SQL Material

ORACLE 12c
Data :-
Data are raw material and unorganized facts that need to be processed.
Example:-
Students fill an admission form when they get admission in college. The form consists of raw facts about
the students. These raw facts are student's name, father name, address etc. The purpose of collecting this
data is to maintain the records of the students during their study period in the college.
Information :-
When data are processed , organized, structured or presented in a given context so as to make them
useful.They are called information.
Example:-
Data collected from census is used to generate different type of information. The government can use it to
determine the literacy rate in the country. Government can use the information in important decision to
improve literacy rate.
Database :-
A Database is a collection of meaningful data that is stored in computer system. For example an employee
data would generally contain Employee Name, Salary, Address and Job. Such data of multiple employees
placed together in one place is termed as Database. DB is represented by using cylinder.
DB
On line Transactional Processing :-

Data is entered initially into OLTP system. The focus of an OLTP system is data entry i.e. insert ,update
and delete. An OLTP environment is not suitable for reporting purpose because a normalized model
usually involves many tables. Even simple reports requires joining many tables , resulting poor
performance.
On line Analytical Processing (Data Warehouse) :-

A data Wrehouse is a DB designed for data retrieval or reporting purpose but not for transaction
processing (insert,update,delete).
DBMS :-
A Database management system (DBMS) can be a set of software programs that controls the storage and
retrieval of data in a database. It also controls the security and integrity of the database. The DBMS accepts
requests for data from the application program and instructs the operating system to transfer the
appropriate data.
Data security prevents unauthorised users from viewing or updating the database. Using passwords, users
are allowed access to the entire database or subsets of the database, For example, an employee database
can contain all the data about an individual employee, but one group of users may be authorised to view
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only payroll data, while others are allowed access to only work history and medical data. The DBMS can
maintain the integrity of the database by not allowing more than one user to update the same record at
the same time. Organisations may use one kind of DBMS for daily transaction processing and then move
the detail onto another computer that uses another DBMS better suited for analysis.
Advantages :-
• Reduced data redundancy

• increased consistency
• Greater data integrity and independence from applications programs
• Improved data access to users through use of host and query languages
• Improved data security
• Reduced data entry, storage, and retrieval costs
• Facilitated development of new applications program
Disadvantages:-
• Database systems are complex, difficult, and time-consuming to design

• Substantial hardware and software start-up costs
• Damage to database affects virtually all applications programs
• Extensive conversion costs in moving form a file-based system to a database system
• Initial training required for all programmers and users
Development of DBMS :-
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Types of people involved:-
Three types of people are involved with a general-purpose DBMS:
1. DBMS developers - These are the people that design and build the DBMS product, and the only ones
who touch its code. They are typically the employees of a DBMS vendor (e.g., Oracle, IBM, Microsoft)
2. Application developers and Database administrators - These are the people that design and build a
database-based application that uses the DBMS. The latter group members design the needed
database and maintain it.
3. Application's end-users :- These people know the application and its end-user interfaces, but need
neither to know nor to understand the underlying DBMS.
ER MODEL :
An entity-relationship model (ERM) is a conceptual representation of data. Entity-relationship

modeling is a database modeling method, used to produce a type of conceptual schema or semantic
data model of a system, often a relational database, and its requirements in a top-down fashion.
Diagrams created by this process are called entity-relationship diagrams, ER diagrams, or ERDs.
The building blocks of ER model :-
• Entities
• Attributes
• Relationships
Entity :-
An entity may be a physical object such as a house or a car, an event such as a house sale or a car service,
or a concept such as a customer transaction or order.Entities can be thought of as nouns. Examples: a
computer, an employee, a vehicle
Entity Set :-
Collection of entities that share common characterstics is called entity set. In ERD entity set is represented
by using symbol rectangle.
Attributes :-
Entity properties are called attributes , for example Properties of employee entity includes
Empno,Ename,Job,Sal etc.
In ERD attributes are represented by using symbol ellipse.
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Relationship :-
A relationship is an association between entities of entity sets and it is represented by using
Types of relationships:-
• One-to-one (1:1)
• One-to-many(1:m)
• Many-to-Many(m:n)
One-to-one relationship :-
If one entity of an entity set associated with one entity of another entity set then it is called
one-to-one relationship.
One-to-one relationship :-
If one entity of an entity set associated with many entity of another entity set then it is
called one-to-many relationship.
many-to-many relationship :-
If many entities of an entity set associated with many entities of another entity set then it is
called one-to-many relationship.
RDBMS:-
The concept of a relational database was first developed by E.FCODD. The relation, which is a two-
dimensional table, is the primary unit of storage in a relational database. A relational database can contain
one or more of these tables, with each table consisting of a unique set of rows and columns. A record
stored in a table is called row, also known as a tuple, while attributes of the data are defined in columns, or
fields, in the table. The characteristics of the data, or the column, relates one record to another. Each
column has a unique name and the content within it must be of the same type.
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In RDBMS :-
• A Database is a collection of tables.

• Each table contains records, which are called tuples
• Each record contains field values
• A domain is refers to the possible values each filed can hold
• Each table has a unique identifier called Primary key, which is used to access record in a table.
• Tables are related using Foreign keys
ORACLE 11g
Oracle provides a flexible RDBMS called Oracle11g. Using its features, you can store and manage
data with all the advantages of a relational structure plus PL/SQL, an engine that provides you with the
ability to store and execute program units. Oracle11g also supports Java and XML.
The Oracle server offers the options of retrieving data based on optimization techniques. It includes
security features that control how a database is accessed and used. Other features include consistency
and protection of data through locking mechanisms.
Oracle versions :-
Year Version Features
1979 version 1 Not comercially released.
1980 Version 2 First commercial SQL database (PDP11/VAX)
1982 Version 3 First portable database
First RDBMS to support SMP
1984 Version 4 Introduced Read Consistency
1986 Version 5 Supports Client/Server Architecture

Supports ROW LEVEL locking
1988 Version 6 Financial Applications built on ORACLE.
1992 Version 7 Varchar2 datatype

Stored procedures
Functions
Triggers
1997 Version 8 - first Web Database
Object Oriented Features
Table partitioning
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1998 version 8i Java support, SQLJ, XML and Oracle interMedia.
2001 version 9i RAC

Advanced Analytic Service (business intelligence)
Native XML database
2004 version 10g Flashback Query

Data Pump,
Automatic Storage Management,
Backup Compression.
Regual expressions
2007 version 11g read only table

Virtual columns
Pivot operator
Follows clause
Compound triggers
SQL
Structured Query Language (SQL) is the set of statements with which all programs and users access data in
an Oracle database.
The language, Structured English Query Language ("SEQUEL") was developed by IBM Corporation, Inc.
SEQUEL later became SQL (still pronounced "sequel").
All major relational database management systems support SQL,so you can transfer all skills you have
gained with SQL from one database to another. In addition, all programs written in SQL are portable. They
can often be moved from one database to another with very little modification.
SQL has the following advantages:
• Efficient
• Easy to learn and use
• With SQL, you can define, retrieve, and manipulate data in the tables
SQL Standards:-
Oracle SQL complies with industry-accepted standards.. Industry-accepted committees are the American
National Standards Institute (ANSI) and the International Standards Organization (ISO). Both ANSI and ISO
have accepted SQL as the standard language for relational databases.
Writing SQL Statements
Using the following simple rules and guidelines, you can construct valid statements that are both easy to
read and easy to edit:
• SQL statements are not case sensitive.
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• SQL statements can be entered on one or many lines.

• Keywords cannot be split across lines or abbreviated.
• Clauses are usually placed on separate lines for readability and ease of editing.
• Indents should be used to make code more readable.
• Keywords typically are entered in uppercase; all other words, such as table names and columns,
are entered in lowercase.
SQL*Plus :-
SQL*Plus is an Oracle tool that recognizes and submits SQL statements to the Oracle server for execution
and contains its own command language.
SQL*Plus is an environment in which you can do the following :-
• Execute SQL statements to retrieve, modify, add, and remove data from the database
• Format, perform calculations on, store, and print query results in the form of reports
• Create script files to store SQL statements for repetitive use in the future
SQL vs SQL*PLUS :-
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Schema :- a user in oracle db is called schema and objects created by user are called schema objects
Logging In to sql*plus :-
➔ Open sql*plus
➔ Enter username & password
➔ Enter host string
Datatypes :-
When you create a table or cluster, you must specify a datatype for each of its columns. When you create a
procedure or stored function, you must specify a datatype for each of its arguments. These datatypes
define the domain of values that each column can contain or each argument can have. For example, DATE
columns cannot accept the value February 29 (except for a leap year) or the values 2 or ’SHOE’. Each value
subsequently placed in a column assumes the column’s datatype. For example, if you insert ’01-JAN-98’
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into a DATE column, Oracle treats the ’01-JAN-98’ character string as a DATE value after verifying that it
translates to a valid date.
CHAR(size) :-
Fixed-length character data of length size bytes.Maximum size is 2000 bytes. Default and minimum size is
1 byte.
VARCHAR2(size) :-
Variable-length character string having maximum length size bytes or characters. Maximum size is 4000
bytes, and minimum is 1 byte or 1 character. You must specify size for VARCHAR2.
NCHAR(size) :-
Fixed-length character data of length size characters or bytes, depending on the choice of national
character set. Maximum size is determined by the number of bytes required to store each character, with
an upper limit of 2000 bytes. Default and minimum size is 1 character or 1 byte, depending on the
character set.
NVARCHAR2(size) :-
Variable-length character string having maximum length size characters or bytes, depending on the choice
of national character set. Maximum size is determined by the number of bytes required to store each
character, with an upper limit of 4000 bytes. You must specify size for NVARCHAR2.
NUMBER(p,s) :-
Number having precision p and scale s. The precision p can range from 1 to 38. The scale s can range from
-84 to 127
LONG :-
Character data of variable length up to 2 gigabytes, or 231 -1 bytes.
DATE :-
Allows date & time but Time is optional if not entered by user then oracle inserts 12:00AM.Valid date
range from January 1, 4712 BC to December 31, 9999 AD.a Date field occupies 7 bytes of memory
TIMESTAMP (fractional_seconds_precision) :-
Year, month, and day values of date, as well as hour, minute, and second values of time, where
fractional_seconds_precision is the number of digits in the fractional part of the SECOND datetime field.
Accepted values of fractional_seconds_precision are 0 to 9. The default is 6.
TIMESTAMP(fractional_seconds_precision) WITH TIME ZONE:-
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All values of TIMESTAMP as well as time zone displacement value, where fractional_seconds_precision is
the number of digits in the fractional part of the SECOND datetime field.Accepted values are 0 to 9. The
default is 6.a The codes listed for the datatypes are used internally by Oracle. The datatype code of a
column or object attribute is returned by the DUMP function.
TIMESTAMP(fractional_seconds_precision) WITH LOCAL TIME ZONE:-
All values of TIMESTAMP WITH TIME ZONE, with the following exceptions and Data is normalized to the
database time zone When it is stored in the database. When the data is retrieved, users see the data in the
session time zone.
RAW(size) :-
Raw binary data of length size bytes. Maximum size is 2000 bytes. You must specify size for a RAW value.
LONG RAW :-
Raw binary data of variable length up to 2 gigabytes.
ROWID :-
Hexadecimal string representing the unique address of a row in its table. This datatype is primarily for
values returned by the ROWID pseudocolumn.
UROWID [(size)] :-
Hexadecimal string representing the logical address of a row of an index-organized table. The optional size
is the size of a column of type UROWID. The maximum size and default is 4000 bytes.
CLOB :-
A character large object containing single-byte characters. Both fixed-width and variable-width character
sets are supported, both using the CHAR database character set. Maximum size is 4 gigabytes.
NCLOB :-
A character large object containing unicode characters. Both fixed-width and variable-width character sets
are supported, both using the NCHAR database character set. Maximum size is 4 gigabytes. Stores national
character set data.
BLOB :-
A binary large object. Maximum size is 4 gigabytes.
BFILE :-
Contains a locator to a large binary file stored outside the database. Enables byte stream I/O access to
external LOBs residing on the database server. Maximum size is 4 gigabytes.
OCA question :-
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1 Which three statements are true regarding the data types in Oracle Database 10g/11g?
A. Only one LONG column can be used per table.

B. A TIMESTAMP data type column stores only time values with fractional seconds.
C. The BLOB data type column is used to store binary data in an operating system file.
D. The minimum column width that can be specified for a VARCHAR2 data type column is one.
E. The value for a CHAR data type column is blank-padded to the maximum defined column width.
2 You need to create a table for a banking application. One of the columns in the table has the
following requirements:
1) You want a column in the table to store the duration of the credit period.
2) The data in the column should be stored in a format such that it can be easily added and subtracted with
DATE data type without using conversion functions.
3) The maximum period of the credit provision in the application is 30 days.
4) The interest has to be calculated for the number of days an individual has taken a credit for.
Which data type would you use for such a column in the table?
A. DATE B. NUMBER C. TIMESTAMP

D. INTERVAL DAY TO SECOND E. INTERVAL YEAR TO MONTH
OPERATORS IN ORACLE :-
Operators in ORACLE categorized into following categories
ARTHMETIC OPERATORS :-
+ - * /
Operator precedence:-
➔ Operators * , / having higher precedence than operators + , -

➔ Operators of the same priority are evaluated from left to right.
➔ Use parenthesis to control the precedence.
RELATIONAL OPERATORS :-
Used for comparision , different relational operators supported by oracle
Operator Description
> greater than

>= greater than or equal
< less than
<= less than or equals
= equal
<> not equal
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LOGICAL OPERATORS :-
AND used to combine two conditions

OR used to combine two conditions
NOT negate condition
SPECIAL OPERATORS :-
||
BETWEEN
IN
LIKE
IS
ANY
ALL
EXISTS
PIVOT
Creating table :-
Different types of tables can be created in ORACLE.
➔ Standard tables
➔ Partitioned tables
➔ Clustered tables
➔ Index organized tables
➔ External tables
➔ Global temporary tables
Standard Table :-
Syntax:-
SQL> CREATE TABLE <Table Name>

(Colname datatype(size) ,
Colname datatype(size) ,
--------------------) ;
Rules for creating a table :-
• tablename should start with alphabet

• tablename should not contain spaces or special symbols , but allows _ , $ , #
• tablename should not be a oracle reserved word
• tablename can contain max 30 chars
• a table can contain max of 1000 columns
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Example:-
SQL> CREATE TABLE emp
(empno NUMBER(4), ename VARCHAR2(20),
job VARCHAR2(10), hiredate DATE,
sal NUMBER(6,2), comm NUMBER(6,2) ,
deptno NUMBER(2));
OCA Question :-
Which is the valid CREATE TABLE statement?

A. CREATE TABLE emp9$# (emp_no NUMBER (4));
B. CREATE TABLE 9emp$# (emp_no NUMBER(4));
C. CREATE TABLE emp*123 (emp_no NUMBER(4));
D. CREATE TABLE emp9$# (emp_no NUMBER(4), date DATE);
Inserting Data into a Table:-
INSERT command is used to insert record into a table.
Syntax:-
INSERT INTO <table name> VALUES(list of values)
Note :- Strings and Dates must be enclosed in single quotes.
Example :-
SQL>INSERT INTO emp VALUES(1000,’BLAKE’,’MANAGER’, ’10-JAN-10’,5000,500,10) ;
NOTE:-
Order of values in the INSERT command should match with order of columns declared in table.to insert
values in different order then we need to specify the order.
Inserting NULL values :-
→NULL values are inserted when value is
• Absent
• Unknown
• Not Applicable
→NULL is not equal to 0 and not equal to space
→NULL values can be inserted in two ways.
➔ EXPLICITLY
➔ IMPLICITLY
Inserting NULL values EXPLICITLY:
➢ to insert Null values into Numeric columns use NULL keyword.
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➢ To insert Null values into character & date columns use ‘’ .

Example :-
SQL>INSERT INTO emp VALUES(1002,’JAMES’,’’,5000,NULL,10);
Inserting NULL values IMPLICITLY :-
Example :-
SQL> INSERT INTO emp(EMPNO,ENAME,SAL,DEPTNO)

VALUES(1005,’SMITH’,2000,10);
Remaining columns are automatically filled with NULL values.
Inserting MULTIPLE records :-

The same INSERT command can be executed number of times with different values by using substitution
variables. Substitution variables can be declared by using
Single ampersand ( &)

Double ampersand (&&)
These variables stores data temporarily

Using Single ampersand :-
These variables are prefixed with &. Values assigned to these variables exists upto the command , once
command execution is completed values assigned to these variables are erased.
Example:-
SQL>INSERT INTO emp VALUES(&empno,’&ename’,’&job’,

’&hiredate’,&sal,&comm,&deptno);
Using Double Ampersand :-

These variables are prefixed with &&. Values assigned to these variables even after execution of INSERT
command upto the end of session.
Example :-
SQL>INSERT INTO emp VALUES (&empno,’&ename’,’&&job’,&&sal,’&&hiredate’,&deptno);
Inserting data into TIMESTAMP column :-
SQL>CREATE TABLE transactions

(trid NUMBER(5),
ttype CHAR(1),
ttime TIMESTAMP,
tamt NUMBER(11,2),
accno NUMBER(4));
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SQL>INSERT INTO transactions VALUES(1,’W’,’11-JAN-2012 10:00:00.123456’,1001);

To insert current timestamp
SQL>INSERT INTO transactions VALUES(1,’W’,SYSTIMESTAMP,1001);
Virtual Columns :-
Feature introduced in ORACLE 11g.
When queried, virtual columns appear to be normal table columns, but their values are derived rather than
being stored on disc. The syntax for defining a virtual column is listed below.
column_name [datatype] [GENERATED ALWAYS] AS (expression) [VIRTUAL]
If the datatype is omitted, it is determined based on the result of the expression. The GENERATED ALWAYS
and VIRTUAL keywords are provided for clarity only.
Example :-
SQL>CREATE TABLE employees (
id NUMBER,
first_name VARCHAR2(10),
last_name VARCHAR2(10),
salary NUMBER(9,2),
comm NUMBER(3),
hra NUMBER GENERATED ALWAYS AS (SAL*0.3) VIRTUAL,
CONSTRAINT employees_pk PRIMARY KEY (id)
);
SQL>INSERT INTO employees (id, first_name, last_name, salary, comm)

VALUES (1, 'JOHN', 'DOE', 1000, 500) ;
Querying the table shows the inserted data plus the derived hra
SQL>SELECT * FROM employees;
ID FIRST_NAME LAST_NAME SALARY COMM HRA

---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- -------------------
1 JOHN DOE 1000 500 300
Note:-
→Indexes defined against virtual columns are equivalent to function-based indexes.
→Virtual columns can be referenced in the WHERE clause of updates and deletes, but they cannot be
manipulated by DML.
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Limitations :-
→A virtual column can only be of scalar datatype . It can’t be a user defined type, LOB or RAW.
→All columns mentioned as part of the virtual column expression should belong to the same table.
→No DMLs are allowed on the virtual columns.
→The virtual column expression can’t reference any other virtual column.
→Virtual columns can only be created on ordinary tables. They can’t be created on index-organized,
external, object, cluster or temporary tables.
User-Specified Quote Character Assignment :-
SQL statements may contain literal single quotes in them, such as when a possessive form of a noun is used
(e.g., 'Robert's Bike'). Prior to Oracle 10g, the literal quotes had to be double quoted to make it clear to the
SQL or PL/SQL engine that they were literal (e.g., Robert''s Bike). This can make the code much less
readable and can cause errors that be difficult to find.
Oracle 10g introduces a solution to this problem in the form of user-specified quote character assignment.
With this new functionality, the ' symbol can be replaced by just about any single- or multibyte delimiter or
the character pairs [ ], { }, ( ), or < >.
The delimiter is defined by using the quote operator, q, followed by a quote and then the assigned
replacement quote delimiter to be used. Here is an example that uses the bracket pair ([ ]) as quote
delimiters:
SQL> INSERT INTO record VALUES (q'[Robert's book is good isn't it?]');
SQL> SELECT * FROM record
WHERE the_value=q'XRobert's book is good isn't it?X';
THE_VALUE
--------------------------------------------------
Robert's book is good isn't it?
In this example, a record was inserted into the RECORD table. A bracket set was used as the delimiter.
Then, the same record was queried, this time using the letter X as the delimiter. In both cases, there are
single quotes at the beginning after the q operator, and at the very end after the final delimiter.
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Data Retrieval :-
SELECT statement can be used to retrieve data from database.
Capabilities of SELECT Statement:-

Using a SELECT statement, you can do the following :
• Projection :- You can use the projection capability in SQL to choose the columns in a table that
you want .You can choose as few or as many columns of the table as you require.
• Selection:- You can use the selection capability in SQL to choose the rows in a table that you .
You can use various criteria to restrict the rows that you see.
• Joining: You can use the join capability in SQL to bring together data that is stored in different
tables by creating a link between them.
Syntax :-
SELECT * / {column|expression [alias],...} FROM table;
In the syntax :-
• A SELECT clause, which specifies the columns to be displayed

• A FROM clause, which specifies the table containing the columns listed in the SELECT
clause
Selecting All Columns :-
SQL>SELECT * FROM dept;
SQL>SELECT * FROM salgrade;
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SQL>SELECT * FROM emp ;
Selecting Specific Columns :-
Display only empno,ename,job,sal from emp table ?
SQL>SELECT empno, ename, job, sal, FROM emp;
NOTE:-
→Date and Character data aligned to LEFT

→Numeric data aligned to RIGHT
Arthmetic Expressions :-
an arithmetic expression contain column names,constant numeric values and athmetic operator.
Example :-
Display ename ,sal, annual salaries ?
SQL>SELECT ename, sal, sal*12 FROM emp;
Operator precedence :-
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• Multiplication and division take priority over addition and subtraction.

• Operators of the same priority are evaluated from left to right.
• Parentheses are used to force prioritized evaluation and to clarify statements
Example :-
SQL>SELECT ename, sal, 12*sal+100 FROM emp;
The above example displays the ename, sal, and annual sal of employees. It calculates the annual sal as 12
multiplied by the monthly salary, plus a one-time bonus of 100. Notice that multiplication is performed
before addition.
You can override the rules of precedence by using parentheses.

SQL>SELECT ename, sal, 12*(sal+100) FROM emp;
Concatenation Operator:-
This operator concatenates two strings represented by two vertical bars || .
Example :-
SQL>SELECT ename||’ working as ‘||job FROM emp;
SQL>SELECT ename||’ joined on ‘||hiredate FROM emp;
Literals in ORACLE:-
A Literal is a Constant
Types of Literals :-
• String constant
• Numeric constant
• Date constant
NOTE :- String constant and Date constants must be enclosed in ‘ ‘.
Example :-
SQL>SELECT ename || ‘ EARNS ‘|| sal*12 ||’ PER YEAR’ FROM emp;
OCA question :-
Evaluate the following query:
SQL>SELECT INTERVAL '300' MONTH,

INTERVAL '54-2' YEAR TO MONTH,
INTERVAL '11:12:10.1234567' HOUR TO SECOND FROM dual;
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What is the correct output of the above query?
A. +25-00 , +54-02, +00 11:12:10.123457

B. +00-300, +54-02, +00 11:12:10.123457
C. +25-00 , +00-650, +00 11:12:10.123457
D. +00-300 , +00-650, +00 11:12:10.123457
Declaring Alias:-
An Alias is an another name or alternative name, aliases in Oracle are of two types.
• Column Alias
• Table Alias
Column Alias :-
Alias declared for column is called column alias.
Syntax :-
COLNAME / EXPR [AS] ALIAS
→If alias contains spaces or special characters then alias must be enclosed in “ “
→The scope of the alias is upto that query.
Example :-
Display ename,sal,comm and in report display sal as basic and comm as bonus ?
SQL>SELECT ename,sal AS basic,comm AS bonus FROM emp;
Display ename , annual salary ?
SQL>SELECT ename,sal*12 AS “ANNUAL SALARY” FROM emp;
Display ename,sal,hra,da,tax,totsal ?
SQL>SELECT ename,sal,sal*0.3 AS hra,sal*0.2 AS da, sal*0.1 AS tax ,
sal+(sal*0.3)+(sal*0.2)-(sal*0.1) AS totsal FROM emp;
OCA question :-
. You need to produce a report where each customer's credit limit has been incremented by $1000. In the
output, the customer's last name should have the heading Name and the incremented credit limit should
be labeled New Credit Limit. The column headings should have only the first letter of each word in
uppercase .
Which statement would accomplish this requirement?
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A. SELECT cust_last_name Name, cust_credit_limit + 1000

"New Credit Limit"
FROM customers;
B. SELECT cust_last_name AS Name, cust_credit_limit + 1000

AS New Credit Limit
FROM customers;
C. SELECT cust_last_name AS "Name", cust_credit_limit + 1000

AS "New Credit Limit"
FROM customers;
D. SELECT INITCAP(cust_last_name) "Name", cust_credit_limit + 1000 INITCAP("NEW CREDIT LIMIT")

FROM customers;
Clauses in ORACLE :-
➢ WHERE
➢ ORDER BY
➢ DISTINCT
➢ GROUP BY
➢ HAVING
➢ ON
➢ USING
➢ START WITH
➢ CONNECT BY
➢ WITH
➢ RETURNING
➢ FOLLOWS
➢ MODEL
Data Filtering using WHERE clause:-
You can restrict the rows returned from the query by using the WHERE clause. A WHERE clause contains a
condition that must be met, and it directly follows the FROM clause. If the condition is true, the row
meeting the condition is returned.
syntax:
WHERE restricts the rows that meet a condition.
condition is composed of column names, expressions,constants, and a comparison operator
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It consists of three elements:
• Column name
• Comparison operator
• Column name, constant, or list of values
Examples :-
Display employee record whose empno=7844 ?
SQL>SELECT * FROM emp WHERE empno=7844 ;
Display employee records whose job=’CLERK’ ?

