"coils" (rectangles) in the input module. The
number of "contacts" per "coil" and their NO
or NC condition is set by means of the pro- CPU
gramming unit. These particular contacts (not
explicitly shown in Fig. 31.3) would bear the 1j 1 - - - - 0 - 1 - - - '
24 V IC
same reference numbers as the ''relay coils."
namely I 0 I, I 02. and I03. Figure 31.4
2. The "coils" of the "relays'' associated with the "Contact" 101, "coil" 112, and the connections be-
tween them and the "bus bars" are all programmed
four NO contacts of the output module. These
from the keyboard. Rectangle 101 simulates the "coil"
particular "coils" (not explicitly shown) would of relay 101.
carry the same reference numbers 111, 112,
113. and 114 as the contacts they activate.
Because there are four output terminals, the We will now use five examples to illustrate the be-
number of "output coils" is also four. havior of this simple PLC.
3. The "relay coils"' and ·'contacts'' of the "inter-
nal relays:· The "coils" and "contacts'' of these 31.3 Examples of the use of a PLC
"internal relays" operate entirely inside the Example 31-1
CPU; they do not appear in the input or output ln Fig. 31.4, we want lamp L2 to light up when
modules. pushbutton PB I is depressed.
The memory contains an almost unlimited number Solution
of "contacts" that can be associated with any one of
I. Because PB I is connected to terminal I I ...coil"
the internal "relay coils." The "contacts" bear the
I0 I is excited when the pushbutton is depressed.
same reference numbers as the "relay coil" that ac-
tivates them. Depending upon the requirements of 2. Because lamp L2 is connected to terminal 02.
the control system. we can program as many "con- contact 112 (relay contact or triac) is closed
tacts'' per "relay"' as needed. ln order to "excite'' the when L2 lights up.
various "relay coils:· the CPU simulates a power
3. By virtue of (I), the operator must select a nor-
supply represented by two vertical "bus bars" ( +)
mally-open "'contact" carrying reference num-
and ( - ). Let us assume that the CPU inventory con-
ber I 0 I from the stock of components in the
tains the following internal items:
CPU memory. In the same way. by virtue of
I. 50 "coils'" of conventional "relays" bearing ref- (2). he must select the output "relay coil" num-
erence numbers 70 I to 7 50; and bered 112. (The simulated relay coils are
shown as truncated circles.)
2. 10 "coils'' of "time-delay rela;:s" bearing refer-
ence numbers 901 to 910. The tirn.e.delays as- The selections are made by using the keyboard.
sociated with these "relays" can be set during Finally, using the monitor and the keyboard, the op-
the programming period. erator programs the connections bet\veen ..contact"
836 ELECTRIC UTILITY POWER SYSTEMS

bus bars bus bars

\
input (+)
/ \ (-) output
..
input (+)
I
'H output
module module PB1 module'" module
112
101

CPU

Figure 31.5 Figure 31.6

This diagram is similar to the one in Fig. 31.4 except By programming additional "contacts" and "relay coils"
that a normally-closed "contact" 101 has been pro- into the ladder circuit, a more complex control system
grammed in the CPU instead of a normally-open (NO) can be developed.
contact.
a few keys on the keyboard the operator can
I 0 I, "coil" 112, and the ( ) and ( - ) "bus bars'' as make this change in less than a minute.
shown in Fig 31.4.
As a result of this program, when pushbutton PB I Example 31-3
is depressed, "coil" I01 is activated by the external In Fig. 31.6, pushbutton PB I must control three
24-V de source. This causes "contact" 101 to close, lamps (L 1, L2. and L3) so that when PB I is de-
which in turn excites "coil" 112. When "coil" 112 is pressed, LI and L2 light up and L3 goes out.
excited, contact 112 closes and L2 lights up.
Solution
Note that "contact" 101 and "coil" I 12 do not re-
1. The three lamps are connected to terminals 0 I,
ally exist. They are merely virtual elements simu-
02, and 03 and are therefore controlled by
lated by the computer. When "coil" 112 is "excited''
contacts 111, 112, and 113. Consequently, the
it causes contact 112 to close. As a result, the real
PLC operator must select the three correspond-
lamp L2 is powered by the real 120 V source. (As
ing "coils" 111, 112, and 113.
mentioned previously, the normally-open contacts
111 to 114 in the output module are usually triacs or 2. The input "coil" 101 must now be equipped
mechanical contacts.) with three "contacts" (all labeled I 0 I), two of
which are normally open and one normally
Example 31-2 closed. The operator must program the connec-
Referring to Fig. 31.5, pushbutton PB I must again tions as shown by the "ladder circuit" between
activate pilot lamp L2. but this time the lamp must the ( +) and ( - ) "bus bars."
go out when PB I is depressed.
Note that we can add "contacts,'' increase the num-
Solution ber of ''relays,'' and change the "connections" by
I. The setup is identical to the one in Example 31-1 simply pushing a few keys on the keyboard. We
except that the operator must select from the never have to strip wires or mount a relay on a rack.
memory a "contact" 101 that is normally closed. As before, contacts 111, 112, and 113 are real com-
As a result, "coil" 112 is normally excited and so ponents (usually triacs). The 120-V source and the
real contact 112 is normally closed. By pressing three lamps are, of course, also real.
838 ELECTRIC UTILITY POWER SYSTEMS

adding more "ti me-delay relays." "contacts." and The volatile memory of the PLC is divided into
so forth. In other words. we can change the on/off several secti0ns. Three of them are used to record
performance of the lamps by simply punching a few the status of the input modules. the status of the out-
keys. Quite a remarkable achievement when we put modules, and the program of the user.
consider that the external hard-wired connections The CPU performs the following sequential tasks:
remain absolutely the same.
l. During a brief interval. the CPU checks all the
input modules and records the on/off status of
31.4 The central processing unit the external control devices that are connected
(CPU) to them. (The status must be checked at mil-
lisecond intervals because during a production
We have seen that every PLC consists of a central
schedule. the on/off condition of the control de-
processing unit (CPU). a programming unit. an in-
vices can change at any time.)
put module. and an output module (Fig. 31.2). In
the five preceding examples we have shown the role 2. The CPU nms the program of the user. During
played by these components. We will now describe this period, and depending on the program and
the construction and mode of operation of these the status of the inputs that have been recorded.
components. starting with the CPU. the CPU decides which outputs should be acti-
The central processing unit is the brain of the vated. While the CPU program is being carried
PLC. It is a complex circuit composed of one or out, these decisions are stored in a memory sec-
more microprocessors. Without going into details. tion reserved for this purpose.
we will briefly describe the CPU memory and how
3. The CPU transmits the memorized decisions to
it is used.
the output modules. During this interval. the out-
There are two types of memory. The first is non-
put modules activate or deactivate the external de-
volatile. which means that its contents cannot be
vices that are connected to the output terminals.
erased or modified. The second is Folatile, which
The operating cycle consists of (a) taking
means its memorized contents can be changed read-
successive readings of the status of the inputs.
ily. The non-mlatile memory contains all the in-
(b) carrying out the user program. and (c) trans-
structions needed for the management of the PLC.
mitting the results to the output modules. The
These instructions are used to check the input mod-
operating cycle is named scanning.
ules and to determine the status of the control de-
The sequential scanning process goes on
vices. It also transmits orders to the output modules.
continually when the PLC is in operation. The
Finally. it interprets and executes instructions that
time to make a complete scan depends upon the
are furnished by the keyboard. then catTies out the
speed of the PLC and the size of the user pro-
user program.
gram. As a general rule. it takes from 2 ms to
In the memory section the PLC manufacturer in-
I 0 ms to make a complete scan.
stalls the range of functions that can be executed by
the PLC. In addition to relay-type functions-such 4. During the scanning process, the CPU system-
as the coil function. the contact function, etc.-the atically checks the correct functioning of the
PLC offers hundreds of other functions. These may hardware by diagnostic analysis.
be arithmetic functions. drum-switch functions,
timer functions. counters. and registers. In effect.
31.5 Programming unit
the non-volatile memory establishes all the operat-
ing parameters of the PLC. The contents of the non- The programming unit. composed of a keyboard
volatile memory are defined by the manufacturer and monitor. is used to program the PLC. But its
and cannot be erased or modified by the user. usefulness does not end there. It also enables the
 PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLERS 837

bus bars bus bars

I \ (-) output input (+)

I \ (-) output
input (+)
module module module module
715

1I l - - - - - 0 - - + - - - '
120 v 24 V IC ._____ ___, 113 120 v
715
Figure 31.7 Figure 31.8
The external devices connected to the input and output This CPU ladder circuit uses an internal "time-delay
modules perform the same way as in Fig. 31.6, but the relay" labeled RT907. The time delay is programmed,
CPU circuit is programmed in a different way. In this as are all the other elements between the ( +) and ( - )
case, an internal auxiliary "relay" 715 has been added. "bus bars."

Example 31-4
In Fig. 31. 7, the operation of pushbutton PB I and of Example 31-5
the lamps is the same as in Example 31-3, but the In Fig. 31.8, the same control is required as in
PLC will now make use of an "internal relay." Example 31-4, but lamp LI must light up 5 seconds
after the pushbutton is depressed.
Solution
I. Among the 50 internal "relays" labeled 70 I to Solution
7 50 that the operator can select from the CPU I. In this case the operator must add an internal
memory bank, he decides to choose "relay" "time-delay relay" to activate lamp LI. The re-
715. In addition, he selects three associated mainder of the circuit stays the same.
"contacts,'' all bearing the number 715. Two of
2. The operator selects "time-delay relay" RT 907
these contacts are normally open and one is
from the CPU memory bank. He then adds nor-
normally closed.
mally-open "contact" 907 and makes the CPU
2. The operator then programs the CPU "connec- "connections" as shown in Fig. 31.8. Finally, he
tions" as shown in Fig. 31.7. programs the time delay of RT 907 at 5 seconds.
When PB I is depressed, "coil" I 0 I is excited, When PB I is depressed, "contact" I0 I closes, which
which closes "contact" I0 I. This excites "coil" 715, excites the "coil" of relay 715. The two normally-
causing "coils" 111 and 112 to become "excited". open "contacts" 715 immediately close and nor-
As a result, contacts 111 and 112 close, thus light- mally-closed "contact" 715 opens. Consequently,
ing lamps LI and L2. At the same time, "coil" 113 lamp L2 lights up at once and lamp L3 goes out. The
is "deactivated." causing contact 113 to open, virtual "coil" RT907 is excited but its "contact" 907
which thereby extinguishes L3. only closes 5 seconds later. Thus, lamp LI comes on
We again note that this new ci,cuit involves only after a delay of 5 seconds.
the computer. The external connections to the input These changes can all be made in a minute.
module and output module in Figs. 31.6 and 31.7 Indeed, it is clear that we could make the lamps
are the same. blink on and off in any way we please by simply
 PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLERS 839

user to observe the status of the input and output

modules and to make changes to certain parame-
ters. The programming unit is also used as a tool to
check and diagnose the PLC. Finally, it is used to
save the programs on tape or disc, and to retrieve
these programs from the same supports. However,
although the programming unit plays several roles,
it is not needed when the PLC is operating.
Consequently, the programming unit can be discon-
nected once the industrial process is in operation.
The programming unit can take the form of a
small hand-held unit composed of a keyboard and a
tiny monitor (Figs. 31.9, 31.10). It can also be a
computer with a large screen and keyboard having
special keys. Because it is designed for industrial
use, the programming unit must be portable and ro-
bust. Using the proper software, a personal com-
puter is often used as a PLC programming unit.

31.6 The 1/0 modules

As mentioned previously, the input and output
modules (designated by the abbreviation 1/0) are
the interfaces between the external control and con-
trolled devices, and the central processing unit
(CPU). The interface function is crucial. In effect,
Figure 31.9
the CPU accepts and emits only low-voltage and
This industrial PLC has been adapted for educational
low-power de signals (0 to 5 V). The CPU is very purposes. The operator punches the keys of the hand-
sensitive and could be damaged if exposed to sig- held programming unit and tracks the effect on the
nals exceeding this voltage range. Thus, all com- small screen. The programming unit interacts with the
munication links between the CPU and the external two parts of the PLC that are mounted on the upright
devices must be done via the 1/0 modules. panel. The upper part contains the central processing
unit (CPU), the power supply, and the input and out-
Each input module and each output module can
put (1/0) modules. The lower part is simply an exten-
be connected to several devices. We then speak of
sion of the upper part, offering additional 1/0 modules.
the number of "points" of entry and exit. Individual This PLC has 10 input points and 6 output points.
1/0 modules possess 4, 8, 16, or 32 points; some (Courtesy (Jf Lab-Volt).
have as many as 96 points. The 16-point modules
are the most common. In the case of a large auto-
section, and a communication board. Apart from the
mated production process, several 1/0 modules may
communication board, this configuration is re-
be required.
peated for each entry point.
In order to prevent spurious signals from activat-
31.7 Structure of the input modules
.. ing the PLC. the filter and conversion section sup-
The parts shown in 31.11 comprise the input presses electrical noise such as may be caused by in-
module. It consists of a terminal board, a filter and duced voltages or contact bounce. The conversion
conversion section. a status indicator, an isolation portion reduces the input voltage that appears
840 ELECTRIC UTILITY POWER SYSTEMS

- filter +
cop'!ersion

status
indicator
electric
isolation

to
CPU

filter+ electric
conversion isolation

Figure 31.11
Structure of the input module.

nected to the terminal board.

The electric isolation section protects the CPU
from electric noise and random voltage spikes. The
isolation is achieved by means of an optical coupler
which converts the incoming electric signal into a light
signal. The light signal, in turn, is converted back into
an electrical signal by means of a phototransistor.
On the input side, the optical coupler can with-
stand peaks of up to 1500 V. Thus. while it permits
the transmission of signals, the optical coupler
completely isolates the sensitive CPU circuits from
those connected to the input terminals.
As regards the communication section, it
ters all the status conditions of the input circuits and
transmits them to the CPU.
CONSOLI OE
PROGRAMMATtON The impedance of the input module is one of its
important properties. Depending upon the voltage
Figure 31.10 for which the module was designed, the input im-
This portable programming unit shows the keyboard pedance of each point wi II range from 5 kf! to 12 kH.
used for programming. The small screen above the The current required to activate a circuit is about
keyboard enables the operator to see the "contacts,"
10 mA. This low current permits a reduction in the
"relay coils," "time delays," etc. as they are pro-
gram med. These elements all bear a reference num- size of the external control devices, as well as the size
ber or address. The programming unit can also be of the cables linking them to the PLC.
used to check the status of the external input and out- Note that the user must furnish the power supply
put devices. Consequently, it is a useful tool for both for the external control devices. Several voltages
programming and diagnosing the control system. may be used: 24 V to 120 V ac or 10 V to JOO V de.
(Courtesy (f Lab- Volt). The filter and conversion section of the input mod-
ule drops these voltages to a level that is compati-
ble with the optical coupler.
across the input terminals and, if necessary, recti-
fies ac signals.
31.8 Structure of the output modules
The status indicator is a light emitting diode
(LED) that is on or off depending on the signal re- The output modules are built using the architecture
ceived at each external terminal. It facilitates displayed in Fig. 3 l.12. Moving outward from the
checking the operation of the control devices con- CPU, the constituent parts are the (a) communica-
 PROGRAl'v/MABLE LOGIC CONTROLLERS 841

power
Fuses are also recommended to protect the

-
electric
isolation circuit equipment controlled by the PLC. Their main pur-
from
status pose is to protect the wiring and components in the
indicator
CPU event of a catastrophic short circuit.
Voltage spikes can damage the output modules.
electric power
isolation circuit To eliminate the problem, it is recommended that
voltage-limiting devices be installed whenever an
Figure 31.12 external device tends to create transitory overvolt-
Structure of the output module. ages across the output module.

