IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING. VOL. 38, NO. 5.

MAY 1991 46 I

A Blind Mobility Aid Modeled After

Echolocation of Bats
Tohru Ifukube, Tadayuki Sasaki, and Chen Peng

Abstract-A new model of a mobility aid f o r t h e blind was

designed using m i c r o p r o c e s s o r a n d ultrasonic devices. T h i s
mobility a i d was e v a l u a t e d b a s e d on psychophysical experi-
ments. In this model, a d o w n s w e p t FM u l t r a s o u n d signal is
e m i t t e d f r o m a t r a n s m i t t i n g a r r a y w i t h b r o a d directional c h a r -
acteristics in o r d e r t o detect obstacles. T h e u l t r a s o u n d reflec-
tions f r o m t h e obstacles a r e picked u p by a two-channel re-
ceiver. T h e f r e q u e n c y of t h e e m i t t e d u l t r a s o u n d is s w e p t f r o m
time -
70 t o 40 k H z w i t h i n 1 ms, so it h a s a l m o s t t h e s a m e c h a r a c t e r - Fig. I . Typical time spectrum pattern of FM bat’s orientational ultrasonic.
istics as t h e u l t r a s o u n d a b a t p r o d u c e s f o r echolocation. T h e
f r e q u e n c y of t h e reflected u l t r a s o u n d wave is d o w n c o n v e r t e d virtual images. This used slower frequency sweeps over
by a b o u t 5 0 : l by using a m i c r o c o m p u t e r with A/D a n d D/A
converters. T h e s e a u d i b l e waves a r e t h e n p r e s e n t e d binaurally
250 ms, so its operation is different from the aid described
t h r o u g h e a r p h o n e s . In this m e t h o d obstacles m a y b e perceived here.
a s localized s o u n d images c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e direction a n d Some species of bats have the ability to detect tiny ob-
the size of t h e obstacles. F r o m t h e results of psychophysical stacles and flying insects by using ultrasound echoloca-
e x p e r i m e n t s , it was f o u n d t h a t d o w n s w e p t FM u l t r a s o u n d was tion. The bat echolocation mechanism is not completely
s u p e r i o r f o r t h e recognition of s m a l l obstacles c o m p a r e d t o
o t h e r ultrasonic schemes. W i t h it a blind p e r s o n c a n recognize
understood, but according to current knowledge, it has
a 1 - m m - d i a m e t e r wire. I t w a s also p r o v e d t h a t t h e blind c o u l d been shown that the bat’s inner ear mechanism has a func-
discriminate b e t w e e n several obstacles a t t h e s a m e t i m e w i t h o u t tion similar to that of a human. There are certain charac-
a n y v i r t u a l images. T h i s mobility a i d , m o d e l e d a f t e r t h e bat’s teristics such as a high Q resonance at certain frequencies
echolocation s y s t e m , is very effective a t detecting s m a l l obsta- in the basilar membrane where the bat’s hearing system
cles placed in f r o n t of t h e h e a d .
differs from that of humans [9], [ 101. However, it is ex-
pected that the same echolocation function may be elic-
I. INTRODUCTION ited in the human auditory system.

D URING the last two decades, about 30 models of

blind mobility aids have been developed, and some
of them are in practical use 111. The Sonic-torch [ 2 ] ,Son-
Since most bats transmit downswept frequency-modu-
lated (FM) ultrasound for their echolocation as shown in
Fig. 1, this downswept FM sound probably has advan-
ospec, Pathsounder [3], Mowat Sensor [4],Nottingham tages in detecting and recognizing obstacles [ 1 11, [ 121. In
Obstacle Detector [5], and Laser-Cane [6] are called clear this paper, we describe the design of a new mobility aid
path indicators or obstacle detectors because the blind can device modeled after the bat’s echolocation system. An
only know whether there is an obstacle in the path ahead investigation of the role played by the downswept FM
[7]. These devices are used to search for obstacles in front sound to detect and recognize obstacles is also described.
of a blind person, and they operate in a manner similar to
a flashlight, which has very narrow directivity. Sonic- 11. MOBILITY AID DEVICE
guide, however, is called an environment sensor because Our mobility aid device consists of a microcomputer
is has wide directivity enabling it to search for several board with three channels of D/A conversion and two
obstacles at the same time 181. Discrimination experi- channels of A/D conversion. ROM (16 kbytes), RAM (16
ments have been done by Kay. However, there are still kbytes), one ultrasonic transmitter, two ultrasonic receiv-
some problems to be solved in this latter device such as ers, and two earphones are shown in Fig. 2. Eachelement
low spatial resolution and the perception of simultaneous is made of CMOS to make the power dissipation as low
as possible. The device can be driven by four recharge-
Manuscript received September 14, 1987; revised November 19. 1987. able batteries. A photograph of the device is shown in
T. Ifukube is with the Research Institute of Applied Electricity, Hok- Fig. 3.
kaido University, Sapporo 060, Japan.
T. Sasaki is with the Research Institute of the National Rehabilitation The downswept FM ultrasound is emitted from a trans-
Center for the Disabled, Tokorozawa 359, Japan. mitter with broad directional characteristics, and the re-
C. Peng was with the Research Institute of Applied Electricity, Hok- flected ultrasound signals are picked up from obstacles by
kaido University, Sapporo 060, Japan. He is now with the Nan-jing Insti-
tute of Technology, Jiangsu, China. a two-channel receiver. The signals picked up are ampli-
IEEE Log Number 9144697. fied and filtered. The frequency of the emitted ultrasound