SQL>SELECT * FROM emp WHERE job=’CLERK’ ;
Display employee records working for 10 dept and working as CLERK ?
SQL>SELECT * FROM emp WHERE deptno=10 AND job=’CLERK’;
Display employee records working as CLERK OR MANAGER ?
SQL>SELECT * FROM emp WHERE job=’CLERK’ OR job=’MANAGER’ ;
Display employee records earning between 2000 and 5000 ?
SQL>SELECT * FROM emp WHERE sal>=2000 AND sal<=5000;
Display employee records joined after 1981 ?
SQL>SELECT * FROM emp WHERE hiredate > ’31-DEC-1981’ ;
Expect the output of the following Query ?
SQL>SELECT * FROM emp
WHERE job=’CLERK’ OR job=’MANAGER’ AND sal>2000 ;
BETWEEN operator:-
You can display rows based on a range of values using the BETWEEN operator. The range that you
specify contains a lowerlimit and an upperlimit . Values specified with the BETWEEN condition are
inclusive. You must specify the lower limit first.
Syntax:- BETWEEN value1 and value2
Example :-
Display employee records earning between 2000 and 5000 ?

SQL>SELECT * FROM emp WHERE sal BETWEEN 2000 AND 5000;
Note:-
BETWEEN … AND … is actually translated by Oracle server to a pair of AND conditions: (a >=lower limit)
AND (a <= higher limit). So using BETWEEN … AND … has no performance benefits, and it is used for logical
simplicity.
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ORACLE 12c
Example :-
Display employee records who are joined between 1981 year?

WHERE hiredate BETWEEN ’01-JAN-1981’ AND ’31-DEC-1981’ ;
Display employee records who are not joined in 2000 year ?

WHERE hiredate NOT BETWEEN ’01-JAN-2000’ AND ’31-DEC-2000’ ;
OCA question :-
Expect the output of the following query ?
SQL>SELECT * FROM emp WHERE sal BETWEEN 5000 AND 2000 ;
A error B returns records C returns no rows D none
IN operator :-
To test for values in a specified list of values, use IN operator. The IN operator can be used with any data
type. If characters or dates are used in the list, they must be enclosed in single quotation marks (’’).
Syntax:-
IN (V1,V2,V3------------);
Example :-
Display employee records working as CLERK OR MANAGER ?
SQL>SELECT * FROM emp WHERE job IN (‘CLERK’,’MANAGER’) ;
Display employee records not working for dept 10 or 20 ?
SQL>SELECT * FROM emp WHERE deptno NOT IN (10,20)
Note :-
IN ( ... ) is actually translated by Oracle server to a set of OR conditions: a =value1 OR a = value2 OR a =

value3. So using IN ( ... ) has no performance benefits, and it is used for logical simplicity.
LIKE operator:-
You may not always know the exact value to search for. You can select rows that match a character pattern
by using the LIKE operator. The character pattern-matching operation is referred as wildcard search.
Syntax:-
LIKE ‘pattern’
NOT LIKE ‘pattern’
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ORACLE 12c
Pattern consists of alphabets,digits and metacharacters. The different meta characters in ORACLE
% denotes zero or many characters.
_ denotes one character.
Display employee records whose name starts with S ?
SQL>SELECT * FROM emp WHERE ename LIKE ‘S%’ ;
Display employee records whose name ends with S ?
SQL>SELECT * FROM emp WHERE ename LIKE ‘%S’ ;
Display employee records whose name doesn’t contain S ?
SQL>SELECT * FROM emp WHERE ename NOT LIKE ‘%S%’ ;
Display employee records where A is the second char in their name ?
SQL>SELECT * FROM emp WHERE ename LIKE ‘_A%’;
Display employee records who are joined in JAN month ?
SQL>SELECT * FROM emp WHERE hiredate LIKE ‘%JAN%’ ;
Display employee records who are joined in 1981 year ?
SQL>SELECT * FROM emp WHERE hiredate LIKE ‘%81’ ;
Display employee records who are joined in 1st 9 days ?
SQL>SELECT * FROM emp WHERE hiredate LIKE ‘0%’ ;
Display employee records who are earning 5 digits salary ?
SQL>SELECT * FROM emp WHERE sal LIKE ‘_____’ ;
Display employee records whose name contains _ ?
SQL>SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE ENAME LIKE ‘%\_%’ ESCAPE ‘\’ ;
Expect the output of the following query
SQL>SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE JOB IN (‘CLERK’,’%MAN%’);
OCA question :-
You need to extract details of those products in the SALES table where the PROD_ID column contains the
string '_D123'. ?
Which WHERE clause could be used in the SELECT statement to get the required output?
A. WHERE prod_id LIKE '%_D123%' ESCAPE '_'
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ORACLE 12c
B. WHERE prod_id LIKE '%\_D123%' ESCAPE '\'

C. WHERE prod_id LIKE '%_D123%' ESCAPE '%_'
D. WHERE prod_id LIKE '%\_D123%' ESCAPE '\_'
IS operator :
The IS operator tests for nulls. A null value means the value is unavailable, unassigned,unknown, or
inapplicable. Therefore, you cannot test with = because a null cannot be equal or unequal to any value.
Syntax :-
IS NULL
IS NOT NULL
Example:-
Display employee records whose comm. Is null ?
SQL>SELECT * FROM emp WHERE comm IS NULL ;
Display employee records whose comm. Is not null ?
SQL>SELECT * FROM emp WHERE comm IS NOT NULL ;
Operator Precedence :-
Order Evaluated Operator
1 Arithmetic Operator
2 Concatenation Operator
3 Comparison Operator
4 IS [NOT] NULL ,LIKE , [NOT] IN
5 [NOT] BETWEEN
6 NOT logical condition
7 AND logical condition
8 OR logical condition
NOTE:- we can override rules of precedence by using parentheses.
ORDER BY Clause :-
The order of rows returned in a query result is undefined. The ORDER BY clause can be used to sort the
rows. If you use the ORDER BY clause, it must be the last clause of the SQL statement. You can specify an
expression, or an alias, or column position in ORDER BY clause.
Syntax:-
SELECT expr FROM table

[WHERE condition(s)]
[ORDER BY {column, expr} [ASC|DESC]];
In the syntax:
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ORACLE 12c
ORDER BY specifies the order in which the retrieved rows are displayed.
ASC orders the rows in ascending order ( default order)
DESC orders the rows in descending order
Default Ordering of Data :-
• Numeric values are displayed with the lowest values firs for example 1–999.
• Date values are displayed with the earliest value first for example 01-JAN-92 before 01-JAN-95.
• Character values are displayed in alphabetical order—for example, A first and Z last.
• Null values are displayed last for ascending sequences and first for descending sequences.
Examples :-
Arrange employee records in ascending order of their sal ?
SQL>SELECT * FROM emp ORDER BY sal ;
Arrange employee records in descending order of their sal ?
SQL>SELECT * FROM emp ORDER BY sal DESC ;
Display employee records working for 10th dept and arrange the result in ascending order of their sal ?
SQL>SELECT * FROM emp WHERE deptno=10 ORDER BY sal ;
Arrange employee records in ascending of their deptno and with in dept arrange records in descending
order of their sal ?
SQL>SELECT * FROM emp ORDER BY deptno,sal DESC ;
In ORDER BY clause we can use column name or column position , for example
SQL>SELECT * FROM emp ORDER BY 5 DESC ;
In the above example records are sorted based on the fifth column in emp table.
Arrange employee records in descending order of their comm. If comm. Is null then arrange those records
last ?
SQL>SELECT * FROM emp ORDER BY comm DESC NULLS LAST ;
OCA :-
1 Which two statements are true regarding the ORDER BY clause? (Choose two.)
A. It is executed first in the query execution.

B. It must be the last clause in the SELECT statement.
C. It cannot be used in a SELECT statement containing a HAVING clause.
D. You cannot specify a column name followed by an expression in this clause.
E. You can specify a combination of numeric positions and column names in this clause.
2 Which statement is true regarding the default behavior of the ORDER BY clause?
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ORACLE 12c
A. In a character sort, the values are case- sensitive.

B. NULL values are not considered at all by the sort operation.
C. Only those columns that are specified in the SELECT list can be used in the ORDER BY clause.
D. Numeric values are displayed from the maximum to the minimum value if they have decimal positions
DISTINCT clause :-
DISTINCT clause is used to eliminate duplicate values.
Syntax :-
DISTINCT collist / *
SQL>SELECT DISTINCT job FROM emp;
SQL>SELECT DISTINCT deptno,job FROM EMP;
OCA question :-
Using the CUSTOMERS table, you need to generate a report that shows 50% of each credit amount in
each income level. The report should NOT show any repeated credit amounts in each income level. Which
query would give the required result?
A. SELECT cust_income_level, DISTINCT cust_credit_limit * 0.50 AS "50% Credit Limit"

FROM customers;
B. SELECT DISTINCT cust_income_level, DISTINCT cust_credit_limit * 0.50 AS "50% Credit Limit"

FROM customers;
C. SELECT DISTINCT cust_income_level || ' ' || cust_credit_limit * 0.50

AS "50% Credit Limit" FROM customers;
D. SELECT cust_income_level ||' '|| cust_credit_limit * 0.50 AS "50% Credit Limit" FROM customers;
DML commands :-
➔ INSERT
➔ UPDATE
➔ DELETE
➔ INSERT ALL
➔ MERGE
Copying Data from one table to another table :-
Syntax:-
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ORACLE 12c
INSERT INTO <TARGETTABLE>

SELECT <COLLIST> FROM <SOURCE TABLE>
Example :-
SQL>INSERT INTO emp_temp
SELECT * FROM emp;
In the above example first SELECT statement gets data from EMP table and inserts data into EMP_TEMP
table and command will be successful only if both tables structure is same.
UPDATE command :-
Update command is used to modify data in a table.
Syntax:-
UPDATE table SET column = value[, column = value,……] [WHERE condition];
Examples :-
Update all employees commission to 500 ?
SQL>UPDATE EMP SET comm=500 ;
Update employee comm to 500 whose comm. Is null ?
SQL>UPDATE EMP SET comm=500 WHERE comm IS NULL ;
Increment employee salary by 10% and comm. By 20% Those who are working as SALESMAN ?
SQL>UPDATE EMP SET sal=sal*1.1 , comm=comm*1.2 WHERE job=’SALESMAN’ ;
Update different employees comm. With different values ?
SQL>UPDATE EMP SET comm = &comm WHERE empno=&empno;
Update the column value with DEFAULT value ?
SQL>UPDATE EMP SET hiredate=DEFAULT WHERE empno=7844;
Returning Clause:-
→returning clause is used to return values into variables after update .

→To use returning clause declare bind variable (session-level variables)
→Bind variables are declared at SQL prompt , and accessed using : operator.
SQL>variable sumsal number ;
SQL>UPDATE emp SET sal=sal*1.2 Where deptno=10
RETURNING SUM(sal) INTO :sumsal;
SQL> print :sumsal
DELETE command :-
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ORACLE 12c
DELETE command is used to delete record or records from a table.
Syntax:-
DELETE FROM <TABNAME> [WHERE <cond> ----] ;
Delete all employee records ?
SQL>DELETE FROM emp ;
Delete employee records whose empno=7844 ?
SQL>DELETE FROM emp WHERE empno=7844 ;
Delete employee records having more than 30 yrs expr ?
SQL>DELETE FROM emp WHERE (SYSDATE-hiredate)/365 >= 3 ;
Multi Table Insert or INSERT ALL command :-
INSERT ALL command used to insert data into multiple tables.Using INSERT ALL command we can extract
data from one or more tables and insert data into multiple tables.
There are two types of INSERT ALL command
1 UNCONDITIONAL INSERT ALL

2 CONDITIONAL INSERT ALL
Unconditional INSERT ALL :-

Syntax:-
INSERT ALL
INTO <TAB1> VALUES (VALUE LIST)
INTO <TAB2> VALUES(VALUE LIST)
SELECT STATEMENT ;
Example :-
Create table two tables as follows
Emp1(empno,ename,sal)
Emp2(empno,ename,sal)
Copy data from emp to emp1,emp2
SQL>INSERT ALL
INTO emp1 VALUES(empno,ename,sal)
SELECT empno,ename,sal FROM emp;
scenario :-
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ORACLE 12c
Suppose we have sales table with the following structure.
Sales
Prodid Prodname Mon_Amt Tue_Amt Wed_Amt Thu_Amt Fri_Amt Sat_Amt
101 AIWA 2000 2500 2230 2900 3000 2100
102 AKAI 1900 2100 2130 3100 2800 2120
Now we want to add the rows from SALES table Weekly_Sales Table in the following
Structure.
Prodid Prodname WeekDay Amount
101 AIWA Mon 2000

101 AIWA Tue 2500
101 AIWA Wed 2230
101 AIWA Thu 2900
101 AIWA Fri 3000
101 AIWA Sat 2100
102 AKAI Mon 1900
102 AKAI Tue 2100
102 AKAI Wed 2130
102 AKAI Thu 3100
102 AKAI Fri 2800
102 AKAI Sat 2120
To achieve the above we can give a multi table INSERT statement given below
SQL>Insert all
Into week_sales(prodid,prodname,weekday,amount)
Values (prodid,prodname,’Mon’,mon_amt)
Values (prodid,prodname,’Tue’,tue_amt)
Values (prodid,prodname,’Wed’,wed_amt)
Values (prodid,prodname,’Thu’,thu_amt)
Values (prodid,prodname,’Fri’,fri_amt)
Values (prodid,prodname,’Sat’,sat_amt)
Select prodid,prodname,mon_amt,tue_amt,wed_amt,thu_amt,Fri_amt,sat_amt from sales;
Conditional INSERT ALL :-
Syntax :-
INSERT ALL
WHEN COND1 THEN
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ORACLE 12c

WHEN COND2 THEN
SELECT STATEMENT ;
Example :-
Copy data from emp to emp1 , emp2 based on the following conditions
If job=’CLERK’ then copy data to emp1

If job=’MANAGER’ then copy data to emp2 ?
SQL>INSERT ALL
WHEN job=’CLERK’ THEN
WHEN job=’MANAGER’ THEN
SELECT empno,ename,sal FROM emp;
MERGE Statement:-
the new MERGE SQL command (sometimes referred to as "UPSERT") is a DML command that enables us to
optionally update or insert data into a target table, depending on whether matching records already exist.
In versions prior to 9i, we would have to code this scenario either in separate bulk SQL statements or in
PL/SQL.
Syntax :-
MERGE INTO <TARGETTABLE> <ALIAS>
USING <SOURCE TABLE>/QUERY <ALIAS>
ON (CONDITION)
WHEN MATCHED THEN
UPDATE COMMAND
WHEN NOT MATCHED THEN
INSERT COMMAND
records that satisfy the ON condition are updated , if condition is not matched then record is inserted.
Example :-
EMPS EMPT
EMPNO ENAME SAL EMPNO ENAME SAL
1 A 5000-→UPDATE 1 A 2000
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ORACLE 12c
2 B 3000 2 B 3000
3 C 4000 3 C 4000
4 D 6000-→INSERT
SQL>MERGE INTO empt t

USING emps s
ON (s.empno=t.empno)
WHEN MATCHED THEN
UPDATE SET t.ename = s.ename , t.sal = s.sal
WHEN NOT MATCHED THEN
INSERT VALUES (s.empno , s.ename,s.sal)
OCA question :-
You need to load information about new customers from the NEW_CUST table into the tables CUST and
CUST_SPECIAL. If a new customer has a credit limit greater than 10,000, then the details have to be
inserted into CUST_SPECIAL. All new customer details have to be inserted into the CUST table. Which
technique should be used to load the data most efficiently?
A. external table C the multitable INSERT command

B. the MERGE command D INSERT using WITH CHECK OPTION
DDL commands :-
➔ CREATE
➔ ALTER
➔ DROP
➔ TRUNCATE
➔ RENAME
Creating a table from another table:-

Syntax :-
CREATE TABLE <TABNAME>

AS SELECT STATEMENT [WHERE <cond>];
Example :-
Create table emp11 from table emp ?
SQL>CREATE TABLE emp11

AS
SELECT * FROM emp;
After executing above command a new table is created called emp11 from the result of SELECT
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ORACLE 12c
Statement
Copying only structure :-

Create new table emp12 from emp and into the new table copy only structure but do not copy data?

AS
SELECT * FROM emp WHERE 1=2;
Because no record in emp table satisfies condition 1=2 , so no record is copied to EMP12 only the
structure is copied.
ALTER command :-
ALTER command is used to modify data definition of a table.ALTER command is used to do following
operations.
➔ ADD A COLUMN(S)
➔ DROP A COLUMN(S)
➔ TO RENAME A COLUMN
➔ MODIFY A COLUMN
• INCR/DECR FIELD SIZE
• CHANGING DATATYPE
• CHANGING FROM NULL TO NOT NULL
• CHANGING FROM NOT NULL TO NULL.
➔ TO MAKE TABLE READ ONLY
Adding a Column:-
Syntax :-
ALTER TABLE <tabname> ADD (colname DATATYPE(SIZE) [ , colname -------])
Example:-
SQL>ALTER TABLE emp ADD (dob DATE);
Droping a Column:-
Syntax :-
ALTER TABLE <TABNAME> DROP COLUMN COLNAME ;
Example :-
SQL>ALTER TABLE emp DROP COLUMN dob;
SQL>ALTER TABLE emp DROP (ename,sal);
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NOTE :- all columns in a table cannot be dropped , because the table should contain atleast one column.
Renaming a Column :-
Syntax:-
ALTER TABLE <tabname> RENAME COLUMN <oldname> to <newname> ;
SQL>ALTER TABLE emp RENAME COLUMN sal TO salary ;
Modifying a Column:-
Syntax :-
ALTER TABLE <TABNAME>
MODIFY(COLNAME DATATYPE(SIZE) ,-----------)
Increasing / Decreasing Field Size:-
Increase size of ENAME field to 20 ?
SQL> ALTER TABLE emp MODIFY (ename VARCHAR2(20)) ;
NOTE :- 1 char field size can be decremented upto max length.

2 to decrement precision or scale of a numeric field , field must be empty.
Changing Datatype:-
SQL>ALTER TABLE emp MODIFY (ename CHAR(20)) ;
NOTE :-
To change datatype of a column the column should be empty.
Changing Column from NULL to NOT NULL
SQL>ALTER TABLE emp MODIFY (ename NOT NULL) ;
Changing column from NOT NULL to NULL:-
SQL>ALTER TABLE emp MODIFY(ename NULL) ;
Read only Tables :-
From ORACLE 11g we can make the table as read only , prior to ORACLE 11g we can do this through view.
A read only table doesn’t allow DML operations.
SQL>ALTER TABLE emp READ ONLY ;
To make table read , write

SQL>ALTER TABLE emp READ WRITE ;
DROP command :-
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ORACLE 12c
DROP command drops a table from database.

Syntax :-
DROP TABLE <TABNAME> ;
Example :-
SQL>DROP TABLE customer;
TRUNCATE command :-
• TRUNCATE command releases memory allocated for a table.

• TRUNCATE deletes all the data from a table.
Syntax :-
TRUNCATE TABLE <TABNAME>
Example :-
SQL>TRUNCATE TABLE EMP ;
Difference between DELETE and TRUNCATE :-
DELETE TRUNCATE
DML command DDL command

Deletes all or particular records deletes only all records
Data can be restored Data cannot be restored
Deletes row by row doesn’t read record before deleting
Used by developer used by DBA
Triggers can be created triggers cannot be created
Note :- TRUNCATE is faster than DELETE
RENAME command :-
Used to change name of the table.
Syntax :-
RENAME <OLDNAME> TO <NEWNAME> ;
Example :-
SQL>RENAME emp TO employee;
OCA question :-
SQL> DROP TABLE products;
What is the implication of this command? (Choose all that apply.)
A. All data along with the table structure is deleted.

B. The pending transaction in the session is committed.
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ORACLE 12c
C. All indexes on the table will remain but they are invalidated.
D. All views and synonyms will remain but they are invalidated.
E. All data in the table are deleted but the table structure will remain.
Integrity Constraints
Integrity constraints are the rules in real life, which are to be imposed on the data. If the data is not
satisfying the constraints then it is considered as inconsistent. These rules are to be enforced on data
because of the presence of these rules in real life. These rules are called integrity constraints. Every DBMS
software must enforce integrity constraints, otherwise inconsistent data is generated.
You can use constraints to do the following:
• to prevent invalid data entry into tables.

• Enforce rules on the data in a table whenever a row is inserted, updated, or deleted from that
table. The constraint must be satisfied for the operation to succeed.
• Prevent the deletion of a record from a table if there are dependencies.
Example for Integrity Constraints :-
Types of Integrity Constraints :-

Entity Integrity :-
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ORACLE 12c
Entity Integrity constraints are two types
→Unique Constraint
→Primary Constraint
Refrential Integrity :-
→A refrential integrity constraint states that the values of the foreign key value should match with values
of primary key/unique Column of another or same table. Foreign key constraint establishes relationship
between tables.
→ The table holding primary key is called parent /master table.
→ The table holding foreign key is called child /detail table.
Self Refrential Integrity :-
If a foreign key in one table refers primary key/unique column of the same table then it is called self
refrential Integrity.
Domain constraints:-
A domain means a set of values assigned to a column. Domain constraints are handled by
→defining proper data type

→specifying not null constraint
→specifying check constraint.
Types of Constraints in ORACLE:-
The above said constraints are implemented in oracle with the help of
→NOT NULL
→UNIQUE
→PRIMARY KEY
→CHECK
→FOREIGN KEY
The above constraints can be declared at
→Column level
→ Table level
Column level :-
→ Constraint is declared immediately declaring column.

→ Use column level to declare constraint for single column.
Table level :-
→ use table level to declare constraint for combination of columns.

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ORACLE 12c
→ constraint is declared after declaring all columns.
NOT NULL constraint :-

→ It ensures that a table column cannot be left empty.
→ Column declared with NOT NULL is a mandatory column.
→ The NOT NULL constraint can only be applied at column level.
Syntax :-
Columnname Datatype(size) NOT NULL
Example :-
SQL> CREATE TABLE emp(
Empno NUMBER(4),
Ename VARCHAR2(20) NOT NULL,
Job VARCHAR2(20) ,
Mgr NUMBER(4),
Hiredate DATE,
Sal NUMBER(7,2),
Comm NUMBER(7,2),
Deptno NUMBER(2) );
SQL>INSERT INTO emp VALUES(7329,’SMITH’,’CEO’,NULL,’17-DEC-85’,9000,NULL,20);
1 row created
SQL>INSERT INTO emp VALUES(7499,’’, ‘VP_SALES’,7329,’20-FEB-90’,7,500,100,30);
ERROR ORA-1400 :- cannot insert null into (scott.dept.dname)
UNIQUE constraint :-
→Columns declared with UNIQUE constraint does not accept duplicate values.
→One table can have a number of unique keys.
→By default UNIQUE columns accept null values unless declared with NOT NULL constraint
→Oracle automatically creates UNIQUE index on the column declared with UNIQUE constraint
→UNIQUE constraint can be declared at column level and table level.
Declaring UNIQUE constraint at Column Level :-

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ORACLE 12c
Syntax :-
Columnname Datatype(size) UNIQUE
Example :-
SQL> CREATE TABLE dept

(deptno NUMBER(4)
dname VARCHAR2(20) CONSTRAINT uq_dname_dept UNIQUE ,
loc VARCHAR2(20) ) ;
SQL>INSERT INTO dept VALUES(10,’ACCOUNTING’,’HYDERABAD’);

1 row created
SQL>INSERT INTO dept VALUES(20,’ACCOUNTING’,’MUMBAI’);
ERROR ORA-00001 :- unique constraint (uq_dname_dept) violated
Declaring UNIQUE constraint Table Level :-
SQL>CREATE TABLE customer(custno NUMBER(4),

custname VARCHAR2(20),
area NUMBER(3),
phone VARCHAR2(8) ,
CONSTRAINT uq_area_ph_cust UNIQUE(area,phone));
PRIMARY KEY constraint :-

PRIMARY KEY is the candidate key which uniquely identifies a record in a table.
characterstics of PRIMARY KEY :-
➔ There should be at the most one PK per table.

➔ PK column do not accept null values.
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ORACLE 12c
➔ PK coumn do not accept duplicate values.

