3

The Endocrine
Glands
Hormones are secreted by the endocrine glands. These
glands are also called ductless glands because they do not
connect to their target tissues by tubes or ducts, but instead
secrete their hormones directly into the bloodstream, which
then carries the hormones throughout the body. The endo-
crine glands include organs, such as the thyroid and adrenal
glands, whose only function is to secrete hormones. Other
organs secrete hormones in addition to their other functions.
For example, the pancreas produces many substances neces-
sary for digestion, as well as hormones that regulate blood
glucose levels. Other organs, such as the kidneys and heart,
have major functions that have nothing to do with hormones,
but they secrete hormones as well. Figure 3.1 shows the loca-
tion of the endocrine glands in the human body. This chapter
will briefly examine each organ that produces hormones. Later
chapters will look at the processes controlled by hormones in
more detail.

The Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland

The hypothalamus is located near the center of the brain,
above the brainstem and below the cerebrum (Figure 3.2).

27
28 The Endocrine System

Figure 3.1 Each of the endocrine glands produces one or more

hormones. Some organs, like the pancreas and kidneys, also have other
functions that are not related to hormones.

Its primary function is to maintain homeostasis, acting as

the body’s thermostat. The nervous system and endocrine
system are truly integrated structurally and functionally in
the hypothalamus. The hypothalamus receives chemical and
nervous input about sight, sound, taste, smell, temperature,
blood glucose concentrations, and balance of salt and water.
It also helps control hunger and thirst, as well as mating and
sexual behavior. The hypothalamus provides nervous input to
 The Endocrine Glands 29

functions such as the regulation of heart rate, blood pressure,

and contractions of the urinary bladder.
The hypothalamus controls the pituitary gland , which
is attached to the underside of the brain by a slender stalk.
The pituitary gland, also called the hypophysis (Greek for “to
grow under”), sits in a pocket of bone called the sella turcica
(“Turk’s saddle”), which is located directly above the palate
of the mouth and behind the bridge of the nose. In the past,
the pituitary has been called the “master gland” because it
controls many other endocrine glands, but this term is no
longer widely used. The word pituitary is derived from the
Latin pituita, or “phlegm,” because early anatomists believed
this gland produced saliva. Hormones from the pituitary
regulate the thyroid gland, adrenal glands, and the repro-
ductive organs. Pituitary hormones control growth and
kidney function, and are involved in childbirth and milk
production.
The pituitary gland has two parts: the anterior
pituitary, or adenohypophysis, and the posterior pituitary,
or neurohypophysis. During embryonic development, a fold
of tissue moves up from the roof of the mouth and forms
the anterior pituitary. A piece of the hypothalamus bulges
downward to form the posterior pituitary. The two pieces of
tissue join to create the pituitary gland. The anterior portion
is physically separate from the brain, but is connected to it
by a special type of blood circulation called the hypophyseal
portal system. Capillaries in the hypothalamus join to form
a vein that enters the pituitary gland. This vein divides
repeatedly to form another capillary bed. This circulatory
pattern allows blood to pick up chemicals called controlling
factors that are released in the hypothalamus and carry
them directly to the pituitary gland, where they control the
release of hormones. Every pituitary gland hormone has at
least one releasing factor or hormone, and some have both
inhibiting and releasing factors.
30 The Endocrine System

Figure 3.2  The hypothalamus and pituitary glands. The pituitary is

attached to the underside of the brain at the hypothalamus by a thin
stalk. The anterior pituitary receives blood that contains controlling
factors directly from the hypothalamus. These factors either stimulate
or inhibit the release of pituitary hormones. The posterior pituitary is
controlled by nerves from the hypothalamus.

The following hormones are released by the anterior

pituitary:

• Growth hormone stimulates growth of bone and muscle

cells.

• Prolactin causes the mammary glands to produce milk.

• Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hor-

mone (LH), known collectively as gonadotropins, stimu-
late hormone and gamete production by the gonads
(testes and ovaries).
 The endocrine Glands 31

• Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) causes the thyroid to

produce thyroid hormone.

• adrenocorticotropic hormone (aCTH) stimulates the adre-

nal cortex to produce corticosteroids, especially during
periods of stress.

• Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH) may have a role

in fat metabolism.

• Endorphins, which are also produced by the brain, reduce

the perception of pain.

The posterior pituitary is an extension of the brain. It

releases two hormones— oxytocin and antidiuretic hormone
(aDH) —that are made in specialized cells in the hypothala-
mus. The hormones are transported down nerve cells into
the pituitary, where they are stored. Nerve signals from
the hypothalamus stimulate their release, which allows
for quicker secretion. Oxytocin stimulates the uterus to
contract during labor; it also stimulates the breast to start
releasing milk when a baby nurses. Antidiuretic hormone

seAsonAL AFFeCtiVe DisoRDeR (sAD)

According to the national mental health Association, “SAd is a
mood disorder associated with depression episodes and related to
seasonal variations of light.” This means that a person suffers from
depression during the winter months, but the symptoms disappear
in the spring. A diagnosis usually requires the symptoms to occur
over three consecutive winters. SAd is more common in women
than in men and usually begins between the ages of 1 and 30.
The disorder occurs throughout the temperate regions of both the
northern and Southern hemispheres, but becomes more frequent—
and more severe—as the distance from the equator increases. This
corresponds with the decreasing amount of daylight available dur-
ing the winter months.
32 The Endocrine System

reduces urine output by acting on the collecting ducts of

the kidney.

The Pineal Gland

The pineal gland, a structure about the size of a pea, is located
slightly above and behind the hypothalamus. It receives
information via the thalamus from the eyes about light and
dark cycles. It is involved in rhythmic behavior, such as sleep
cycles for humans, but it is much more complicated in ani-
mals. For example, the pineal gland is crucial in helping birds
decide when it is time to fly south for the winter. The pineal
gland secretes the hormone melatonin, a modified amino
acid that is derived from the neurotransmitter serotonin.
Melatonin is released at night and acts within the brain to
affect the cyclic behaviors. During winter, the length of the
dark period increases, so more melatonin is released. This
release connects daily cycles with seasonal cycles. Humans,
however, do not have seasonal behaviors like animals that
reproduce only at certain times of the year. The significance
of melatonin and the pineal gland in humans is not clear.
Many people believe that the body produces less melatonin
as it ages and that this is one of the causes of aging. Some
people use over-the-counter preparations of melatonin to
fight jetlag and insomnia because it helps adjust the body’s
sleep-wake cycle.
Scientists are fairly certain that melatonin levels are
involved in seasonal affective disorder (SAD), a condition that
can be debilitating. For some people, the reduced amount of
daylight during winter produces a craving for carbohydrates
and causes lethargy and sometimes depression. SAD is often
treated by exposing the sufferer to elevated levels of full-spec-
trum light—light that has all of the wavelengths of sunlight
(red to violet). Regular artificial lights do not have all of the
wavelengths. Some individuals may be given melatonin and
antidepressants as well.
 The Endocrine Glands 33

The Thyroid Gland

The thyroid gland is a butterfly-shaped structure located in
front of the trachea (windpipe), between the larynx and the
notch at the top of the rib cage. The thyroid secretes three
hormones: triiodothyronine (T3 ); tetraiodothyronine, or thyrox-
ine (T4 ); and calcitonin. T3 and T4, which are collectively called
thyroid hormone, are very similar in structure and action.
They are both derived from the amino acid tyrosine. T3 has
three iodine atoms, and T4 has four. If a person’s diet does
not include sufficient iodine, the thyroid cannot produce
enough thyroid hormone. The gland then enlarges, causing
a visible swelling, or goiter, on the front of the neck. This
disorder has been virtually eliminated by adding iodine to
table salt.
Both T3 and T4 work in nearly all body tissues, but T3 is
more likely to attach to the target receptor, which is located in
the nucleus of cells, where it can directly affect genes. The pri-
mary action of thyroid hormone is to increase metabolic rate.
A person with low levels of thyroid hormone tends to feel cold,
be lethargic, and gain weight easily. Thyroid hormone also
plays a critical role in growth and development. A baby with
thyroid deficiency will have mental and growth retardation, a
condition called cretinism. Thyroid conditions are described
in more detail in Chapter 5.
Calcitonin lowers blood calcium levels by acting on bones
and kidneys. Calcium is removed from the blood and stored
in the bones. The kidneys reduce the amount of calcium that
is returned to the blood and allow more to be excreted in the
urine. This process is described in Chapter 8.