31.9 Modular construction of PLCs

tion section. (b) electric isolation, (c) status indica-
One of the important features of a PLC is its modu-
tor, and (d) power circuit. Except for the communi-
lar construction. Thus, the CPU and the 1/0 modules
cation section, the construction is the same for each
are all mounted in individual slots (Fig. 3 I. I 3a).
output terminal.
Modularity offers a big advantage because if a mod-
The communication section receives the com-
ule is presumed to be defective. it can immediately
mands transmitted by the CPU and memorizes them
be replaced by another one. Thus, in a matter of min-
until it receives new commands. In effect, the CPU
utes, the PLC can be up and running again. The only
is not constantly in touch with the output module.
module that requires special attention when replaced
The CPU communicates with the output module in
is the one that contains the memory of the PLC. The
sequential fashion, according to the previously
original program (previously saved) has to be re-
mentioned scanning process. The time between two
trieved using the programming unit. This operation.
successive scans varies from I 0 ms to 2 ms (I 00 to
which takes only a few minutes. is equivalent to re-
500 communications per second).
placing an entire relay rack.
The isolation sections and the status indicators
Another advantage of modularity is the ability to
play the same roles as in the input modules. By op-
expand the capacity of the PLC to meet the growing
tical coupling, they protect the sensitive CPU cir-
needs of the user. Thus, 1/0 modules can be added as
cuits from voltage surges. The LED indicators help
and when required. The memory capacity of the PLC
check the status of the controlled devices.
is the only thing that limits the number of I/O mod-
The power circuit amplifies the signal from the
ules that can be accommodated. Figure 31. I 3b shows
CPU so as to operate the devices connected to the
the construction of a 16-point output module in which
output terminals. As we have seen, each output
each point is controlled on/off by a small relay.
point acts like a switch or contact (see Fig. 31.3 ). It
closes or opens the circuit that is connected to the
31.1 O Remote inputs and outputs
external device. A triac is often used to open and
close the circuit. The user furnishes the power sup- We have just seen that users can tailor the PLC to
ply to drive the external devices. meet their needs. The modular nature or the PLC
Although the output modules are intended to also enables the installation of 1/0 modules at re-
control industrial devices, their current-carrying ca- mote locations. far removed from the CPU itself.
pacity is limited. Most of them can carry a maxi- We then speak of remote 1/0 modules. Such mod-
mum current ranging from 0.5 A to 2 A per output ules are placed close to the particular automated
terminal. If an external device re<Juires a larger cur- process or production line that has to be controlled.
rent, an auxiliary relay must be used. For example, These modules can be located as near as 3 meters
in Fig. 31.14. auxiliary relay Bis employed to acti- to as far as 3 km from the CPU. Each 1/0 module is
vate the holding coil A of a large contactor. equipped with a power supply and a communications
842 ELECTRIC UTILITY POWER SYSTEMS

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 ~· 10 11

Figure 31.13a
Modular PLC for the distributed control of 1/0 devices of any type, including position control and the control of in-
dustrial processes. The PLC rack shown contains ten modules of various kinds. Racks having capacities to hold
from two to ten modules are available. Seven such racks connected locally have a potential capacity of more than
5000 local 1/0 points (modules 1-4 above). However, most 1/0 modules are now installed close to the transducers
and actuators and tied to the PLC by communication networks whose protocols are either proprietary or standard-
ized by industrial manufacturers' associations (module 5).
The remote modules can themselves be micro-PLCs. In general, rather than using a single PLC, several PLCs
are installed in a factory, each controlling a machine or a section. The PLCs are often interconnected by means of
a factory communication network (modules 6-7). Finally, the factory network can also be connected to the informa-
tion network of the business enterprise, making use of the embedded gateway capability of the PLC (module 8).
Description of modules:
1. 16-point input module with screw terminals
2. 16-point output module with screw terminals (see internal construction in Figure 31.13b)
3. 96-point 1/0 module including pre-wired cable for external input terminal blocks and output modules
4. 8-point configurable analogue input module
5. DeviceNet® network module (mainly for the control of remote 110 modules, contactors, variable speed drives, etc.)
6. Controller Link® network module using fiber optics (mainly for supervision and exchange of data at high speed)
7. Controller Link® network module using twisted-pair cable.
8. Network module for communication by Ethernet® protocol (mainly for supervision, data acquisition, and man-
agement of information) ,
9. Optional CPU inner board with two programmable serial communication ports
10. Central processing unit (CPU) of the PLC (two configurable serial ports can be seen on the front)
11. Power supply for the PLC
12. Optional memory card to save local files concerning the project. This may be the project development file itself,
electrical wiring diagrams, or to hold rapid and intensive local data acquisition by the PLC.
(Courtesy <>lOMRON Canada Inc.)
 PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLERS 843

Figure 31.13b
This picture shows the interior of a 16-point relay-type output module. The relays are mounted on plug-in bases
and can readily be replaced by means of an extractor that is included in the module. On account of their robust-
ness, versatility, and low cost, output modules with relays are often used instead of semi-conductor devices.
However, a relay is an electromechanical device whose useful life is limited by the electrical load and the number of
operations. Typical load capacity is"2 amperes. Note that the terminal board can be lifted easily, so the wiring does
not have to be undone when the modure·is removed from the PLC rack.
(Courtesy <~/'OMRON Canada Inc.)
844 ELECTRIC UTILITY POWER SYSTEMS

Figure 31.13c
This "remote" 1/0 module can be used locally by connecting it to a PLC, such as shown in module 3 of Figure
31.13a. The connection is made by means of pre-wired cables of different lengths (up to a maximum of ten me-
ters). The relay module can also be connected further away by adding a communication module of the desired
choice. External output modules allow for a wider choice of output types. Also, modules having greater capacities
can be installed, thus facilitating direct interfacing of the controlled devices connected to the output.
(Courtesy of OMRON Canada Inc.)

module. A twisted or coaxial cable, or a fiber-optic controls the start/run/stop operation of a motor.
link. connects the remote station to the CPU. Figure Figure 31.14 uses a PLC to perform the same oper-
3 l. I 3c shows a remote output module. ations. We recall that each input to the input module
behaves like the coil of a relay. The "coil" has one
31.11 Conventional control circuits or more "contacts," located in the CPU, whose re-
spective NO or NC conditions are programmed by
and PLC circuits
the user.
It is now evident that we can use a PLC in place of Note that "contact'' I 02 associated with the stop
a conventional relay control circuit. The following pushbutton is programmed to be normally open
examples show how the change is made. (NO). In effect, since this NC pushbutton is con-
nected to terminal 102, ''coil" I02 is "excited,"
Example 31-6 which causes the NO "contact" I 02 in the CPU to
Consider the conventional control circuit of Fig. be closed. This is true as long as the stop pushbut-
20.16b (reproduced here for convenience) which ton is not depressed.
 PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLERS 845

T
disconnecting switch contactor thermal overload relay
1 r-------------------------1 4 A f-----1 Tl A
o--+-o 11-o-+,-0---0--0--0----c;-;..r r.-o-----Q.
I I
I I
I I
2 I
D--t--0 I
11-0--T-<D-+-<>-I
I

3 !l __________________________
o--+-o I
11-0-~,-o-+--o--t
J
A1-e,___-o0-4..r

con~rol
station
! -----,
_____ !
~Jj" pilot light
/ ... ( ,

0
T---Dreset pushbutton
0

Figure 20.16b (reproduction)

Schematic diagram of a 3-phase across-the-line magnetic starter.

input (+) (-) output

start module module

'~'}-
102

103 B

103 112

111----{ }_..............~
24V IC CPU ~~~oc 12ov

Figure 31.14
This PLC virtual control system produces the same machine performance as the hardware control system shown
in Fig. 20. 16b.

We also note that an auxiliary relay B had to be that "contact" 102 is closed. The "contacts" IO I and
added to the output module. The reason is that ter- I03 are open because "coils·· I0 I and I03 are not ex-
minal 0 I cannot furnish the relatively current cited. As a result "coils'' 111 and 112 are not "ex-
needed to excite to the holding coil of big contactor cited.'' It follows that contacts 111 and 112 in the out-
A. By using the small relay B, whose contacts are put module are open. Thus, auxiliary coil B is not
robust enough to carry the exciting current of coil excited and the pilot lamp connected to 02 is off. As
A, we get around the problem. a result contact B is open. which means that holding
Let us now examine the behavior of the virtual coil A is not excited and so the motor will not start.
contacts and coils of the PLC. Prior to pushing the Let us push the start pushbutton momentarily
start pushbutton, ''coil" I02 is excited which means and see what happens.
846 ELECTRIC UTILITY POWER SYSTEMS

input output
CPU
start module module
control processing unit
(+) (-)
101 102 104 112 111

oc 120 v

1I i----v-+--~
24V IC

Figure 31.15
This PLC control system for starting and plugging a motor possesses the same security features and produces the
same effect as the all-hardware system shown in Fig. 20.24a.

I. "Coil" IOI is "excited," which closes "con- which coil B, thus deenergizing
tact'" IOI. coil A, which stops the motor. It is readily
seen that the opening of Ax will extinguish
2. Because "contact" I 02 is already closed, "coil"
the pilot light.
111 is "excited," which closes contact 111, thus
exciting relay coil B. Note that the wires connected to terminals 11, I2, 13,
and IC carry a current of only a few milliamperes.
3. The NO contact B closes. which excites con-
Consequently, the cable connected to these termi-
tactor coil A, thus starting the motor.
nals can be much lighter than in conventional relay
4. As soon as contactor A closes, the NO auxiliary control circuits. Also. the 24 V power supply has
contact Ax closes, which excites "coil" 103, only to deliver a few watts at the most.
thus causing both "contacts" I 03 to close. The simple control circuit of Fig. 20. I 6b would
These contacts remain closed as long as contac- not justify using a PLC. However, it illustrates the
tor A is energized. As a result, contact 112 principles that are involved.
closes, causing the pilot lamp to light up.
Example 31-7
5. When the pressure on the start pushbutton is re-
We want to use a PLC to replace the conventional
leased, it causes "contact" I 0 I to open, but
control system shown in 20.24a, displayed at
since "contact" I 03 is closed, the motor contin-
the beginning of this chapter. The resulting PLC cir-
ues to run.
cuit and "ladder diagram" are shown in Fig. 31.15.
6. When the stop pushbutton is depressed, lt is called a ladder diagram because the ( +) and
"coil" I 02 is no longer excited, thus causing ( - ) "bus bars" look like the sidepieces of a ladder
"contact" 102 to open. As a result, ''coil" 111 while the horizontal circuits 1, 2, 3, 4, containing
is deenergized, which opens contact 111, the "contacts" and "coils" look like rungs.
 PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLERS 847

The NO contacts of the start pushbutton and the associated with a device that seri·es to stop an
NC contacts of the stop pushbutton are connected action must he of the NC tvpe.
to terminals I I and 12 of the PLC. The cumbersome
If this rule is not observed. a break in a cable con-
mechanical interlock (for security purposes) of the
necting an input device to the PLC could produce
two pushbuttons of Fig. 20.24a is now replaced by
unexpected start-ups or make it impossible to stop
the NC '"contact" I02 of rung 3 and the NC "con-
an automated process.
tact"" I 0 I. also of rung 3. The NO auxiliary contacts
(Ax 1 and Bx 1 ) of contactors A and B are respec-
tively connected to terminals l3 and I4 of the input 31.13 Programming the PLC
module. The former NC auxiliary contacts (Ax 2 In order to program a PLC. we must "write" the op-
and Bx 2 ) are no longer required. The NO "'contacts'' erations it has to perform. These instructions are
I03 and I04 of rungs 2 and 4 are the holding con- typed on the programming unit keyboard, observed
tacts. The NC ··contacts" I04 and l 03 of rungs 1 on the monitor, and stored in the CPU memory. From
and 3 constitute a security interlock. the very beginning, particular attention was devoted
As a further measure of security, NC ''contacts" to the method of programming. The technical criteria
112 and 111 of rungs 1 and 3 were programmed into stipulated that the system should be quickly and eas-
the CPU memory. This eliminates the potential dan- ily programmable and reprogrammable by the user.
ger of a break in the connection of contacts Ax 1 and The PLC was therefore carefully designed to make it
Bx It is obvious that considerable economies have
1
•
simple to use. However. it is useful to have some
been realized in the number of external devices con- computer knowledge to program a PLC.
nected to the T/O modules. The start and stop push-
buttons now have only one contact and the main 31.14 Programming languages
contactors A and B have each only one auxiliary
contact. namely Ax 1 and Bx 1• The term 1Jrogra111111i11g language refers to the list of
The programming of ladder diagrams such as symbols that are used and the way they have to be
that of 31. 15 takes considerable know ledge of configured to program the PLC. The three principal
logic circuits. We leave the analysis of the behavior languages are: (I) the ladder diagram, (2) Boolean
of this circuit to the reader. logic, and (3) the Sequential Flow Chart (SFC). The
European equivalent of the SFC language is called
31.12 Security rule Grafcet. Other languages have been developed in
recent years, so that a total of about six options are
By using a PLC, it is possible to invert the status of available, at the discretion of the user.
the external contacts connected to the input mod-
ule. Thus, a real NO contact connected to the input The ladder diagram
module can be programmed by the user as an NC Among the several programming languages that are
"contact" in the PLCs CPU (see Examples 31 l used, the ladder diagram is the simplest. Without
and 31-2, section 31.3 ). This freedom to reverse the saying so explicitly. we used ladder diagrams in
state of a contact must be used with discretion, par- Figs. 3 1.6, 3 I. 7. 31.8. and 31.14. Figure 31.15
ticularly as regards the selection of the type of con- shows yet another ladder diagram.
tact (NO or NC) of the devices connected to the in- In programming a ladder diagram from the key-
put module. The following rule must alH'ays be board, the desired circuit is progressively displayed
observed:
on the monitor. During this process, the cursor is
Any "contact .. associated wiri1 a [f~l'ice that moved to the desired place on the screen and the de-
sen'es to initiate w1 action £Jf'some kind must sired function is selected by pushing the appropriate
he <~l the NO type. Cmn'ersely. any "contact" key to create a NO or NC "contact:· an "internal
848 ELECTRIC UTILITY POWER SYSTEMS