➔ RAW,LONG RAW,VARRAY,NESTED TABLE,BFILE columns cannot be declared with PK
➔ If PK is composite then uniqueness is determined by the combination of columns.
➔ A composite primary key cannot have more than 32 columns
➔ It is recommended that PK column should be short and numeric.
➔ Oracle automatically creates Unique Index on PK column
Declaring PRIMARY KEY at Column Level :-
Syntax :-
Colname Datatype(size) PRIMARY KEY
Example :-
SQL> CREATE TABLE dept(deptno NUMBER(4) CONSTRAINT pk_dept PRIMARY KEY,
dname VARCHAR2(20) ,
loc VARCHAR2(20) );
Declaring PRIMARY KEY at Table Level :-
Example :-
consider the following ORDER_DETAILS table
OrderId ProdId Quantity
1000 10 100
1000 11 50
1001 10 20
1001 11 50
In the above example values of OrderId are repeated ,so it cannot be taken as primary key. And the values
of ProdId are also repeated , so it cannot be taken as primary key . when it is not possible with single
column to uniquely identify the records then take combination of columns. In the above example
combination or OrdId & ProdId is not repeated so this combination can be taken as PRIMARY KEY.if
combination uniquely identifies the records then it is called composite primary key.
SQL>CREATE TABLE order_details

(ordid NUMBER(4) ,
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ORACLE 12c
prodid NUMBER(4) ,
qty NUMBER(2) ,
CONSTRAINT pk_ordid_prodid PRIMARY KEY(ordid,prodid)) ;
CHECK Constraint :-
➢ Check constraint validates data based on a condition .
➢ Value entered in the column should not violate the condition.
➢ Check constraint allows null values.
➢ Check constraint can be declared at table level or column level.
Limitations :-
➢ Conditions should not contain pseudo columns like ROWNUM,SYSDATE etc.
➢ Condition should not access columns of another table
Declaring Check Constraint Column level :-
Syntax :-
COLNAME DATATYPE(SIZE) [CONSTRAINT <NAME>] CHECK(CONDITION)
Example :-
SQL>CREATE TABLE accounts_master(

accno NUMBER(4) PRIMARY KEY,
acname VARCHAR2(20) NOT NULL ,
balance NUMER(11,2) CONSTRAINT
ck_bal_accts CHECK(bal>1000)) ;
SQL>INSERT INTO accounts_master VALUES(1,’A’,500);

ERROR ORA-02293 :- cannot validate (SCOTT.CK_BAL_ACCTS) check constraint violated
Declaring CHECK constraint at Table level :-
Table :- Managers
Mgrno Mgrname Start_date End_date
Rule :- End_date should be greater than Start_date
SQL>CREATE TABLE managers

(mgrno NUMBER(4) PRIMARY KEY,
mname VARCHAR2(20) NOT NULL,
start_date DATE,
end_date DATE ,
CONSTRAINT ck_mgr CHECK(end_date > start_date));
SQL>INSERT INTO manager VALUES(1,’A’,’01-JAN-2011’,’01-JAN-2010’);
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ORACLE 12c
ERROR :- ORA-02290 :- check constraint violated
FOREIGN KEY Constraint:-
➢ Foreign key is used to establish relationship between tables.
➢ Foreign key is a column in one table that refers primary key/unique columns of
another or same table.
➢ Values of foreign key should match with values of primary key/unique or foreign key
can be null.
➢ Foreign key column allows null values unless it is declared with NOT NULL.
➢ Foregin key column allows duplicates unless it is declared with UNIQUE
➢ By default oracle establish 1:M relationship between two tables.
➢ To establish 1:1 relationship between two tables declare foreign key with unique
constraint
➢ Foreign key can be declared at column level or table level.
➢ Composite foreign key must refer composite primary key or Composite unique key.
Declaring foreign key at column level :-
Syntax :-
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ORACLE 12c
Colname datatype(size) [constraint <name>] REFERENCES tabname(colname)
Example :-
Creating Parent table :-
SQL> CREATE TABLE dept
(deptno NUMBER(2) CONSTRAINT pk_dept PRIMARY KEY,
dname VARCHAR2(20) ,
loc VARCHAR2(20)) ;
insert records into DEPT table as follows
Deptno Dname Loc

10 Accounting Hyderabad
20 Research Mumbai
Creating child table :-
SQL> CREATE TABLE emp

(empno NUMBER(4) CONSTRAINT pk_emp PRIMARY KEY,
ename VARCHAR2(20) NOT NULL ,
sal NUMBER(7,2) CONSTRAINT ck_sal_emp CHECK(sal>3000),
deptno NUMBER(2) CONSTRAINT fk_deptno_emp REFERENCES dept(deptno));
insert records into EMP table as follows
Empno Ename Salary Deptno Result

1 Smith 5000 10 Record is inserted because fk value is matching with pk value
2 Allen 4000 Null Record is inserted because fk allows NULL values
3 Blake 6000 90 Oracle returns error because fk value is not matching with pk value
4 King 7000 10 Record is inserted because fk allows duplicates
Declaring Foreign Key constraint at Table Level :-

SQL>CREATE TABLE stud_course
(sid NUMBER(2) ,
cid NUMBER(2) ,
doc DATE ,
CONSTRAINT pk_stud_course PRIMARY KEY(sid,cid));
SQL>CREATE TABLE certificates

(certno NUMBER(4) PRIMARY KEY,
doi DATE ,
sid NUMBER(2),
cid NUMBER(2) ,
CONSTRAINT fk_sid_cid FOREIGN KEY(sid,cid)
REFERENCES stud_course(sid,cid));
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ORACLE 12c
DEFAULT Option :-
→If column Declared with DEFAULT option then oracle inserts DEFAULT value when value is not provided.
→DEFAULT option prevents entering NULL values into the column.
Example :-
SQL>CREATE TABLE emp

(empno NUMBER(4) ,
ename VARCHAR2(20),
hiredate DATE DEFAULT SYSDATE);
SQL> INSERT INTO emp(empno,ename) VALUES(1,’x’) ;

After executing the above command oracle inserts sysdate into Hiredate column.
Adding constraints to an existing table :-
Constraints can be also be added to an existing table with the help of ALTER command
Syntax :-
ALTER TABLE <TABNAME> ADD [CONSTRAINT <NAME>]

CONSTRAINT_TYPE(COL1 [,COL2])
Example :-
Create a table without constraints later add constraints

(empno NUMBER(4),
ename VARCHAR2(20),
sal NUMBER(7,2),
dno NUMBER(2));
Adding PRIMARY KEY :-
SQL>ALTER TABLE emp55

ADD CONSTRAINT pk_emp55 PRIMARY KEY(empno);
Note:- primary key constraint cannot be added to a column that already contains duplicates or NULL
values.
Adding FOREIGN KEY :-
SQL>ALTER TABLE emp55

ADD CONSTRAINT fk_dno_emp55
FOREIGN KEY(dno) REFERENCES dept(deptno);
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ORACLE 12c
Adding CHECK constraint :-
SQL> ALTER TABLE emp55

ADD CONSTRAINT ck_sal_emp55 CHECK(sal>3000) NOVALIDATE ;
NOVALIDATE option :-
If constraint added with NOVALIDATE option then oracle doesn’t validate existing data and validates only
future DML operations.
Droping Constraints :-
Syntax :-
ALTER TABLE <TABNAME> DROP CONSTRAINT <NAME>
Example :-
SQL>ALTER TABLE emp55 DROP CONSTRAINT pk_emp55;
SQL>ALTER TABLE emp55 DROP CONSTRAINT ck_sal_emp55
Note :-
→ PRIMARY KEY cannot be dropped if it referenced by any FOREIGN KEY constraint.

→If PRIMARY KEY is dropped with CASCADE option then along with PRIMARY KEY referencing FOREING KEY
is also dropped.
→PRIMARY KEY column cannot be dropped if it is referenced by some FOREIGN KEY.
→PRIMARY KEY table cannot be dropped if it is referenced by some FOREIGN KEY.
→PRIMARY KEY table cannot be truncated if it is referenced by some FOREIGN KEY.
Enabling/Disabling a Constraint:
If the constraints are present, then for each DML operation constraints are checked by executing certain
codes internally. It may slow down the DML operation marginally. For massive DML operations, such as
transferring data from one table to another because of the presence of constraint, the speed will be
considered slower. To improve the speed in such cases, the following methods are adopted:
→Disable constraint
→Performing the DML operation DML operation
→Enable constraint
Disabling Constraint:-
Syntax :-
ALTER TABLE <tabname> DISABLE CONSTRAINT <constraint_name> ;
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ORACLE 12c
Example :-
SQL>ALTER TABLE emp DISABLE CONSTRAINT ck_sal_emp ;
SQL>ALTER TABLE dept DISABLE PRIMARY KEY CASCADE;
NOTE:-
If constraint is disabled with CASCADE then PK is disabled with FK.
Enabling Constraint :-
Syntax :-
ALTER TABLE <TABNAME> ENABLE CONSTRAINT <NAME>
Example :-
SQL>ALTER TABLE emp ENABLE CONSTRAINT ck_sal_emp;
Reporting Constraint Exceptions:-
If exceptions exist when a constraint is validated, an error is returned and the integrity constraint remains
novalidated. When a statement is not successfully executed because integrity constraint exceptions exist,
the statement is rolled back.
To determine which rows violate the integrity constraint, issue the ALTER TABLE statement with the
EXCEPTIONS option in the ENABLE clause. The EXCEPTIONS option places the rowid, table owner, table
name, and constraint name of all exception rows into a specified table.
Example :-
SQL>ALTER TABLE dept ENABLE PRIMARY KEY
EXCEPTIONS INTO EXCEPTIONS;
If duplicate primary key values exist in the dept table and the name of the PRIMARY KEY constraint on dept
is sys_c00610, then the following query will display those exceptions:
SQL>SELECT * FROM EXCEPTIONS;

fROWID OWNER TABLE_NAME CONSTRAINT
------------------ --------- -------------- ----------- ------------------
AAAAZ9AABAAABvqAAB SCOTT DEPT SYS_C00610
AAAAZ9AABAAABvqAAG SCOTT DEPT SYS_C00610
A more informative query would be to join the rows in an exception report table and the master table to
list the actual rows that violate a specific constraint.
SQL>SELECT deptno, dname, loc FROM dept, EXCEPTIONS
Page 46
ORACLE 12c
WHERE EXCEPTIONS.constraint = 'SYS_C00610'

AND
dept.rowid = EXCEPTIONS.row_id;
DEPTNO DNAME LOC
---------- -------------- -----------
10 ACCOUNTING NEW YORK
10 RESEARCH DALLAS
DELETE RULES :-
Delete rules specifies how child record gets affected if parent record is deleted and these rules are
declared with foreign key declaration. Oracle supports following Delete Rules :-
→ON DELETE NO ACTION (DEFAULT)

→ON DELETE CASCADE
→ON DELETE SET NULL
ON DELETE NO ACTION :-
If foreign key declared with ON DELETE NO ACTION then parent record cannot be deleted if any child
records exists.
ON DELETE CASCADE :-
If foreign key declared with ON DELETE CASCADE then if any parent record is deleted then dependent child
records also deleted automatically.
SQL>CREATE TABLE dept

(deptno NUMBER(2) PRIMARY KEY,
dname VARCHAR2(20) NOT NULL ,
loc VARCHAR2(20) );
SQL>CREATE TABLE emp (

empno NUMBER(4) PRIMARY KEY,
ename VARCHAR2(20) NOT NULL,
sal NUMBER(7,2) CHECK(sal>3000) ,
dno NUMBER(2) REFERENCES dept(deptno) ON DELETE CASCADE);
ON DELETE SET NULL :-

if foreign key declared with ON DELETE SET NULL then foreign key value in child table is set to NULL if user
deletes record from parent table.
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ORACLE 12c

dname VARCHAR2(20) NOT NULL ,
loc VARCHAR2(20) );
SQL>CREATE TABLE emp (

empno NUMBER(4) PRIMARY KEY,
ename VARCHAR2(20) NOT NULL,
sal NUMBER(7,2) CHECK(sal>3000) ,
dno NUMBER(2) REFERENCES dept(deptno) ON DELETE SET NULL);
UPDATE RULE :-
Update rules specifies that value of PK cannot be updated if it referenced by any FK.
Retrieving Constraint Information :-
USER_CONSTRAINTS
USER_CONS_COLUMNS
ALL_CONSTRAINTS
DBA_CONSTRAINTS
Example :-
Display list of constraints declared in EMP table ?
SQL>SELECT constraint_name,constraint_type FROM user_constraints WHERE table_name=’EMP’;
CONSTRAINT_NAME CONSTRAINT_TYPE
PK_EMP P
SYS_C004455 C
CK_SAL_EMP C
FK_DNO_EMP R
Oracle gives same code for CHECK and NOT NULL constraint , to know whether constraint is CHECK or NOT
NULL use SEARCH_CONDITION as given below.
SQL>SELECT constraint_name ,constraint_type ,search_condition

FROM user_constraints
WHERE table_name=’EMP’ ;
Display which columns are declared with what constraints in EMP table ?
SQL>SELECT constraint_name , column_name FROM user_constraints WHERE table_name=’EMP’;
OCA question :-
1 Which statements are true regarding constraints ?
A a foreign key cannot contain NULL value
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ORACLE 12c
B a column with UNIQUE constraint can contain NULL value

C a constraint is enforced only for the INSERT operation on a table
D a constraint can be disabled even if the column contains data
E all constraints can be defined at column level and table level.
2 Evaluate the following CREATE TABLE commands:
CREATE TABLE orders

(ord_no NUMBER(2) CONSTRAINT ord_pk PRIMARY KEY,
ord_date DATE,
cust_id NUMBER(4));
CREATE TABLE ord_items

(ord_no NUMBER(2),
item_no NUMBER(3),
qty NUMBER(3) CHECK (qty BETWEEN 100 AND 200),
expiry_date date CHECK (expiry_date > SYSDATE),
CONSTRAINT it_pk PRIMARY KEY (ord_no,item_no),
CONSTRAINT ord_fk FOREIGN KEY(ord_no) REFERENCES orders(ord_no));
The above command fails when executed. What could be the reason?
A. SYSDATE cannot be used with the CHECK constraint.
B. The BETWEEN clause cannot be used for the CHECK constraint.
C. The CHECK constraint cannot be placed on columns having the DATE data type.
D. ORD_NO and ITEM_NO cannot be used as a composite primary key because ORD_NO is also the
FOREIGN KEY.
3 Which CREATE TABLE statement is valid?
A. CREATE TABLE ord_details

(ord_no NUMBER(2) PRIMARY KEY,
item_no NUMBER(3) PRIMARY KEY,
ord_date DATE NOT NULL);
B. CREATE TABLE ord_details

(ord_no NUMBER(2) UNIQUE, NOT NULL,
item_no NUMBER(3),
ord_date DATE DEFAULT SYSDATE NOT NULL);
C. CREATE TABLE ord_details

(ord_no NUMBER(2) ,
item_no NUMBER(3),
ord_date DATE DEFAULT NOT NULL,
CONSTRAINT ord_uq UNIQUE (ord_no),
CONSTRAINT ord_pk PRIMARY KEY (ord_no));
D. CREATE TABLE ord_details
Page 49
ORACLE 12c
(ord_no NUMBER(2),
item_no NUMBER(3),
ord_date DATE DEFAULT SYSDATE NOT NULL,
CONSTRAINT ord_pk PRIMARY KEY (ord_no, item_no));
Page 50
ORACLE 12c
Built-in Functions
functions are a very powerful feature of SQL and can be used to do the following:-
• Perform calculations on data

• Modify individual data items
• Manipulate output for groups of rows
• Format dates and numbers for display
• Convert column data types
SINGLE ROW FUNCTIONS :-

These functions operate on single rows only and return one result per row. The single row functions are
categorized as follows.
• Character functions
• Date functions
• Mathematical functions
• Conversion functions
• Special functions
• OLAP functions
Character functions:-
These functions mainly operate on character data.
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ORACLE 12c
UPPER :- converts string to uppercase
Syntax:- UPPER(string)
Example:-
SQL>SELECT UPPER(‘hello’) FROM DUAL;
HELLO
LOWER :- converts string to lower case
Syntax:- LOWER(string)
Example:-
SQL>SELECT LOWER(‘HELLO’) FROM DUAL;
hello
Display ename,salaries and display names in lower case ?
SQL>SELECT LOWER(ename),sal FROM emp;
Convert all ename from uppercase to lowercase in table ?
SQL>UPDATE emp SET ename=LOWER(ename);
INITCAP:- first character is capitalized
Syntax:- INITCAP(string)
Example :-
SQL>SELECT INITCAP(‘hello welcome’) FROM DUAL ;
Hello Welcome
LENGTH :- returns string length
Syntax :- LENGTH(string)
Example :-
SQL> SELECT LENGTH(‘hello’) FROM DUAL;
Display employee records whose name contains 5 characters ?
SQL>SELECT * FROM emp WHERE LENGTH(ename)=5;
SUBSTR:- used to extract part of the string
Syntax:- SUBSTR(string1,start [, length])
Example:-
Page 52
ORACLE 12c
SQL>SELECT SUBSTR(‘hello’,2,4) FROM DUAL;
ello
SQL>SELECT SUBSTR(‘hello welcome’,-5,4) FROM DUAL;
lcom
Display employee records whose name starts with and ends with same character ?
SQL>SELECT * FROM emp WHERE SUBSTR(ename,1,1)=SUBSTR(ename,-1,1);
Display employee records whose name starts between ‘A’ AND ‘P’ ?
SQL>SELECT * FROM emp WHERE SUBSTR(ename,1,1) BETWEEN ‘A’ AND ‘P’ ;
INSTR :- returns occurrence of one string in another string
Syntax:- INSTR(str1,str2 [,start , occurrence])
If str2 exists in str1 returns position
If not exists returns 0.
Example:-
SQL> SELECT INSTR(‘HELLO WELCOME’,’O’) FROM DUAL:

5
SQL> SELECT INSTR(‘HELLO WELCOME’,’O’,1,2) FROM DUAL:
11
SQL>SELECT INSTR(‘HELLO WELCOME’,’O’,-1,2) FROM DUAL ;
5
Display employee records whose name contains ‘S’ ?
SQL>SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE INSTR(ENAME,’S’) <> 0 ;
Scenario :-
1 CUSTOMER TABLE :-
email
sachin@gmail.com
sourav@gmail.com
from the above email addresses display only the first part ?
SQL>SELECT SUBSTR(EMAIL,1,INSTR(EMAIL,’@’)-1) FROM customer;
2 CUSTOMER_TABLE :-
CNAME
Rahuld dravid
Virendra sehwag
Sachin ramesh tendulkar
Page 53
ORACLE 12c
Sourav ganguly
Mahindra singh dhoni
From the above customer names display only those names that contains 3 parts ?
SQL>SELECT * FROM customer WHERE INSTR(cname,’ ‘,1,2) > 0;
LTRIM :- trims white spaces and unwanted characters on left side
Syntax:- LTRIM(string1 [, string2])
Example:-
SQL>SELECT LTRIM(‘ HELLO’) FROM DUAL;
HELLO
SQL>SELECT LTRIM(‘XXXXXHELLO’,’X’) FROM DUAL;
HELLO
RTRIM :- trims whitespaces and unwanted characters on right side.
Syntax:- RTRIM(string1 [,string2])
Example:-
SQL>SELECT RTRIM(‘HELLO ‘) FROM DUAL;

HELLO
SQL>SELECT RTRIM(‘HELLOXXXX’,’X’) FROM DUAL;
HELLO
TRIM :- trims whitespaces and unwanted characters on both left and right side
SQL>SELECT TRIM(‘ HELLO ‘) FROM DUAL;
HELLO
SQL>SELECT TRIM(LEADING ‘X’ FROM ‘XXXXHELLO’) FROM DUAL;
HELLO
SQL>SELECT TRIM(TRAILING ‘X’ FROM ‘HELLOXXXXX’) FROM DUAL;
HELLO
SQL>SELECT TRIM(BOTH ‘X’ FROM ‘XXXXHELLOXXXX’) FROM DUAL;
HELLO
LPAD :- one string is filled with another string on left side
Syntax :- LPAD(string1,length,string2)
Page 54
ORACLE 12c
SQL>SELECT LPAD(‘hello’,10,’*’) FROM DUAL;
*****hello
RPAD :- fills one string with another string on right side

Syntax:- RPAD(string1,length,string2)
Example :-
SQL>SELECT RPAD(‘HELLO’,10,’*’) FROM DUAL;
Display ename , salaries and in salary column display **** instead of actual values , for example if salary is
4000 display **** ?
SQL> SELECT ename,RPAD(‘*’,sal/1000,’*’) as salary FROM emp ;
REPLACE :- to replace one string with another string
Syntax:- REPLACE(string1,string2,string3)
Example:-
SQL>SELECT REPLACE(‘UTI BANK’,’UTI’,’AXIS’) FROM DUAL;
AXIS BANK
Display employee records whose name contains exactly one ‘A’ ?
SQL> SELECT * FROM emp
WHERE LENGTH(ename) – LENGTH(REPLACE(ename,’A’,’’))=1 ;
Scenario :-
Examine the data in the ENAME and HIREDATE columns of the EMPLOYEES table:
ENAME HIREDATE
SMITH 17-DEC-80
ALLEN 20-FEB-81
WARD 22-FEB-81
You want to generate a list of user IDs as follows:
USERID
Smi17DEC80
All20FEB81
War22FEB81
You issue the following query:
SQL>SELECT SUBSTR(INITCAP(ename),1,3) || REPLACE(hiredate,'-',’’) "USERID" FROM emp;
TRANSLATE:- translates one char to another character
Syntax:- TRANSLATE(string1,string2,string3)
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ORACLE 12c
Example:-
SQL> SELECT TRANSLATE(‘HELLO’,’ELL’,’ABC’) FROM DUAL;

HABBO
SQL>SELECT ename, TRANSLATE(sal,’0123456789’,’$qT*K#PjH@’) FROM emp;
CONCAT :- concatenates two strings
Syntax :- CONCAT(str1,str2)
Example :-
SQL> SELECT CONCAT(‘HELLO ‘, ‘ WELCOME’) FROM DUAL;

HELLO WELCOME
SOUNDEX:- A character value representing the sound Of a word, using this we can find strings that sounds
same.
Syntax:- SOUNDEX(string)
Example :-
SQL>SELECT * FROM EMP

WHERE SOUNDEX(‘SMITH’)=SOUNDEX(‘SMYTH’) ;
ASCII :- returns ASCII value of first character

Syntax: ASCII(string)
Example :-
SQL>SELECT ASCII(‘A’) FROM DUAL ;
65
CHR :- returns character for a given ASCII value
Syntax :- CHR(ascii value)
Example :-
SQL>SELECT CHR(65) FROM DUAL ;
A
Date Functions:-
EXTRACT :- used to extract part of the date.
Syntax:- EXTRACT(FMT FROM DATE)
Extracting year from date:-

SQL>SELECT EXTRACT(YEAR FROM SYSDATE) FROM DUAL;
2012
Page 56
ORACLE 12c
Extracting month from date:-

SQL>SELECT EXTRACT(MONTH FROM SYSDATE) FROM DUAL;
5
Extracting day from date :-
SQL> SELECT EXTRACT(DAY FROM SYSDATE) FROM DUAL;
23
Display employee records joined in first 15 days in the month APR,DEC in the year between
1980 and 1987 ?
SQL> SELECT * FROM emp

WHERE EXTRACT(DAY FROM hiredate) BETWEEN 1 AND 15
AND
EXTRACT(MONTH FROM hiredate) IN (4,12)
AND
EXTRACT(YEAR FROM hiredate) BETWEEN 1980 AND 1987;
ADD_MONTHS:- adds no of months to a date.