The Parathyroid Glands

The parathyroid glands are four small tissue masses attached
to the back of the thyroid. They secrete parathyroid hormone
(PTH), also called parathormone. PTH raises blood calcium
levels by stimulating its release from bone and stimulating its
34 The Endocrine System

uptake by the kidneys and intestines. Its effect is opposite that

of calcitonin.

The Thymus Gland

Although the thymus gland is technically part of the immune
system, it also produces a chemical called thymosin that acti-
vates immune system cells called lymphocytes. Lymphocytes
are a type of white blood cell. After lymphocytes have passed
through the thymus or come in contact with thymosin,
they are referred to as T lymphocytes. These lymphocytes
are involved in many aspects of immunity, including the
production of chemicals that stimulate and regulate the
immune response. The thymus, located in the chest region,
is prominent during infancy and childhood, but decreases
in size with age.

The Pancreas
The pancreas, located beneath the stomach, is attached to
the small intestine by the pancreatic duct through which
digestive enzymes are released. Endocrine cells are scattered
throughout the pancreas in small groups called islets of
Langerhans. They were named in honor of Paul Langerhans,
a German medical student who described them in 1869. The
islets secrete two hormones, insulin and glucagon, which
work to control blood glucose levels. Insulin is unique
in that it is the only hormone that lowers blood glucose
levels. Glucagon raises blood glucose levels, allowing us to
maintain a nearly constant concentration of glucose in our
blood in between meals. The homeostasis of blood glucose is
described in Chapter 4.
 The Endocrine Glands 35

Figure 3.3  The adrenal glands are small organs shaped almost like
pyramids sitting on top of each kidney. Each gland has two layers: The
outer layer, or cortex, secretes steroids like cortisone; the inner layer, or
medulla, secretes epinephrine and norepinephrine.

The Adrenal Glands

The adrenal glands (Figure 3.3) sit above the kidneys (ad
means “near” and renal means “kidney”). They are slightly
triangular in shape and weigh about 4 grams (0.14 ounces;
about the same as a person’s thumb). There are two distinct
regions: the cortex, or outer layer; and the medulla, or inner
layer. During embryonic development, two separate cell popu-
lations migrate to the region near the kidneys and form the
adrenal glands. One population of cells is from nervous tissue
36 The Endocrine System

and forms the adrenal medulla. The outer layer of cells forms
the adrenal cortex, which is controlled by a hormone from the
anterior pituitary gland.
The adrenal medulla secretes epinephrine (adrenaline)
and norepinephrine (noradrenaline). These hormones are
released during periods of stress, causing the response known
as fight-or-flight.

Table 3.1 Endocrine Glands and Their Hormones

gland hormone chemical class hormone action
Hypothalamus Releasing and Control anterior
inhibiting pituitary
factors
Pituitary Growth Protein Growth of bone and
Anterior hormone Protein muscle
Prolactin Protein Milk production
FSH/LH Protein Gametes and hor-
Thyroid- mone production
stimulating Stimulates thyroid
hormone
(TSH)

ACTH Peptide Stimulates adrenal

cortex
Posterior Oxytocin Peptide Stimulates uterine
contractions
ADH Peptide Reduces urine output
Pineal gland Melatonin Amine Biological rhythms
Thyroid gland T3 and T4 Amine Stimulate metabolic
Calcitonin Peptide rate
Lowers blood calcium
Parathyroid Parathyroid Peptide Raises blood calcium
glands hormone
Thymus Thymosin Peptide Stimulates
T lymphocytes
Pancreas Insulin Protein Lowers blood glucose
Glucagon Protein Raises blood glucose
 The Endocrine Glands 37

The adrenal glands secrete four groups of steroids, known

as corticosteroids: estrogens (female sex hormones), androgens
(male sex hormones), glucocorticoids , and mineralocorticoids.
Released during times of stress, glucocorticoids raise blood
glucose levels, decrease inflammation, and delay healing.
Mineralocorticoids work on the kidneys to increase sodium
and water reabsorption.