0018-9294/91/0500-0461$01.OO 0 1991 IEEE

462 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING, VOL. 38. NO. 5. MAY 1991

Ims - 1
cl
obstacle 41

E
*

Frequency i n kHr

(a)

Attenuation in dB
Horizontal

(b)

f=SOhHz

li c - ’ J 90
Attenuation in dE U / U
Fig. 2. Block diagram of our niobility aid device Vert ical

(C)

Fig. 4. (a) Frequency characteristics of ultrasonic transducer. (b) Hori-

zontal and (c) vertical directivity of ultrasonic transducer.

k-2 ~ ” *
Fig. 5 . Arrangement of the transducers

audible waves are presented to both ears through ear-

phones. In this method, obstacles may be perceived as
Fig. 3 . Photograph of the device
localized sound images corresponding to the direction and
the size of the obstacles.
signals sweeps downward from 70 to 40 kHz within 1 ms, The transmitter and the receivers were designed by
so it has almost the same characteristics as the ultrasound Matsushita Electronic Components Co., Ltd., and these
signal a bat produces for echolocation. devices have a very wide frequency range and broad di-
The detected signals consist of 8192 sampling points rectivity as shown in Fig. 4.
and are stored into RAM through an A/D converter with These transducers are fixed in the center of the frame
11-bit resolution during a 2-ps sampling period. These on a pair of eyeglasses, and the two receivers face or-
data are then downconverted into an audible signal thogonal directions as shown in Fig. 5 . Fig 6(a) shows
through a two-channel D/A converter in 100 ps with 12-bit the relative intensities of the reflected sound plotted as a
resolution. The refected ultrasound wave now lies in the function of the angle from a pole moved on a circular path
frequency range of 800 to 1400 Hz where the auditory 1 m in front of the receivers. Fig. 6(b) shows the arrival
sensitivity is just below the most sensitive range of human time difference of the reflected sounds between the two
hearing and the frequency difference limen is small. These receivers as a function of the direction of the pole. Inten-
IFUKUBE er a l . : MOBILITY AID MODELED AFTER ECHOLOCATION 463

transducers

-90 -60 -30 0 30 60 90

angle 0 i n degree

(a)
0

(C) (d)
Fig. 7 . Arrangements of obstacles and transducers for psychophysical ex-
periment of the discrimination ability of poles.

[see Fig. 7(a)]. The pole was moved manually and slowly
to prevent nondevice stimuli from affecting the judgment.
The order of diameter presentation went from the largest
to smallest.

(b) Experiment 2
Fig. 6 . (a) Relative intensities of the reflected sound as a function of the The angle 8 from the front of the observer was changed
direction of the pole. (b) Arrival time difference of the reflected sounds until the pole was just perceived to be at a different direc-
between two receivers as a function of the directions of the pole.
tion [see Fig. 7(b)].
Next, the ability of a subject to discriminate between
sity and time differences produce a sound image inside the two objects was evaluated by the following three experi-
head through binaural sound perception that changes de- ments. In the experiments, two other kinds of ultrasound
pending on the direction of obstacle, although auditory signals were used besides the downswept FM signal to
localization based on sound intensity differences is best determine the most suitable. These consisted of a 50-kHz
made in a higher range than the output produced by the constant frequency (CF) with 1-ms duration and an up-
device. swept FM signal from 40 to 70 kHz with 1-ms duration.
Each subject was tested using all these signals in the order
111. EVALUATION METHODFOR DISCRIMINATION of CF, upswept, and downswept FM signals. The various
BETWEEN Two OBJECTS frequency variations with time are shown in Fig. 8.
The ability of subjects to perceive an object was eval- In the third and fourth experiments, two poles 70 cm
uated by following two experiments. Two normal-hearing high were placed in front of the observer at an inclination
subjects participated in these experiments. The subjects of 60" [see Fig. 7(c)]. The diameter of the right pole was
ranged in age from 24 to 29 years and had hearing thresh- 30 mm, and during the course of each experiment, the
olds better than 10 dB HL from 125 to 4000 Hz. The diameter of the left was reduced from 30 to 3 mm.
threshold was taken as the geometric mean of the two sub-
jects. In the experiments, a pole 70 cm high was placed Experiment 3
in front of the observer as shown in Fig. 7(a) and (b). The The distance R was changed until both poles were per-
pole was made of acrylic material. The diameter of the ceived to be at the same distance.
pole was reduced from 20 to 2 mm incrementally.
Experiment 4
Experiment 1 R was changed until the two objects could just be per-
The distance R was made large. The pole was then ceived as being separate.
moved continually closer until it could just be perceived In the last experiment, the left pole was replaced by a
464 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING, VOL. 38, NO. 5, MAY 1991