Syntax:- ADD_MONTHS(DATE,MONTHS)
Example:-
SQL>SELECT ADD_MONTHS(SYSDATE,2) FROM DUAL;

23-JUN-12
SQL>SELECT ADD_MONTHS(SYSDATE,-2) FROM DUAL;
23-MAR-12
Display ename,sal,hiredate and date of retirement , assume that date of retiment is 30 years after date of
join ?
SQL>SELECT ename,sal,hiredate,ADD_MONTHS(hiredate,30*12) AS DOR FROM emp ;
LAST_DAY:- returns last day of the month
Example:-
SQL>SELECT LAST_DAY(sysdate) FROM DUAL;
31-MAY-12
Display first day of the current month ?
SQL>SELECT ADD_MONTHS(LAST_DAY(SYSDATE)+1,-1) FROM DUAL ?
MONTHS_BETWEEN :- returns no of months between two dates.
Page 57
ORACLE 12c
Syntax:- MONTHS_BETWEEN(date1,date2)
Example:-
SQL>SELECT MONTHS_BETWEEN(Sysdate,’20-APR-11’) FROM DUAL
12
NEXT_DAY :- returns next specified day starting from given date.
Syntax:- NEXT_DAY(DATE ,DAY)
Example :-
SQL>SELECT NEXT_DAY(SYSDATE,’SUNDAY’) FROM DUAL;
27-MAY-12
Mathematical Functions:-
ABS:- returns absolute value
Syntax:- ABS(number)
Example:-
SQL>SELECT ABS(-10) FROM DUAL;
10
SIGN :-
Syntax :- SIGN(expr)
If expr >0 then returns 1

If expr <0 then returns -1
If expr=0 then returns 0
Example :-
SQL>SELECT SIGN(100) FROM DUAL ;
POWER:- returns power
Syntax :- POWER(M,N)
Example :-
Page 58
ORACLE 12c
SQL>SELECT POWER(3,2) FROM DUAL;
SQRT:- returns square root.
Syntax :- SQRT(N)
Example:-
SQL>SELECT SQRT(25) FROM DUAL ;
MOD:- returns remainder
Syntax:- MOD(m,n)
Example:-
SQL>SELECT MOD(10,2) FROM DUAL;
Display employee records earning multiple of 50.
SQL>SELECT * FROM emp WHERE MOD(sal,50)=0;
CEIL:- returns integer greater than or equal to given number.
Syntax:- CEIL (number)
Example:-
SQL>SELECT CEIL(9.5) FROM DUAL
10
FLOOR:- returns integer less than or equal to given number.
Syntax:- FLOOR(number)
Example:-
SQL>SELECT FLOOR(9.5) FROM DUAL
ROUND:- rounds number to given number of decimal places.
Syntax:- ROUND(number [,decimal places])
Example:-
Page 59
ORACLE 12c
SQL>SELECT ROUND(3.456,2) FROM DUAL ;

3.46
SQL> SELECT ROUND(3.453,2) FROM DUAL;

3.45
SQL>SELECT ROUND(3.456) FROM DUAL ;
3
SQL>SELECT ROUND(3.65) FROM DUAL ;
4
SQL>SELECT ROUND(383.456,-2) FROM DUAL ;
400
SQL>SELECT ROUND(383.456,-1) FROM DUAL
380
SQL>SELECT ROUND(383.456,-3) FROM DUAL ;
0
Note :- ROUND function can also be used to round dates. Date can be rounded to YEAR / MONTH/DAY
part.
Assume SYSDATE = 20-apr-2012
SQL>SELECT ROUND(SYSDATE,’YEAR’) FROM DUAL;
01-JAN-2012
SQL>SELECT ROUND(SYSDATE,’MONTH’) FROM DUAL;
01-may-2012
SQL>SELECT ROUND(SYSDATE,’DAY’) FROM DUAL;
22-APR-2012
TRUNC :- truncated the number to specified number of decimal places
Syntax:- TRUN(m,n)
Example :-
SQL>SELECT TRUNC(3.456,2) FROM DUAL ;
3.45
SQL>SELECT TRUN(SYSDATE,’YEAR’) FROM DUAL;
01-JAN-2012
Conversion Functions :-
These functions are used to convert from one datatype to another datatype
Conversion of two types :-
→implicit conversion
→explicit conversion
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ORACLE 12c
Implicit Conversion:-
if conversion is performed by ORACLE then it is called implicit conversion.
For assignments, the oracle server can automatically convert the following.
FROM TO
VARCHAR2 NUMBER
VARCHAR2 DATE
NUMBER VARCHAR2
DATE VARCHAR2
For expression evaluation , the oracle server can automatically convert the following .
FROM TO
VARCHAR2 NUMBER
VARCHAR2 DATE
Example for implicit conversion :-

SQL>SELECT 1000 + ‘1000’ FROM DUAL ;
2000
Explicit Conversion:-
if conversion is performed by user then it is called explicit conversion.The following functions are used to
do explicit conversion
1 TO_CHAR
2 TO_DATE
3 TO_NUMBER
TO_CHAR :-
This function is used to convert DATE / NUMBER to CHAR type
Converting DATE to CHAR type :-
DATEs are converted to CHAR type to display DATEs in different format.
Syntax:- TO_CHAR(DATE [,FORMAT])
The different formats supported by ORACLE listed below
Century formats :-
CC Two Digits Century 21

Scc Two Digits Century with a negative sign for Bc -10
Year Formats :-
Page 61
ORACLE 12c
YYYY All four Digits of the Year 2012

IYYY All four Digits of the ISO year 2012
SYYYY All four Digits of the Year with a negative sign for Bc -1001
YY Last Two Digits of the Year 12
YEAR Name of the Year Two Thousand Twelve
Example :-
Display employee records joined in 2012 year ?
SQL>SELECT * FROM emp WHERE TO_CHAR(hiredate , ‘YYYY’) = 2012 ;
SQL>SELECT ename || ‘ JOINED IN ‘ || TO_CHAR (hiredate,’YEAR’) FROM emp ;
Quarter :-
Q One Digit Quarter of the Year 2
Example :-
SQL>SELECT TO_CHAR(sysdate , ‘Q’) FROM emp ;
Month :-
MM Month Number 1
MON First Three letter from month JAN
MONTH Full name of the month JANUARY
RM Roman Numeral month IV
Example :-
Display employee records joined between JANUARY and APRIL ?
SQL>SELECT * FROM emp WHERE TO_CHAR(hiredate,’mm’) BETWEEN 1 AND 4 ;
Day :-
DD Day of the Month 26
DDD Day of the Year 103
DAY Name of the Week Day SATURDAY
DY First Three letter from Week Day SAT
D Day of the Week 7
Example :-
Display employee records joined on SUNDAY ?
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ORACLE 12c

WHERE TRIM(TO_CHAR(hiredate,’DAY’)) = ‘SUNDAY’;
Display on which day employee joined ?
SQL>SELECT ENAME || ‘ joined on ‘ || TO_CHAR(hiredate,’DAY’) FROM emp;
Week :-
WW week of the year 24

W week of the month 4
Time :-
HH hour in 12-format 12
HH24 hour in 24-format 23
MI minute 20
SS second 30
AM/PM AM/PM as appropriate
Example :-
Display sysdate as follows ?
25 january 2012 , Monday 10:00:00 AM
SQL>SELECT TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,’DD month YYYY , Day HH:MI:SS PM’) FROM DUAL;

Other Formats :-
AD/BC AD/BC date as appropriate

TH th,rd,nd,st
SP Number is spelled out.
J Date is displayed in Julian format
Example :-
SQL>SELECT TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,’J’) FROM DUAL;
2439892
The above number representes number of days passed since 01 JAN 4712BC to SYSDATE.
SQL>SELECT TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,’DDSPTH MON YYYY’) FROM DUAL;
To change default DATE format during the session execute following command
SQL>ALTER SESSION SET NLS_DATE_FORMAT=’MM/DD/YY’ ;
then execute the following command
SQL>SELECT ENAME , HIREDATE FROM EMP ;
When above query is executed then HIREDATEs are displayed in MM/DD/YY format.
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ORACLE 12c
OCA question :-
You need to display the date 11-oct-2007 in words as 'Eleventh of October, Two Thousand Seven'.
Which SQL statement would give the required result?
A. SELECT TO_CHAR('11-oct-2007', 'fmDdspth "of" Month, Year') FROM DUAL;
B. SELECT TO_CHAR(TO_DATE('11-oct-2007'), 'fmDdspth of month, year') FROM DUAL;
C. SELECT TO_CHAR(TO_DATE('11-oct-2007'), 'fmDdthsp "of" Month, Year') FROM DUAL;
D. SELECT TO_DATE(TO_CHAR('11-oct-2007','fmDdspth ''of'' Month, Year')) FROM DUAL;
Converting number to character type :-
Syntax :- TO_CHAR(NUMBER [,FORMAT])
Format Description
S999 Returns Digit with a leading - sign for negative number

0999 returns number with a leading zeros
9900 returns number with trailing zeros.
999.99 returns decimal point in the specified position.
9,999 returns comma in the specified position.
$999 returns a leading Dollar Sign.
C999 returns ISO currency symbol in the specified position
9.99EE returns number in scientific notation.
RN returns number in roman format.
L999 retuns number with local currency symbol.
Example :-
SQL>SELECT ename, TO_CHAR(sal,’L9,999’) AS sal FROM emp ;
To set local currency symbol execute the following command.
SQL>ALTER SESSION SET NLS_TERRITORY=America;
SQL>ALTER SESSION SET NLS_TERRITORY=Germany;
TO_DATE :-
Used to convert string to datetime. You can provide an optional format to indicate the format of string.if
you omit format , the date must be in the default format usually (DD-MON-YYYY ,DD-MON-YY).
Syntax:- TO_DATE(string [,format])
Example :-
SQL>SELECT ’26-AUG-2012’ + 10 FROM DUAL ;
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ORACLE 12c
The above statement returns ORACLE error INVALID NUMBER , because 26-AUG-2012 is treated as string ,
so to do the calculation conversion is required.
SQL>SELECT TO_DATE(’26-AUG-2012’) + 10 FROM DUAL ;
SQL>SELECT TO_DATE(’08/26/12’,’MM/DD/YY’) + 10 FROM DUAL;
Display on which day india has got independenc ?
SQL>SELECT TO_CHAR(TO_DATE(’15-AUG-1947’),’DAY’) FROM DUAL;
Display employee names , salaries and display salaries in words ?
SQL>SELECT ename , TO_CHAR(TO_DATE(sal,’J’),’JSP’) AS SAL FROM emp;
Example :-
SQL>CREATE TABLE emp (empno NUMBER(4), dob DATE) ;
You need to insert date & time into dob column , but by default DATE datatype accepts only DATE but not
time. To insert date along with time conversion is required.
SQL>INSERT INTO emp VALUES (1, TO_DATE(’26-AUG-2012 10:20:30’,’DD-MON-YYYY HH:MI:SS’)) ;
But TIMESTAMP datatype allows both date and time without conversion.
SQL>CREATE TABLE emp (empno NUMBER(4), dob TIMESTAMP);
SQL>INSERT INTO emp VALUES(1,’26-AUG-2012 10:20:30’) ;
Difference between DATE & TIMESTAMP :-
To insert time into DATE column conversion is required , but to insert time into TIMESTAMP column
conversion is not required.
Difference between two DATES returns days , but difference between two TIMESTAMPS returns
days,hours,min,sec,milli secs.
TO_NUMBER() :-
Used to convert string to number type.
Syntax :- TO_NUMBER( string [,format])
SQL>SELECT TO_NUMBER(‘$1,000’,’L9,999’) + 1000 FROM DUAL;
2000
Special Functions :-
DECODE Function :-
Decode functions works like if-then-else
Page 65
ORACLE 12c
Syntax :-
DECODE(expr,value1,return expr1,
Value2, return expr2,
---------------,
[default expr])
• If EXPR is equal to VALUE1 then DECODE returns EXPR1

• If EXPR is equal to VALUE2 then DECODE returns EXPR2
• Returns DEFAULT EXPR if EXPR is not matching with any of the VALUE.
• DEFAULT EXPR is optional , if it is not provided then DECODE returns NULL value.
Example :-
Display ename , job,sal and display job as follows
If job=’CLERK’ then display ‘WORKER’

If job=’MANAGER’ then display ‘BOSS’
If job=’PRESIDENT’ then display ‘BIG BOSS’
SQL>SELECT ename,sal,
DECODE(job, ’CLERK’,’WORKER’,
‘MANAGER’,’BOSS’,
‘PRESIDENT’,’BIG BOSS’,
‘EMPLOYEE’) AS JOB FROM emp;
Increment employee salaries as follows ?
If job=’CLERK’ then increment sal by 10%

If job=’SALESMAN’ then increment sal by 15%
If job=’MANAGER’ then increment sal by 20%
Otherwise increment sal by 5%
SQL>UPDATE emp SET

sal = DECODE( job, ’CLERK’,sal*1.1,
‘SALESMAN’,sal*1.15,
‘MANAGER’,sal*1.2,
SAL*1.05) ;
NOTE :- a decode function can be nested in another decode function
Example :-
If deptno=10 , if job=’CLERK’ then increment sal by 10%
Others increment sal by 5%
If deptno=20 , if job=’CLERK’ then increment sal by 15%

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ORACLE 12c
Others increment sal by 10%
Other departments set to same value ?
SQL>UPDATE emp
SET sal = DECODE(deptno,10, DECODE(job,’CLERK’,SAL*1.1,
‘MANAGER’,SAL*1.15,
SAL*1.05) ,
20, DECODE(JOB,’CLERK’,SAL*1.15,
‘MANAGER’,SAL*1.2,
SAL*1.05) ,
SAL) ;
NVL:-
NVL function converts NULL values
Syntax :-
NVL(expr1,expr2)
If expr1 is NULL then NVL function returns expr2 otherwise returns expr1 only.
Example :-
Display employee ename,sal,totsal (sal+comm) ?
SQL>SELECT ename,sal,sal+nvl(comm,0) as totsal FROM emp;
Display ename , sal ,comm. If comm. Is NULL then display “N/A” ?
SQL>SELECT ename , sal , NVL(TO_CHAR(COMM),’N/A’) AS comm. FROM emp ;
NVL2 :-
NVL2 function converts NULL values and NOT NULL values.
Syntax :-
NVL2(expr1,expr2,expr3)
If expr1 is NOT NULL returns expr2 otherwise returns expr3
Example :-
Update employee comm. As follows
If comm. is null then update it to 500 otherwise increment comm. by 200 ?
SQL>UPDATE emp SET comm = NVL2(comm,comm+200,500) ;
GREATEST :-
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ORACLE 12c
Returns GREATEST number among given numbers
Syntax :- GREATEST(expr1,expr2,expr4,----)
Example :-
SQL>SELECT GREATEST(10,20,30) FROM DUAL ;
SQL>SELECT GREATEST(‘A’,’B’,’C’) FROM DUAL;
LEAST :-
Returns LEAST number among given numbers
Syntax: LEAST(expr1,expr2,expr3)
Example:-
SQL>SELECT LEAST(10,20,30) FROM DUAL;
NULLIF :-
Syntax:- NULLIF(expr1,expr2)
Returns NULL if given expressions are equal otherwise returns expr1.
SQL>SELECT NULLIF(100,200) FROM DUAL;
COALESCE:-
The Oracle COALESCE function returns the first non-NULL expression in the list. If all expressions in the list
evaluate to NULL, then the COALESCE function will return NULL. The database evaluates each expression's
value and determines whether it is NULL, rather than evaluating all of the expressions before determining
if any of them are NULL.
Syntax:-
COALESCE( expression_1, expression_2, ... expression_n )
The following example uses the sample product_information table to organize a clearance sale of products.
It gives a 10% discount to all products with a list price. If there is no list price, then the sale price is the
minimum price. If there is no minimum price, then the sale price is "5":
SQL>SELECT product_id, list_price, min_price,

COALESCE(0.9*list_price, min_price, 5) "Sale"
FROM product_information
WHERE supplier_id = 102050
ORDER BY product_id, list_price, min_price, "Sale";
OCA question :-
1 Which two statements are true regarding single row functions? (Choose two.)
A. They accept only a single argument.

B. They can be nested only to two levels.
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ORACLE 12c
C. Arguments can only be column values or constants.

D. They always return a single result row for every row of a queried table.
E. They can return a data type value different from the one that is referenced.
2 Generate a report showing the total compensation paid to each employee to till date.
SQL>SELECT ename ||' joined on ' hiredate || ', the total compensation paid is '||
ROUND(ROUND(SYSDATE-hiredate)/365) *12* sal + NVL(comm,0)) “Until Date “
FROM emp;
3 Which tasks can be performed using SQL functions built into Oracle Database ? (Choose three.)
A. displaying a date in a nondefault format

B. finding the number of characters in an expression
C. substituting a character string in a text expression with a specified string
D. combining more than two columns or expressions into a single column in the output
4 The following data exists in the PRODUCTS table:
PROD_ID PROD_LIST_PRICE
123456 152525.99
You issue the following query:
SQL> SELECT RPAD(( ROUND(prod_list_price)), 10,'*') FROM products

WHERE prod_id = 123456;
What would be the outcome?
A. 152526 ****
B. **152525.99
C. 152525** **
D. an error message
5 Examine the data in the CUST_NAME column of the CUSTOMERS table.
CUST_NAME
Renske Ladwig
Jason Mallin
Samuel McCain
Allan MCEwen
Irene Mikkilineni
You need to display customers' second names where the second name starts with "Mc" or "MC."
Which query gives the required output?
A. SELECT SUBSTR(cust_name, INSTR(cust_name,' ')+1) FROM customers
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ORACLE 12c
WHERE INITCAP(SUBSTR(cust_name, INSTR(cust_name,' ')+1))='Mc';
B. SELECT SUBSTR(cust_name, INSTR(cust_name,' ')+1) FROM customers

WHERE INITCAP(SUBSTR(cust_name, INSTR(cust_name,' ')+1)) LIKE 'Mc%';
C. SELECT SUBSTR(cust_name, INSTR(cust_name,' ')+1) FROM customers

WHERE SUBSTR(cust_name, INSTR(cust_name,' ')+1) LIKE INITCAP('MC%');
D. SELECT SUBSTR(cust_name, INSTR(cust_name,' ')+1) FROM customers

WHERE INITCAP(SUBSTR(cust_name, INSTR(cust_name,' ')+1)) = INITCAP('MC%');
6 Which SQL statements would display the value 1890.55 as $1,890.55? (Choose three .)
A. SELECT TO_CHAR(1890.55,'$0G000D00') FROM DUAL;

B. SELECT TO_CHAR(1890.55,'$9,999V99') FROM DUAL;
C. SELECT TO_CHAR(1890.55,'$99,999D99') FROM DUAL;
D. SELECT TO_CHAR(1890.55,'$99G999D00') FROM DUAL;
E. SELECT TO_CHAR(1890.55,'$99G999D99') FROM DUAL;
7 In the CUSTOMERS table, the CUST_CITY column contains the value 'Paris' for the
CUST_FIRST_NAME 'ABIGAIL'.
Evaluate the following query:
SQL> SELECT INITCAP(cust_first_name)||UPPER(SUBSTR(cust_city,-LENGTH(cust_city),2)))

FROM customers
WHERE cust_first_name = 'ABIGAIL';
A. Abigail PA
B. Abigail Pa
C. Abigail IS
D. an error message
7 Evaluate the following query:
SQL> SELECT TRUNC(ROUND(156.00,-1),-1) FROM DUAL;
A. 16 B. 100 C. 160 D. 200 E. 150
8 Which statements are true regarding data type conversion in expressions used in queries? (Choose
all that apply.)
A. inv_amt ='0255982' : requires explicit conversion
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ORACLE 12c
B. inv_date > '01-02-2008' : uses implicit conversion

C. CONCAT(inv_amt,inv_date) : requires explicit conversion
D. inv_date = '15-february-2008' : uses implicit conversion
E. inv_no BETWEEN '101' AND '110' : uses implicit conversion
9 You need to calculate the number of days from 1st January 2007 till date.
Dates are stored in the default format of dd-mon-rr.
Which SQL statements would give the required output? (Choose two .)
A. SELECT SYSDATE - '01-JAN-2007' FROM DUAL;

B. SELECT SYSDATE - TO_DATE('01/JANUARY/2007') FROM DUAL;
C. SELECT SYSDATE - TO_DATE('01-JANUARY-2007') FROM DUAL;
D. SELECT TO_CHAR(SYSDATE, 'DD-MON-YYYY') - '01-JAN-2007' FROM DUAL;
E. SELECT TO_DATE(SYSDATE, 'DD/MONTH/YYYY') - '01/JANUARY/2007' FROM
Multi-Row functions:-
→These functions will process group of rows and Returns one value from that group.
→These functions are also called AGGREGATE functions or GROUP functions
MAX :-
Returns maximum value of a given expression
Syntax:- MAX(expr)
Example :-
SQL>SELECT MAX(sal) FROM emp;
Display maximum salary of 30th DEPT ?
SQL>SELECT MAX(sal) FROM EMP WHERE deptno=20;
MIN:-
Returns minimum value of a given expression.
Syntax :- MIN(EXPR)
Example:-
SQL>SELECT MIN(sal) FROM emp;
SUM :-
→Returns sum of a given expression.

→This function cannot be applied on strings and dates.
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ORACLE 12c
Syntax:- SUM(expr)
Example:-
SQL>SELECT SUM(sal) FROM emp;
Display total salary paid to MANAGERS ?
SQL>SELECT SUM(sal) FROM emp WHERE job = ‘MANAGER’ ;
Scenario :-
Calculate total salaries paid to each dept as follows ?
DEPT_10 DEPT_20 DEPT_30
? ? ?
SQL>SELECT SUM(DECODE(deptno,10,sal)) as DEPT_10 ,

SUM(DECODE(deptno,20,sal)) as DEPT_20,
SUM(DECODE(deptno,30,sal)) as DEPT_30
FROM emp;
AVG :-
Returns avg value of a given expression.
Syntax:- AVG(expr)
Example:-
SQL>SELECT AVG(sal) FROM emp;
COUNT :-
→Returns no of values present in a column.

→COUNT function ignores NULL values.
Syntax :- COUNT(expr)
Example:-
SQL>SELECT COUNT(empno) FROM emp;
SQL>SELECT COUNT(DISTINCT deptno) FROM emp;
COUNT(*):-
Returns no of records
Example :-
SQL>SELECT COUNT(*) FROM emp;
Display number of employees joined in 1981 year ?
SQL>SELECT COUNT(*) FROM emp WHER TO_CHAR(hiredate,’yyyy’)=1981;
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ORACLE 12c
Display number of employees joined as follows ?
1981 1982 1983
? ? ?
SQL>SELECT COUNT(DECODE(TO_CHAR(hiredate,’YYYY’),1981,empno)) AS Y1981 ,

COUNT(DECODE(TO_CHAR(hiredate,’YYYY’),1982,empno)) AS Y1982,
COUNT(DECODE(TO_CHAR(hiredate,’YYYY’),1983,empno)) AS Y1983 FROM emp;
OCA question :-
Which two statements are true regarding the COUNT function? (Choose two.)
A. The COUNT function can be used only for CHAR, VARCHAR2, and NUMBER data types.
B. COUNT(*) returns the number of rows including duplicate rows and rows containing NULL
value in any of the columns.
C. COUNT(cust_id) returns the number of rows including rows with duplicate customer IDs and
NULL value in the CUST_ID column
D. COUNT(DISTINCT inv_amt)returns the number of rows excluding rows containing duplicates and
NULL values in the INV_AMT column.
E. A SELECT statement using the COUNT function with a DISTINCT keyword cannot have a WHERE
clause.
CASE Statement :-
→The CASE expression performs if-then –else logic .

→introduced in ORACLE 9i
→The CASE expression works in a similar manner to DECODE, but use CASE because it is ANSI-compliant .
→the CASE expression is easier to read.
There are two types of CASE Statements
→Simple case.
→Searched case .
Simple CASE Statement :-

Simple CASE expressions use expressions to determine the value to return.
Syntax :-
CASE search_expression
WHEN expression1 THEN result1
WHEN expression2 THEN result2
…………………….
WHEN expression THEN result
ELSE default_result
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ORACLE 12c
END ;
→Search_expression is the expression to be evaluated.

→expression1, expression2, …………,expression are the expressions to be evaluated against
search_expression.
→result1, result2,………….., result are the returned results(one for each possible expression). If expression1
evaluates to search_expression, results is returned, and similarly for the other expressions.
→default_result is returned when no matching expression is found.
Example :-
SQL>SELECT ename,sal, CASE job
WHEN ‘CLERK’ THEN ‘WORKER’
WHEN ‘MANAGER’ THEN ‘BOSS’
WHEN ‘PRESIDENT’ THEN ‘BIG BOSS’
ELSE
‘EMPLOYEE’
END AS JOB
FROM emp ;
Searched CASE Statement :_

Searched CASE expressions use conditions to determine the returned value.
Syntax :-
CASE
WHEN condition1 THEN result1
WHEN condition2 THEN result2
………………..
WHEN condition THEN result
ELSE
default_result
END;
Where,
→condition1, condition2,…….. conditionN are expressions to be evaluated.
→result1, result2,…………resultN are the returned results(one for each possible condition). If condition is
true, result1 is returned, and similarly for the other expressions.
→default_result is returned when there is no condition returns true
Example :-
SQL>SELECT ename,sal, CASE

WHEN sal>3000 THEN ‘HISAL’
WHEN sal<3000 THEN ‘LOSAL’
ELSE
‘MODERATE SAL’
END AS SALRANGE
FROM emp ;
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ORACLE 12c
OCA question :-
1 Examine the data in the PROMO_BEGIN_DATE column of the PROMOTIONS table:
PROMO_BEGIN _DATE
04-jan-00
10-jan-00
15-dec-99
18-oct-98
You want to display the number of promotions started in 1999 and 2000.
Which query gives the correct output?
A. SELECT SUM(DECODE(SUBSTR(promo_begin_date,8),'00',1,0)) "2000",

SUM(DECODE(SUBSTR (promo_begin_date,8),'99',1,0)) "1999"
FROM promotions;
B. SELECT SUM(CASE TO_CHAR(promo_begin_date,'yyyy')

WHEN '99' THEN 1 ELSE 0 END) "1999",
SUM(CASE TO_CHAR(promo_begin_date,'yyyy')
WHEN '00' THEN 1 ELSE 0 END) "2000"
FROM promotions;
C SELECT COUNT(CASE TO_CHAR(promo_begin_date,'yyyy')

WHEN '99' THEN 1 ELSE 0 END) "1999",
COUNT(CASE TO_CHAR(promo_begin_date,'yyyy')
WHEN '00' THEN 1 ELSE 0 END) "2000"
FROM promotions;
D SELECT
COUNT(DECODE(SUBSTR(TO_CHAR(promo_begin_date,'yyyy'), 8), '1999', 1, 0)) "1999",
COUNT(DECODE(SUBSTR(TO_CHAR(promo_begin_date,'yyyy'), 8),'2000', 1,0)) "2000"
FROM promotions;
GROUP BY clause:-
You can use GROUP BY clause to divide the rows in a table into smaller groups. You can then use the group
functions to return summary information for each group.
Syntax :-
SELECT column, group_function(column)

FROM table
[WHERE condition]
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ORACLE 12c
[GROUP BY group_by_expression]
[HAVING condition] [ORDER BY column];
Guidelines :-
• only GROUP BY columns and AGGREGATE functions should appear in SELECT list other than these
two if any column appears then oracle returns error.
• Using WHERE clause, you can exclude rows before dividing them into groups.
• You cannot use a column alias in the GROUP BY clause.
• By default, rows are sorted by ascending order of the columns included in the GROUP BY list. You
can override this by using the ORDER BY clause.
Examples :-
Display total salaries paid to each department ?
SQL>SELECT deptno,SUM(sal) FROM emp GROUP BY deptno ;
Display no of employees joined each year ?
SQL>SELECT
EXTRACT(YEAR FROM hiredate) AS YEAR, COUNT(*) AS EMPS
FROM emp
GROUP BY EXTRACT(YEAR FROM hiredate);
Display total salaries paid to each department where deptno in (10,20) ?
SQL>SELECT deptno,SUM(sal) FROM emp

WHERE deptno IN (10,20)
GROUP BY deptno ;
HAVING clause :-
In the same way that you use the WHERE clause to restrict the rows that you select, you can use the
HAVING clause to restrict groups.
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ORACLE 12c
find the maximum salary of each department, but show only the depts. that have a maximum salary more
than 10,000, you need to do the following:
1 Find the maximum salary for each department by grouping by deptno
2. Restrict the groups to those departments with a maximum salary greater than 10,000.
The Oracle server performs the following steps when you use the HAVING clause:
1. Rows are grouped.

