Experiment 1

Determination That Heat Flow is Directly Proportional to the Temperature Difference

Between Faces

I. Introduction

Heat transfer and its applications have been used in almost all operations in chemical
engineering. The flow of thermal energy between two objects occurs from a higher to lower
temperature, and this occurs in three mechanisms, namely: conduction, convection, and
radiation. Of these mechanisms, conduction is the most easily understood when homogeneous,
isotropic solids are considered (McCabe et. al., 1993).

The Fourier’s law governs the transfer of heat across an isothermal surface and it follows
the basic equation for transport processes. The heat flow qx represented as the rate of a transfer
process can be determined using this law as shown in Equation (1):

𝑞𝑥 𝑑𝑇
= −𝑘 𝑑𝑥 (1)
𝐴

where 𝑞𝑥 is the heat flow in the x-direction (watts/W)

𝐴 is the cross-sectional area perpendicular to direction of heat flow (m2)
𝑇 is the temperature (K)
𝑥 is the distance between faces (m)
𝑘 is the thermal conductivity (W/m K) (Geankoplis, 1993).

In a steady state condition across a flat slab (i.e. no accumulation or depletion of heat)
and 𝑘 independent of temperature, a relationship can be established between the heat flow and
temperature drop across the material. Equation (2) below was derived from the Fick’s law
equation

𝑞 𝑇 −𝑇 ∆𝑇
𝐴
= 𝑘 𝑥1 −𝑥2 = 𝑘 𝐵
(2)
2 1

where 𝑥2 −𝑥1 = 𝐵 is the thickness of the slab (m), and

𝑇1 −𝑇2 = ∆𝑇 is the temperature drop across the slab (K) (McCabe et. al., 1993)

To investigate the heat flow and the temperature gradient across a material, a thermal
conductivity apparatus was used with a metal specimen containing holes where the
thermocouples can be attached. These holes are placed at known distances apart to determine
the temperature of the metal at each face. The water-cooled base is used as a calorimeter to
determine the heat flow together with thermometers that measure the water inlet and outlet
(Cussons Technology, n.d.). The parts of the equipment are shown in Figure 1.

The apparatus uses an axial heat flow mechanism, wherein a heater at one end of the
specimen increases its temperature which creates a temperature gradient between the two ends
or faces. On the other end of the sample it is attached to a heat sink, in this case water, wherein
its inlet and outlet temperatures to determine its heat flow (Ethun, 2012; Maglic and Pelesky,
1984). This establishes the relationship between heat flow and the temperature gradient as
shown by Equation 2 below as derived from energy balance:
 𝑀
𝑞 = 𝐶𝑝 ( ) (𝑊2 −𝑊1 ) (3)
𝑡

where 𝐶𝑝 is the capacity of water (J/kg K)

𝑀 is the mass of water obtained in the heat sink (kg)
𝑡 is the time for 𝑀 kg of water to flow (s), and
𝑊2 −𝑊1 is the temperature difference between the water inlet and outlet temperatures
(K) (Geankoplis, 1993)

II. Objectives:

General Objective
 To understand how heat flow affects temperature difference between faces

Specific Objectives
 To determine the temperature at each face and the heat flow with varying
thermocouple (T4) temperature,
 To compare experimental result from the theoretical based on calculations,
 To obtain the relationship between the heat conducted and the temperature at each
face.