relay coil,'' an "output relay coil." and so fo11h. necting them. This is risky because connection
When the function is chosen. it is given a reference errors can ~qsily be made.
number. The same procedure is followed for the re- • The flexibility ot' PLCs is extraordinary. Thus,
mainder of the control circuit. whenever a given control system is no longer re-
During the programming phase, only a portion quired, it can readily be reprogrammed for a
of the control circuit can be displayed on the screen. completely different system. With relay racks,
However, most PLCs that use the ladder program- such a changeover is not feasible and the racks
ming language can be connected to a printer. would simply be scrapped, replaced, and
Consequently, the entire control circuit can be dis- rewired.
played, which enables the programmer to verify the
• The PLC is much less bulky than a conventional
diagram and the behavior of the system. Figure
relay control system. For example, a CPU hav-
31.16 shows a portion of the menu and ladder dia-
ing a volume of 0.1 m 3 replaces hundreds of
gram displayed on the monitor of a PLC.
control relays, as well as the hard wiring needed
to connect the contacts and holding coils.
Boolean language
Furthermore. the PLC consumes far less energy.
The Boolean programming language is based on
Boolean algebra. This algebra is used to solve prob- • A PLC is more reliable than a relay cabinet. One
lems of logic. It was invented in the middle of the 19th important reason is the absence of moving parts.
century by the British mathematician George Boole. Relays have moving parts that deteriorate as the
One of the drawbacks of this language is the dif- equipment gets older. Relay contacts wear out
ficulty one has in reading it. Thus, starting from a and have to be replaced, all of which requires a
ladder diagram, it is easy to write a program using sustained maintenance program. "Relay coils''
the Boolean language. However. the reverse proce- and "contacts" in CPUs never wear out.
dure is difficult: it is hard to read a program in • In addition, the opening and closing of relay
Boolean language and then translate it into the cor- contacts, while rapid, takes a certain time. The
responding ladder diagram. time interval is not the same for all relays and,
moreover, it may change with time. In some ap-
The SFC language plications where the opening and closing se-
The sequential flow chart (SFC) language is a very quence is important, the time variations may in-
effective tool in diagnosing PLCs and automated troduce control errors. Such errors are very
systems in general. It is a PLC programming difficult to diagnose because of their random na-
method that enables the user to organize the indi- ture. In the case of PLCs, the "contact" opening
vidual machine operations of a process into a series and closing times are fixed. Consequently, se-
of steps and transitions. Ladder logic can then be quence operations are never a problem.
used to implement the program. • The relay cabinet has to be assembled by hand.
Hundreds and even thousands of wires must be
31.15 Advantages of PLCs over connected between the contacts and relay coils,
relay cabinets which implies a big chance of making errors.
These errors are difficult to locate. By contrast,
There are many reasons for the universal popularity
with a PLC, all that is needed is to draw a lad-
of PLCs. We list them as follows.
der diagram according to a plan. Here again, if
• The PLC is flexible. Because it is programma- an error is made, the hand-held programming
ble, it is easy to modify as the need arises. In the unit (or the more sophisticated computer) con-
case of control systems using physical relays, tains utility functions that make it easy to cor-
any change means replacing relays and recon- rect a mistake.
 PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLERS 849

Figure 31.16
Software programs for PLCs are evolving rapidly. Small, dedicated programming consoles that permit only a very
limited interface with the user are now almost only employed because of their portability and their ability to make
quick, minor modifications in the field.
But the most frequently used tool is the portable computer whose software is based upon Microsoft Windows®.
Evidently, these software programs permit the development and configuration of the PLC, but they also enable the
adequate documentation of the programs.
Portable computers also enable an operator to communicate with more than one PLC at a time. Furthermore,
changes to the program can be made without having to stop a machine or interrupt a process controlled by the
PLC. They also constitute a powerful tool to diagnose or debug a problem. The reason is that the operator can visu-
alize the situation in the form of chronograms and other graphic displays. Ladder diagrams can be "frozen" when
specific conditions have been identified and registered in real time by the PLC.
The most practical and frequently used programming language is still the ladder logic as displayed in this figure.
However, more and more PLCs offer complementary programming tools such as sequential flow charts, functional
block diagrams, literal (Boolean) language, and high-level languages such as Basic or C. In addition specialized
software using dedicated languages can be tied in with the main development software. They are used for more
specific tasks like positioning applications, process-manufacturing controls, or other tasks by integrated co-proces-
sors on the PLC. Finally, other auxtliary software programs are used to perform simulations, supervision, data ac-
quisition, control, and management.
(Courtesy (~f' OM RON Canada Inc.)
850 ELECTRIC UTILITY POWER SYSTEMS

• As regards cost. a PLC is cheaper than a conven- Finally, the effect of a program may not be the
tional relay rack as soon as the number of relays same from one PLC to another. This anomaly stems
exceeds about ten or fifteen. The economy is obvi- from the fact that iuiinufacturers have not yet estab-
ously greater for more elaborate control systems. 1ished common standards. Thus, every time a dif-
ferent type of PLC is used, it is important to read the
Having said this, PLCs are not perfect. Their mode
programming manual to ensure the proper opera-
of operation sometimes causes sequencing prob-
tion of the various functions. The differences are
lems. For example, the order in which the program
not big. but they may require slight changes when
is written can sometimes influence the behavior of
programming the control circuit.
the controlled system.

MODERNIZATION OF AN INDUSTRY

31.16 Industrial application of PLCs year to complete. It required the input from con-
sulting engineering firms. visits to stevedoring op-
We are all aware that industries have been greatly erations that had already been modernized, cost cal-
transformed by the new computer-based technolo- culations, and research on how the modernization
gies. How does the transition from the old to the new would impact the existing labor force.
take place? To answer this question. let us consider After the study was made, the !.{radual transfor-
a large stevedoring enterprise that modernized the mation of the stevedoring operation began to take
handling ofone of its bulk materials by installing so- place. This involved the installation of new equip-
phisticated equipment and controls. During the ment, driven by more than one hundred motors rang-
changeover. the new equipment had to be gradually ing in power from fractional size to 1500 hp. The op-
integrated with the old because it was unthinkable to eration of these motors had to be coordinated. But
make the changeover in one giant step. since the motors were scattered over a wide area. and
The stevedoring operation consists of unloading because they had to be monitored from a central con-
freighters carrying bulk products such as rock salt, trol station, communication of their status was of the
cement. pig iron, powdered nickel, bauxite, and alu- essence. Thus, the cu1Tent, speed, phase unbalance,
mina. The modernization involved the handling of temperature of the windings. temperature of the bear-
alumina, a powder used to make aluminum. Its ings, vibration. etc., had to be monitored on a contin-
chemical composition is given by the formula uous basis. Furthermore, if anything ran out of line.
Al~0 1 . During a typical stevedoring operation,
an alarm had to be sounded to have the problem
so1;1e. 700 tons per hour of alumina are sucked out
fixed. For example, if one of the 500-hp blower mo-
of the ship's hold. moved by conveyor belts (Fig. tors (Fig. 3 I. I 8) began to vibrate. the situation had to
31.17) to a waiting train. and blown through ports be corrected quickly because damage to the bearings
into cylindrical-shaped wagons. A typical wagon is or to the driven equipment could result.
loaded in a matter of 10 minutes. Motorized valves demanded special position con-
trols. Thus, as the alumina was rushing through 500-
mm pipes, the flow had to be kept at the desired level
31.17 Planning the change to ensure that it was neither too high nor too low.
When management decided to modernize the alu- Clearly, such a complete control over the indus-
mina stevedoring procedure, a small team of ex- trial process could only be achieved by computers.
perts was given the task of determining what meth- But during the transition, much of the older equip-
ods should be used and how the entire process could ment. together with its relays. hard wiring, limit
be automated. This in-depth study took more than a switches~ pushbuttons, and so forth, had to function
 PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLERS 851

Figure 31.17
One of the many intersections of two conveyor belts that are more than 1 km long. The conveyors are used to store
bulk products, and to load and unload freighters in the Port of Quebec.
(Courtesy <Jf' St. Lawrence Stevedoring)

as before. Consequently, the stevedoring operation meant that many manual jobs would no longer be re-
involved a progressive marriage of the new with the quired. Because labor relations are always important,
old, wherein computers controlled one section it became necessary to ensure that jobs that were lost
while human operators continued to control an- would be replaced by tasks that were more satisfy-
other. Furthermore. the older hard wiring had to be ing, less routine, and more interesting.
integrated (temporarily) with new coaxial cable and
fiber-optic links. This required the installation of
31.18 Getting to know PLCs
appropriate interfacing devices ..
All these alterations had to be made. not in a lab- How was the new equipment installed and who was
oratory. but in the field, where gantry cranes to look after it? It is interesting to note that techni-
and powerful motors could easily wreck equipment cians that had been doing their regular jobs for years
if something went wrong. Thus. another important were quickly able to absorb the new technology. The
aspect of the transition was the proper operation of verbal exchange between company representatives
the apparatus and the safety of personnel. that were supplying the PLCs and fiber-optic devices
Another vital consideration was the impact of this enabled the older technicians to understand the new
new technology on the working habits and continued language of ladder logic diagrams. Ethernet@. inter-
employment of the workers. In effect. the modern- net, megabits per second. etc. And so it became evi-
ization and automation of the stevedoring operation dent that not only were the equipment and controls
852 ELECTRIC UTILITY POWER SYSTEMS

Figure 31.18
Blower motors to siphon alumina powder from freighter to special train wagons. The 3-phase motors have a rating
of 500 hp, 4160 V, 3600 r/min. The picture shows (1) a position-controlled pneumatic valve, (2) a thermal detector
to sense the temperature of the motor windings, and (3) a vibration detector.
(Courtesy (f St. Lawrence Stevedorin1t)

gradually being changed, but that the same process the lingo became familiar, the tasks became routine,
was going on at the human level. Valuable knowl- the computers became less intimidating, and before
edge acquired over many years was gradually being long the gray-haired veteran realized he had be-
enhanced by new information. come part of the high-tech team. He now knows
Some individuals welcomed the challenge of how to handle a keyboard, he understands what the
learning something new, but others were more ap- computer screen reveals, he knows what to do if an
prehensive about their ability to cope with these alarm sounds, and he can quickly communicate his
new-fangled concepts. But time and daily contact findings to others (Fig. 31.19).
with new equipment inevitably transform a per- The newly-hired technician also had the advan-
son's way of thinking. As the transition took place, tage of working closely with these experienced vet-
 PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLERS 853

Figure 31.19
Strategic control and surveillance center of all bulk products handled in the Port of Quebec. All the communication
networks, cameras, and status of PLCs are centralized at this point.
(Courtesy (~l St. LmtTence Stevedoring)

erans. As a result. the technical-human link between staggering the use of large motors so they do not run
the old and the new is considerably reinforced. at the same time. Such peak-load control can save
thousands of dollars per month.
31.19 Linking the PLCs
31.20 Programming the PLCs
The entire stevedoring facility is controlled by
about fifteen PLCs, two of which are assigned to the Naturally, the entire industrial process had to be
alumina-handling operation. Some are linked by a programmed on computers. Towards this end, pro-
communications network in order to coordinate gramming specialists were hired to implement the
specific operations. Other PLCs perform isolated new control techniques and to incorporate them in
tasks that do not have to be integrated with the sys- the PLC memory blocks. This became the task of
tem. However, plans are under w~y to centralize all new graduates from technical institutes working in
the PLCs. One reason is to control the peak power conjunction with manufacturers' representatives.
that is drawn by the stevedoring facility. For exam- They programmed the PLCs using languages such
ple, the cost of electric power can be reduced by as SFC and, more recently, block diagrams. For the
854 ELECTRIC UTILITY POWER SYSTEMS

IP'
•I
rr

Figure 31.21
Figure 31.20
This motor starter with its on/off/jog pilot lights has a
This 600-V, 3-phase motor control center is equipped
3-phase contactor and disconnect switch. In addition,
with Powerlogic® devices that provide sophisticated
it includes a multifunction protection relay that pro-
monitoring capabilities such as active and reactive
tects the motor against mechanical overloads, over-
power, voltage, current, and waveform analysis. It in-
heating, voltage and current unbalance, and phase
cludes Internet transmission capabilities and pos-
failure. In addition, it monitors the power factor, start-
sesses embedded Web pages.
ing time, ground faults, and starting current. It trans-
(Courtesy <?l Schneider Electric) mits all this information to a PLC using a Modbus®
protocol. Copper or fiber-optic cable may be used to
make the connection.
experienced programmer. the latter are often more (Courtesy of' Schneider Electric)
convenient to use than ladder diagrams.
In setting up a new control sequence to handle,
say, the movement of a crane, the programmer must behaving as planned. Towards this end. emergency
incorporate fail-safe features by simulating the op- pushbuttons are spotted at strategic points to inter-
eration of the crane to see if any bugs arise. The pre- rupt a wrongly-programmed activity.
liminary simulation phase is very important because As regards the motor control centers (Fig.
it enables the programmer to verify the safety and 31.20), they contain the usual contactors to start and
integrity of the system. Finally, when a program is stop electric motors. However. they also include
put into actual operation for the first time, the tech- monitoring devices that continually check the con-
nical group watches closely to see that everything is dition of the motor (Fig. 31.21 ). This information is
 PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLERS 855

Figure 31.22
This fiber-optic junction box facilitates connections be-
tween cables.
(Courtesy <~f' St. Lawrence Stevedoring)

relayed to the relevant PLC by fiber optics consist-

ing of a single strand of flexible cable (Fig. 31.22). Figure 31.23
In conclusion, the installation of this modern This Quantum® PLC has three parts. From left to
control system has significantly reduced the cost of right: (1) 1/0 module, (2) CPU, and (3) power supply.
the alumina stevedoring operation. At the same At the far right is (4) a Web server which establishes
time it has stimulated the operating personnel, and the 100-Mb/s Internet connection using either fiber-
optic or wired cable.
has offered interesting job opportunities.
Figures 31.23, 31.24, and 31.25 convey the fla- (Courtesy of Schneider Electric)
vor of this modernization process. It is typical of all
renovations and computer-modernizing procedures
that are carried out by industry today. links, great efforts are being made to standardize the
communication systems that are used in these diverse
activities. The end result is a "transparent" e-business
31.21 The transparent enterprise
atmosphere that not only facilitates commercial trans-
As an extension of the automation process we have actions. but also is integrated with the actual manu-
just described, the tendency today is to integrate it facturing and service activities of an enterprise.
with commercial transactions. In ~ftect. the Internet is Thus, the PLC is no longer just an ingenious re-
making it possible to communicate wjtb everyone in- lay-operating device; it has become part of a so-
volved in the manufacturing, marketing, purchasing, phisticated control system that reaches into every
and end-use of products. In order to simplify these echelon of business.
856 ELECTRIC UTILITY POWER SYSTEMS

Questions and Problems

31- l Name the.._principal parts of a program-
mable logic controller.
31-2 In a PLC, what is the purpose of the input
module?
31-3 In a PLC, what is the purpose of the out-
put module?
3 l-4 In a control system, name four advantages
of using a PLC instead of relay racks.
31-5 A PLC is able to simulate relay coils,
contacts, and the connections between
them. Explain how this simulation makes
it easy to set up and modify an industrial
control system.
31-6 In a PLC, describe the purpose of the
central processing unit (CPU).
31-7 Name three languages that are used in
programming a PLC.
31-8 The PLCs in a large organization are of-
ten interconnected and tied to a main
computer. Explain how this enables com-
munication between the manufacturing
process and the business and marketing
activities of an enterprise.