2. The group function is applied to the group.
3. The groups that match the criteria in the HAVING clause are displayed.
Example :-
SQL>SELECT deptno, SUM(sal)
FROM emp
GROUP BY deptno
HAVING SUM(sal)>10000;
Deptno SUM(SAL)
20 10875
WHERE Vs HAVING :-
WHERE HAVING
Filter rows filter groups

Filter data before group by filter data after group by
NOTE:- in condition if there is no group function then use WHERE clause , if condition contains group
function use HAVING clause.
Using WHERE , GROUP BY ,HAVING clauses Together :-
You can use WHERE,GROUP BY, and HAVING clauses together in the same query. When you do this the
WHERE clause first filters the rows, the GROUP BY clause then groups the remaining rows and finally
HAVING clause filters the groups.
Example :-
SQL>SELECT deptno,sum(sal) FROM emp
WHERE deptno IN (10,20)
GROUP BY deptno
HAVING SUM(sal) > 10000 ;
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ORACLE 12c
Grouping Rows Based on more than one Column :-
You can GROUP rows based on more than one column.
Calcuate total salaries department wise and within department job wise ?
Example :-
SQL>SELECT deptno,job,SUM(sal)
FROM emp
GROUP BY deptno,job;
SQL>BREAK ON deptno
SQL> /
SQL>SELECT TO_CHAR(hiredate,’YYYY’) AS Year ,

TO_CHAR(hiredate,’Mon’) AS Month,
TO_CHAR(hiredate,’Dy’) AS Day , COUNT(*) AS Emps
FROM emp
GROUP BY TO_CHAR(hiredate,’YYYY’) ,
TO_CHAR(hiredate,’Mon’) ,
TO_CHAR(hiredate,’Dy’)
ORDER BY Year,Month,Day ;
Cross Tabulation:-
An example of cross tabulation shown below :-
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ORACLE 12c
DEPTNO CLERK MANAGER SALESMAN
10 1300 2450
20 1900 2975
30 95 2850 5600
To produce the above result the following query should be run

SQL>SELECT deptno, SUM( DECODE(job,’CLERK’,sal)) AS CLERK ,
SUM(DECODE(job,’MANAGER’,sal)) AS MANAGER,
SUM(DECODE(job,’SALESMAN’,sal)) AS SALESMAN
FROM emp
GROUP BY deptno;
Using PIVOT operator :-
Cross tabulation is simplified in ORACLE 11g with the help of PIVOT operator.
SQL>SELECT * FROM
(SELECT DEPTNO,SAL,JOB FROM EMP)
PIVOT
(
SUM(SAL) FOR JOB IN (‘CLERK’,’MANAGER’,’SALESMAN’)
)
ORDER BY DEPTNO;
UNPIVOT operator :-
The UNPIVOT operator converts column-based data into separate rows. To see the UNPIVOT operator in
action we need to create a test table.
SQL>CREATE TABLE unpivot_test (

id NUMBER,
customer_id NUMBER,
product_code_a NUMBER,
product_code_b NUMBER,
product_code_c NUMBER,
product_code_d NUMBER);
SQL>INSERT INTO unpivot_test VALUES (1, 101, 10, 20, 30, NULL);
SQL>INSERT INTO unpivot_test VALUES (2, 102, 40, NULL, 50, NULL);
SQL>INSERT INTO unpivot_test VALUES (3, 103, 60, 70, 80, 90);
SQL>INSERT INTO unpivot_test VALUES (4, 104, 100, NULL, NULL, NULL);
SQL>COMMIT;
So our test data starts off looking like this.
SQL>SELECT * FROM unpivot_test;
ID CUSTOMER_ID PRODUCT_CODE_A PRODUCT_CODE_B PRODUCT_CODE_C PRODUCT_CODE_D
1 101 10 20 30
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ORACLE 12c
2 102 40 50
3 103 60 70 80 90
4 104 100
The UNPIVOT operator converts this column-based data into individual rows.
SQL>SELECT *
FROM unpivot_test
UNPIVOT (quantity FOR product_code IN (product_code_a AS 'A', product_code_b AS 'B',
product_code_c AS 'C', product_code_d AS 'D'));
ID CUSTOMER_ID P QUANTITY
---------- ----------- - ----------
1 101 A 10
1 101 B 20
1 101 C 30
2 102 A 40
2 102 C 50
3 103 A 60
3 103 B 70
3 103 C 80
3 103 D 90
4 104 A 100
Convert rows to columns :-
SQL> desc t1
Name Null? Type
NAME VARCHAR2(10)
YEAR NUMBER(4)
VALUE NUMBER(4)
SQL> select * from t1;

NAME YEAR VALUE
john 1991 1000

john 1992 2000
john 1993 3000
jack 1991 1500
jack 1992 1200
jack 1993 1340
mary 1991 1250
mary 1992 2323
mary 1993 8700
perform a sql query to return results like this:
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ORACLE 12c
year, john, Jack, mary

1991, 1000, 1500 1250
1992, 2000, 1200, 2323
1993, 3000, 1340, 8700
SQL> SELECT year,

MAX( DECODE( name, 'john', value, null ) ) "JOHN",
MAX( DECODE( name, 'jack', value, null ) ) "JACK",
MAX( DECODE( name, 'mary', value, null ) ) "MARY"
FROM abc
GROUP BY year;
Extending Group By using ROLLUP & CUBE :-

GROUP BY clause can be extended by using two operators.
• ROLLUP
• CUBE
ROLLUP :-
ROLLUP returns a row containing a subtotal for each group ,plus a row containing a grand total for all the
groups.
Passing single column to ROLLUP :-
SQL>SELECT deptno,SUM(sal) FROM emp GROUP BY ROLLUP(deptno) ;
Passing multiple columns to ROLLUP :-
FROM emp
GROUP BY ROLLUP(deptno,job)
ORDER BY deptno,job ;
CUBE :-
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ORACLE 12c
Cube returns rows containing a subtotal for all combinations of columns, plus a row containing the grand
total.
Example : -
Passing single column to CUBE :-
SQL>SELECT deptno,SUM(sal) FROM emp GROUP BY CUBE(deptno) ;
Passing multiple columns to CUBE :-
FROM emp
GROUP BY CUBE(deptno,job)
ORDER BY deptno,job ;
GROUPING function:-
It can be quite easy to visually identify subtotals generated by rollups and cubes, but to do it
programatically you really need something more accurate than the presence of null values in the grouping
columns. This is where the GROUPING function comes in. It accepts a single column as a parameter and
returns "1" if the column contains a null value generated as part of a subtotal by a ROLLUP or CUBE
operation or "0" for any other value The following query demonstrates the usage of GROUPING function.
Example :-
SQL> SELECT deptno,job,SUM(sal) AS SUMSAL ,

GROUPING(deptno) AS GRP_DEPT ,GROUPING(job) AS GRP_JOB
FROM emp
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ORACLE 12c
GROUP BY CUBE(deptno,job);
GROUPING_ID function :-
The GROUPING_ID function provides an alternate and more compact way to identify subtotal rows. Passing
the GROUP BY columns as arguments, it returns a number indicating the GROUP BY level.
SQL>SELECT deptno,job,SUM(sal) AS SUMSAL ,GROUPING_ID(deptno,job)

FROM emp
GROUP BY CUBE(deptno,job) ;
GROUPING SETS :-
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ORACLE 12c
Calculating all possible subtotals in a cube, especially those with many columns, can be quite an intensive
process. If you don't need all the subtotals, this can represent a considerable amount of wasted effort. if
cube applied on three columns then it gives 8 levels of subtotals.
If we only need a few of these levels of subtotaling we can use the GROUPING SETS expression and
specify exactly which ones we need, saving us having to calculate the whole cube.
SQL>SELECT to_char(hiredate,'yyyy') as year,

to_char(hiredate,'mon') as month,
to_char(hiredate,'day') as day,
count(*) as emps,
GROUPING_ID(to_char(hiredate,'yyyy'),to_char(hiredate,'mon'),to_char(hiredate,'day'))AS
grouping_id
FROM emp
GROUP BY GROUPING SETS((to_char(hiredate,'yyyy'),to_char(hiredate,'mon')), (to_char(hiredate,'yyyy'),
to_char(hiredate,'day')))
ORDER BY year,month,day
Joins
In OLTP db tables are normalized and data organized in more than one table. For example sales DB is
organized in customer,product,supplier tables etc. JOIN is an operation that combines rows from two or
more tables or view.
ORACLE performs JOIN operation when more than one table is listed in FROM clause.
Tables participated in JOIN operation must share a meaningful relationship.
Types of JOINS :-
• Inner join or Equi Join

• Non-Equi Join
• Self Join
• Outer Join
• Cross Join
Inner Join :-
• In INNER JOIN join operation is performed based on common columns.

• To perform INNER JOIN there should be a common column in joining tables and name of the
common column need not to be same.
• To perform INNER JOIN parent/child relationship between the tables is not mandatory.
• INNER join is most commonly used join in realtime.
Syntax :-
SQL> SELECT <collist> FROM <tab11> , <tab2>
WHERE <join cond
[AND <join cond> AND <cond>-------]
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ORACLE 12c
Join Condition :-
Child.fk = parent.pk ( if relationship exists)
Tab1.commoncolumn = Tab2.commoncolumn (if there is no relationship)
• Oracle performs INNER JOIN by comparing fk value with pk value by using = operator.
• INNER JOIN is also called EQUI JOIN because join cond is based on = operator.
• INNER JOIN returns all rows from both tables that satisfies the JOIN CONDITION.
• No of JOIN CONDS depends on number of tables to be joined .
• To join N tables , min N-1 JOIN CONDS are required.
Guidelines:-
When writing a SELECT statement that joins tables, precede the column name with the table name or table
alias for faster access and to avoid ambiguity.
Example:-
Display EMPNO,ENAME,DEPTNO,DNAME,LOC ?
SQL> SELECT e.empno, e. ename , e.sal, d. deptno , d. dname , d. loc

FROM emp e,dept d
WHERE e.deptno = d.deptno;
Display ENAME of the employees working at NEW YORK location ?
SQL>SELECT e.ename
FROM emp e, dept d
WHERE e.deptno = d.deptno
AND
d.loc=’NEW YORK’ ;
Display ENAME of the employees working at NEW YORK location and earning more than 2000 ?
SQL>SELECT e.ename
FROM emp e,dept d
WHERE e.deptno=d.deptno
AND
d.loc=’NEW YORK’ and e.sal > 2000;
Joining more than 2 tables :-
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ORACLE 12c
Display employee first_name , salary , job_title , department_name, city , street , state

,country_name,region_name ?
SQL>SELECT
e.first_name,e.salary,j.job_title,d.department_name,l.city,l.street_address,l.state_province,
c.country_name,r.region_name
FROM employees e,
jobs j,
departments d,
locations l,
countries c,
regions r
WHERE e.job_id = j.job_id
AND
e.department_id = d.department_id
AND
d.location_id = l.location_id
AND
l.country_id = c.country_id
AND
c.region_id = r.region_id ;
ANSI Style :-
Oracle 9i now supports the ANSI/ISO SQL: 1999 standards. This allows easier product migration, but there
is no performance increase compared to the existing syntax.
• ORACLE 9i supports SQL/99 standard joins.

• In SQL/99 style JOIN COND is specified by using ON clause or USING clause.
• in SQL/99 style to perform EQUI JOIN use keyword JOIN or INNER JOIN.
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ORACLE 12c
• JOIN COND is specified by using ON clause or USING clause.

• Use USING clause if common column name is same.
Example :-
Using ON clause :-
SQL>SELECT e.empno,e.ename,e.sal,d.dname,d.loc
FROM emp e JOIN dept d
ON (e.deptno = d.deptno) ;
Using USING clause :-
USING (DEPTNO) ;
HINT :- In USING clause common column name should not be prefixed with table alias.
NOTE :- A join order is the order in which tables are accessed and joined together. For example, in a join
order of table1, table2, and table3, table table1 is accessed first. Next, table2 is accessed, and its data is
joined to table1. Finally, table3 is accessed, and its data is joined to the result of the join between table1
and table2.
Non Equi Join :-
When the Join Cond is based on equality operator, the join is said to be an equi join. When the join
condition based on otherthan equality operator , the join is said to be a non-equi join.
Syntax:-
Select col1,col2,…….
From <table 1>,<table 2>
Where <join cond> [AND <join cond> AND <cond> ----]
→In NON-EQUI JOIN JOIN COND is not based on = operator. It is based on other than = operator
usually BETWEEN or > or < operators.
Example:-
Display EMPNO,ENAME,SAL,GRADE ?
SQL> SELECT e.empno,e.ename,e.sal,s,grade

FROM emp e, salgrade s
WHERE e.sal BETWEEN s.losal AND s.hisal;
Display EMPNO,ENAME,SAL,DNAME,LOC,GRADE ?
SQL>SELECT e.empno,e.ename,e.sal,d.dname,d.loc,s.grade
FROM emp e,dept d,salgrade s
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WHERE e.deptno = d.deptno

AND
e.sal between g.losal AND g.hisal ;
ANSI Style :-
Display EMPNO,ENAME,SAL,GRADE ?
SQL>SELECT e.empno,e.ename,e.sal,s.grade
FROM emp e JOIN salgrade g
ON ( e.sal BETWEEN g.losal AND g.hisal) ;
Display EMPNO,ENAME,SAL,DNAME,LOC,GRADE ?
SQL>SELECT e.empno,e.ename,e.sal,d.dname,d.loc,s.grade
USING(deptno)
JOIN salgrade s
ON (e.sal BETWEEN g.losal and g.hisal) ;
Self Join :-
• Joining a table to itself is called Self Join.
• Self Join is performed when tables having self refrential integrity.
• To perform Self Join same table must be listed twice with different alias.
• Self Join is Equi Join within the table.
Syntax :-
SQl>SELECT <collist>
From Table1 T1, Table1 T2
Where T1.Column1=T2.Column2;
Example:-
Display EMPNO,ENAME,SAL,MGRNAME ?
SQL>SELECT e.empno,e.ename,e.sal,m.ename
FROM emp e, emp m
WHERE e.mgr = m.empno ;
ANSI Style:-
Display EMPNO,ENAME,SAL,MGRNAME ?
SQL>SELECT e.empno , e.ename,e.sal,m.ename

ON (e.mgr = m.empno) ;
Display EMPNO,ENAME,SAL,DNAME,LOC,GRADE,MGRNAME ?
SQL>SELECT e.empno,e.ename,e.sal,d.dname,d.loc,,s.grade,m.ename
USING(deptno)
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JOIN salgrade s
ON (e.sal BETWEEN g.losal AND g.hisal)
JOIN emp m
ON ( e.mgr = m.empno) ;
Outer Join:-
Equi join returns only matching records from both the tables but not unmatched record, an outer join
retrieves a row even when one of the column in the join contains a null value. For example there are two
tables one is CUSTOMER that stores customer information and another ORDERS table that stores orders
placed by customers , INNER JOIN returns only the list of customer who placed orders,but OUTER JOIN also
returns customer who did not placed any order. Outer join is 3 types.
• LEFT OUTER JOIN

• RIGHT OUTER JOIN
• FULL OUTER JOIN
To perform OUTER JOIN use Oracle Proprietary operator (+) .
Left Outer Join:-
LEFT OUTER JOIN returns all rows(matched and unmatched) from LEFT SIDE table and matching records
from RIGHT SIDE table. To perform LEFT OUTER JOIN (+) should be on RIGHT SIDE.
Syntax :-
SELECT <collist> FROM <tablist>

WHERE t1.commoncolumn = t2.commoncolumn (+)
Example :-
Display EMPNO,ENAME,DNAME,LOC and also display employee list who are not assigned to any dept?
SQL> SELECT e.empno,e.ename,d.dname,d.loc

FROM emp e, dept d
WHERE e.deptno = d.deptno (+) ;
ANSI Style :-
In SQL/92 standard use keyword LEFT OUTER JOIN instead of using operator (+) .
Display EMPNO,ENAME,DNAME,LOC and also display employee list who are not assigned to any dept?

FROM emp e LEFT OUTER JOIN dept d
USING(deptno) ;
Right Outer Join:-
RIGHT OUTER JOIN returns all rows(matched and unmatched) from RIGHT SIDE table and matching records
from LEFT SIDE table. To perform RIGHT OUTER JOIN use (+) on LEFT SIDE.
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ORACLE 12c
Syntax :-
SELECT <collist> FROM <tablist>
WHERE t1.commoncolumn(+) = t2.commoncolumn
Example :-
Display EMPNO,ENAME,DNAME,LOC and also display department which are empty ?

FROM emp e, dept d
WHERE e.deptno(+) = d.deptno ;
ANSI Style :-
In SQL/92 standard use keyword RIGHT OUTER JOIN instead of using operator (+) .
Display EMPNO,ENAME,DNAME,LOC and also display departments which are empty ?

FROM emp e RIGHT OUTER JOIN dept d
USING(deptno) ;
Full Outer Join:-
→Returns all rows (matched and unmatched) from both tables.

→Prior to oracle 9i doesn’t support FULL OUTER JOIN.
→To perform FULL OUTER JOIN in prior to ORACLE 9i.

FROM emp e, dept d
WHERE e.deptno = d.deptno (+) ;
UNION
SELECT e.empno,e.ename,d.dname,d.loc
FROM emp e, dept d
WHERE e.deptno(+) = d.deptno ;
HINT :-
(+) should be either left side or right side but cannot be on both sides.
CROSS JOIN :-
• CROSS JOIN returns cross product of two tables.

• Each record of one table is joined to each and every record of another table.
• If table1 contains 10 records and table2 contains 5 records then CROSS JOIN between table1 and
table2 returns 50 records.
• ORACLE performs CROSS JOIN when we submit query without JOIN COND.
Syntax :-
SQL>SELECT col1 ,col2 FROM tab1 , tab2 ;
Example:-
TABLE TABLE
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ORACLE 12c
ORDERS DISCOUNT
ORDAMT DIS
100000 5
7
12
Display ORDAMT for each and every DISCOUNT percentage ?
SQL>SELECT o.ordamt,d.dis, (o.ordamt*d.dis)/100 AS amount

FROM orders o,discounts d ;
ANSI Style :-
SQL>SELECT o.ordamt,d.dis, (o.ordamt*d.dis)/100 AS amount

FROM orders o CROSS JOIN discounts d ;
Natural Join :-
• NATURAL JOIN is possible in ANSI SQL/92 standard.

• NATURAL JOIN is similar to EQUI JOIN.
• NATURAL JOIN is performed only when common column name is same.
• in NATURAL JOIN no need to specify join condition explicitly , ORACLE automatically performs join
operation on the column with same name..
Example :-
FROM emp e NATURAL JOIN dept d ;
Above query performs JOIN operation on DEPTNO.
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ORACLE 12c
Set Operators :-
➢ UNION
➢ UNION ALL
➢ INTERSECT
➢ MINUS
Syntax :-
SELECT statement 1
UNION / UNION ALL / INTERSECT / MINUS
SELECT statement 2 ;
Rules :-
1 No of columns returned by first query must be equal to no of columns returned by second query
2 Corrosponding columns datatype type must be same.
UNION:-
• UNION operator combines data returned by two SELECT statement.
• eliminates duplicates.
• Sorts result.
Example :-
1 SQL>SELECT job FROM emp WHERE deptno=10

UNION
SELECT job FROM emp WHERE deptno=20 ;
2 SQL>SELECT job,sal FROM emp WHERE deptno=10

UNION
SELECT job,sal FROM emp WHERE deptno=20
ORDER BY sal ;
NOTE:- ORDER BY clause must be used with last query.
UNION ALL:-
→UNION ALL is similar to UNION but it includes duplicates

Example :-
SQL>SELECT job FROM emp WHERE deptno=10

UNION ALL
SELECT job FROM emp WHERE deptno=20 ;
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UNION vs JOIN :-
UNION JOIN
Union combines data Join relates data
Union is performed on similar structures Join can be performed also be performed on
dissimilar structures also
Scenario :-
EMP1 EMP2
EMPNO ENAME DNO EMPNO ENAME DNO

1 A 10 100 X 10
2 B 20 101 Y 20
DEPT:-
DNO DNAME LOC

10 ACCT HYD
20 SALES HYD
Display all employee list along with department names and locations ?
Solution :- (EMP1 union EMP2) Join DEPT
INTERSECT:-
INTERSECT operator returns common values from the result of two SELECT statements.
Example:-
Display common jobs belongs to 10th and 20th departments ?

INTERSECT
SELECT job FROM emp WHERE deptno=20;
MINUS:-
MINUS operator returns values present in the result of first SELECT statement and not present in the result
of second SELECT statement.
Example:-
Display jobs in 10th dept and not in 20th dept ?
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MINUS
SELECT job FROM emp WHERE deptno=20;
Psuedo Columns
Pseudo columns are not actual columns in a table but they behave like columns, these columns doesn’t
really exist in DB but available for use. you can select values from a pseudo column but you cannot insert,
update ,delete the pseudo column values. Pseudo columns are assigned with values by ORACLE like a
normal db column but not stored on disk.
SQL and PL/SQL recognizes following pseudo columns which return specific data
• ROWID
• ROWNUM
• USER
• LEVEL
• CURRVAL and NEXTVAL
• SYSDATE
• SYSTIMESTAMP
• ORA_ROWSCAN
SYSDATE & SYSTIMESTAMP :-
Returns current DATE and TIMESTAMP.
SQL>SELECT sysdate , systimestamp FROM dual ;
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UID & USER :-
Returns User ID and name of the database user.
SQL>SELECT uid, user FROM dual ;
UID USER
50 SCOTT
ROWID :-
• ROWID returns physical address of a row in a database table and it is the fastest way to retrieve a
row. Faster than index even.
• since ROWID represents physical location of a row no two rows within in the same table will have
the same ROWIDs.
• Because ROWID represent physical location of a row , the ROWID will change every time the record
is physically moved.
• Use DBMS_SQL.LAST_ROW_ID to get the ROWID of the last row processed.
• ROWID can be used to DELETE duplicate records in a table.
• ROWID can be used in SELECT and WHERE clauses.
• In table records are arranged based on their ROWIDs i.e first record ROWID is always minimum and
last record is always maximum.
To Display ROWIDs of employee records execute the following command ?
We can also retrieve records based on ROWIDs as follows.
SQL>SELECT * FROM emp WHERE ROWID = ‘AABGLuAAbAAAezHAAN’;
Display ROWID of the first record ?
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SQL>SELECT MIN(ROWID) FROM emp;
ROWNUM :-
• ROWNUM is also a pseudo column
• ROWNUM represents the sequential order in which ORACLE has retrieved the row and it will
change from query to query .
• ROWNUM changes from query to query but ROWID is permanent.
• ROWNUM can be used in SELECT and WHERE clauses.
Questions based on ROWID & ROWNUM :-
How do I limit the number of rows returned by a query?

How do I write a query to get the Top-N salaries from the employee table?
How can I add unique, sequential numbers to an existing table?
How can I differentiate between two completely identical rows?
How can I find a faster way to retrieve a row?
How can I find the last row processed in a big batch?
Display employee records with record numbers ?
In the above result the ROWNUM generated for KING record is 9.
Dispplay employee records earning more than 2000 ?
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In the above result the ROWNUM generated for KING record is 6, So ROWNUM changes from query to
query.
We can also retrieve records based on their record number. For example to display 1 st record ?
SQL>SELECT * FROM emp WHERE ROWNUM=1 ;
To display first 5 records in emp table ?
SQL>SELECT * FROM emp WHERE ROWNUM <= 5;
But the following query returns error.
SQL>SELECT * FROM emp WHERE ROWNUM > 6;
NOTE :- Because ROWNUM is generated after retrieving record. So with ROWNUM we cannot use > , >=
operators.
ORA_ROWSCAN :-
ORA_ROWSCN returns the system change number (SCN) of the last change inside the block containing a
row. It can return the last modification for the row if the table is created with the option
ROWDEPENDENCIES (default is NOROWDEPENDENCIES). The function SCN_TO_TIMESTAMP allows you to
convert SCN to timestamp.
SQL> select ename, ORA_ROWSCN, SCN_TO_TIMESTAMP(ORA_ROWSCN)

from emp where empno=7369;
ENAME ORA_ROWSCN SCN_TO_TIMESTAMP(ORA_ROWSCN)

---------- ---------- ----------------------------------------------------------------
SMITH 2113048 20/12/2008 16:59:51.000
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ORACLE 12c
Subqueries
Subquery:-
• Query embedded in another query is called subquery.

• One query is called inner/child/subquery.
• Another query is called outer/parent/main query.
• The result of inner query acts as an input to outer query.
• Outer query can be INSERT,UPDATE,DELETE,SELECT
• Inner query must be always SELECT
• Subqueries can appear in
WHERE CLAUSE
HAVING CLAUSE
FROM CLAUSE
SELECT CLAUSE
Types of SUBQUERIES :-
➔ Single Row Subqueries

➔ Multi Row Subqueries
➔ Nested Queries
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➔ Muliti Column Subqueries

➔ Co-related Subqueries
SINGLE ROW SUBQUERIES:-
If inner query returns only one row then it is called single row subquery.
Syntax :-
SELECT <collist> FROM <tabname>

WHERE colname OP (SELECT statement)
OP can be < > <= >= = <>
Example :-
Subqueries in WHERE clause :-
Display employee records whose job equals to job of SMITH?

WHERE job = (SELECT job FROM emp WHERE ename=’SMITH’) ;
Display employee name earning maximum salary ?