gland hormone chemical class hormone action

Adrenal glands
Medulla Epinephrine Amine Fight-or-flight
Cortex Glucocorticoids Steroid Raise blood glucose
Mineralocorti- Steroid Absorb water and
coids sodium in kidneys
Gonads
Ovaries Estrogens Steroid Female secondary sex
Progesterone Steroid characteristics
Testes Androgens Steroid Pregnancy
Male secondary sex
characteristics
Kidney Erythropoietin Peptide Red blood cell
production
Renin Peptide Blood pressure and
volume
Heart Atrial natriuretic Peptide Increases urine
factor production, lowers
(ANF) blood volume
Digestive Gastrin Peptide Secretion of gastric
system juices
Secretin Peptide Pancreas releases
HCO3-
CCK Peptide Gallbladder releases
bile; satiety (feeling
full)
38 The Endocrine System

The Gonads
The ovaries and the testes, the gonads, produce gametes (eggs
and sperm) and sex hormones. In females, the ovaries produce
eggs and estrogens, the primary hormones that maintain
the female reproductive tract and produce female secondary
sexual characteristics. The ovaries also produce progester-
one, the hormone released during pregnancy that helps the
uterus maintain the pregnancy. In males, the testes produce
sperm and androgens (male hormones). The primary male
sex hormone is testosterone. The reproductive hormones are
described in Chapter 6.

The Kidneys
The two kidneys are located at the back of the abdominal cav-
ity, just below the rib cage. The kidneys remove water-soluble
wastes from the blood and regulate the osmotic balance of
the body. They also help regulate blood pressure through the
renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system and atrial natriuretic
factor, which are described in Chapter 8. When body tissues
are exposed to low levels of oxygen, the kidneys convert a
plasma protein to erythropoietin, or EPO. This hormone
stimulates the red bone marrow located in the ends of the
long bones to produce more red blood cells (erythrocytes).
Because red blood cells carry oxygen, this increases the
amount of oxygen delivered to the tissues, which, in turn,
lowers the level of eryth­ropoietin, which then slows red
blood cell production.

The Heart
The human heart has four chambers. The two upper cham-
bers, called the atria, receive blood returning from the lungs
and body tissues. When the blood volume increases, cells in
the right atrium release a protein called atrial natriuretic fac-
tor (ANF), or atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP). This hormone
causes blood vessels to dilate and the kidneys to produce more
urine, resulting in lower blood pressure and reduced blood
volume through the excretion of more water.
 The Endocrine Glands 39

The Digestive System

The stomach and small intestine secrete substances that con-
trol the digestive tract and appetite. The stomach begins to
secrete gastric juices, which include hydrochloric acid, when
food is present. It also secretes the hormone gastrin into the
blood, which stimulates the further secretion of gastric juices.
As stomach acid is secreted, the pH in the stomach drops.
When the pH reaches a certain level, the secretion of gastrin
drops, and, thus, the secretion of gastric juices also decreases.
The stomach also produces a chemical called ghrelin that
appears to be one of the signals to the brain that causes
hunger.
The small intestine releases the hormone secretin when
food enters it from the stomach. This, in turn, stimulates
the pancreas to release bicarbonate to neutralize the acid. If
proteins or fats are present in the food, the hormone chole-
cystokinin (CCK) is released, which stimulates the release
of bile from the gallbladder and digestive enzymes from the
pancreas. CCK also signals the brain that a person is “full.”
Another chemical called PYY3-36 also signals the brain to
stop eating. Scientists believe that there are still other chemi-
cals involved in controlling digestion and whether or not a
person feels hungry, some of which come from the digestive
tract and some from other body parts, such as fat cells.

Connections
Hormones are secreted by endocrine glands, which are
located throughout the body and may have other functions
in addition to secreting hormones. Each endocrine gland
secretes particular hormones that act on other parts of the
body. These actions include regulating blood glucose concen-
trations, controlling reproduction, dealing with stress, main-
taining body functions, and regulating ion concentrations.
Table 3.1 summarizes the endocrine glands, their secretions,
and their primary actions.