Figure 31.24
This programmable logic controller belongs to the
Momentum® family. It has the usual 1/0 modules but it
includes embedded Web pages and possesses com-
munication facilities that enable it to receive and send
data by Internet protocol.
(Courtesy '~{Schneider Electric)
 PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLERS 857

Figure 31.25
The four devices shown act as bridges between the Ethernet® and Modbus® protocols. The bridges enable older
communication technologies to be transmitted over the Internet. Bridges are high-performance gateways.
(Courtesy <l Schneider Electric)
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http://www.pwrx.com http://www.astrn.org
Power Systems http://www.asm-intl.org/
http://www.tva.com http:// standards. ieee. org/ca ta log/ sol
http://www.eei.org http://www.abb.com/abbreview
http://www.ieee.org/power http://www.electricityforum.com
http://www.ge.com http://www.labvolt.com
http://www.hydroquebec.com http://www.epri.com
http://www.alstom.com http://www.prenhall.com
http://www.cdf.com Special information on using the internet
www.eia.doe.gov http://bobalden.com
Resistors Bob Alden uses his website for teaching three university-level
http://www.ohmite.com courses and consulting in both power engineering and web
design. He also writes a monthly column "Travelling the
http://www.bourns.com
Information Highway with Bob Alden" which appears in
http://www. vi shay.com IEEE's newspaper The INSTITUTE in both print and on-line
Transformers media.
http://www.ustn.1nsforrner.com
http://www.advancedcomponents.com For further information on Electrical Machines, /)rives, and
Power Systems and other books by Theodore Wildi please
http://www.ge.com
contact:
http://www.alphatransformer.com
http://www.wildi-theo.com
Variable Speed Drives e-mail wildi@wildi-theo.com
http://www.tbwoods.com
We welcome your questions and comments.
http://www.rod.well.com
http://www.abb.com

US Patents and Trademarks

http://patents.uspto.gov/
 APPENDIX
AXO Conversion Charts
AX1 Properties of Insulating Materials
AX2 Properties of Conductors and Insulators
AX3 Properties of Round Copper Conductors

AXO CONVERSION CHARTS

The conversion charts listed in this Appendix Examples at the bottom of each page are in-
make it very easy lo convert from one unit to any tended to assist the reader in applying the conver-
other. Their use is explained in Chapter I, Section I 0. sion rule which basically states:
Quantities such as AREA, MASS, VOLUME,
and so forth, are listed in alphabetical order for WITH THE ARROW - MULTIPLY
quick reference. Multipliers between units are ei-
ther exact, or accurate to ±0.1 percent. AGAINST THE ARROW - DIVIDE

Conversion charts adapted •ind reproduced with permission. Copyright v 197 L 1973 by Volta Ine.: copyright <D 1978. 1988. 1995 by
Sperika Entcrpri-,e> Ltd. All rights reserved.

865
866 APPENDIX

,. ''
:

MULTIPLES AND AREA ELECTRIC CHARGE

SUB-MULTIPLES OF
SI UNITS
2.59
exa '1.::
, square Wilometer km 2
1000
100
peta 'p-
hectare
1000 ,\ i f (~J.~ t(,s 2.47
tera T acre
1000 4047
giga G square meter m2
1000 10.76
mega M
1000 104 144
k
10 6.4516
hecto h square centimeter cm
1000 10 100
deca da
square millimeter mm 2
10 1.97
MCM kcmil ENERGY

10
106 square mil 1000
deci d
1.273
10
cmil
centi
507
10 kW·h
square micrometer µm
m
MJ
1000
micro µ.
CONDUCTANCE W·h
1000
nano n I siemens
pico
1000

1000
p lmho
tl
·: Btu

kJ

femto calorie
1000 DENSITY 1000 3.086
atto
pound per cubic inch ft-lbf
27.68 1.356
tonne per cubic meter t/mJ

gram per cubic centimeter g/cm 3 N·m

1
1000 kg/L

pound per cubic foot 6.24 x 10 18

16.02
kilogram per cubic meter kg/m 3 lelectronvolt
t eV I

Example: Convert 1590 MCM to square inches.

Solution: 1590 MCM = 1590(-;- 1.97) (-;- 100) (-;- 6.4516) in
2
= 1.25 in 2 •
Conversion charts adapted and reproduced with permission. Copyright[) l 971. l 973 by Volta Inc,; copyright I[) l 978. l 988. 1995 by
Sperika Enterprises Ltd, All rights re~erved.
 APPENDIX 867

FORCE MAGNETIC FIELD INTENSITY MASS

kip oersted Oe megagram Mg
4.448 2.02
kilogram force kgf ampere-turn per inch 79.6 tonne
39.37 1000 1.102
pound force lbf 9.806 ampere per meter A/m
4.448
newton N kilogram kg
2.205
pound lb
MAGNETIC FLUX

FLOW
cubic meter per second m 3 /s
35.3 MOMENT OF INERTIA

microweber µWb Ikilogram meter 2

kg·m~I

1000
6.23
gallon {Canadian) per second maxwell
100 I
23.73
1.201
4.55 gallon (U.S.) per second line of force pound mass foot 2 lb·ft 2
3.785 5.97
dm3 /s ounce force inch second 2 OZ·in·s 2
386.1
ounce mass inch 2 OZ·in 2

MAGNETIC FLUX DENSITY

tesla T
LENGTH 10
mile kilogauss
PRESSURE AND STRESS
1.609 1000
kilometer km 106 gauss
1000 6.45
meter m line per square inch
3.28 15.5
foot microtesla µT
100 12
inch
2.54
cm pound per square inch (psi)
10 6.89
millimeter mm kilopascal kPa
39.37 MAGNETOMOTIVE FORCE 7.5
106 mil (0.001 inch) ampere A 1000 millimeter of mercury (0 C)

nanometer nm pascal Pa
10 1.257
angstrom newton per square meter

Example: Convert 580 psi to megapascals.

Solution":!;)~O psi = 580 (x 6.89) (< 1000) mpa 4mpa.
Conversion charts adapted and reproduced with permis~ion. Copyright (i) 1971. 1973 by Volta Inc.: copyright (i) 1978. 1988. 1995 by
Spcrika Enterprises Ltd. All righh reserved.
868 APPENDIX

POWER SPEED TORQUE

Imegawatt MWJ meter per second m/s ft-lb

I
1000 Btu per second
2.237
newton-meter
1.356
N.m
1.055 1.467 8.851
kW 100 1000
1.34 113
horsepower hp km/h miUinewton-meter mN.m
1000
calorie per second cm/s
4.184
watt w
VOLUME
cubic meter m3
TEMPERATURE 1.308
1000 Idegree Celsius 0
cl cubic yard

I I cubic foot
27

~
foot-pound force per minute +273

milliwatt
22.6
mW !kelvin
t 1000 6.23

1.201
+32 4.546
t
Idegree Fahrenheit cubic decimeter
3.785
dm 3

Examples: 100°c = 1oo + 273 373 kelvins liter L

66°F = (68- 321 1.8 20°C 1000 61.02

16.4
cm 3

milliliter ml

RESISTIVITY

ohm-meter f!.m
100 MASS FORCE OF GRAVITY
ohm-centimeter Ikilogram {mass) !kilogram (force}

109 microhm-centimeter I
9.806
6.015
ohm circular mil per foot

nanohm-meter
1.662
nn-m
!pound (mass)
:...... ''°"''t
newton
4.448 ! Nj

Example: Calculate the force of gravity (in newtons) that acts on a mass of 9 lb.
Solution: 9 lb -7 9 (x 1) (x 4.448) N 40 N.
Conversion charts adapted and reproduced with permission. Copyright © 1971, 1973 by Volta Inc.; copyright © 1978. 1988. 1995 by
Sperika Enterprises Ltd. All rights reserved.
 APPENDIX 869

TABLE AX1 PROPERTIES OF INSULATING MATERIALS

Mechanical
Electrical Properties Thermal Properties Properties

Insulator
dielectric dielectric max operating thermal notes
strength constant temperature conductivity density

MV/m or
kV/mm E, oc W/(m·°C) kg/m 1

dry air 3 I 2000 0.024 1.29 gas density

hydrogen 2.7 I - 0.17 0.09 is at 0°C
101 kPa
nitrogen 3.5 I - 0.024 1.25
oxygen 3 I - 0.025 1.43
sulfur hexafluoride (SF 6 ) 30 MV/m at I - 0.014 6.6
400 kPa

solid asbestos I - 1600 0.4 2000

asbestos wool I - 1600 0.1 400
askarel 12 4.5 120 - 1560 synthetic
liquid
(restricted)
epoxy 20 3.3 130 0.3 1600 to 2000
glass 100 5 to 7 600 1.0 2500
magnesium oxide 3 4 1400 2.4 - (powder)

mica 40 to 240 7 500 to 1000 0.36 2800

mineral oil 10 2.2 110 0.16 860
00
mylar 400 3 150 - 1380 a polyester
nylon 16 4.1 150 0.3 1140 a polyamide
paper (treated) 14 4 to 7 120 0.17 1100

polyamide 40 3.7 100 to 180 0.3 1100

polycarbonate 25 3.0 130 0.2 1200
polyethylene 40 2.3 90 0.4 930
polyimide 200 3.8 180 to 400 0.3 1100
polyurethane 35 3.6 90 0.35 1210

polyvinylchloride (PVC) 50 3.7 70 0.18 1390

porcelain 4 6 1300 1.0 2400
rubber 12 tq,20 4 65 0.14 950
silicon 10 .. - 250 0.3 1800 to 2800
teflon 20 2 260 0.24 2200
870 APPENDIX

TABLE AX2 ELECTRICAL, MECHANICAL AND THERMAL PROPERTIES OF SOME COMMON CONDUCTORS (AND
INSULATORS)

Electrical properties Mechanical properties Thermal properties

thermal
temp yield ultimate specific conduc- melting
n::sistivity p cocff density strength strength heat tivity point
Material Chemical
symbol
or O'C :?{l°C at 0°C or
composition nH·m nH·m (X 10 \) MPa MP a J/kg·T W/m·T cc
aluminum Al 26.0 28.3 4.39 2703 21 62 960 218 660
bras~ = 70'k Cu. Zn 60.2 62.0 1.55 8300 124 370 370 143 960
carbon/ c 8000to - -0.3 2500 710 5.0 3600
graphite 30000
constantan 54rk Cu. 500 500 -0.03 8900 - 4IO 22.6 II90
45% Ni. 1% Mn
copper Cu 15.88 17.24 4.27 8890 35 220 380 394 1083
gold Au 22.7 24.4 3.65 19 300 69 130 296 1063
iron Fe 88.I IOI 7.34 7900 13 I 290 420 79.4 1535
lead Pb 203 220 4.19 11 300 15 130 35 327
111angan111 84(.k Cu, 4£fr NL 482 482 ±0.015 8410 - - - 20 1020
12% Mn
mercury Hnb 95I 968 0.9I 13 600 - - 140 8.4 -39
molybdenum Mo 49.6 52.9 3.3 IO 200 - 690 246 138 2620
monel 30% Cu. 418 434 1.97 8800 530 690 530 25 1360
69% Ni. I'k Fe
nichrome 80% Ni. 2()C!c Cr 1080 1082 0.1 I 8400 - 690 430 I 1.2 1400
nickel Ni 78.4 85.4 4.47 8900 200 500 460 90 1455
platinum Pt 9.7 I 0.4 3.4 21 400 - - 131 71 1773
silver Ao/:::' I5.0 16.2 4.11 10 500 - - 230 408 960
tungsten w 49.6 55.1 5.5 19 300 - 3376 140 20 3410
zinc Zn 55.3 59.7 4.0 7100 - 70 380 110 420
air 78% - 1.29 - - 994 0.024 -
21 01
hydrogen H2 - - O.o9 - - 14 200 0.17
pure water H1 0 - 2.5 - 1000 - - 4180 0.58 0.()
x 10 1
-1
TABLE AX3 PROPERTIES OF ROUND COPPER CONDUCTORS

Gauge Diameter of Cross section Resistance Weight Typical

number bare conductor mWmorWkm g/m diameter
AWG/ or of
B&S mm mils !111112
I cmils 2s c 0

I 105°C kg/km insulated

magnet
250 MCM 12.7 500 126.6 250 000 0.138 0.181 1126 wire
410 11.7 460 107.4 212000 0.164 0.214 953 u~ed in
210 9.27 365 67.4 133 000 0.261 0.341 600 relays.
1/0 8.26 325 53.5 105 600 0.328 0.429 475 magnets.
motors,
1 7.35 289 42.4 87 700 0.415 0.542 377
trans-
2 6.54 258 33.6 66400 0.522 0.683 300
formers.
3 5.83 229 26.6 52 600 0.659 0.862 237 etc.
4 5.18 204 21 I 41 600 0.833 1.09 187
5 4.62 182 16.8 33 120 1.05 1.37 149 111111

6 4.11 162 13.30 26 240 1.32 1.73 118

7 3.66 144 10.5 20 740 1.67 2.19 93.4

9 2.89 114 6.59 13 000 2.67 3.48 58.6 3.00

10 2.59 102 5.27 10400 3.35 4.36 46.9 2.68
11 2.30 90.7 4.17 8 230 4.23 5.54 37.1 2.39
12 2.05 80.8 3.31 6 530 5.31 6.95 29.5 2.14
13 1.83 72.0 2.63 5 180 6.69 8.76 25.4 1.91
14 1.63 64.1 2.08 4 110 8.43 11.0 18.5 1.71
15 l .45 57.1 1.65 3 260 10.6 13.9 14.7 1.53
16 1.29 50.8 1.31 2 580 13.4 17.6 11.6 1.37
17 1.15 45.3 1.04 2 060 16.9 22.1 9.24 1.22
18 1.02 40.3 0.821 1 620 21.4 27.9 7.31 1 10
19 0.91 35.9 0.654 I 290 26.9 35.1 5.80 0.98
20 0.81 32.0 0.517 I 020 33.8 44.3 4.61 0.88
21 0.72 28.5 0.411 812 42.6 55.8 3.66 0.79
22 0.64 25.3 0.324 640 54.I 70.9 2.89 0.70
23 0.57 22.6 0.259 511 67.9 88.9 2.31 0.63
24 0.51 20.1 0.205 404 86.0 112 1.81 0.57
25 0.45 17.9 0.162 320 108 142 1.44 0.51
26 0.40 15.9 0.128 253 137 179 1.14 0.46
27 0.36 14.2 0.102 202 172 225 0.908 0.41
28 0.32 12.6 0.080 159 218 286 0.716 0.37
29 0.29 11.3 0.065 128 272 354 0.576 0.33
30 0.25 10.0 0.0507 100 348 456 0.451 0.29
31 0.23 8.9 0.0401 79.2 440 574 0.357 0.27
32 0.20 8.0 0.0324 64.0 541 709 0.289 0.24
33 0.18 7.1 0.0255 50.4 689 902 0.228 0.21
34 0.16 6.3 0.0201 39.7 873 1140 0.179 0.19
35 0.14 5.6 0.0159 31.4 1110 1450 0.141 0.17
36 0.13 5.0 .. 0.0127 25.0 1390 1810 0.113 0.15
37 0.11 4.5 0.0103 20.3 1710 2230 ().()91 0.14
38 0.10 4.0 0.0081 16.0 2170 2840 0.072 0.12
39 0.09 3.5 0.0062 12.3 2820 3690 0.055 0.11
40 0.08 3.1 0.0049 9.6 3610 4720 0.043 O.l
 ANSWERS TO
PROBLEMS