SQL>SELECT ename FROM emp
WHERE sal = (SELECT MAX(sal) FROM emp) ;
Display all records except last record ?

WHERE ROWID <(SELECT MAX(ROWID) FROM emp) ;
Subqueries with BETWEEN operator:-

Display employee reocrds earning salary between min sal of 10 dept and max sal of 30 dept ?

WHERE sal BETWEEN (SELECT MIN(sal) FROM emp WHERE deptno=10)
AND
(SELECT MAX(sal) FROM emp WHERE deptno=30) ;
Subqueries in HAVING clause:-

Display departmentss whose avg(sal) geater than avg(sal) of 10 dept?
SQL>SELECT deptno FROM emp

GROUP BY deptno
HAVING AVG(sal) > (SELECT AVG(sal) FROM emp
WHERE deptno=10) ;
Subqueries in UPDATE command :-
Update employee salary to maximum salary whose empno=7369 ?
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SQL>UPDATE emp SET sal = (SELECT MAX(sal) FROM emp) WHERE EMPNO=7369 ;
Swap employee salaries whose empno in (7369,7499) ?
SQL>UPDATE emp SET sal=DECODE(empno,7369,(SELECT sal FROM emp

WHERE empno=7499),
7499,(SELECT sal FROM emp
WHERE empno=7369) );
Subqueries in DELETE command:-
Delete employee record whose job equals to job of SMITH ?
SQL>DELETE FROM emp
WHERE job= (SELECT job FROM emp WHERE

ename=’SMITH’);
Multi Row Subqueries:-
if inner query returns more than one row then it is called multi row subquery.
Syntax :-
SQL>SELECT <collist> FROM <tabname>

WHERE colname OP (SELECT statement) ;
OP must be IN , NOT IN, ANY, ALL

Example :-
Displaye employee records whose job equals to job of SMITH or job of BLAKE ?

WHERE job IN (SELECT job FROM emp WHERE ename IN (‘SMITH’,’BLAKE’));
Displaye employee records who are earning minimum and maximum salaries ?
SQL>SELECT * FROM emp WHERE sal IN (SELECT MIN(sal) FROM emp

UNION
SELECT MAX(sal) FROM emp);
Display 4th,7th,11th record in EMP table ?

WHERE ROWID IN (SELECT DECODE(ROWNUM,4,ROWID,
7,ROWID,
11,ROWID)
FROM emp);
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ANY operator:-
Compares a value to each value in a list or returned by a query. Must be preceded by =, !=, >, <, <=, >=.
Evaluates to FALSE if the query returns no rows.
Example:-
Select employees whose salary is greater than any salesman’s salary ?

WHERE SAL > ANY ( SELECT sal FROM emp WHERE job = 'SALESMAN');
ALL operator :-
Compares a value to every value in a list or returned by a query. Must be preceded by =, !=, >, <, <=, >=.
evaluates to TRUE if the query returns no rows.
Example:-
Select employees whose salary is greater than every salesman’s salary ?

WHERE SAL > ALL ( SELECT sal FROM emp WHERE job = 'SALESMAN');
Nested Queries:-
→A subquery embedded in another subquery is called NESTED QUERY.
→Queries can be nested upto 255 level.
Example :-
Display employee name earning second maximum salary ?
WHERE sal = (SELECT MAX(sal) FROM EMP
WHERE sal < (SELECT MAX(sal) FROM emp)) ;
Update the employee salary to maximum salary of SALES dept ?

SQL>UPDATE emp
SET sal = (SELECT MAX(sal) FROM emp
WHERE deptno = (SELECT deptno FROM dept
WHERE dname=’SALES’)) ;
Multi Column Subqueries:-
If inner query returns more than one column value then it is called MULTI COLUMN subquery.
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Example :-
Display employee names earning maximum salaries in their dept ?

WHERE (deptno,sal) IN (SELECT deptno,MAX(sal)
FROM emp
GROUP BY deptno) ;
Co-related Subqueries:-
If a subquery references one or more columns of parent query is called CO-RELATED subquery because it is
related to outer query. This subquery executes once for each and every row of main query.
Example :-
→Display employee names earning more than avg(sal) of their dept ?
SQL>SELECT ename FROM emp x

WHERE sal > (SELECT AVG(sal) FROM emp
WHERE deptno=x.deptno);
→Display employee names earning more than their manager ?

SQL>SELECT ename FROM emp x
WHERE sal > (SELECT sal FROM emp
WHERE empno=x.mgr);
→Delete duplicate records in a table ?
SQL>DELETE FROM emp X
WHERE ROWID > (SELECT MIN(ROWID) FROM emp
WHERE empno=x.empno
AND
ename=x.ename
AND
sal=x.sal) ;
Display top 3 maximum salaries in emp table ?
SQL>SELECT DISTINCT sal FROM emp a
WHERE 3 > (SELECT COUNT(DISTINCT sal)
FROM emp b
WHERE a.sal < b.sal) ;
Using EXISTS operator :-

→EXISTS operator returns TRUE or FALSE.
→If inner query returns at least one record then EXISTS returns TRUE otherwise returns FALSE.
→ORACLE recommends EXISTS and NOT EXISTS operators instead of IN and NOT IN.
Display dept which not empty ?
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SQL>SELECT * FROM dept d

WHERE EXISTS (SELECT * FROM emp WHERE deptno =d.deptno) ;
Display dept which is empty ?
SQL>SELECT * FROM dept d

WHERE NOT EXISTS (SELECT * FROM emp
WHERE deptno = d.deptno);
In-line Views :-
The inline view is a construct in Oracle SQL Where you can place a query in the SQL FROM clause, just as if
the query was a tablename. A common use of in-line views is to simplify complex queries by removing join
operations and converting separate queries into single query.
Using in-line views :-
→Column alias can be used in WHERE clause.
→ Window functions can be used in WHERE clause.
→Result of one process can be used in another process.
Syntax :-
SELECT <collist> FROM (SELECT statement) <alias> ;
The result of inner query acts as TABLE for outer query.
Example :-
Display top 3 maximum salaries in EMP table ?
SQL>SELECT sal FROM

(SELECT DISTINCT sal FROM emp ORDER BY sal DESC)
WHERE ROWNUM <=3 ;
Using DENSE_RANK function :-
SQL>SELECT DISTINCT sal FROM

(SELECT sal,
DENSE_RANK() OVER (ORDER BY sal DESC) AS RNK
FROM emp)
WHERE RNK<=3 ;
Display records N thru M from table. the general form of this is as follows ?
SQL>SELECT * FROM
(SELECT a.*, ROWNUM rn
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FROM (enter your query here) a

WHERE ROWNUM <= :MAX_ROW)
WHERE rn >= :MIN_ROW;
SQL>SELECT * FROM
(SELECT a.*, ROWNUM rn FROM
(SELECT * FROM emp) a
WHERE ROWNUM <= 6)
WHERE rn >= 2;
The above query display records from 2 to 5;
Display department wise maximum salaries , in report show department names ?
SQL>SELECT d.dname,e.maxsal
FROM dept d , (SELECT deptno,MAX(sal) maxsal FROM emp
GROUP BY deptno) e
WHERE e.deptno = d.deptno ;
Subqueries follows SELECT clause:-
Subqueries can also follow SELECT clause. These subqueries returns one value per row.
Syntax :-
SELECT (SELCT statement) ,---- FROM <tabname> ;
Example :-
Display no of records in EMP and DEPT table ?
SQL>SELECT (SELECT COUNT(*) FROM emp) AS EMP ,

(SELECT COUNT(*) FROM dept) AS DEPT
FROM DUAL;
EMP DEPT
14 4
Display ename,sal,deptno,dept_totsal as follows ?
ENAME SAL DEPTNO DEPT_TOTSAL
SMITH 800 20 9400
SQL>SELECT ename,sal,deptno,(SELECT SUM(sal) FROM emp

WHERE deptno=x.deptno) AS dept_totsal
FROM emp x ;
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ORACLE 12c
Database Transactions
A database transaction is a group of SQL statements that perform a logical unit of work. Whose results
should be made permanent in the database as a whole or undone as a whole .
An example of a database transaction is a transfer of money from one bank account to another. One
UPDATE statement would subtract from the total amount of money from one account, and another
UPDATE would add money to the other account. Both the subtraction and the addition must be
permanently recorded in the database, otherwise, money will be lost. If there is a problem with the money
transfer, then the subtraction and addition must both be undone.
Starting and Ending a Transaction:

A transaction has a beginning and an end.
Transaction begins when one of the following events occurs:

→You connect to the database and perform a DML statement (an INSERT,UPDATE, OR DELETE).
→A previous transaction ends and you enter another DML statement.
A Transaction ends when one of the following events occurs:-

→You perform a COMMIT or a ROLLBACK.
→You perform a DDL statement then transaction ends with COMMIT.
→You perform a DCL statement, in which case a COMMIT is automatically performed.
→You disconnect from the database. If you exist SQL*Plus normally, by entering the EXIT command, a
COMMIT is automatically performed for you. If SQL*Plus terminates abnormally- for example, if the
computer on which SQL*Plus was running were to crash- a ROLLBACK is automatically performed.
→You perform a DML statement that fails, in which case a ROLLBACK is automatically performed for that
individual DML statement.
Example :-
SQL>INSERT transaction starts
SQL>UPDATE
SQL>COMMIT ; transaction ends;
If transaction ends with COMMIT then it is called successful transaction and the operations are made
permanent.
SQL>INSERT; transaction starts

SQL>UPDATE;
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ORACLE 12c
SQL>ROLLBACK; transaction ends
If transaction ends with ROLLBACK then it is called aborted transaction and operations are undone.
Savepoints:
You can also set a savepoint at any point with in a transaction. These allow you to roll back changes that
savepoint. Savepoints can be useful to break up very long transactions, because, if you make a mistake
after you’ve set a savepoint, you don’t have to roll back the transaction all the way to the start.
Scenario:-
SQL>SELECT product_id, price

FROM products
WHERE product_id IN (4, 5);
PRODUCT_ID PRICE
4 13.95
5 49.99
The price for product #4 is $13.95, and the price for product #5 is $49.99.
The following UPDATE increases the price of product #4 by 20 percent:
SQL>UPDATE products
SET price = price *1.20
WHERE product_id =4;
1 row updated.
The following statement sets a savepoint named save1:
SQL>SAVEPOINT save1;
Savepoint created.
Any DML statements run after this point can be rolled back to the savepoint, and the change made to
product #4 will be kept.
The following UPDATE increases the price of product #5 by 30 percent:
SQL>UPDATE products
SET price = price *1.30
WHERE product_id = 5;
1 row updated.
SQL>ROLLBACK TO save1;
Rollback complete.
This has undone the price change for product #5, but left the price change for product #4 intact.
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ORACLE 12c
Every transaction has to support following four properties called ACID properties.
Database Security
Creating a user/schema/account in oracle DB :-
To create a user in the database, you use the CREATE USER statement. The simplified syntax for the
CREATE USER statement is as follows:
Syntax :-
CREATE USER user_name IDENTIFIED BY password

[DEFAULT TABLESPACE default_tablespace]
[TEMPORARY TABLESPACE temporary_tablespace];
The following example creates a user called VIJAY with password ORACLE
SQL>CONNECT system/manager
SQL>CREATE USER VIJAY IDENTIFIED BY ORACLE;
The next example creates a user named VIJAY and specifies a default and temporary tablespace:
SQL>CREATE USER VIJAY IDENTIFIED BY Oracle

DEFAULT TABLESPACE users
TEMPORARY TABLESPACE temp;
To do operations over db the user must be granted with permissions
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ORACLE 12c
SQL>GRANT CONNECT,RESOURCE TO VIJAY;
CONNECT-→TO CONNECT TO DB (CREATE SESSION)

TO CREATE BASIC OBJECTS
RESOURCE → TO CREATE OTHER OBJECTS
Changing a User’s Password:-

You can change a user’s password using the ALTER USER statement. For example, the following statement
changes the password for oracle to oracle11g.
SQL>ALTER USER VIJAY IDENTIFIED BY ORACLE11G;
Droping user account :-
SQL>DROP USER VIJAY;
Privileges :-
Privileges means permissions
Privileges are two types
1 System privileges
2 Object privileges
System Privileges:-
A system privilege allows a user to perform certain actions within the database, such as executing DDL
statements. For example, CREATE TABLE allows a user to create a table in their schema. Some of the
commonly used system privileges are shown in the table:
Granting System Privileges to a user:-
You use GRANT to grant system privilege to a user. The following example grants some system privilege to
vijay (assuming you’re still connected to the database as system):
Example :-
SQL>GRANT CREATE SESSION, CREATE USER, CREATE TABLE TO VIJAY ;
Some of the system privileges are given below :-
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SYSTEM PRIVILEGE ALLOWS YOU TO……
CREATE SESSION Connect to database.

CREATE SEQUENCE Create a sequence
CREATE SYNONYM Create a synonym.
CREATE TABLE Create a table in the user’s schema.
CREATE ANY TABLE Create a table in any schema.
DROP TABLE Drop a table from the user’s schema.
DROP ANY TABLE Drop a table from any schema.
CREATE PROCEDURE Create a stored procedure.
EXECUTE ANY PROCEDURE Execute a procedure in any schema
CREATE USER Create a user.
DROP USER Drop a user.
CREATE VIEW Create a view.
You can also use WITH ADMIN OPTION to allow a user to grant a privilege to another user. The following
example grants the EXECUTE ANY PROCEDURE privilege with the ADMIN option to VIJAY.
SQL>GRANT EXECUTE ANY PROCEDURE TO VIJAY WITH ADMIN OPTION
EXECUTE ANY PROCEDURE can then be granted to another user by VIJAY. The following example connects
as VIJAY and grants EXECUTE ANY PROCEDURE to KUMAR
SQL>CONNECT VIJAY/oracle11g
SQL>GRANT EXECUTE ANY PROCEDURE TO KUMAR;
You can grant a privilege to all users by granting to PUBLIC.
SQL>GRANT EXECUTE ANY PROCEDURE TO PUBLIC;
Every user in the database now has the EXECUTE ANY PROCEDURE privilege.
Checking System Privilege Granted to a User:-
You can check which system privileges a user has , by querying USER_SYS_PRIVS
Revoking System Privileges from a User:-
You revoke system privileges from a user using REVOKE. The following example connects as system and
revokes the CREATE TABLE privilege from VIJAY.
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ORACLE 12c
SQL>REVOKE CREATE TABLE FROM VIJAY;
The next example revokes EXECUTE ANY PROCEDURE from VIJAY
SQL>REVOKE EXECUTE ANY PROCEDURE FROM VIJAY;
Object Privileges:-
An object privilege allows a user to perform certain actions on database objects, such as executing DML
statements on tables. some of the commonly used objects privileges are shown in the table:
Object Privilege Allows a user to…….
SELECT Performs a select.

INSERT Perform an insert.
UPDATE Perform an update.
DELETE Perform a delete.
EXECUTE execute procedure
Granting Object Privileges to a User:-

You use GRANT to grant an object privilege to a user. The following example connects as SCOTT and grants
the SELECT, INSERT, and UPDATE object privilege on the products table to VIJAY with the SELECT privilege
on the employees table:
SQL>CONNECT SCOTT/TIGER;
SQL>GRANT SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE ON PRODUCTS TO VIJAY;
SQL>GRANT SELECT ON EMPLOYEES TO VIJAY;
The next example grants the UPDATE privilege on the last_name and salary columns to VIJAY
SQL>GRANT UPDATE (last_name, salary) ON EMPLOYEES TO VIJAY;
You can also use the GRANT option to enable a user to grant a privilege to another user. The following
example grants the SELECT privilege on the customers table with the GRANT option to VIJAY
SQL>GRANT SELECT ON customers TO VIJAY WITH GRANT OPTOIN;
The SELECT ON customers privilege can then be granted to another user by VIJAY. The following example
connects as VIJAY and grants this privilege to RAJU.
SQL>CONNECT vijay/oracle11g ;
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SQL>GRANT SELECT ON customers TO RAJU.
Checking Object Privileges Made:-
You can check which table object privileges a user has made to other users by querying
USER_TAB_PRIVS_MADE
Checking Object Privileges Retrieved:-
You can check which object privileges on a table a user has retrieved by querying the
USER_TAB_PRIVS_RECD table.
Revoking Object Privileges:-
You revoke object privileges using REVOKE. The following example connects as SCOTT and revokes the
INSERT privilege on the products table from VIJAY.
SQL>CONNECT SCOTT/TIGER;
SQL>REVOKE INSERT ON products FROM VIJAY;
The next example revokes the SELECT privilege on the customers table from VIJAY
SQL>REVOKE SELECT ON customers FROM VIJAY;
When you revoke SELECT ON customers from VIJAY who has already passed this privilege to RAJUl also
loses the privilege.
Roles:-
→A role is a group of privileges that you can assign to a user or to another role. The following points
summarize the benefits and features of roles:
→Rather than assigning privileges one at a time directly to a user, you can create a role, assign privileges to
that role, and then grant that role to multiple users and roles.
→When you add or delete a privilege from a role, all users and roles assigned that role automatically
receive or lose that privilege.
→You can assign multiple roles to a user or role.
→You can assign a password to a role.
→As you can see from these points, roles can help you manage multiple privileges assigned to multiple
users.
SQL>CREATE ROLE TO SCOTT;
SQL>GRANT CREATE USER TO SCOTT WITH ADMIN OPTION;
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You create a role using the CREATE ROLE statement. The following statements connects as store and create
the three roles shown in table:
SQL>CONNECT scott/tiger
SQL>CREATE ROLE product_manager;
SQL>CREATE ROLE hr_manager;
SQL>CREATE ROLE overall_manager IDENTIFIED by manager_password;
Notice overall_manager has a password of manager_password.
Role Name Has Permissions to…..
Product_manager Perform SELECT, INSERT,UPDATE,

and DELETE operations on the
product_types and products tables.
hr_manager perform SELECT,INSERT,UPDATE,

and DELETE operations on the
salary_grades and employees
tables. Also, hr_manager is able to
create users.
overall_manager perform SELECT, INSERT,UPDATE,

and DELETE operations on all the
tables shown in the previous roles;
overall_manager will be granted
the previous roles.
Granting Privileges To Roles:-
You grant privileges to a role using the GRANT statement. You can grant both system and object privileges
to a role as well as grant another role to role.
The following example grants the required privileges to the product_manager and hr_manager roles and
grants these two roles to overall_manager:
SQL>GRANT SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE ON product_types TO product_manager;
SQL>GRANT SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE ON products TO product_manager;
SQL>GRANT SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE ON salary_grades TO hr_manager;
SQL>GRANT SELECT, INSETR, UPDATE, DELETE ON employees TO hr_manager;
SQL>GRANT CREATE USER TO hr_manager;
SQL>GRANT product_manager, hr_manager TO overall_manager;
Granting Roles to a User:-
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You grant a role to the user using GRANT. The following example grants the overall_manager role to VIJAY.
SQL>GRANT overall_manager TO VIJAY ;
Checking Roles Granted to a User:-
you can check which roles have been granted to a user querying USER_ROLE_PRIVS.
SQL>CONNECT VIJAY/ORACLE11G ;
SQL>SELECT * FROM user_role_privs;
Checking System Privileges Granted to a Role:-
You can check which system privileges have been granted to a role by querying ROLE_SYS_PRIVS.
SQL> SELECT * FROM role_sys_privs ;
Checking Object privileges Granted to a Role:-
You can check which object privileges have been granted to a role by querying ROLE_TAB_PRIVS
The following example queries role_tab_privs where rolE equals HR_MANAGER:
SQL>SELECT *FROM role_tab_privs

WHERE role= ‘HR_MANAGER’
ORDER BY table_name;
Revoking a Role:-
You revoke a role using REVOKE. The following example revokes the overall_manager role from VIJAY
SQL>REVOKE overall_manager FROM VIJAY;
Revoking Privileges from a Role:-
You revoke a privilege from a role using REVOKE.
SQL>REVOKE ALL ON products FROM product_manager;
SQL>REVOKE ALL ON product_types FROM product_manager;
Dropping a Role:-
You drop a role using DROP ROLE.
SQL>DROP ROLE overall_manager;
SQL>DROP ROLE product_manager;
SQL>DROP ROLE hr_manager;
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Schema Objects
➔ TABLES
➔ SEQUENCES
➔ VIEWS
➔ MATERIALIZED VIEWS
➔ SYNONYMS
➔ TYPES
➔ INDEXES
➔ CLUSTERS
➔ PROCEDURES
➔ FUNCTIONS
➔ PACKAGE
➔ DB TRIGGER
SEQUENCE
→A SEQUENCE is a schema object that can generate unique sequential values.
→The SEQUENCE Values are often used for PRIMARY KEY’S and UNIQUE KEY’S.
CREATING SEQUENCES:-
Syntax:-
CREATE SEQUENCE sequenceName
[INCREMENT BY n]
[START WITH n]
[MAXVALUE n|NOMAXVALUE]
[MINVALUE n|NOMINVALUE]
[CYCLE |NOCYCLE]
[CACHE n|NOCACHE]
ORDER/NORDER;
Increment By :-
→Specifies the interval between the Sequence Numbers.
→Value can be Positive or Negative, but can not be 0.
→If the value is positive it is Incremental Sequence else it Decremental Sequence.
Minvalue:-
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Specifies the sequence’s Minimum Value.
NoMinvalue
Specifies a minimum value of 1 for an ascending sequence and –(10)^26) for a descending sequence.
Maxvalue:-
Specifies the maximum value that sequence can generate.
NoMaxvalue:-
Specifies a maximum value of 10^27 for an ascending sequence and -1 for a descending sequence.
Start With:-
→Specifies the first sequence number to be generated.
→For ascending sequence the default value is SEQUENCES’S MINIMUM value.
Cycle:-
Specifies whether the sequence contains to generate values after reaching its maximum or minimum
value.
NoCycle:-
Specifies the SEQUENCE cannot general more values after the targeted limit.
Cache:-
Specifies how many values the Oracle Server Preallocates and keep in memory.
NoCache:-
Specifies the values of a SEQUENCE are not preallocated.
If the above parameters are not specified by default 20 values are cached.
Order:-
Gurantee the sequence numbers to be generated in the order of request.
NoOrder:-
→Does not guranteee the sequence Number to be generated in order.
If the above parameters are not specified by default
START WITH Will be 1.

INCREMENT BY Will be positive 1.
SEQUENCE is NOCYCLE.
The CACHE Value Will be 20
SEQUENCE is ORDER.
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Test Table:-
SQL>CREATE TABLE customer

(cid NUMBER(2) constraint pk_customer PRIMARY KEY,
Cname VARCHAR2(20) ,
Address VARCHAR2(20));
Creation of Incremental Sequence :-
SQL>CREATE SEQUENCE SEQ1

MINVALUE 1
INCREMENT BY 1
MAXVALUE 9999
NOCACHE
NOCYCLE;
USING SEQUENCE GENERATE VALUE :-

Every sequence has two psuedo columns
1 CURRVAL
2 NEXTVAL
→CURRVAL returns current value of the sequence .
→NEXTVAL returns next value of the sequence.
Both values are accessed by using sequence name as follows
SEQ1.CURRVAL
SEQ1.NEXTVAL
Example :-
SQL>INSERT INTO customers
VALUES(SEQ1.Nextval,’sachin’,’mumbai’);
Creating A Sequence with CYCLE:-

INCREMENT BY 10
START WITH 10
MINVALUE 0
MAXVALUE 9999
NOCACHE
CYCLE;
Creation of Decremental Sequence:-

INCREMENT BY-1
START WITH 10
MINVALUE 0
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MAXVALUE 10
NOCACHE
NOCYCLE;
Modifying a Sequence:-
→The ALTER command can be used to change the present status of a SEQUENCE.
→The ALTER SEQUENCE command can be used to change
Increment Value
Maximum Value
Minimum Value
Cycle Option
Cache Option
Syntax:-
ALTER SEQUENCE sequence

[INCREMENT BY n]
[{MAXVALUE n| NOMAXVALUE}]
[{MINVALUE n| NOMINVALUE}]
[{CYCLE | NOCYCLE}]
[{CACHE n |NOCACHE}];
Example :-
SQL>ALTER SEQUENCE SEQ1 MAXVALUE 500
Guidelines for Modifying a Sequence:-
→You must be the owner or have the ALTER privilege for the sequence modify it.
→Only future sequence numbers are affected by the ALTER SEQUENCE statement.
→The START WITH option cannot be changed using ALTER SEQUENCE.
→The sequence must be dropped and re-created in order to restart the sequence at a different number.
Viewing the Current value of a Sequence:-
SQL>Select SEQ1.Currval from Dual;
Removing a Sequence:-
SQL>DROP SEQUENCE SEQ1 ;
Retrieving SEQUENCE information :-
USER_SEQUENCE
ALL_SEQUENCES
DBA_SEQUENCES
The setting of the SEQUENCE can be confirmed by selecting on USER_SEQUENCES catalog.
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SQL>SELECT sequence_name,min_value,max_value,increment_by,last_number
FROM user_Sequences
WHERE sequence_Name= ‘SEQ1’;
OCA question :-
1 Which two statements are true about sequences created in a single instance database? (Choose
two.)
A. The numbers generated by a sequence can be used only for one table.
B. DELETE <sequencename> would remove a sequence from the database.
C. CURRVAL is used to refer to the last sequence number that has been generated.
D. When the MAXVALUE limit for a sequence is reached, you can increase the MAXVALUE limit by using
the ALTER SEQUENCE statement.
E. When a database instance shuts down abnormally, the sequence numbers that have been cached
but not used would be available once again when the database instance is restarted.
2 SQL>CREATE TABLE ord_items

(ord_no NUMBER(4) DEFAULT ord_seq.NEXTVAL NOT NULL,
item_no NUMBER(3), qty NUMBER(3) CHECK (qty BETWEEN 100 AND 200),
expiry_date date CHECK (expiry_date > SYSDATE),
CONSTRAINT it_pk PRIMARY KEY (ord_no,item_no),
CONSTRAINT ord_fk FOREIGN KEY(ord_no) REFERENCES orders(ord_no));
The command to create a table fails. Identify the reason for the SQL statement failure? (Choose all that
apply.)
A. You cannot use SYSDATE in the condition of a CHECK constraint.