70 Upswept FM
/'
300 4
L
Y

c 60
3
g 50
U
%
i
/'
40 ,'
0 0.5 1 .o
t i m e i n msec
2 5 8 10 12 15 20
Fig. 8. Time spectrum patterns of three orientational sounds used for the d i a m e t e r o f p o l e i n mm
psychophysical experiment.
Fig. 9. Distance ( R ) at which the pole could be perceived at the different
direction from the front of the observer.
steel plate perpendicular to the line between the plate and
observer [see Fig. 7(d)]. The plate was 153 cm high by
124 cm wide. In the course of this experiment, the di-
ameter of the right pole was reduced from 30 to 3 mm.

Experiment 5
R was made large. The pole was then moved closer un-
til it could just be perceived.

IV. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTSA N D DISCUSSIONS

In experiment 1, the R at which the pole could just be d i a m e t e r o f p o l e i n mm
perceived increased in proportion to the diameter of the
Fig. 10. Angle (0) at which the pole could be perceived at a different di-
pole, as shown in Fig. 9. In experiment 2, the 0 at which rection from the front of the observer.
the pole could be perceived at a different direction from
the front of the observer decreased in inverse proportion
to the diameter of the pole, as shown in Fig. 10.
In experiment 3, the R at which the two poles were
130i 0 downsweot FM
perceived to be at the same distance increased markedly
when the diameter of the left pole became less than 2 mm, x
-
c
120
0 upswept FM
0 constant frequency
as shown in Fig. 11. This result means that obstacles U

placed at the same distance were perceived at almost the 2

t: 110
same distance if the size difference between two obstacles 3

was not too large. This phenomenon was found in the

cases of upswept FM sound and CF sound as well as 100
1 2 5 10 30
downswept FM sound. d i a m e t e r of p o l e i n mm
In experiment 4, the R at which two poles were per-
Fig. 1 1 . Distance ( R ) of the right pole at which two poles were perceived
ceived to be individually separated was about 117 cm for to be at the same distance as a function of the diameter of the left pole.
both cases of FM sound and about 130 cm for the case of
CF sound, as shown in Fig. 12. This means that FM sound
is more advantageous to discriminate multiple obstacles
than CF sound. The distance did not depend so much on
the difference in the diameters of the poles; furthermore,
no difference was found between upswept FM and down-
swept FM.
In experiment 5 , where the plate was substituted for the
pole, the R at which the pole was perceived as a separate
object was about I13 cm in the case of FM sound and 93
cm in the case of CF sound. There was no difference for 1104 0 downswept FM
upswept FM
the case of upswept and downswept FM when the diam-
0 c o n s t a n t frequency
eter of the pole was more than 10 mm, as shown in Fig. 100 I I
13. FM sound appears to be superior to CF sound for the 1 2 5 10 30
perception of obstacles. Downswept FM was, however, d i a m e t e r o f p o l e i n mm
found to be better than upswept FM when the diameter of Fig. 12. Distance ( R ) of the right pole at which two poles were perceived
the pole was less than 5 mm. Downswept FM sound is to be individually separated as a function of the diameter of the left pole.
IFUKUBE er U/.: MOBILITY AID MODELED AFTER ECHOLOCAI ION 465

[6] P. W . Nye, Ed., “A preliminary evaluation of the Bionic instru-

ments-Veterans Administration C-4 laser cane.” Nat. Academy Sci.
o downswept
D upswep FI1
F11

c o n s t a n t frequency p
i
Final Rep., 1973.
[7] E. Foulke, “The perceptual basis for mobility,” Amer. Found. Blind
Res. Bull., vol. 23, pp. 1-8. 1971.
[8] L . Kay, “The design and evaluation of a sensory aid to enhance spa-
tial perception of the blind,” Dep. Elect. Eng., Univ. Canterbury,
New Zealand, Rep. 21, 1973.
191 V. Bruns, “Basilar membrane and its anchoring system in the cochlea
of the greater horseshoe bat,” Anat. Embryo/., vol. 161. pp. 29-50,
1980.
[IO] W. A. Wimsatt, Ed., Biology of Bats: Vol. 3. New York: Aca-
demic, 1977.
[ I I ] J. A. Simmons and J . A . Vermon. “Echolocation: Discrimination of
targets by the bat. Eptesicus fuscus,” J. Exp. Zool.. vol. 176, pp.
315-328, 1971.
[ 121 J . A. Simmons. “The resolution of target range by echolocating bats,”
J. Acoust. Soc. Amer., vol. 54. pp. 157-73, 1973.