Note: The following numerical answers are usually Chapter 3

rounded <~fl to an acrnracy of Jo/c. An.nvers that I. 392 N 2. 2940 J 4. 60 N·m 5. 251 kW. 336 hp 6. 10.8 kW.
are preceded by the symbol~ are accurate to ±5%. 14.5 hp 7a. 100 kW. 134 hp 7b. 83.3'/r 7c. 68 256 Btu/h
8.415.7J 9a.1096J 9b.3288J 9c.242kJ 1lb.50N·m
Chapter 1 13. zero 14. 209 W 15. 209 W 16. 1.89 kW. 2.53 hp
17a.13.I N·m 17b.88.8kJ 17c.2195W 17d.2400W
7. MW 8. TJ 9. mPa IO. kHz 11. GJ 12. mA 13. µ,Wb 18a. 1222 N·m 18b. 1332 Nm 19a. 475 N·m 19b. 4455 N
14. cm 15. L 16. mg 17. µs 18. mK 19. mrad 21. mT 20. 3.04 MJ 21. 7.68 MJ 22. 1568 N·m. 239 r/min
22. mm 23. r 24. MO 33. mL 34. Lis or m 3/s 35. Hz 36. rad 23. 1568 N·m. 47.8 r/min
37. Wb 38. kg/m 1 39. W 40. Kor CC 41. kg 62. l 1.95 yd!
63. 126.9 mm 2 64. 2.549 in 2 65. 659 l mm 2 66. 2.59 km 2
67.76.77Btu/s 68.0.746kW 69.7.079111 3 70.13.56 X l0°µJ Chapter 4
71. 4.536 kgf 72. 0.93 T 73. 12 kilogauss 74. 1.417 kg
75. 6049.6 Alm 76. 3. 107 miles 77. 288 000 C 78. 111.2 N 9a. 103 V 9b. 288 W 9c. 10.4 N·m IOa. Er-;L 138 V
79. 11.34 kg 80. 6615 lb 81. 0.00 I Wb 82. 8304 kg/m 3 lOb. polarity reverses toe. voltage increases by less than
83. 67.7 mbar 84. 1.378 X 106 Pa 85. 482.3 X 103 N/m 2 IOo/r 1la.5000A 11b.7800A 12.2A 13.A 18V,
86. 1.57 rad/s 87. 393 K 88 ..~66.3 K 89. 120 K 90. l.67, 50. B 18V.C 18V l4.at90°EI\ 20V.atl20°EA 18V
0.33 91. I 0.4 A 23 l H 92. 3.3 kH 93a. 402 93b. 0.076 16.276.5V 17a.12brush»cts 17b.150A 19.Exyis(+)
93c. l6m 2 93d. Mm' 93e. 93.75 93f'. 3.24 X 105 20a.E 34 is(-) 2la.292V 21b.0.436T 2lc.530µs
23a. 333 A 23b. 83.25 A

Chapter 2
Chapter 5
2a. E 1r. = -80 V 2b. E25 +80 V 2c. E52 = 0 3. +20 V.
() v. 30 v. + 30 v 4. 20 v5. 1.8 v 7. 320. 160. 112 9a. 221 V 9b. 13 800 W 9c. 13.26 kW. 17.8 hp lOa. 1533 A
8. 3840 A 9a. 960 N 9b. 960 N 9c. no IOb. 31.3 V. 141 V. 10b. l.85f! lla.2975A llb.2400A 12.144V.9.6V
-200V II. 70.7 A 12a. 12A 12b.169.7V 12c.1440W 13a. I 1.7 kW. 94'k 13b. 10 A 13c. 8 mn. 223 V 13d. less
12d. 2880 W 13. 23 Hz 14. 1.67 ms Yia.1 1 lags h by 60c than 4 A l4a. 0.48 H 14b. 30 kW. 1.9 kW. 0 kW 15a. 0.96 H
15b. I, lags 12 by 90° 15c. E lags 11 by '150° .16c. 2400 W. 15b. 45 kW. 8.43 kW. 0 kW l6a. 17.8 kg/m' 16b. 140 kJ
-800W 17b.120V 18.boxA 19.no 20. 17.3V.8.13V 16c. 70 kJ

873
874 ANSWERS

Chapter 6 99. I</r 27. 9 rnWh 29a. 84.1 n 29b. .l04Ck 29c. 2:U6 mn
29d. 3,04r1r 29e. 976 W 29f. I.Y/i. 2.7':,c;; 30a. 1.9 n. 36.6 H
8. I80°C 9. 131.4 kW. 547 A JO. 22.8 hp 11. 882 , 11Nf"!r' , , ,t;,~Ob. 453.6 n 3lic: 8.-1% 31. 99.08lJf 32a. 28.9 W/kg
12a.28cC 12b.88°C too hot 14.47.2% 1~~.mJ4ll\9.l\Jttip 1::1:Wtd:f2b.156W/kg ..
16. IWC. < l45°C. < 12;oc 17a. !39°C 17b. W~FTRiCA
18. l year 19a. 2.28 A/mm- 19b. U.4 W/kg 20a. ~8.'tW!Kg Chapter 11
20b. 985 cmil/A 21. 26.2 kW. 35hp 22. 64 yea5 .~--!'GlliECA
S.300turn;., 6.0.2V 7.1300kVA 8.Hl-X2orH2-Xl to-
gether 9.92kVA to. l3mA lla.0.45V llb.2.25mV
Chapter 7
I le. 250 A/5 A
2. l!Xl kVA 6. 64.Y'k 7. 667 kVA. 291 kvar 8. 4.34 kvar
9a. 1440 W 9b. 1440 VA 9c. 2880 W 9d. I/ l 20 s IOa. 1440 var Chapter 12
IOb.1440VA IOc.1440W IOd.1440W We.l/240~ lla.Ais
the active source 11 b. C is the active source I le. Fis the reac- 2a. 20.8 A. 433 A 2b. 20.8 A. 250 A 3. 1506 A. 65 kA
tive source I Id. J is the reactive source I le.Lis the active 4. 17. 7 kA. 2175 A Sa. 1278 A Sb. yes 6a. delta-delta
source I If. M is the reactive source 12. 7.2 A. 9.6 A 13. 0.72. 6b. 577 A. 48.1 A 6c. 333 A. 27.8 A 7a. 236 kVA 7b. 1.89 kV
2665 var 14a. 2765 W 14b. 745 var 14c. 2864 VA 14d. 11.9 A 8a. no 8b. 433 kYA 9a. 347, 600. 347 V
14e. 96.5'7r ISa. 3.71 n ISb. 6.32 H ISc. 12.16 n 16a. 320 kW
16b. 240 kvar 17a. 12<Xl W 17b. 500 var 17c. 1300 VA Chapter 13
17d. 0.923 18a. 2 kW 18b. Lero 19. 9(Kl var 20a. 2765 W
7. no toa. 360 r/min tob. no IOc. 20 12. 936 A. 156 A. 55 A
20b. 3512 VA 20c. 0.787 2la. 3845 var 21b. -4000 var
lSa. 6(Xl r/min lSb. 564 r/min 16a. 3 V, 45 Hz 16b. 0.67 V.
n
2lc. 769 W 2ld. 784.5 VA 22a. 102 V 22b. 20.4 23a. 519.6 W
lO HL 16c. I V. 15 HL 17a. 15 A. 90 A. 5.25 A 17b. 882 r/min.
and 3<KJ var. both tlowing from B to A 23b. 519.6 W from D to C.
812 N·m 18. 97.2 A 19a. 120 V. 30 H1 19b. 60 V.15 Hz
3(X) var from C to D
19c. 960 V. 240 Hz 20a. -8.66 A. 8.66 A. 0 20b. 86.(1 A 21. 3.
slot I to slot 8 22a. 23.56 mis 22b. 3.3 V 22c. l 96.35 111111
Chapter 8 23a. 87.9rk 23b. 2298 kW 23c. 34.5 kW 23d. 2251 kw:
30.3kN·m.96'/t 26.1500A.75N 27.20N 28.38kW
I. 4157 V 2a. - JOO. 0. 50. 50. 86.6 V 2b. 0. - .
29a. 4.49 mn. 68.9 mf! 29b. I06 7 V. 40 H;r: 16 V. 0.6 H1.
2c. 50. -86.6. -100. 50. 86.6 V 3. yes 4a. 358 V 4b. 23.87 A
29c. 1035 kvar 29d. 2.07 kW 29e. 50 kW 30a. 18.6 Mvar
4c. 25.6 kW Sa. 694A Sb. 13.2 kV Sc. 9.16MW Sd. 27.5 MW
30b. 670 kW 30c. 1498 kW 30d. zero 30e. 23.8 kN·m
Se. 19 0 6a. a b c 6b. yes 7. 26 kVA 8. 120 V
3la. 400 V 3lb. 508 mH. 314 kW 3lc. 455 A 32. 264.5 111111
9a. 13 kW 9b. 6.5 kW 10. single-phase lta. 41.6A lib. 41.6A
34. 100 111111. 120 kW
11c. 2.89 n 12a. 160 n t2b. 480 n 13. o.9 n 14. 8 n
ISa. 89.5% lSb. 62.3 kVA lSc. 37.2 kvar ISd. 80.2%
16a. 14.6 kW. 7.78 kvar. 16.5 kVA 16b. 270 V 17a. XZY Chapter 14
18a. 5 A 18b. 19.9 kvar 19. lamp connected lo Z 20. 20 kW 10. 78'/c 12a. 3 hp 12b. 54 or 56 13. 438. 280. 315 ti·lb: zero.
2la. 18A 2lb. 130A 21c. 72.1A22.18.3A 23a.4.63 n. 675. 765 r/min 14a. 3.8 kW 14b. 586 r/rnin 14c. 222.4 kW
3.44 n 23b. 36.7° 24a. 9.6 n 24b. 7.72 n. 5.79 n 14d.5.3kW 1Sa.140HL 1Sb.54kW 1Sc.23.8kvar 1Sd.65.6A
2Sa. 6.1 kVA 2Sb. 82% 26a. 21.3 kW 26b. l 8.1 kW ISe. IOOhp 16a. ll09A l6b.434kW 16c.90.2kW
26c.63.9kWh 27a.15.5'Yr 27b.88.4A 16d. 5212 A, 83.5 kN·m 16e. 43.3 kN m 17. 4.7°C 18a. 39.4 s
18b.105000Btu 19a.456V.1740r/min 19b. 16hp
Chapter 9 20a. design D 20b. same 2la. 54.5 mn 2lb. 2.23 n
22a. ~ 1100 N·m 22b. 11.4 kg 111° 23. 270 kJ 24a. 795 kg.
la. 2 A lb. 2.83 A le. 1415 A Id. 0.9 rnWh 2. 472 A, 1509 lh·fr' 24b. 8 IO r/min. 260 ft·lb 24c. 702 ft lb
0.3mWb 4a.360V 4b.30A 4c.18A 4d.10800W 2Sa. 916 N·m 2Sb. 1.3 s 2Sc. 11.3 kJ 2Sd. 6. 7 s
4e. 1o 800 w s. 33.3 n 6. 400 v. 0.02 A 26a. 134 r/min 26b. 11: I 26c. 358 A 26d. 50 I 26e. 728 MJ
261'. 39 min 26g. 91 kW·h
Chapter 10
Chapter 15
11. l 20 V 12. 60 kV l3a. 110.4 V 13b. 0.353 A. 22.08 A
14. 2.42 kW. 11 A. 22 A 1S. 50 A. 1250 A 16. 1.88 mWb 2a. 5.05 H. 82° 2b. 811 r/rnin 2c. 45.4 A 2d. 332 N 111
18a. 144 V I8b. 2.25 rnWb 18c. 0.9 mWb 19a. zero 19b. 520 V 3a. yes. 366 N·m 3b. no. as a brake. 35 N·m 4. 26.7 n. 202 n
19c. additive 20a. short-circuit 23a. n n23b. 0.115 n s. 0.4 n. 0.5 n. 1.48 n. 268 N·m 6. :n.9 k!\·m. 2.4 k!\·111
24a. l 26.4 V 24b. 5.22 A. 95 A 2Sa. 466.9 kW 2Sb. 466.9 kW. 7. 13.9 N·m. 35.5 N·m 8. 10.5 N·m. 42.6 Nm
 ANSWERS 875