B. You cannot use the BETWEEN clause in the condition of a CHECK constraint.
C. You cannot use the NEXTVAL sequence value as a DEFAULT value for a column.
D. You cannot use ORD_NO and ITEM_NO columns as a composite primary key because ORD_NO
is also the FOREIGN KEY.
3 Evaluate the following CREATE SEQUENCE statement:
CREATE SEQUENCE seq1
START WITH 100
INCREMENT BY 10
MAXVALUE 200
CYCLE
NOCACHE;
The SEQ1 sequence has generated numbers up to the maximum limit of 200. You issue the following
SQL stmt :-
SELECT seq1.nextval FROM dual;
What is displayed by the SELECT statement?
A. 1
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B. 10
C. 100
D. an error
VIEWS
Data abstraction is usually required after a table is created and populated with data. Data held by some
tables might require restricted access to prevent all users from accessing all columns of a table, for data
security reasons. Such a security issue can be solved by creating several tables with appropriate columns
and assigning specific users to each such table, as required. This answers data security requirements very
well but gives rise to a great deal of redundant data being resident in tables, in the database.To reduce
redundant data to the minimum possible, Oracle provides Virtual tables which are Views.
View Definition :-
→A View is a virtual table based on the result returned by a SELECT query.
→The most basic purpose of a view is restricting access to specific column/rows from a table thus allowing
different users to see only certain rows or columns of a table.
Composition Of View:-
→A view is composed of rows and columns, very similar to table. The fields in a view are fields from one or
more database tables in the database.
→SQL functions, WHERE clauses and JOIN statements can be applied to a view in the same manner as they
are applied to a table.
View storage:-
→Oracle does not store the view data. It recreates the data, using the view’s SELECT statement, every time
a user queries a view.
→A view is stored only as a definition in Oracle’s system catalog.
→When a reference is made to a view, its definition is scanned, the base table is opened and the view is
created on top of the base table.This, therefore, means that a view never holds data, until a specific call to
the view is made. This reduces redundant data on the HDD to a very large extent.
Advantages Of View:-
Security:- Each user can be given permission to access only a set of views that contain specific data.
Query simplicity:- A view can drawn from several different tables and present it as a single table turning
multiple table queries into single table queries against the view.
Data Integrity:- If data is accessed and entered through a view, the DBMS can automatically check the data
to ensure that it meets specified integrity constraints.
Disadvantage of View:-
Performance:- Views only create the appearance of the table but the RDBMS must still translate queries
against the views into the queries against the underlined source tables. If the view is defined on a complex
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multiple table query then even a simple query against the view becomes a complicated join and takes a
long time to execute.
Types of Views :-
➢ Simple Views
➢ Complex Views
Simple Views :-
a View based on single table is called simple view.
Syntax:-
CREATE VIEW <View Name>
AS
SELECT<ColumnName1>,<ColumnName2>
FROM <TableName>
[WHERE <COND>]
[WITH CHECK OPTION]
[WITH READ ONLY]
Example :-
SQL>CREATE VIEW emp_v

AS
SELECT empno,ename,sal FROM emp ;
→Views can also be used for manipulating the data that is available in the base tables[i.e. the user can
perform the Insert, Update and Delete operations through view.
→Views on which data manipulation can be done are called Updateable Views.
→If an Insert, Update or Delete SQL statement is fired on a view, modifications to data in the view are
passed to the underlying base table.
→For a view to be updatable,it should meet the following criteria:
→Views defined from Single table.
→If the user wants to INSERT records with the help of a view, then the PRIMARY KEY column(s) and all
the NOT NULL columns must be included in the view.
Inserting record through view :-
SQL>INSERT INTO emp_v VALUES(1,’A’,5000,200) ;
Updating record throught view :-
SQL>UPDATE emp_v SET sal=2000 WHERE empno=1;

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Deleting record throught view :-
SQL>DELETE FROM emp_v WHERE empno=1;
With Check Option :-
If VIEW created with WITH CHECK OPTION then any DML operation through that view violates where
condition then that DML operation returns error.
Example :-
SQL>CREATE VIEW V2
AS
SELECT empno,ename,sal,deptno FROM emp
WHERE deptno=10
WITH CHECK OPTION ;
Then insert the record into emp table through view V2

SQL>INSERT INTO V2 VALUES(2323,’RAJU’,4000,20) ;
The above INSERT returns error because DML operation violating WHERE clause.
Complex Views :-
A view is said to complex view
→If it based on more than one table
→Query contains
AGGREGATE functions
DISTINCT clause
GROUP BY clause
HAVING clause
Sub-queries
Constants
Strings or Values Expressions
UNION,INTERSECT,MINUS operators.
Example 1 :-
SQL>CREATE VIEW V3
AS
SELECT E.empno,E.ename,E.sal,D.dname,D.loc
FROM emp E JOIN dept D
USING(deptno) ;
Complex views are not updatable i.e. we cannot perform insert or update or delete operations on base
table through complex views.
Example 2 :-
SQL>CREATE VIEW V2
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AS
SELECT deptno,SUM(sal) AS sumsal
FROM EMP
GROUP BY deptno;
Destroying a View:-
The DROP VIEW command is used to destroy a view from the database.
Syntax:-
DROP VIEW<viewName>
Example :-
SQL>DROP VIEW emp_v;
Querying VIEWS information :-
USER_VIEWS
ALL_VIEWS
DBA_VIEWS
Synonyms
A synonym is another name or alternative name for a table.
Synonyms are created
➔ If tablename if lengthy.
➔ To provide local transparency for remote objects.
Syntax:-
CREATE SYNONYM <NAME> FOR <TABLENAME>;
Example :-
SQL>CREATE SYNONYM EMP FOR EMPLOYEE_INFORMATION;
After creating synonym , now EMPLOYEE_INFORMATION table can be accessed by using name
EMP. For Example
SQL>SELECT * FROM emp;
NOTE:- difference between synonym and table alias is , the scope of the table alias is upto that query only
but synonym can be used any query.
VIEWS vs SYNONYMS:-
VIEWS SYNONYMS
Subset of a table mirror of a table
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Can be based on more than one table based on only one table
Public Synonyms:-
You can also create a public synonym for a table. When you do this , all users can see the synonym.
SQL>GRANT CREATE PUBLIC SYNONYM TO scott;
SQL>CONNECT scott/tiger
SQL>CREATE PUBLIC SYNONYM products FOR SCOTT.products;
If you connect as vijay, who has the SELECT privilege on SCOTT.products, you can now retrieve rows from
SCOTT.products through the products public synonym:
SQL>CONNECT vijay/vijay;
SQL>SELECT * FROM products;
Retrieving Synonyms Information :-
USER_SYNONYMS , ALL_SYNONYMS , DBA_SYNONYMS
OCA question :-
1 The ORDERS table belongs to the user OE. OE has granted the SELECT privilege on the ORDERS table to the
user HR. Which statement would create a synonym ORD so that HR can execute the following query successfully?
SELECT * FROM ord;
A. CREATE SYNONYM ord FOR orders; This command is issued by OE.

B. CREATE PUBLIC SYNONYM ord FOR orders; This command is issued by OE.
C. CREATE SYNONYM ord FOR oe.orders; This command is issued by the database administrator.
D. CREATE PUBLIC SYNONYM ord FOR oe.orders; This command is issued by the database administrator.
2 Which statement is true regarding synonyms?
A. Synonyms can be created only for a table.

B. Synonyms are used to reference only those tables that are owned by another user.
C. A public synonym and a private synonym can exist with the same name for the same table.
D. The DROP SYNONYM statement removes the synonym, and the table on which the synonym has been created
becomes invalid.
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Indexes
When looking for a particular topic in a book, you either scan the whole book, or you can use the index to
find the location. An index for a database table is similar in concept to a book index, except that database
indexes are used to find specific rows in a table.
Oracle server uses following methods to locate the desired information
• Table Scan
• Index Scan
Table Scan :-
In table scan oracle scans the entire table to locate the desired information.
Index Scan :-
In index scan oracle uses index to locate the place that holds the required data and then jumps to that
place to get required data. This is much faster than table scan.
How Does Indexing Work :-
• When an index is created on a table, oracle internally forms a two dimensional matrix that contains
Data extracted from the column on which index is created and Physical Address of the record
(rowid) .
• When an SQL query that has a WHERE clause based on the column on which index is fired , oracle
finds the value in index and locates the record in the table using ROWID .
TYPES OF INDEXES :-
➔ B-tree Indexes
• Simple Index
• Composite Index
• Unique Index
• Function based Index
➔ Bitmap Indexes
B-TREE INDEXES :-
When to use BTREE Indexes:-
1 if table contains huge amount of data

2 when a query retrieves <=10 percent of the total rows in a table.
3 if column for the index contains a wide range of values.
4 A good candidate for B-tree indexing would be a column containing a unique value for each row
5 on the common columns that used in JOIN operation.
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Simple B-tree Index:-
If index is created on single column then it is called simple index.
Syntax:-
CREATE [UNIQUE] INDEX index_name ON table_ name (column_name )
SQL> CREATE INDEX I1 ON EMP(sal)
When ORACLE Iinvokes Index:-
→A SELECT query with a WHERE clause spceicifed on column on which index is created
Example :-SQL>SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE sal > 2000 ;
→A SELECT query with ORDER BY clause specified on column on which index is created
When ORACLE doesn’t Invoke Index:-
→ SELECT query is fired without a WHERE clause
Example :- SQL>SELECT * FROM EMP ;
→ SELECT query is fired with WHERE clause specified on the column on which index is not defined
Example:- SQL>SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE ename=’SMITH’;
→ SELECT query is fired with ORDER BY clause specified on the column on which index is not defined.
→ SELECT query is fired with a WHERE clause with a != condition.
Example:- SQL>SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE sal <> 5000 ;
→SELECT query is fired with IS NULL or IS NOT NULL operators
Composite Index :-
If an index is created on multiple columns then it is called composite index.
Example :-
SQL>CREATE INDEX I2 ON EMP(deptno,job) ;
Oracle server uses above index when SELECT query with WHERE clause is based on leading column of
index is fired.
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Example :-
SQL>SELECT *FROM EMP WHERE DEPTNO=10 ; (index scan)
SQL>SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE DEPTNO=10 AND JOB=’CLERK’; (index scan)
SQL>SELECT * FROM EMP WHERE JOB=’CLERK’; (table scan)
Unique Index :-
UNIQUE index doesn’t allow duplicate values into the column on which INDEX is created.
Example :-
SQL> CREATE UNIQUE INDEX I3 ON DEPT(dname);
NOTE:-
PRIMARY KEY columns and UNIQUE columns are automatically indexed by ORACLE.
Function Based Index :-
There are times when even though an index exists, oracle doesn’t use it and instead follows table scan.
This is usually happens when index created on a column, but the SQL query reference that column with a
function or arithmetic expression.
For example , an index is created on the City column of the Customers table and the following query is
fired to retrieve all those row who belong to MUMBAI.
SQL> SELECT * FROM CUSTOMER WHERE UPPER(city)=’MUMBAI’;
Above query reference the City column along with UPPER function and hence oracle doesn’t use the index.
To overcome such issue, oracle provides function based index
SQL>CREATE INDEX I4 ON CUSTOMER (UPPER(CITY));
In addition, the database administrator must set the initialization parameter QUERY_REWRITE_ENABLED to
true (the default is false) in order to take advantage of function – based indexes.
The following query example sets QUERY_REWRITE_ENABLED to true:
SQL>ALTER SYSTEM SET QUERY_REWRITE_ENABLED=TRUE;
Reverse Index:-
In the index leaf block , Oracle stores the index key value and ROWID.
Assume that there is an unique index on custid , suppose 3 individuals concurrently hit the database to
insert rows with customer numbers 101,102,103 then index entries are stored in same leaft block , which
causes buffer busy waits.
If the index is reverse unique index then the entries will be stored in different leaft block
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Example :-
SQL>CREATE INDEX I7 ON CUSTOMER(CUSTID) REVERSE ;
NOTE :-
A normal index cannot be rebuild as a reverse key index.
BITMAP INDEXES :-
➔ Bitmap indexes are typically used in Data Warehouse.

➔ Bitmap indexes are created on low cardinality columns.
➔ Bitmap indexes are useful when data is not modified by concurrent transactions.
➔ Bitmap is used for each key value, the bitmap enables the database to locate a row.
➔ A mapping function converts bitmaps to rowids
Example :-
SQL> CREATE BITMAP INDEX BI6 ON EMP(JOB);
Modifying an Index:-
ALTER command is used to Modify an INDEX.
Example :-
SQL>ALTER INDEX I1 RENAME TO I10;
DROPPING INDEX :-
SYNTAX :-
SQL>DROP INDEX <NAME> ;
Example:-
SQL>DROP INDEX I1;
Retrieving index information :-
USER_INDEXES
USER_IND_COLUMNS
ALL_INDEXES
DBA_INDEXES
OCA question :-
Which statements are correct regarding indexes? (Choose all that apply.)
A. When a table is dropped, the corresponding indexes are automatically dropped.

B. A FOREIGN KEY constraint on a column in a table automatically creates a nonunique index.
C. A nondeferrable PRIMARY KEY or UNIQUE KEY constraint in a table automatically creates a unique index.
D. For each data manipulation language (DML) operation performed, the corresponding indexes are
automatically updated.
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Clusters
A cluster is a data structure that improves retrieval performance. A cluster, like an index, does not affect
the logical view of the table. A cluster is a way of storing related data values together on disk. Oracle reads
data a block at a time, so storing related values together reduces the number of I/O operations needed to
retrieve related values, since a single data block will contain only related rows.
A cluster is composed of one or more tables. The cluster includes a cluster index, which stores all the
values for the corresponding cluster key. Each value in the cluster index points to a data block that contains
only rows with the same value for the cluster key.
If a cluster contains multiple tables, the tables should be joined together and the cluster index should
contain the values that form the basis of the join. Because the value of the cluster key controls the
placement of the rows that relate to the key, changing a value in that key can cause Oracle to change the
location of rows associated with that key value.
Clusters may not be appropriate for tables that regularly require full table scans, in which a query requires
the Oracle database to iterate through all the rows of the table. Because you access a cluster table through
the cluster index, which then points to a data block, full table scans on clustered tables can actually require
more I/O operations, lowering overall performance.
Creating a Cluster: Example
The following statement creates a cluster named personnel with the cluster key column department, a
cluster size of 512 bytes, and storage parameter values:
SQL>CREATE CLUSTER personnel

(department NUMBER(4))
SIZE 512
STORAGE (initial 100K next 50K);
Cluster Keys: Example
The following statement creates the cluster index on the cluster key of personnel:
SQL>CREATE INDEX idx_personnel ON CLUSTER personnel;
After creating the cluster index, you can add tables to the index and perform DML operations on those
tables.
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Adding Tables to a Cluster: Example
The following statements create some tables and add them to the personnel cluster created in the earlier
example:

dname VARCHAR2(20),
loc VARCHAR2(20))
CLUSTER personnel (deptno);

(empno NUMBER(4),
ename VARCHAR2(20),
sal NUMBER(7,2),
dno NUMBER(2) references dept(deptno))
CLUSTER personnel (department_id);
Retrieving Clusters Information :-
USER_CLUSTERS
ALL_CLUSTERS
DBA_CLUSTERS
Materialized Views
→A materialized view is a database object that contains the results of a query unlike normal views that
only contains the query definition and not the results.
→Materialized views are usually a choice when creating summary tables on aggregate of a table’s data.
→A materialized view can query tables, view’s and other materialized views.
→A materialized takes a different approach in which the query result is cached as a concrete table that
may be updated from the original base tables from time to time.
→ Materialized view does not contain up-to-the–minute information. When an ordinary view is queried,
the data retrieved includes changes made up to the last committed transaction.However, when an
materialized view is queried the data retrieved would be at a state when the view was created or last
refreshed.
Syntax:-
CREATE MATERIAIZED VIEW <schema.Name>

REFRESH [FAST|COMPLETE|FORCE][ON DEMAND|COMMIT]
START WITH DATE
NEXT DATE
WITH [PRIMARY KEY|RowID]
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REFRESH:-
Since the materialized view is built on underlying data that is periodically changed, specify how and when
to refresh the data in the view. The following keywords in the REFRESH clause can also be used to create a
schedule for recurring refresh operations.
FAST: - Updates only the values in the materialized view, assuming that some preconditions are met.
COMPLETE:- Recreates the view completely.
FORCE: - Does a FAST refresh if possible and a COMPLETE refresh if the preconditions for a FAST refresh are
not available.
ON COMMIT:- Causes a refresh to occur whenever the underlying data is changed and the changes are
committed.
ON DEMAND:- Performs a refresh when it is scheduled or explicitly called.
START WITH DATE:- Indicates the date and interval at which the materialized view is to be refreshed
NEXT DATE:- Indicates the time and interval at which the materialized view is to be refreshed next
WITH PRIMARY KEY: - Indicates whether the materialized view is based on Primary Key
WITH ROWID:- Indicates whether the materialized view is based on RowID.
Example :-
SQL>CREATE MATERIALIZED VIEW mv1

REFRESH ON COMMIT
START WITH SYSDATE NEXT SYSDATE+7
AS
SELECT deptno,SUM(sal) SUMSAL FROM emp
GROUP BY deptno ;
In the above example materialized view is automatically refreshed for every one week.
RowID Materialized Views:-
RowID materialized views should have a single master table and cannot contain any of the following:
Distinct or aggregate functions
GROUP BY
Subqueries
Joins and Set operations
The following statement creates the RowID materialized view on table Empoyees:
Example:-
SQL>CREATE MATERIALIZED VIEW mv_rowid_emp
REFRESH ON COMMIT
WITH RowID
AS
SELECT *FROM emp ;
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Retrieving Materialized View Information :-
USER_MVIEWS
ALL_MVIEWS
DBA_MVIEWS
Advanced Features:-
Table Partitioning
→As the number of rows in your table grows, the management and performance impacts will increase.
Backups will take longer, recoveries will take longer and queries on that will take longer.
→Administrative and performance issues can be simplified by seperating rows of a single table into
multiple parts.
→Dividing a table’s data in this manner is called partitioning the table, and table is called partitioned table
and parts are called partitions.
→Partitioning is useful for very large tables.
→Partitioning is based on particular column , the column on which table is partitioned is called partition
key.
Advantages :-
➔ The performance of queries against the table may improve.
➔ The tables may be easier to manage.
➔ Backup and recover operations may perform better.
➔ Improves availability.
a table can be partitioned in different ways
1. RANGE PARTITION
2. LIST PARTITION
3. HASH PARTITION
RANGE partition :-
Which records are assigned to which partition depends on range of the partition key.
Example :-
SQL>CREATE TABLE emp_range
(empno NUMBER(4) ,
ename VARCHAR2(20) ,
sal NUMBER(7,2))
PARTITION BY RANGE(sal)
(
PARTITION P1 VALUES LESS THAN(2000) ,
PARTITION P2 VALUES LESS THAN(4000),
PARTITION P3 VALUES LESS THAN(MAXVALUE)
);
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→Employee whose salaries less than 2000 all those records are assinged to partition P1.
→Employee whose salaries less than 4000 all those records are assinged to partition P2 .
→MAXVALUE is a keyword , any data that could not be stored in earlier partitions are assigned to partition
P3.
INSERTING RECORDS INTO PARTITIONED TABLE :-
SQL>INSERT INTO emp_range VALUES(1,’A’,1500) ; (inserted into partition P1)
SQL>INSERT INTO emp_range VALUES(2,’B’,3500) ; (inseted into partition P2)
SQL>INSERT INTO emp_range VALUES(3,’C’,5000) ; (inserted into partition P3)
To view records assigned to particular partition , execute the following command
SQL>SELECT * FROM emp_range partition (p1) ;
The above query displays only the records assigned to partition P1.
Managing Partitions:-
Partitions can be dropped , new partitions can be added , and two partitions can be merged.
Droping Partition:-
SQL>ALTER TABLE EMP_RANGE DROP PARTITION P3;
When partition is dropped then records assigned to that partition are also dropped.
Adding New Partition:-
SQL>ALTER TABLE EMP_RANGE ADD PARTITION P3 VALUES LESS THAN(6000) ;
Merging Two Partitions :-
SQL>ALTER TABLE EMP_RANGE

MERGE PARTITION P2,PARTITION P3 INTO PARTITION P3;
LIST partition:-
Which record is assinged to which partition depends on value of partition key value.
SQL>CREATE TABLE emp_list

(empno NUMBER(4) ,
ename VARCHAR2(20),
job VARCHAR2(20)
)
PARTITION BY LIST(job)
(
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PARTITION P1 VALUES (‘CLERK’) ,

PARTITION P2 VALUES(‘MANAGER’) ,
PARTITION P3 VALUES (DEFAULT)
);
HASH Partition:-
A Hash paritition determines the physical placement of data by applying hash function on partition key .
SQL>CREATE TABLE emp_hash

(empno NUMBER(4) ,
ename VARCHAR2(20) ,
sal NUMBER(7,2) ,
deptno NUMBER(2)
)
PARTITION BY HASH(deptno)
PARTITIONS 4;
Creating SUBPARTITIONS or COMPOSITE Partitions :-
We can create subpartitions that is, paritions of partitions. You can use subpartitions to combine all types
of partitions like range partitions, hash partitions,list partitions.
Composite Partitioning Range-List Example
CREATE TABLE bimonthly_regional_sales

( item_no VARCHAR2(20),
txn_date DATE,
txn_amount NUMBER,
state VARCHAR2(2))
PARTITION BY RANGE (txn_date)
SUBPARTITION BY LIST (state)
SUBPARTITION TEMPLATE(
SUBPARTITION east VALUES('NY', 'VA', 'FL'),
SUBPARTITION west VALUES('CA', 'OR', 'HI'),
SUBPARTITION central VALUES('IL', 'TX', 'MO'))
(
PARTITION janfeb_2000 VALUES LESS THAN (TO_DATE('1-MAR-2000','DD-MON-YYYY')),
PARTITION marapr_2000 VALUES LESS THAN (TO_DATE('1-MAY-2000','DD-MON-YYYY')),
PARTITION mayjun_2000 VALUES LESS THAN (TO_DATE('1-JUL-2000','DD-MON-YYYY'))
);
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Composite partitioning Range-Hash Example:-
SQL>CREATE TABLE emp_range_hash

(empno NUMBER(4) ,
Ename VARCHAR2(20) ,
sal NUMBER(7,2) ,
deptno NUMBER(2)
)
PARTITION BY RANGE(sal)
SUBPARTITION BY HASH(deptno)
SUBPARTITIONS 4
(PARTITION P1 VALUES LESS THAN(2000) ,
PARTITION P2 VALUES LESS THAN(4000) ,
PARTITION P3 VALUES LESS THAN(MAXVALUE)
);
Retrieving PARTITIONS information:-
USER_TAB_PARTITIONS :- maintains information about partitions.
USER_TABLES:- to know whether table is partitioned or not
Display whether EMP table is partitioned or not ?
SQL>SELECT partitioned FROM user_tables WHERE table_name=’EMP’ ;
NO
Object Relational Features
Oracle Objects :-
Oracle object types are user-defined types that make it possible to model real-world entities.
New object types can be created from any built-in database types and any previously created object types,
object references, and collection types. Metadata for user-defined types is stored in a schema that is
available to SQL, PL/SQL, Java.
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Object types and related object-oriented features such as variable-length arrays and nested tables provide
higher-level ways to organize and access data in the database. Underneath the object layer, data is still
stored in columns and tables, but you are able to work with the data in terms of the real-world entities,
such as customers and purchase orders, that make the data meaningful. Instead of thinking in terms of
columns and tables when you query the database, you can simply select a customer.
Internally, statements about objects are still basically statements about relational tables and columns, and
you can continue to work with relational data types and store data in relational tables as before. But now
you have the option to take advantage of object-oriented features too. You can begin to use object-
oriented features while continuing to work with most of your data relationally, or you can go over to an
object-oriented approach entirely. For instance, you can define some object data types and store the
objects in columns in relational tables, which enables you to extend the system built-in types with user-
defined ones. You can also create object views of existing relational data to represent and access this data
according to an object model. Or you can store object data in object tables, where each row is an object.
Advantages of Objects:-
In general, the object-type model is similar to the class mechanism found in C++ and Java. Like classes,
objects make it easier to model complex, real-world business entities and logic, and the reusability of
objects makes it possible to develop database applications faster and more efficiently. By natively
supporting object types in the database, Oracle enables application developers to directly access the data
structures used by their applications. No mapping layer is required between client-side objects and the
relational database columns and tables that contain the data.
Objects Can Encapsulate Operations Along with Data
Database tables contain only data. Objects can include the ability to perform operations that are likely to
be needed on that data. Thus a purchase order object might include a method to sum the cost of all the
items purchased. Or a customer object might have methods to return the customer's buying history and
payment pattern. An application can simply call the methods to retrieve the information.
Objects Are Efficient
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Object types and their methods are stored with the data in the database, so they are available for any
application to use. Developers can benefit from work that is already done and do not need to re-create
similar structures in every application.
You can fetch and manipulate a set of related objects as a single unit. A single request to fetch an object
from the server can retrieve other objects that are connected to it. For example, when you select a
customer object and get the customer's name, phone, and the multiple parts of his address in a single
round-trip between the client and the server. When you reference a column of a SQL object type, you
retrieve the whole object.
Syntax :-
CREATE TYPE <NAME> AS OBJECT