III. Methodology

Figure 1. Parts of the thermal conductivity apparatus used in the experiment

` The aluminum metal was used as the sample in the experiment, and its diameter, length,
and distances between holes were measured. It was also ensured that the sample was free from
dirt. Then, it was assembled in position with the apparatus (see Figure 1) by pulling the
clamping lever downward and placing the specimen between the heater and the calorimetric
block. The thermocouples were inserted in sequence into the holes on the sample. The
potentiometer-measuring instrument was connected to the terminals provided. The dewar
vessel was then placed over the specimens. The thermometers and water pipes were then
checked if they are installed properly on the apparatus.
For the experiment proper, the water supply was turned on and flow was adjusted. A
temperature difference of less than 10˚C was maintained between the two water thermometers.
The supply voltage was switched on and the current was adjusted using the heater control knob
until the thermocouple 4 (T4) reads 80˚C. The system was stabilized and maintained until 3
other thermocouples provide a constant temperature reading. Once it was stabilized, the water
inlet and outlet temperatures (W1 and W2), thermocouple temperatures (T1-T4), mass of water
(M), and time to collect water were recorded (t), Then, the heat supplied was increased
progressively at increments of 40˚C, and for each increment the same variables (W1, W2, T1-
T4, M, t) were determined.
After gathering data, the apparatus was switched off and unplugged and the water
supply was turned off. A graph of heat conducted in watts vs. temperature difference was
plotted for every increase in temperature.

IV. Results and Discussion

Shown in table 1 are the temperature readings (T1-T4) obtained from the experiment.
It can be observed that the temperature readings obtained from T1 to T4 increases. Since T1 is
the farthest from the heat source and is the nearest from the heat sink, it is expected to have the
lowest temperature reading. This obtained readings were consistent with this idea as shown in
the table below.

Table 1. Thermocouple Temperature along the Length of the Sample

Thermocouple Temperature (0C)
T1 T2 T3 T4
42.4 54.4 67.3 80
52.2 74.4 97.5 120.1
63.8 95.1 128 160.7
73 114.5 157.8 200.3
In theory, as the difference of temperature between the faces of the rod increases, the
value of heat flowing through the metal also increases (Patel, n.d.). The calculated values of
heat are shown below in table 2. It can be observed that as the temperature difference ΔT
between the two faces increases, the Conducted Heat is also increasing. This is consistent with
the stated theory. The values of Q shown in table 2 was calculated using equation 3.

Table 2. Calculated Difference in Temperature and Conducted Heat

ΔT(T4-T1) (0C) Q (watts)
37.6 14.0605
67.9 116.2601
96.9 304.0849
127.3 441.2554

The flow of heat is only possible if there is a temperature gradient present in the system,
in this case, the metal. The main reason for the difference of temperature readings between the
two faces of the metal is because of the heating medium present at one face of the metal (hot
face), and the heat sink, for this case water was used, present at the other face of the metal
(cooler face). The heating medium supplies the heat in the metal while the water is responsible
for cooling the base of the setup and it is used as a calorimeter to measure the flow of heat
through the system.

Shown in figure 2 is the graph of temperature difference between the first and fourth
thermocouple and the conducted heat. The graph shows a linear relationship between the
temperature difference and heat conducted, with a R2 value of 0.987. Based on the graph, as
the heat introduced on the hotter face of the metal increases, the temperature difference between
the faces will also increase. This statement is consistent with derived equation from Fick’s law,
specifically, equation 2. This equation also shows a direct relationship between the heat flow
and temperature difference. The R2 value is not really that close to 1 because of some factors,
for example, the waiting time for the stability of the temperature reading for T4.

140
Temperature Diff (deg C)

120
100
80
60 R² = 0.987
40
20
0
0 100 200 300 400 500
Heat Conducted (Watts)
Figure 2. Temperature Difference of the Fourth and the First Thermocouple as a Function of
the Conducted Heat

Shown in figure 3 is the graph of temperature as a function of the sample length of the
metal. It can be observed here that as the temperature of T4 increases, the steepness of the slope
𝑑𝑇
of the line also increases. Moreover, this graph represents the (𝑑𝑋) component from the equation
1, in the Fourier’s Law. It can be seen that the greatest value of T4 also presents a greatest
𝑑𝑇
value of (𝑑𝑋). If we relate this to figure 2, this factor greatly supports the idea of the effect of
the heat of flow in the system to the difference in temperature between the faces of the metal.