Chapter 16 Chapter 21
3a. 20 pob 3b. 360 r/min 4. inereased 6. l 2 poles 7. 4 6a. 1620 V 6b. 200 A (JC. 600 A 7a. 3240 V 7b. 200 A
Sa. deerease Sb. deerease Sc. inerease 9a. 7500 Y 50 Hz Sa. 540 V Sb. 540 V Sc. 18 A 8d. 9 A 8e. 9720 W 9a. 150 V
9b. 37.5 V. 0.25 Hz 12a. 150 A 12b. 50 A B. 2400 V 14b. 0. 9b. 3. 75 A 10. 45 kW I la. 0.72 kW I lb. 99.96'/r 12a. negative
353, 600. 750. 6()(), 0 kW 15. 807 mm 16a. l 45 0 16b. l 92 n 12b. increasing 13a. 36 A 13b. 170 V 13c. >65 .I 13d. 0.1 H
16c.144!l 16d. IOA 16e.1750V 16f.3.031 V 16g.57.6kW 13e. 170 V 14a. 324 V 14b. 243 kW 14c. 750 A 14d. 5.55 ms
16h.36.9'' 17.16kV ISa.44.56°1Sb.2.47SC18c.7.87in 14e. 612A 14f. zero 14g. 45.4 V ISa. 24 kW 15b. 24 kW
19a. 0.45 0 19b. 0.412 H 19c .. 916 19d. 1.09 20a. 8130 kW 15c. 12a 15d. 400 A 15e. 300 Hz 15f. 167 H 16a. ;;ero
20b. 720 kW 20c. 24.23 MN·m 20d. 2'2.7°C 21. 0.409 T 16b. 77.7° 16c. 102.3° 17a. 14 kV 17b. 6.3 MW 17c. 367 A
22a. 126 MW 22c. 85.7ck leading 23a. 228.5 \!1W 17d. 23.5 Mvar 18a. 40 kV 18b. 14.64 kV I&. 54.64 kV
23b. 7230 A 24. 0 W. delivers 63.3 Mvar to the bus l 9a. 40 A I 9b. 24 kW I 9c. zero I 9d. IO(J!/c 19e. zero
25a.236r/min 2Sb.108°. 1944' 26a.40 26b.180 20a. 12.66 A 20b. 4.7 kW 20c. 70'lr 20d. 10.6 kVA 20e. 44'k
26c. 1.5 26d. 1.73 in 26e. 3.7 n. 3565 w 20f. 63.5% 20g. 5.72 kvar 21. 6.25 mH 22a. 340 V 22b. 147'
22c. 30.4 A 23. 1/24 s 24a. 3.29 V·s 24b. 0.47 H 25a. 120 A
25b. 48 kJ 25c. 4 kW 26a. I 20 A 26b. 80 A 26c. 200 A
Chapter 17 26d. 160 A 27a. 135.::C 27b. 57.5 kW 27c. 57 kvar
7. 2300 hp 9a. 2217 kVA 9b. 90.2% 9c. 956 har 9d. 32 poles
I la. 333 A I lb. 3 H 12. 500 r/min 14a. 36.9° 14b. 2. 16 MW Chapter 22
14c. IOO'?r 14d. zero 15a. 300 A. (J° lSb. 720 kvar delivered
3. 91 Hz 4a. 626 V 4b. 169 kW 4c. 90 A 4d. 220 hp
17a. 3457 kVA 17b. 289 A 17c. 5889 V 17d. 1.44° 17e. 1569 kvar
8a. 200 V 8b. 283 V 8e. 2 A 9a. 31.3' 9b. 5.1 kvar 9c. 28.6 A
17f.9150hp ISa.4741 V 18b.32.8° 19a.14.6H. 1594 V
9d.113V IOa.85.1" IOb.16.8kvar lla.343A llb.146'>
19b. 6807 ft·lb 19c. 142 A 20a. 4269 kW. 45.3 kN·rn
12a. 300 V 12b. 315 V 13a. 150 A 13b. 75 V 13c. 60 V
20b. 1704 kW. 36.2 kN·m 20c. 40.7 k!\·m 20d. ·~83 s
14a.zero 14b.150A 14c. l5V 15a. IOO.r 15b.87.3'
16a. 232 A. 240 A 16b. 700 V 17a. 192 V 17b. 250 A
Chapter 18 19a. 0.02976 19b. 164 A 19c. 0.04576. 249 A 19d. The current
ripple would be mueh greater. The current would o~eillate
9a. 14 A. 14 A 9b. 33.8° 9c. 26.8 A 9d. 70.7% lOa. no between 2047 A and -807 A. 20a. 44V 20b. 44 V 20c. 14 Hz
lOb. probably not 12a. 50 Hz 12c. 4.26 .I Ba. 8 mhp 20d. 14 Hz 20e. 220 W 20f. 2.5 N·m 2Ib. 2880 µF
13b. 5Y/r Be. 0.28 13d. 0.79 pu. 1.06 pu 14a. 4.42 t"t-lb 22a. 24 V 22b. 97.8° 22c. 7340 var
14b. 4.44 pu 14c. 1ero 14d. 2.5 pu 15a. 157.5 V lSb. 93.2°
16a. 0.577 A 16b. 86.61/r lagging 16c. 30 W 16d. 37'/r
Chapter 23
17a. 1.94 fl 17b. 21.2 A. 84 V 17c. 3.2 N·m
3. 230 Y. 30 Hz 4a. 1620 r/min 4b. 8.78 N·m 5. 600 r/min
Hla. 8 Hz tob. 42 V 1 la. 50 ms I lb. I 3 ms 12a. 8 N·m.
Chapter 19 1080r/min. 1.2 hp 12b. 3.5 N·m. 720r/min. 0.35 hp 13a. 16.5 hp
4. 1152 6. 30° 8. true 9. 240 ms 10. 0.00175 in I la. 144 W 13b. 39.5° 13c. 12.4 kvar 15a. 141 A 15b. 422 A 15c. 566 V
I lb. 78.5 W 12a. 30 mN·m 12b. 0.79 mhp 12c. 1.77 J 15d. 46.7 Hz 17a. 20.7 W 17b. 36.3 W 18. 194 V
14. 437.5 r/min 15a. 1.5 ms 15b. 4.5 ms 15c. 0.23 A 19a. 3600 r/min 19b. 15 kW 19c. 337 V 19d. 7.6 0. 15 kW
16a. 7.2° 16b. 3.68 16c. 1.8° 18a. 3000 r/min. 0.93 hp 20. 325 µs 21a. 115 V, 15 Hz 21b. 85 A 22. 31.8 A
18b.13 ms 18c.0.16ms 23. 50 V. 15 Hz

Chapter 24
Chapter 20 1
7.1176MW lla.41.2X IO'm /stlb.40400MW
IOa. quadrant I IOb. quadrant 4 11. 6.3 hp 12. 26 V. 7.5 Hz 1
llc.312mi 12.15.6h 13a.60MW.50MW 13b.80MW.
Ba. 40 A 13b. 120 A 13c. 40 A or 113 A 14a. 2 or 4 14b. I or 30 MW 14a. 5400 MW 14b. 2615 Mvar 14c. 9364 yd 1/s
3 respectively 14c. 4 or 2 respeetively 15. clockwise 16a. 2 min 16a. 5715 tons 16b. ~57 000 tons l6c. 21.6 111 /s 17. 0.43 111 1/s
1

16b. 5 s 18. 208 days 22. 28 s 23a. J 8.85 kW 23b. 11.3 kW 11

18a. 1.86 x 10 .I. l.76 x !Om Btu 18b. 0.207 g
23c.30.15kW 24. l.57.16.12.57kW 25a.345V.45Hz 19a.90.6TWh 19b.10.34GW 20.1580MW
2Sb. 633 V. 82.5 Hz 26. 38 V. 5 Hz 28ir. 30 A 28b. 4.29 hp
28c. 63.7 N·m 28d. 56.4 ft lb 29b. 10 Hz 30fl;{{34 ft.lb. 358 ft·lb
30b. 149 ft· lb 3Ia. 307 V. 40 Hz 3lb. 67.3 k.I 31c. 29.9 kJ
32b. 29.5 ft lb 33. 282 v
876 ANSWERS

Chapter 25 Chapter 29
7.~2500 9.750A 10a.5092MW 10b.151.8MW 2. The maximum frequency of a high-~peed GTO is limited to
toe.~ 3% Ila. 5700 V. 114 kW; 4500 V.450 kW; 3000 V. about 2 kHz 3. 1380 loiz 4. 967 A 6a. 1870 V 6b. 1470 V
600 kW; 1500 V. 450 kW 12. 0" 13a. 5992 V. 126 kW; 5692 V 7. 8.33ms 10. 879 A 11. 1406 A 12. 4.5 mH. 221 µf
720 kW; 4243 V. 1200 kW; 1897 V 720 kW 14. ER is 18.4° 13.2159V 14.5.52MW 16.80.2A 17.46.3A·h 1S.6s
lagging n 15a. 6577 V. 9000 V 15b. 0° 16a. 5692 V 16b. no 19a. 5.57 kV 19b. 2.7 MVA 19c. 24 kV 19d. 26.4 kV
17a. -240kvar 17b.139.2A 17c.290.6kvar 17d.50.6kvar 19e. 14.4 kV. 33.7 kV
17e. 802 kVA 17f. 5759 V 17g. 6251 V. 868 kW lS. 20.3°
19. 4 n. 2 n. 37.5 kfl 2ta. 421 MW 2Ib. 1074 A
Chapter 30
2lc. 148.8 Mvar 21d. 74.3 Mvar 22a. 22 fl. 100 H. 1500 !!
22b. 119 kV 22c. 45 A 22d. 9 Mvar 22e. 34.6 kW 23a. 648.5 A la. 36.0 A lb. 60 Hz le. 300 Hz 2. 62.2 V 3. 12.9 %
4a. I 000 A 4b. 29.4 % Sa. 1843 kW Sb. 48.7 kW Sc. 110 kW
6a.84.8% 6b.30.l kW 6c.73.8% 7.141 A Sa.4163V
Chapter 26
Sb. 1082 V 9a. 71.7 A 9b. 7.86A 9c. 72.1 A 9d. 721 V
3.2µ0 6.17.5kV Sa.48.8kV Sb.zero 9a.12000A 9e. 154 V 10. 21.6 W 11. 124.4 V 12. 58.6 A 13a. 95.4 A
9b. 960 MW 9c. 48001 11. 5 and 7 12. 1.2 !!. 3.18 mH 13b. = 0 A 13c. 18.7 A 14a. 110 A 14b. 0 A 14c. 21.6 A
13a. 25 A. 35 A 13b. 10 A 13c. 0.5 A 14. 9.74 A 15a. not 15a. 70.7 A ISb. 67.5 A lSc. 21.1 A lSd. 31.4 % 16a. 9.6 0
dangerous I Sb. hazardous l 7a. 115.6 A, 124. 7 A. 31.6 A 16b. 1443 A 17a. 85.6 A 17b. 15 0; 11 24.7 A lSa. 50 Hz:
17b.2A 17c.81.8%1agging 1Sa.777A 1Sb.67.3A.86.8% 350 Hz lSb. 601 V; 240 V lSc. 647 V ISd. 601 V 19a. £ 5
2th. 17.5 kA 2lc. yes 46.8V;£7 = 15.3V;£ 11 =107V:£ 1, 323V 19b.344V
19c. 55.1 A 20. 83.5 A peak: - 32.4° 2la. 35.36 V; 0°
2th. 31.8 v 21c. 50 v 2ld. 15.4 v
Chapter 27
2. $28.40 S. $1470 7. 4.33 MW Sa. 3975 GW·h Sb. 159 mil-
Chapter 31
lion dollars 9a. 72 kvar. 104 kVA 9b. 75 kW, 52 kvar
9c. 12.Y'.4 toa. 243 kvar lOb. 32l/c lla. 46.64 $/h 1. see section 31.2 2. see section 31.2 3. see section 31.2
llb. $4205 12a. 30 cent/kW·h 12b. 2.4 cents 4. see section 31. 15 S. see end of sections 31 .3 and 31 .9
13. 6.45 cent/kW·h lS. IO r/min 16. 1800 W 17a. meter reads 6. see section 31.4 7. see section 31. 14 S. see sections 31. 19
I pen.:ent high 17b. no lS. ±5.6 kW·h and31.21

Chapter 28
Sa. ~45 kV Sb. ~492 A 6a. l 50 MW 6b. 200 A 7a. 600 A.
57 .6 MW toa. 400 A lOb. 64 kV 11. 1800 A. I 000 Mvar
12. 45 kW 13. 4050 A 14a. 2.9 in 2 14b. 13.38 fl 14c. 43.4 MW
14d. 426 kV 14e. 94.7'7c I Sa. 360 Hz. 720 Hz lSb. 9 n. 11 n
l5c.150kV 16a.17.7A 16b.20kV 16c.159V
 ANSWERS TO
INDUSTRIAL
APPLICATION
PROBLEMS

Chapter 1 Chapter 4
94. 0.926 pu 95. 0.208 pu 1.416 pu 97. 6.0 pu 0.39 pu 24a.480A 24b.15319W 24c.5520W 25.203.5W/kg
26. 1385 N.rn 27. 261.6 W

Chapter 2
Chapter 5
21a. £ 1 +IR= 0 21b. E 1 IR= 0 21c. £ 1 + IR 0
19. 2514 r/min 20a. 400 conductors 20b. 85. I V 20c. 4.4 rn Wb
2ld. - E2 + E 1 IR 0 22a. I 3 A 22b. / - 13 A
21. 674 ft 3/rnin 22. 21 n 425 w 23. ().()273 pu 0.00346 pu
22c./=9A23a. 10 5/ 1 0:51 1 +2/2 =0;/ 1 +1, 11
23b. 98 7!,+42/ 1 0: 421 1 +15/2 O:
11 +1;,_ 11 023c. 48 6/1 41;,_ 0:4h+(7+12J/ 1 Chapters
= 0: 13 + 12 - 11 0 23d. - 40 - 1214 +4 /.1 + 60 = O: 24. 310 kg 25. 52.8 mD 26. 4.78 kg 27. 915 W 224 V
-6/2 +2/ 1 0:/ 1 +I, I3 +f1 =0 24a.0.25Hz 28. ~o 2 AWG 29. 0.81 V 223 W/m
24b. I000 W 24c. 2000 J 24d. 500 W 24e. 70. 7 V 24f. 70. 7 V 30.t2 = R2/R 1(228 + t 1l 228 31.1948ft/min22mi/h
24g. 50 V 2Sa. 0.125 Hz 25b. I000 W 25c. 4000 J 2Sd. 500 W 32a. 0.00614 n 32b. 0.092 v 32c. 1.29 v 32d. 38. 7 w
25e. 70.7 V 25f. 70.7 V 25g. 0 V 26a. E21 + 20 / 1 0: 32e. 1.33 N 32f. 0.528 J 32g. 26.4 W 32h. 5.8 %
13 = / 1 + 11 : E, 1 + 12 (50j) 0 26b. EA + 20 / 1 = 0:
EA + I 2 ( - 30 j) = 0: 13 = I 1 + 12 26c. E21 + 20 / 1 = 0:
Chapter 7
£ 21 l:,(-30j) 0:/ 1 I_i+l 2 26d.Eba 20/ 1 0:
Eba +60j 12 O; Eba - EA I, 30j) 0; f+ + 11+13 12 24. 345 microfarad 25a. 650 v 25b. 7'2.9 J 26. 68 000 n
26e. Ean + (7 24jl I 0: E"' + (- 24j) I= 0: Eb, - 7 I= 0 3.4 W 27a. 288 A 27b. 0.2 MW 1.0 M var 27c. 2.8 MW.
26f. E,_ 1 En I (40j -45j) O: E 13 + 40j I - En O: 1.0 Mvar, 3 MVA 27d. 10 300 V 28a. 1976 W. 1796 var
Ec..i I ( - 45j) 0 26g. - E, + 40j/3 + E 3 , O: 28b. 9.63 A 28c. no 29a. 20.83 A 29b. 16.7 A
E, £ 12 0: E23 - 30 I:,_= O: E2 i + 40j / 1 0: 12 13 11
Chapter 8
Chapter 3
28.24A( 0 29.16A. 16A, 27.7A 30.156.6kW
24. 52 070 Btu. 7.63 h 25. Transformer ternpe.rature will rise 31. 55.4 A. 48 A 32. 100 kW 33. 1359 lb/h 34a. 31.88 kW
with aluminum paint 26. 52.9 kW 27. ~ 47 °C 34b. 38.41 kVA 34c. 48.2 A 35a. 332 A 35b. 602 kvar 35c. 25.8c