60
II ”‘-
1
1
1 2 5 10 30
d i a m e t e r o f pole i n m m
Tohru Ifukube was born in Hokkaido, Japan, in
Fig. 13. Distance ( R ) at which the pole was perceived as a separate object 1946. He received the M.S. and Dr. degrees in
as a function of the diameter of the pole. electronics from Hokkaido University in 197 I and
1977. respcctively.
He joined the Research Institute of Applied
most effective for the perception of small obstacles placed Electricity o f Hokkaido University in 1971, where
near a wall. he studied information processing of the auditory
Temporal masking may explain why the downswept FM and tactile senses. He also designed sensory sub-
stitute devices such as a tactile vocorder for the
was more effective in all cases. Sounds that occur earlier deaf. a monosyllabic voice typewriter for the dis-
are not easily masked by later sounds due to temporal abled. and a niobilitv aid for the blind. He was a
masking. With downswept FM, the high-frequency Visiting Associate Professor at Stanford University. Stanford. CA, in 1984.
He is now Associate Professor of the Division of Medical Electronics of
sounds occur first, and these sounds are important to de- the Research Institute of Applied Electricity at Hakkaido University. His
tect smaller objects. Whether this speculation is true or research interests include the analysis of human sensory functions and the
not, our mobility aid modeled after the bat’s echolocation design of sensory substitutes for the disabled.
system seems to be effective in detecting small objects
placed in front of the head.
The test used to evaluate the scheme is of a limited and
Tadayuki Sasaki was born in Hirosaki. Japan, in
preliminary nature. Although the package combined with 1958. He received the B.S. degree in physics and
a microcomputer board and battery pack for the device is the M.S. degree in biomedical engineering from
relatively large, this device can be made in an inconspic- Hokkaido University, Sapporo. Japan. in 1981 and
1984, respectively.
uous package and can incorporate cosmetic features. The Since 1984, he has worked as a researcher at
ears are not completely closed with the earphones for this the Rescarch Institute of the National Rchabilita-
device, so as to not prevent the user from making use of tion Center for the Disabled, Tokorozawa. Japan.
His research includes an analysis of the echolo-
other naturally occurring sounds to aid mobility. The cation mechanism of bats. a design for mobility
presently evaluated device has to be used with a cane or aids lor the blind, and application
.. of an ultrasonic
a guide dog and is only part of the mobility task. The imaging system to robots.
Mr. Sasaki is a member of the Robotics Society of Japan. the Acoustical
essence of mobility is the motion of a person, either body Society of Japan, the Institute of Electronics. Information and Communi-
movement through walking or head movements to local- cation Engineers. the Japan Society of Medical Electronics and Biological
ize sounds. The ultimate test will be the ability of the Engineering, the Socicty of Instrument and Control Engineers. and the Ja-
pan Society of Mechanical Engineers.
device to provide the information needed by the blind pe-
destrians in the real world in which the mobility task is
ordinarily performed.
Chen Peng was born in Harbin. China, in 1963.
REFERENCES He received the B.Eng. degree in acoustic engi-
neering in 1982 from the Harbin Institutc of Ship-
[ I ] S . Shao, “Mobility aids for the blind,” in Electronics Devices f o r building Engineering. Harbin. China.
Rehabilitation. New York: Chapman and Hall, 1985, ch. 3. p. 79. Since graduation. he worked for four years in
[2] L. Kay, “An ultrasonic sensing probe as a mobility aid for the blind,” the Jan-Ning Machinery Plant conducting re-
Ultrasonics, vol. 2, p. 53, 1964. search on computers applied to engineering. He
131 L . Russel, “Travel path sounder,” in Proc. Rotterdam Mobility Res. joined the Nan-jing Institute of Technology. Nan-
Conf. New York: Amer. Foundation for the Blind, 1965. Jing, China. as a graduate student in biomedical
[4] N. Pressey. “Mowat sensor,” Focus, vol. 3, pp, 35-39, 1977. engineering in September 1986. He was a fellow
[5] J. D. Armstrong, “Summary report of the research programme on . . Electricity,
with the Research Institute of Amlied
electronic mobility aids.” Dep. Psychology, Univ. Nottingham, Not- Hokkaido University. Sapporo. Japan. in 1987. His research interests in-
tingham. England, 1973. clude the application of ultrasound engineering to biomedical engineering.