250 T4=80
T4=120.1
200 R² = 0.9999
Temperature (deg C)

T4=160.7
150
R² = 0.9999
T4=200.3
R² = 0.9999
100
R² = 0.9998
50

0
0 50 100
Length of Sample (mm)

Figure 3. Temperature as a Function of Sample Length

V. Conclusion and Recommendation

The values of the temperature of the faces of the metal were determined using a thermal
conductivity apparatus while the values of the flow of heat at varying T4 values were calculated
using equation 3. From the obtained values, it was concluded that the T4 with the highest
reading gave the highest value of Q since it gave the highest difference in temperature. It was
also inferred that Q does greatly affects the temperature differences between the faces of the
metal wherein when Q is increased, the temperature difference also increases. Moreover, the
Q and the difference in temperature showed a direct relationship.

It is recommended to use a cooled metal at the start of the experiment to reach a higher
value of T4. Doing this will give the experimenters more results and can perhaps give a more
reliable result. Also, it is recommended it increase the waiting time for the stabilization of the
temperature reading to obtain more accurate results.

VI. References

Cussons Technology (n.d.). P5687 Thermal Conductivity Apparatus. Retrieved from

https://cussons.co.uk/admin/resources/p5687-issue-5.pdf
Ethun, C.F. (2012). Development of a thermal conductivity apparatus: Analysis and design.
Norwegian University of Science and Technology Department of Energy and Process
Engineering. Retrieved from
https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/35a2/592115c5ac15cfb6c7402cfa6af2bb734672.pdf
Geankoplis, C.J. (1993). Transport Processes and Unit Operations Third Edition. New Jersey:
Prentice-Hall International.
Maglic, A.C., Peletsky, V.E. (1984). Compendium of Thermophysical Property Measurement
Methods, Vol 1. Survey of Measurement Techniques. Vol. 1. New York: Plenium Press. 789
pp.
McCabe, W.L., Smith, J.C., Harriott, P. (1993). Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering.
Singapore: McGraw-Hill Book Co.
Patel, J. (n.d.). What is thermal conductivity? Retrieved from
https://www.khanacademy.org/science/physics/thermodynamics/specific-heat-and-heat-
transfer/a/what-is-thermal-conductivity

VII. Appendices
APPENDIX A
Notations
T1 – first of the four in-series thermocouples (to have contact with water)
T2 – second of the four in-series thermocouples (to have contact with water)
T3 – third of the four in-series thermocouples (to have contact with water)
T4 – fourth of the four in-series thermocouples (to have contact with water)
W1 – water inlet
W2 – water outlet APPENDIX C
V – volume Sample Calculation and Results
T – time For Mass determination,
M – mass Density @ 28.7 deg C: 0.996 kg/L
𝜌 – density 𝑀= 𝜌𝑥𝑉
Q – Heat Conducted 𝑀 = 0.996
𝑘𝑔
𝑥 0.23L
𝐿
APPENDIX B
𝑀 = 0.22908 kg
Raw Data
Table 3. Sample dimensions For Heat Conducted determination,
Diameter (mm) 17.9 𝑀
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑝 𝑥 𝑡 𝑥 (𝑊2 − 𝑊1) where 𝐶𝑝 =
Length (mm) 102.2 𝐽
Distance between holes (mm) 29.05 4186 𝑘𝑔 𝐾
𝐽 0.22098 𝑘𝑔
𝑄 = 4186 𝑘𝑔 𝐾 𝑥 𝑥 (28.55 −
3.41 𝑠
Table 4. Parameters for Volumetric Flow 28.5)(0C)
Rate
𝑄 = 14.0605 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠
Volume (L) Time (s)
0.23 3.41
0.267 3.83
0.216 3.85
0.285 3.77

Table 5. Inlet and outlet Water

Temperature
Water Temperature (0C)
Inlet outlet
28.5 28.55
28.7 29.1
28.7 30.0
28.7 30.1

Table 6. Calculated Mass and Conducted

Heat
Mass
W1 W2 Q (watts)
(kg)
28.5 28.55 0.22908 14.0605
28.7 29.1 0.265932 116.2601
28.7 30.0 0.215136 304.0849
28.7 30.1 0.28386 441.2554