877
878 ANSWERS

Chapter 9 Chapter 18
7. 245 turns. 980 turns Sa. 33.87 H Sb. 30.5 n. 80.9 mH I Sa. 3.33 pu. 6 pu'. 2.22 pu ISb. 12.2 N.111 lSc. 11.7 micro-
Sc. 64.3 ° 9. ¢ 0.657 mWb. ¢,,, 1 0.516 mWb, farad 19a. 10.3 N.m 14'b. 24.8 microfarad
<1>r 1 = 0.141 mWh 10. The 330V/120 Y transformer is th
appropriate. The 40 microfarad capacitor must CC conn
Chapter 19
the 330 V winding.
I
19. 0.5227 N.m. 0.07769 N.m 20. 56.5 !l 21. 1.02 ms

. i.~
22a. 200 pulses per second 22b. 22 mN.m 22c. I 0.5 mN.m
Chapter 1O \ 22d. 11.5 mN.m 23. suggest a gear hox having a ratio of 18:25
34. 0.023 f1 35. 217 mm 36. 85 W/kg. 225 W!~:i;.~;,
2

37. 72 V. 16.7 A DE 11«GtNltRlA Chapter 20

Chapter 11 ~J CA 34. slightly less than 60 s 35a. 4 ..W pu. 1.32 pu. 35b. 14 s
36a.348W 36b.838W.yes 37.1747!1. 151 n
12. 13.88 V 13. The LY winding is wound b.n t~l~lii,<;A
winding14a.15.15Y 14b.5.31 V 14c.~2300V
Chapter 21
2Sa. 41 V. 7 V 2Sb. 26.8 V 2Sc. 72 W 29. 748.7 A. 137.6 A
Chapter 12
30. 147.1 V 31. All thyristors will be destroyed 32a. 78 kW
10.l.3A ll.$17713b.465V 13c.12.9° 14.121A 32b. 1344 W 32c. 52 kW 32d. 1344 W 32e. 104 J 32f. 336 J
125.8kYA 15.transformer41.9kYA. motor33.8kYA 32g. 231 J 32h. l 065 w 32i. 0.395

Chapter 13 Chapter 22
35a. the speed will drop 35b. the starting torque will increase 23. A is negative with respect to C 24. 98 A. 24 V 25. 13 A.
35c. the temperature will rise slightly 36a. 90 coils 36b. 30 1857 V/s 26. /" is decreasing 550 A/s
36c. 5 36d. 266 mm 36e. J08 100 mm 2 36f. 58.4 mWb
37. 1196 r/min 3S. 14.9 N
Chapter 23
24a. 500 Hz 24b. -563 V 24c. 43.5° 24d. 73.7 A 24e. 360 Hz
Chapter 14
24f. 3000 Hz 24g. 72.5o/c 24h. 60 A 25a. 25.8 N.m. 6.4 N.m.
27. 4 times per year every 4.5 years 2S. $17 900 29. $670 25b. 21.7 W 26a. 28.8 N 26b. 57.6 N 27a. 300 r/min
30. 9 n 3ta. R o.0547 nx = 0.162 n 3th. 1493 A 27b. 16. l N.m 28. 57.2 V 29a. 8258 A 29b. 4129 A 29c. 5839 A
31c. 1118 ft.lbf 31d. 93% 32. 0.39 pu 8.47 pu 2.88 pu l .36 pu 30a. 5.83 Hz to 16.33 Hz 30b. 7695 kW. 6786 kvar 30d. 22.3 h
3la. 430.8 Y. angle 28° 31b. converter absorbs 138 kW and
delivers 33.9 kvar 32a. 200 A 32b. 402.5 A angle + 62°
Chapter 15
32c. 513.5 V. angle + 23.2° 32d. 0.902 33a. 2.892 ms. 0.441 m!-..
9a.15.9mH. 292mH 9b.5H.91.7!19c.212V lOa.8!1. D 0.868 33b. 1.593 ms. 1.740 ms, D 0.478 34a. 7.2 n
147 n lOb. 19.2 N.m. 6.3 hp 34b. 6.26 A, angle 19° 34c. 1.65 A 34d. 5.95 A
34e.10.l N.m 35.8.41 A. l.03A, 8.83N.m

Chapter 16
Chapter 24
27a. 43.5 hp 27b. max is 120 °C 2Sa. 220 MW at unity PE
198 MW at 90% PF 2Sb. 96 Mvar 2Sc. 0. 787 2Sd. 1.1 !1. 21a. 59.985 Hz 2lb. 26 993 cycles 21c. 27 000 cycles
2Se. 2785 kW 29a. 194 370 hp 29b. 719 MJ 29c. 2279 MJ 2ld. 116 ms 22. 15 hp 23.~20 hp
29d. 5.67s 30. 28.6 °C. 2000 n.m
Chapter 27
Chapter 17
19a. 748 kWh 19b. S 16 380
21. 96.8 A 22a. 17.57 t 22b. 123 gal/min 22c. 32 500 lb.ft 2
22d.260kW 22e.97.1% 22f.4358kvar 22g.O.o7130
22h. 0.413 n
 INDEX

A transient reactance. 359 B

Acceleration (or a drive system). under load. 350 Back-to-back converters. 747. 760
57. 59. voltage regulation. 352 Base speed. 116
Active power. 136, 140. 169.675 Ambient temperature. 127 Basic insulation impulse level.
ACSR cabk. 667. 677 Ampacity, 677 672. 705
Aerial conductors. 6 77 Amplitude modulation ratio. 532 B-H curve. 27
Air. 869 Angle. 6 of vacuum. 27
Air gap. 85 commutation. 514 of soft magnetic materials. 28. 29
Alternator. 71. 159. 335 delay. 505 BIL.6T2. 705
three-phase (see Alternator. ..effective," 750 Billing demand. 734. 735
3-phase) extinction. 514, 750 Bilevel drive. 428
two-phase. 160 firing. 750 Bipolar line. 754
Alternator. 3-phase, 335-364 of advance. 750 Bipolar winding. 424
brushless excitation of. 343 phase. 22 BJT.4 72. 5 16
construction of. 336-340 torque. 359, 376. 377 Boiler, 648
cooling of. 339 Anode. 475, 492 efficiency. 647
elementary. 159 Apparent power. 141. 14 7 feed pump. 651
equivalent circuit, 346 Arc furnace. 791 Boolean language. 848
excitation of. 342 Arcing horns. 702 Boost chopper. 524
historical example. 346 Armature Braking. 463
mechanical pole shift, 357 of a Jc generator, 73. 74. 76. of a Jc motor. I 09-111
power output. 358. 362 86.90 of an induction motor. 308, 309
saturation curve. 345 of a de motor. 99. I 00 of a synchronous motor. 383
short-circuit ratio. 350 reaction. 77. I I 3 regenerative. 3 I 2
.synchronization of. 353 Asynchronous generator. 311. 330 time. Ill
synchronous reactance. 346 Autotransformer. 226-230 Bridge rectifier. 480, 486-489
synchronous 336. 340 variable, 235 brownout. 783
ton.iue angle. 358 Auxiliary winding. 39 I. 396 Brush. 86, 87

879
 f

t'
880 INDEX

Brushkss de motor. 569 forced. 495 \:, " power factor of, 490, 511
Brushless excitation. 343, 371 line, 484 ~~- two-quadrant, 525
Brush losses. 122 natural, 484 rj T.1 OE \NG£NilR\A.· w~th freewheeling diode, 551
1

Buck chopper. 519 overlap, 514, ~'(') . . f\ I .. -pulse, 760

Bushing. 231. 232. 699 self, 592 ~ :: '1R C Cooling tower, 650
Commutator, 72, 73~6.:>~l O Ti.CA Coordination of protective
c Compensating winding. 114 devices, 714
Cable. 677, 693 Compensation (line), 683, 688 Copper loss, 121
impedance of. 677 Compensator Corona effect, 669
submarine. 693 (series). 786. 793 Cosine-sine conversion. 20
Cam switch. 44 l. 461 (shunt), 786, 787 Counter emf. 96
CANDU. 659 Computer control. 831 CPU (see Central processing unit)
Capacitance (distributed). 230. 23 I Condenser, 649, 650 Crest factor, 801
676. 720 synchronous, (see Synchronous Current density, 121
Capacitor. 139. 145 capacitor) Current (follow through), 671
energy in. 25 Conductors, 677 (see also Current transformer, 231-234
Carrier fre4uency. 530. 615 Appendix AX3) Cutout, 715
Catenary. 558 bundled, 669 Cycloconverter. 501, 580. 582
Cathode. 475. 492 gauge number, 871
cemf (see Counter emf) round copper, 871 D
Central processing unit. 833, 838 Conjugate (of vector), 151 Damper winding. 340, 370
Centrifugal switch. 396. 397 Consequent poles, 304 DC link, 576. 592, 596
Celsius (degree) 5. 7 Constant horsepower mode, 116 DC transmission (see HVDC
Chain reaction. 656 Constant torque mode. 116 transmission)
Characteristic impedance (see Contact Delta connection, 16 7, 169
surge impedance) normally closed. 443 voltage and current in. 169
Cht)ppcr. 518-521. 558-560 normally open, 443 Demand, 635, 730
Circuit self-sealing, 449 controller, 733
eljuations for. 26 (simulated), 833 meter, 730
(PLC). 844 Contact or Deuterium, 655
solution of, 40-45. 148, 170 electronic, 500 Differential compound, 84, 107
three-phase. 158 magnetic. 442 Diode
two-phase. 160. 254 Contingency, 641 operation of, 475
Circuit breakers Control diagram, 445, 832 properties of, 476
air-blast. 700 Control system, 832 Direct-current
manual. -B9 Convection (heat loss by), 63 motors. 96
minimum oil. 700 Conventional current flow, 15 generators, 71
oil. 699 Conversion charts, 8 (see Displacement power factor,
solid-state. 790. 797 Appendix AXO) 490.512
sulfur hexafluoride. 700 Converter, 495 Distortion
vacuum. 70 I. 702 dc-to-ac, 529 de field, 78, 113
Circular mil. 866 dc-to-ac, three phase. 535 harmonic, 24, 799, 810-812.
Clock motor. 406, 642 de-to-de. 517, 522, 560 817. 823
Coercive force. 32 equivalent circuit of, 509 power factor, 490
Coil pitch, 89, 285. 288 four-quadrant, 526 Distribution systems
Commutating poles. 79, 113 PWM, 784 disturbances, 782
Commutation half bridge, 556 low-voltage, 709. 717. 725
de machine. 91-93 (mercury-arc), 757 medium-voltage, 709
 INDEX 881

three-phase. 3-wire, 719 transformation of, 53 equivalent circuit of, 82

three-phase. 4-wire. 718 unit of. 7 historical note. 89
Disturbances on distribution eV, (see Electronvolt) induced voltage. 75. 76. 80
systems, 782 Exciter, 342 neutral zone. 76
Drives (fundamentals of). 57. 462 brushless, 343. 371 rating. 84
Drives. electronic ··.pilot. 336 separately-excited. 82
(types of ac), 575 shunt, 80
chopper and series motor. 559 F voltage. 76
converters with circulating Fahrenheit (degree). 61 voltage regulation. 84
current, 546 Faraday. law of electromagnetic Generator. ac. (see alternator)
current-fed de link. 577 induction, 29 GFCL (see Ground fault circuit
(de motor). 560-565 Fast breeder reactor. 660 breaker)
electric traction. 618-625 Feeder, 705. 727 Grafcet. 84 7
principles of, 57. 58, 462 Field Grand Coulee dam, 643
cycloconverter. 580. 582. 627 of a de machine, 85 Ground
first quadrant control. 541 revolving. :n5 resistance of, 673
four-quadrant control. 549 Filter. 481, 486. 756, 757. 818 wire. 673. 722
hoist control. 549 Firing (see Triggering) Ground fault circuit breaker, 723
induction motor. 582. 587. Fission. 656 Grounding
592-596 Flashover. 671, 672, 674. 675 of de terminals. 757
synchronous motor. 577-579 Flux (see Magnetic flux) of electrical systems, 719
wound rotor motor. 597-602 Flux orientation, 604. 605 of equipment. 721
DSTATCON. 787. 796 Flux vector control. 616 GTO. 472. 516
Duty 520. 526 Force. 50
DVR. 796 on a conductor. 31 H
Dynamic braking. 109 of gravity. 50 Half bridge converter. 556
Dynamo. Cll'e generator. de) unit of. 6 Half-step drive. 425
Foucault currents. (see Eddy Harmonic analysis. 823-827
E currents) Harmonic distortion (see
E-business. 855 Fourier series analysis (see Distortion)
Eddy currents. 34. 35, 822 Harmonic analysis) Harmonics. 23, 783. 799
Effective value. 20 Freewheeling diode, 519, 551 analysis of, 823-827
Efficiency. 53 Frequency, 19 and circuits. 802, 809-812
of de machines. 123-125 Frequency converter. 309, 370. and phasor diagrams. 799
of electrical machines. 362 780.806 and transformers. 821
EHV line. 689 Frequency modulation effective value of. 801
Electromagnetic induction. 29 ratio. 532 elimination of. 776, 790, 818
Electronic power circuits Fuse, 7 15, 725 filter. 756. 757. 818
basic types. 496 Fusion (nuclear), 661 in a square wave. 25
Electronvolt. 866 in an alternator. 337
Enclosures. 299 G in power systems, 812. 815,
Energy. 53 Galloping line, 669 819.821
consumed by a city. 738 Gate, 492 generation of. 805
consumed appliances, 736 Gear motor. 303 resonance. 813-816
consumed in the U.S., 729 Generator, de, 71-93 Heat, 60
flow in a thermal station. 651 compound. 83 conduction of, 62
in three-phase circuits. 743 construction of, 84-90 convection. 63
measurement of. 740 differential compound, 84 radiation of, 64
882 INDEX

Heat. continued smoothing. 748, 757 of a de motor, I00

(specific). (see Appendix. voltage induced in, 36. 183 of an induction motor, 285-288
Table AX2) Inductor (see Inductance) .. of a synchronous machine. 336
transmission of. 62 Inertia Leading, 22, 143
Heating effect of. 58, 418 Leakage flux, 199, 200, 276
by induction. 237. 739 energy due to. 56 Leakage reactance, 200, 322
of electrical machines. l 27-130 moment of, 54. 56 Lightning, 670
Heavy waler. 655. 659 Infinite bus, 353 arresters, 67 I. 702
Hertz. 6 Input module. 833. 834. 839 surge on a line, 672
Historical machines. 89. 346 Insulation Light water, 655
Horsepower. 52 classes. I26-128 Line voltage, I 66
Hot spot temperature. 127 life expectancy. 126 Line commutated (see
HVDC transmission, 746-765 Insulators Commutation. natural)
basic equations. 750 deterioration of. 126 Linear induction motor. 289
bipolar line. 754 pin-type. 667 Linear motion, 59
components of. 755 properties of, 869. 870 Limit switch, 442
ground electrode. 757 suspension-type, 667 Load, definition of, 16. 154
harmonic filter. 756. 757 lnterpole (see Commutating poles) active, 137, 154
rectifier and inverter Inverter (see also Converter) nonlinear, 791
characteristic. 752-754 equivalent circuit of, 511 reactive. 138. 154
scale model. 750 line-commutated. 498, 503 Load duration curve, 637
typical converter stations. 757-765 self-commutated. 498, 529, 576. Lorentz force, 3 I, 264
Hydrogen.655. 86~ 870 592.594 Losses
cooling. 339. 364. 386 1/0 modules. 839 in electrical machines, 120-125
isotopes of. 655 Ionization. 669 in transmission lines, 676
Hydropower station. 642-646 Iron losses. 33-36. 122 in transformers, 206, 821
power of. 642 Isotope, 655 (stray), 821
Hysteresis, 33
loop. 33 J M
loss. 33 Jogging, 450 Magnetic
motor. 405 Joule. 6 constant. 27
field intensity, 27
K flux, 27
IGBT. 472. 517 kcmil, 866 flux density, 27-29
Impedance K factor, 821 levitation, 293
of ac circuits, 26. 41. 813 Kelvin. 5 permeability, 28
per unit. 215. 216. 349 Kinetic energy, 54 Magnetomotive force, 27
ratio. 191 of linear motion. 54 Mass, unit of, 5
transformation. 192. 522 of rotary motion, 54 MCM, 838 (see kcmil)
Impulse voltage. 6 72 Kirchhoff (KVL, KCL), 40, 41 Memory (non volatile), 838
Inching. 450 kVA. 141 (volatile), 838
Induced voltage. 183 Metals, properties of, 842
equality with applied L MeV, (see eV)
voltage. 184 Ladder diagram. 836, 847 Mil, 867
Faraday's law. 29 Lagging. 21. 22, 143 Mil (circular), 866
Inductance Laminations. 36. 203. 265, 338 Mill, 735
current in. 36--40 Lap winding Moment of inertia, 56
energy in. 25 of a de generator. 7 5 equations for, 55
 INDEX 883

MOSFET, 472. 517 plugging of, 308 Peak inverse voltage, 476. 486
Motor, direct current. 96- 117 principle of, 264, 607-610 Penstock, 644
braking, I09-111 rotating field, 265 Permeability, 27, 28
brushless. 565, 568, 569 rotor voltage and frequency, 275 of a vacuum. 27
compound, 106 sector type, 288 Per unit impedance
differential compound, 107 slip, 274. 291 of an alternator. 349
mechanical power, 98 slip speed. 274, 307, 605 of a transformer, 215-217
permanent magnet, 11 7 standardization of, 299 Per unit system. 9-11
plugging, 110 synchronous speed, 271 Phase
series, 104-105 torque. 279, 284 angle, (see Angle)
shunt. I03. I 08 torque-speed characteristic. 281, meaning of, 162
speed control. 100-103, 114 283,302,308,329. 330,463 sequence, 174-176
starting of, 97, I08 two speed, 303 Phasor, 21
torque. 98 typical characteristics of. 276, 297 Pilot exciter. 336
torque-speed curve. 116 variable 465 Pilot light. 442
Motor, single-phase induction, volts per hertz rule, 613 Pitch. 285. 286. 288
391-414 wound rotor. 264. 284. 315 PIV.476
capacitor-run, 402 PLC (see Programmable logic
capacitor-start. 398 N controller)
construction of, 391 National Electrical Code, 725 PLC
equivalent circuit. 409-413 .\'etwork, 665 advantages of, 848
mmf distribution, 409 Neutral industrial application of. 850
principle of, 394 of single-phase system. 225. 717 security rule. 84 7
revolving mmf, 410 of three-phase system, 164, 707, Plugging, 110. 308. 453
shaded-pole, 403 719, 812 Point of common coupling. 819
split-phase, 396 zone, 76, 78, 89, 113 Polarity
synchronous speed.393 Newton, 6, 50 additive, subtractive, 204
torque-speed characteristic. Non-linear load, 804, 808 of a transformer, 186, 204. 260
394,400 Notation(£. l. P), 17. 19, 151, of a voltage, 18
vibration of, 40 I 154,472 mark. 186
Motor, synchronous (see Nuclear Potential
Synchronous motor) power stations, 654-661 level, 472
Motor, three-phase induction. reactors (types of). 657 transformer, (see Voltage
263-295 transformer)
abnormal operating conditions, 310 0 Power, 52
as generator, 305 Ohm.6 active, 136, 141, 169. 806
basic equations. 273-275, 279, Oil (as coolant), 63 angle (see Torque angle)
291, 306 Outage, 641 apparent, 141, 143
braking of, 308. 309 Outlet, 145, 727 factor (see Power factor)
construction of, 263-267, 290 power of, 145 in ac circuits, 146. 147
direction of rotation. 270 Output module, 833, 840 in 3-phase circuits. 162
enclosures. 299 Over-compound generator, 84 instantaneous, 134, 135, 160. 162
equivalent circuit, 323-325, of a motor. 52, 58. 40 l
331, 612 p of electrical machines. 362
(flux orientation in). 605 PAM motor, 305 measurement of, 176
flux vector control, 616, 619 Pascal, 6 mechanical. 52
linear type. 289 • PCC, (see point of common coupling) reactive. 137, 138, 806
mechanical power. 279 Peak Ioad,635,636,646 triangle, 144, 148
884 INDEX

Power factor. 143, 169, 512. 586 of a transformer, 206 Rotating field
correction. 146. 737, 791. 807 of a synchronous motor. 380 in a three-phase machine. 265
(displacement), 148. 490, Reactance ., in a single-phase motor, 395
512,804 leakage. 200.217,322 synchronous speed of, 271
(distortion), 490 Reactive power, 137, 138
in rate structures, 732 without magnetic field, 148, s
(total), 490. 804 806,808 Sag,669, 783
Power generation generation of, 808 Salient pole, 338
base load, 637. 646 Reactor Saturation curve (see also B-H curve)
hydropower, 642-646 current limiting. 705 of a de generator. 80
nuclear, 654-662 line compensating. 691 of an alternator, 345
pumped storage, 646 nuclear. 657 of a transformer, 206
thermal. 646-654 smoothing, 748, 757 Scanning (of a PLC), 838
thermal model, 652 Real power (see Active power) Scott connection, 255
Power transfer. 361 Receptacle, 727 SCR (see Thyristor)
Primary winding, 185 Recloser, 716 Scroll case. 645
Programmable logic controller, Rectifier (see also Converter) Secondary winding, 185
831-857 bridge, 480, 485 Sectionalizer, 716
Programming language. 84 7 controlled, 494 Sector motor. 288
Programming unit, 834, 838 equivalent circuit, 511 Segment (commutator). 72. 87
Prony brake, 53 power factor of, 5 11 Self-commutated inverters, 592
Properties three-phase, 3-pulse, 483 Selsyn, (see Synchro drive)
of conductors, 870 three-phase. 6-pulse, 485, 503 Semiconductor switch, 5 15
of insulators. 869. 870 References, 859 Sequential flow chart. 847
Protective devices, 714 Regenerative braking (see Braking) Series capacitor (thyristor
Pull-in torque, 372, 407 Regulating transformer. 709 controlled). 769
Pull-out torque. 373, 407 Relay Series compensation, 689. 769
Pulse width modulation. 530-536, (control), 441, 831 Series motor
602, 784 exciting current of. 443 de. 104
Pumped storage. 646 overload, 441, 449 single-phase. 404
Push button, 441 (simulated), 833 Service factor. 310
PWM (see pulse width modulation) thermal, 441, 448 Servo (see Synchro)
time delay, 455. 837 SFC (see sequential flow chart)
Q Reluctance Shaded-pole, 403
Quadrant, 462 motor. 407 Shock (electric). 719
Quadrature component, 141 torque, 378 Short-circuit
Quadruple valve, 760, 761 Remanent magnetism, I03 of an alternator. 360
Residual flux density, 32 of a transformer. 212. 236
R Residual magnetism. 103 protection (see Protec.·tive devices)
Radiation. 64 Resilient mounting. 401 ratio. 350
emissivity. 65 Resistance Simulation (of relays), 833
Ramping. 422 unit of. 6 SI units, 4
Rate structure. 733 ground. 673 Siemens. 6, 866
Rating Resonance,813. 816 Sign notation
name plate, 84 Rheostat hybrid, 45
nominal, 84 field, 81, 103 positive and negative. 17. 19.
of a de machine, 84 wound-rotor, 284 43,44
of an alternator, 342, 362 Ripple, 482, 486 voltage, 17
 INDEX 885

SIL (see Surge impedance load) SVC (see Static var compensator) unit of. 5
Single-phase to three-phase Swell. 783 Temperature rise
transformation, 178 Switch by resistance method, 129
Sine-cosine conversion, 20 air-break, 702 of electrical machines, 125-130
Single-phasing, 310 as non-linear load, 805 of insulation classes, 127. 128
Size of electrical machines, 130, 362 centrifugal, 396. 397 Tera. 866
Slew speed, 421 disconnecting, 703 Tertiary winding. 248, 757
Slip, 274. 291 grounding. 702 Tesla, 6, 27, 285
Slip ring, 72, 264. 267 Switching losses, 528 THD (see total harmonic distortion)
Slip speed, 274, 307 Symbols (electrical diagram). 444 Thermal generating stations,
Snubber, 528 Synchro drive, 408 646--654
Source Synchronization, 353 Thyristor, 492
active. 137. 154 Synchronous capacitor, 385. 757 power gain, 494
definitionof.16, 154 Synchronous generator, (see principle of, 492, 494
reactive. 138. 154 Alternator) properties of, 493
Specific heat, 61, 870 Synchronous motor (three-phase) Time constant, 111
Speed, of a drive system, 57. 114 as brushless de machine, 568. 569 Torque, 51
Spillway. 644 braking of, 383 angle,358,373.376
SSB. 790. 797 characteristics, 380 breakdown, 282, 327
Stability, 359, 638. 640 construction of, 369-371 of a drive system. 57, 58
Stabilized-shunt. 113 equivalent circuit, 375 locked rotor, 282, 283
Star connection (see Wye excitation of, 371, 380 measurement of, 53
connection) mechanical power, 376 pull-in, 372, 407
Starter power factor rating, 381 pull-out, 373. 407
across-the-line. 446 reactive power, 380 pull-up. 282
autotransformer, 458 starting of, 372 reluctance, 378
de motor, I 08 synchronous speed. 371 Total harmonic distortion. 491. 80 I
part winding, 460 torque, 376, 378 Transformers
primary resistance. 454 underload.372 autotransformer, 226
reduced voltage, 454 V-curve. 382 classification of, 208
solid-state. 590 versus induction motor, 385 construction of, 203
wound rotor, 284 Synchronous reactance, 346 (converter), 756
wye-delta. 461 Synchronous speed cooling of, 207
Start-stop stepping. 420 of single-phase motors. 393 (current). 231
STATCOM, 773 of synchronous motors, 371 distribution, 225
Static frequency changer. 780 of synchronous generators. 336 equivalent circuit, 187, 202.
Static switch, 500 of 3-phase induction motors, 271 209,217
Static synchronous compensator, 773 Synchroscope.354 exciting current, 197
Static var compensator, 23 7, 691 flux in, 185, 199
Stator. 26.\ 391 T grounding type, 706, 709
Stepper motor, 417-434 Taps, 205 (high-frequency), 238
Stray losses, 821 Tariff (see Rate structure) high impedance type, 236
Substation, 665. 698, 707, 710 TCSC. 769 ideal, 183-195
Submarine cable. 693 Temperature, 60 impedance of, 215-217
Sulfur hexafluoride, 700, 869 ambient, 127 impedance (measurement of), 212
Surge diverter. 702 hottest spot. 128 induced voltage, 185
Surge impedance. 690. 691 rise (see Temperature rise) leakage reactance, 200. 202
Surge impedance load, 691 scales, 5. 61 losses in. 206
886 INDEX

Transformers. nmtinued selection of line voltage. 687 Varmeter, 137, 143

magnetizing current. 197 submarine, 693 V-curve, 382
parallel operation of. 219 surge impedance loading of, 691 liector notation, 151
phase shift. 243, 253. 256 towers, 669. 673, 675 Volt. 7
polarity of. 186, 204 types of. 665 Voltage
rating of, 206 classes, 666 ac, 18. 19
ratio. 187. 188. 191 ·.;~:~·Transparent enterprise, 855 classes, 666
reflected impedance, 191-195 Traveling wave. 672 choice of transmission line .
saturation curve. 206 . , rl<rt>f>r1roo of gate. 492 666,687
taps. 5 Triplen. 812 effective value, 20, 800
temperature rise, 209 Turbines. 639, 646, 650 induced, 30. 183
(toroidal). 234 Two-speed motor, 303 level, 472-474
three-phase (see Transformers, Two-phase transformation. 254-256 peak. 18. 20, 21
three-phase) peak inverse, 4 76, 486
(voltage). 230 u Voltage transformer, 230
voltage regulation, 211 Unified power flow controller, 776 Volt-second. 36-39, 519
Transformers (three-phase) Uninterruptible power supply Volts per hertz rule. 613
autotransformer. 251 (see UPS)
delta-delta. 244 Unipolar winding, 425 w
delta-wye, 246 Units Ward-Leonard system. IOI
open-delta. 248 base, 4, 5 Watt. 7, 52
phase shift in. 243. 253. 256 conversion of, 8, 9 (see Watthourmeter, 740
phase shifting, 256 Appendix AXO) Wattmeter, 136
polarity of, 260 derived, 4. 5 Wave drive, 424
Scott connection. 255 in electricity. 8 Weber. 7. 30
tertiary winding, 248. 757 in magnetism, 8 Websites. 863
three-phase to two-phase, 254 in mechanics, 7 Weight. (see Force of gravity)
voltage regulation. 258 in thermodynamics, 7 Wheeling (charge), 640
wye-delta. 247 multiples, 7 Wire table, 871
wye-wye, 248 per-unit system, 9 Work. 51
Transient reactance. 359 SI. 4 Wound-rotor motor, 264, 284
Transmission lines Universal motor. 404 as frequency converter, 315
de, 746 UPS. 785 electronic control of. 597-60 I
choice of conductors. 677 UPFC, 776 starting of. 284
components of. 664, 667 Uranium. 655 torque-speed curve, 283
dampers, 669 enriched, 655 Wye connection, 164. 169
equivalent circuit, 676-678 voltage and current in, 169
impedance of. 676 v
interconnection of, 665 Valve, 748, 761 z
power and voltage of, 680-685 Var, 137 Zero-speed switch, 454