(COLNAME DATATYPE(SIZE) ,
COLNAME DATATYPE(SIZE) ,
-----------------
);
Example :-
Create object type for storing ADDRESS
SQL>CREATE OR REPLACE TYPE ADDR AS OBJECT

(hno VARCHAR2(20) ,
street VARCHAR2(20) ,
city VARCHAR2(20),
state CHAR(2));
Creating Table :-
After creating user defined datatype then it can be used as a datatype for any column in any table.
(cid NUMBER(2) ,
cname VARCHAR2(20) ,
caddr ADDR);
Inserting Record Into Table :-

SQL>INSERT INTO customer VALUES(1, ’RAJU’, ADDR(‘102A’,’AMEERPET’,’HYD’,’AP’)) ;
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Display customer records residing in AMEERPET ?
SQL>SELECT * FROM customer c WHERE c.caddr.street=’AMEERPET’ ;
Update customer HNO whose cid =1 ?
SQL>UPDATE customer c SET c.caddr.hno = ‘110’ WHERE cid=1;
Methods :-
You can also defined methods that apply to datatype ,and by applying those datatypes to table , you can
apply those methods to the data in those tables.
Before creating the body for a method , you must name the method within the datatype declaration.
Type Declaration :-
SQL>CREATE OR REPLACE TYPE emp_type AS OBJECT

(ename VARCHAR2(20),
Birthdate DATE ,
Member function AGE(birthdate IN DATE) return NUMBER);
Type Body :-
SQL>CREATE OR REPLACE TYPE BODY emp_type AS
Member function AGE(birthdate IN DATE) return NUMBER is
Begin
Return (round((sysdate-birthdate)/365));
End;
Creating table :
(empid NUMBER(4),
Emp_details emp_type) ;
SQL>INSERT INTO emp VALUES(1, emp_type(‘smith’,’10-JAN-1981’));

You can use AGE function within a QUERY as follows.
SQL>SELECT E.EMP_DETAILS.AGE(E.EMP_DETAILS.BIRTHDATE) AS AGE FROM EMP E;
Implementing Object Views :-
After the DB design is properly normalized , you should look for group of columns that consistitute the
representation of an object type. You can then create your tables based on the object types. But what if
your tables already exists and what if you have previously created a relational database application and
now want to implement object-relational concepts in your application without rebuilding and re-creating
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the entire application , to do this oracle provides object views as a means for defining objects used by
existing relational tables.
Example :-
SQL>CREATE TABLE customer(
customer_id NUMBER PRIMARY KEY,
cname VARCHAR2(20),
street VARCHAR2(20),
city VARCHAR2(20),
state CHAR(2),
zip NUMBER);
if you want to create another table or application that stores information about people and addresses, you
may choose to create ADDRESS_TY and PERSON_TY object types and you want to apply these types to
CUSTOMER table
SQL>CREATE OR REPLACE TYPE ADDRESS_TY as object

(Street VARCHAR2(20),
City VARCHAR2(20),
State VARCHAR2(20),
Zip NUMBER);
SQL>CREATE OR REPLACE TYPE PERSON_TY as object

(Name VARCHAR2(20),
Address ADDRESS_TY);
Now create an object view based on the CUSTOMER table using the object types you have defined.
SQL>CREATE VIEW CUSTOMER_OV(Customer_ID,Person) as

SELECT Customer_ID,
PERSON_TY(Name, ADDRESS_TY(Street,City,State,Zip))
FROM CUSTOMER;
Now you can insert the data into CUSTOMER table via CUSTOMER_OV as follows
SQL>insert into CUSTOMER_OV values (1234,

PERSON_TY(‘smith’, ADDRESS_TY(‘SRNAGAR’,’HYD’,’AP’,507001);
VARRAYS :-
A VARYING ARRAY allows you to store array of values of a numbers or strings or dates.
Example :-
SQL>CREATE OR REPLACE TYPE PHONE_ARRAY AS VARRAY(2) OF NUMBER(10) ;

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Creating table based on VARRAY :-

(CID NUMBER(2) ,
CNAME VARCHAR2(20) ,
CPHONE phone_array ) ;
Inserting values :-
SQL>INSERT INTO CUST VALUES(1,’JAMES’,PHONE_ARRAY(9878787877,6767673663));
NESTED TABLE :-
Whereas varying array have a limited number of entries , a Second type called NESTED TABLE has no limit
on the number Of entries per row. A nested table as its name implies a table within a table.It is a table that
is represented as a column within in another table.
Example :-
SQL>CREATE TYPE NEST_TYPE AS TABLE OF ADDR ;
Using NESTED TABLE :-

(cid NUMBER(2) ,
cname VARCHAR2(20) ,
caddr NEST_TYPE)
NESTED TABLE caddr STORE AS NEST_TYPE_TAB ;
Inserting values into Nested Table :-

SQL>INSERT INTO CUST VALUES(1,’VIJAY’,
NEST_TYPE( ADDR(‘100A’,’SRNAGAR’,’HYD’,’AP’) ,
ADDR(‘200B’,’SRNAGAR’,’HYD’,’AP’)));
Performing DML operations on NESTED TABLE :-
to perform DML operations on NESTED TABLE use keyword “THE” .
Display addresses of customer whose CID=1 ?
SQL>SELECT hno,street,city,state FROM THE (SELECT CADDR FROM cust WHERE cid=1)
Update customer street of HNO=100A of customer id =1 ?
SQL>UPDATE THE (SELECT caddr FROM customer WHERE cid=1)

SET street=’AMEERPET’ WHERE hno=’100A’;
Delete the customer address where HNO=100A whose cid=1 ?
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SQL>DELETE FROM THE (SELECT caddr FROM customer WHERE cid=1) WHERE hno=’100A’ ;
Insert new address for customer whose CID=1 ?
SQL>INSERT INTO THE (SELECT caddr FROM customer WHERE cid=1)

VALUES(‘500X’,’SRNAGAR’,’HYD’,’AP’) ;
Retrieving USER DEFINED TYPES Information :-
USER_TYPES :- Which maintains information about TYPES created by user.
Hierarchical Queries
➔ A hierarchical query presents data in a inverted tree structure.
➔ The tree comprises of interconnected nodes.
➔ Each node may be connected to none,one or more childnodes.
➔ Each node is connected to one parent node. The top most node is the Root Node that has no
parent.
➔ Nodes that do not have child nodes are called Leaf Nodes.
Syntax :-
SELECT [LEVEL] , <collist>

FROM <tabname>
[WHERE <cond>]
[START WITH <cond>]
[CONNECT BY PRIOR <cond>]
LEVEL :- LEVEL is a pseudo column that returns level of the tree.

START CONDITION :- used to specify root of the tree.
CONNECT BY PRIOR :-
used to specify relationship between Parent and child rows. This clause cannot be used to perform Join
operation.
Example :-
Display employee names and their manager name in tree structure ?
SQL>SELECT RPAD(' ',LEVEL*2,' ')||ename

FROM emp
START WITH ename='KING'
CONNECT BY PRIOR empno=mgr ;
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To sort siblings use ORDER SIBLINGS clause.
Example :-
SQL>SELECT RPAD(' ',LEVEL*2,' ')||ename FROM emp

CONNECT BY PRIOR empno=mgr ;
ORDER SIBLINGS BY ename ;
SYS_CONNECT_BY_PATH :-
Returns child node along with path
Example :-
SQL>SELECT ename,SYS_CONNECT_BY_PATH(ename,'\') FROM emp

CONNECT BY PRIOR empno=mgr
CONNECT_BY_ISLEAF :-
Returns whether the node is leaf node or not , If node is leaf node then it returns 1 otherwise returns 0.
SQL>SELECT ename,CONNECT_BY_ISLEAF as root FROM emp

CONNECT BY PRIOR empno=mgr
Join With CONNECT BY:-
SQL>SELECT E.emplevel, SUBSTR(E.ename,1,15) "ENAME", E.empno, D.deptno, D.dname

FROM dept D, (SELECT level emplevel, LPAD(' ',2*level-2)||ename ename, empno, mgr, deptno
FROM emp
CONNECT BY PRIOR empno = mgr
START WITH ename=’KING’) E
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WHERE E.deptno = D.deptno ;
LEVEL ENAME EMPNO DEPTNO DNAME

1 KING 7839 10 ACCOUNTING
2 CLARK 7782 10 ACCOUNTING
3 MILLER 7934 10 ACCOUNTING
2 JONES 7566 20 RESEARCH
3 SCOTT 7788 20 RESEARCH
4 ADAMS 7876 20 RESEARCH
3 FORD 7902 20 RESEARCH
4 SMITH 7369 20 RESEARCH
2 BLAKE 7698 30 SALES
3 ALLEN 7499 30 SALES
3 WARD 7521 30 SALES
Flashback Queries
→Most of the times an application crashes only because of Human errors. A human error could result in
data corruption Due to which the application simply halts.The most human errors that causes an
application to go down are Accidental deletion of valuable Data , droping the table.
→Oracle offers a solution called Flashbacking to recover data Due to human errors.
→Flashback technology allows viewing data back in time.
→Flashback technology is introduced in ORACLE 9i
→In ORACLE 10g Flashbacking made simple and flexible.
→A flashback allows reverting mistakenly committed changes by viewing the records before the commit
was executed.
Example :-
SQL>SELECT * FROM EMP ;
Flashback can be disabled by
SQL>EXECUTE DBMS_FLASHBACK.DISABLE() ;
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Flashback Table :-
→Oracle flashback feature allows recovering a table after drop.When a table is dropped oracle moves it to
the recyclebin rather than actually droping it.
→A Recycle Bin is logical collection of dropped objects. The contents of Recycle Bin is viewed by using
SHOW RECYCLEBIN command.
→Flashback command is introduced in ORACLE 10g , which is used to restore a table after drop.
Example :-
SQL>DROP TABLE EMP ; (table is moved to recyclebin)

To restore the table EMP issue the following command
SQL>FLASHBACK TABLE EMP TO BEFORE DROP;
A table can be restored with a new name.
SQL>FLASHBACK TABLE EMP TO BEFORE DROP RENAME TO EMPL;
PURGE command :-
PURGE command releases space occupied by the object in recyclebin .
SQL>PURGE TABLE EMP ;
After purging the table FLASHBACKING is not possible
To empty the RECYCLEBIN issue the following command
SQL>PURGE RECYCLEBIN ;
The table can be dropped without being sent to the RECYCLEBIN. To do so issue the following command.
SQL>DROP TABLE EMP PURGE ;
ENABLING & DISABLING RECYCLEBIN :-
→Recyclebin can be enabled & disabled.
→By default recyclebin is enabled.
→When it is enabled the dropped objects are placed in recyclebin.
→When it is disabled the dropped objects are not placed in recyclebin.
→To disable the recyclebin issue the following command
SQL>ALTER SESSION SET RECYCLEBIN = OFF
To enable the Recyclebin issue the following command
SQL>ALTER SESSION SET RECYCLEBIN =ON
OCA question :-
Evaluate the following SQL statements in the given order:
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DROP TABLE dept;
CREATE TABLE dept

deptname VARCHAR2(10));
DROP TABLE dept;
FLASHBACK TABLE dept TO BEFORE DROP;
Which statement is true regarding the above FLASHBACK operation?
A. It recovers only the first DEPT table.

B. It recovers only the second DEPT table.
C. It does not recover any of the tables because FLASHBACK is not possible in this case.
D. It recovers both the tables but the names would be changed to the ones assigned in the RECYCLEBIN.
ORACLE 12c FEATURES :-
In Oracle 12c, it is now possible to specify the CURRVAL and NEXTVAL sequence pseudocolumns as the
default values for a column. You should also consider using Identity columns for this purpose.In the
following example you can see the effect of specifying a sequence as the default value for a column. The
default value is only used when the column is not referenced by the insert. This behaviour can be modified
using the ON NULL clause described in the next section.
CREATE SEQUENCE t1_seq;
CREATE TABLE t1 (
id NUMBER DEFAULT t1_seq.NEXTVAL,
description VARCHAR2(30)
);
INSERT INTO t1 (description) VALUES ('DESCRIPTION only');
INSERT INTO t1 (id, description) VALUES (999, 'ID=999 and DESCRIPTION');
INSERT INTO t1 (id, description) VALUES (NULL, 'ID=NULL and DESCRIPTION');
SELECT * FROM t1;
ID DESCRIPTION
---------- - -----------------------------
1 DESCRIPTION only
999 ID=999 and DESCRIPTION
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ID=NULL and DESCRIPTION
3 rows selected.
Identity Columns in Oracle Database 12c Release 1 (12.1)
In previous releases of the Oracle database, there was no direct equivalent of the AutoNumber or
Identity functionality of other database engines. Instead, this behaviour had to be implemented
using a combination of sequences and triggers. Oracle 12c introduces two alternatives to this by
providing identity columns and the ability to use sequence pseudocolumns as default values. This
article will focus on the use of identity columns.
12c database introduces the ability define an identity clause against a table column defined using a
numeric type. The syntax is show below.
GENERATED
[ ALWAYS | BY DEFAULT [ ON NULL ] ]
AS IDENTITY [ ( identity_options ) ]
Ignoring the identity_options, which match those of the CREATE SEQUENCE statement,
this syntax allows us to use three variations on the identity functionality.
Before we can look at some examples, you need to make sure your test user has the
CREATE SEQUENCE privilege. Without it, attempts to define an identity column will
produce a "ORA-01031: insufficient privileges" error.
CONN / AS SYSDBA
ALTER SESSION SET CONTAINER=pdb1;
GRANT CREATE TABLE, CREATE SEQUENCE TO test;
CONN test/test@pdb1
Using ALWAYS forces the use of the identity. If an insert statement references the
identity column, even to specify a NULL value, an error is produced.
CREATE TABLE identity_test_tab (
id NUMBER GENERATED ALWAYS AS IDENTITY,
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ORACLE 12c
);
SQL> INSERT INTO identity_test_tab (description) VALUES ('Just DESCRIPTION');
1 row created.
SQL> INSERT INTO identity_test_tab (id, description) VALUES (NULL, 'ID=NULL and
DESCRIPTION');
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-32795: cannot insert into a generated always identity column
SQL> INSERT INTO identity_test_tab (id, description) VALUES (999, 'ID=999 and
DESCRIPTION');
INSERT INTO identity_test_tab (id, description) VALUES (999, 'ID=999 and DESCRIPTION')
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-32795: cannot insert into a generated always identity column
Using BY DEFAULT allows you to use the identity if the column isn't referenced in the
insert statement, but if the column is referenced, the specified value will be used in
place of the identity. Attempting to specify the value NULL in this case results in an
error, since identity columns are always NOT NULL.
DROP TABLE identity_test_tab PURGE;
id NUMBER GENERATED BY DEFAULT AS IDENTITY,
);
1 row created.
DESCRIPTION');
1 row created.
DESCRIPTION');
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ORACLE 12c
INSERT INTO identity_test_tab (id, description) VALUES (NULL, 'ID=NULL and

DESCRIPTION')
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-01400: cannot insert NULL into ("TEST"."IDENTITY_TEST_TAB"."ID")
Using BY DEFAULT ON NULL allows the identity to be used if the identity column is
referenced, but a value of NULL is specified.
DROP TABLE identity_test_tab PURGE;
id NUMBER GENERATED BY DEFAULT ON NULL AS IDENTITY,
);
1 row created.
DESCRIPTION');
1 row created.
DESCRIPTION');
1 row created.
SQL> SELECT * FROM identity_test_tab;
ID DESCRIPTION
---------- ------------------------------
1 Just DESCRIPTION
999 ID=999 and DESCRIPTION
2 ID=NULL and DESCRIPTION
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Top –N Queries :-
Top-N query is used to retrieve the top or bottom N rows from an ordered set. Combining two Top-N
queries gives you the ability to page through an ordered set. This concept is not a new one. In fact, Oracle
already provides multiple ways to perform Top-N queries, as discussed here. These methods work fine, but
they look rather complicated compared to the methods provided by other database engines.
To be consistent, we will use the same example table used in the Top-N Queries article.
Create and populate a test table.
DROP TABLE rownum_order_test;
CREATE TABLE rownum_order_test (

val NUMBER
);
INSERT ALL
INTO rownum_order_test
INTO rownum_order_test
SELECT level
FROM dual
CONNECT BY level <= 10;
COMMIT;
The following query shows we have 20 rows with 10 distinct values.
SELECT val
FROM rownum_order_test
ORDER BY val;
VAL
----------
1
1
2
2
3
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3
4
4
5
5
6
VAL
----------
6
7
7
8
8
9
9
10
10
20 rows selected.
SQL>
Top-N Queries
The syntax for the row limiting clause looks a little complicated at first glance.
[ OFFSET offset { ROW | ROWS } ]

[ FETCH { FIRST | NEXT } [ { rowcount | percent PERCENT } ]
{ ROW | ROWS } { ONLY | WITH TIES } ]
Actually, for the classic Top-N query it is very simple. The example below returns the 5
largest values from an ordered set. Using the ONLY clause limits the number of rows
returned to the exact number requested.
SELECT val
ORDER BY val DESC
FETCH FIRST 5 ROWS ONLY;
VAL
----------
10
10
9
9
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5 rows selected.
SQL>
Using the WITH TIES clause may result in more rows being returned if multiple rows
match the value of the Nth row. In this case the 5th row has the value "8", but there
are two rows that tie for 5th place, so both are returned.
SELECT val
ORDER BY val DESC
FETCH FIRST 5 ROWS WITH TIES;
VAL
----------
10
10
9
9
8
8
6 rows selected.
SQL>
In addition to limiting by row count, the row limiting clause also allows us to limit by
percentage of rows. The following query returns the bottom 20% of rows.
SELECT val
ORDER BY val
FETCH FIRST 20 PERCENT ROWS ONLY;
VAL
----------
1
1
2
2
4 rows selected.
SQL>
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Paging Through Data
Paging through an ordered resultset was a little annoying using the classic Top-N query
approach, as it required two Top-N queries, one nested inside the other. For
example, if we wanted the second block of 4 rows we might do the following.
SELECT val
FROM (SELECT val, rownum AS rnum
FROM (SELECT val
ORDER BY val)
WHERE rownum <= 8)
WHERE rnum >= 5;
VAL
----------
3
3
4
4
4 rows selected.
SQL>
With the row limiting clause we can achieve the same result using the following query.
SELECT val
ORDER BY val
OFFSET 4 ROWS FETCH NEXT 4 ROWS ONLY;
VAL
----------
3
3
4
4
4 rows selected.
SQL>
The starting point for the FETCH is OFFSET+1.
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The OFFSET is always based on a number of rows, but this can be combined with
a FETCH using a PERCENT.
SELECT val
ORDER BY val
OFFSET 4 ROWS FETCH NEXT 20 PERCENT ROWS ONLY;
VAL
----------
3
3
4
4
4 rows selected.
SQL>
Not surprisingly, the offset, rowcount and percent can, and probably should, be bind
variables.
VARIABLE v_offset NUMBER;

VARIABLE v_next NUMBER;
BEGIN
:v_offset := 4;
:v_next := 4;
END;
/
SELECT val
ORDER BY val
OFFSET :v_offset ROWS FETCH NEXT :v_next ROWS ONLY;
VAL
----------
3
3
4
4
SQL>
Extra Information
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• The keywords ROW and ROWS can be used interchangeably, as can the FIRST and NEXT keywords.
Pick the ones that scan best when reading the SQL like a sentence.
• If the offset is not specified it is assumed to be 0.
• Negative values for the offset, rowcount or percent are treated as 0.
• Null values for offset, rowcount or percent result in no rows being returned.
• Fractional portions of offset, rowcount or percent are truncated.
• If the offset is greater than or equal to the total number of rows in the set, no rows are returned.
• If the rowcount or percent are greater than the total number of rows after the offset, all rows are
returned.
• The row limiting clause can not be used with the FOR
UPDATE clause, CURRVAL and NEXTVAL sequence pseudocolumns or in an fast refresh materialized
view.
SQL*LOADER
SQL*LOADER utility is used to load data from other data source into Oracle. For example, if you have a
table in FOXPRO, ACCESS or SYBASE or any other third party database, you can use SQL Loader to load the
data into Oracle Tables. SQL Loader will only read the data from Flat files. So If you want to load the data
from Foxpro or any other database, you have to first convert that data into Delimited Format flat file or
Fixed length format flat file, and then use SQL loader to load the data into Oracle.
SQL*Loader:
• Has a powerful data parsing engine which puts little limitation on the format of the data in the
datafile.
• Can load data from multiple datafiles during the same load session.
• Can load data into multiple tables during the same load session.
• Is character set aware (you can specify the character set of the data).
• Can selectively load data (you can load records based on the records' values).
• Can manipulate the data before loading it, using SQL functions.
• Can generate unique sequential key values in specified columns.
• Can use the operating system's file system to access the datafile(s).
• Can load data from disk, tape, or named pipe.
• Can load arbitrarily complex object-relational data.
• Supports secondary datafiles for loading of LOBs and collections.
SQL*LOADER overview :-
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ORACLE 12c
SQL*Loader takes as input a control file, which controls the behavior of SQL*Loader, and one or more
datafiles. Output of the SQL*Loader is an Oracle database (where the data is loaded), a log file, a bad file,
and potentially a discard file.
Input Data and Datafiles:-
SQL*Loader reads data from one or more files (or operating system equivalents of files) specified in the
control file.
INFILE: Specifying Datafiles. From SQL*Loader's perspective, the data in the datafile is organized as
records. A particular datafile can be in fixed record format, variable record format, or stream record
format.
Fixed Record Format

When all the records in a datafile are of the same byte length, the file is in fixed record format. Although
this format is the least flexible, it does result in better performance than variable or stream format.
Variable Record Format

When you specify that a datafile is in variable record format, SQL*Loader expects to find the length of each
record in a character field at the beginning of each record in the datafile.
SQL*Loader Control File :-
The control file is a text file written in a language that SQL*Loader understands. The control file describes
the task that the SQL*Loader is to carry out. The control file tells SQL*Loader where to find the data, how
to parse and interpret the data, where to insert the data, and more.
a control file can be said to have three sections:
The first section contains session-wide information, for example: global options such as bindsize, rows,
records to skip, etc. INFILE clauses to specify where the input data is located
The second section consists of one or more "INTO TABLE" blocks. Each of these blocks contains information
about the table into which the data is to be loaded such as the table name and the columns of the table.
The third section is optional and, if present, contains input data.

CASE STUDY (Loading Data from Fixed Length file into Oracle)
Suppose we have a fixed length format file containing employees data, as shown below, and wants to load
this data into an Oracle table.
7782 CLARK MANAGER 7839 2572.50 10
7839 KING PRESIDENT 5500.00 10
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ORACLE 12c
7934 MILLER CLERK 7782 920.00 10
7566 JONES MANAGER 7839 3123.75 20
7499 ALLEN SALESMAN 7698 1600.00 300.00 30
7654 MARTIN SALESMAN 7698 1312.50 1400.00 30
7658 CHAN ANALYST 7566 3450.00 20
7654 MARTIN SALESMAN 7698 1312.50 1400.00 30
Steps :-
1. First Open the file in a text editor and count the length of fields, for example in our fixed length file,
employee number is from 1st position to 4th position, employee name is from 6th position to 15th
position, Job name is from 17th position to 25th position. Similarly other columns are also located.
2. Create a table in Oracle, by any name, but should match columns specified in fixed length file. In our
case give the following command to create the table.
SQL> CREATE TABLE emp (empno NUMBER(5),

name VARCHAR2(20),
job VARCHAR2(10),
mgr NUMBER(5),
sal NUMBER(10,2),
comm NUMBER(10,2),
deptno NUMBER(3));
3. After creating the table, now write a control file by using any text editor
$vi empfix.ctl
LOAD DATA
INFILE '/u01/oracle/fix.dat'
INTO TABLE emp
( empno POSITION(01:04) INTEGER EXTERNAL,
name POSITION(06:15) CHAR,
job POSITION(17:25) CHAR,
mgr POSITION(27:30) INTEGER EXTERNAL,
sal POSITION(32:39) DECIMAL EXTERNAL,
comm POSITION(41:48) DECIMAL EXTERNAL,
deptno POSITION(50:51) INTEGER EXTERNAL)
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ORACLE 12c
External Tables
The external tables feature is a complement to existing SQL*Loader functionality. It enables you to access
data in external sources as if it were in a table in the database. Prior to Oracle Database 10g, external
tables were read-only. However, as of Oracle Database 10g, external tables can also be written to.
External tables are created using the SQL CREATE TABLE...ORGANIZATION EXTERNAL statement. When
you create an external table, you specify the following attributes:
TYPE :- specifies the type of external table. The two available types are the ORACLE_LOADER type and the
ORACLE_DATAPUMP type.
ORACLE_LOADER :- access driver is the default. It can perform only data loads, and the data must come
from text datafiles. Loads from external tables to internal tables are done by reading from the external
tables' text-only datafiles.
ORACLE_DATAPUMP :- access driver can perform both loads and unloads. The data must come from
binary dump files. Loads to internal tables from external tables are done by fetching from the binary dump
files. Unloads from internal tables to external tables are done by populating the external tables' binary
dump files.
DEFAULT DIRECTORY :- specifies the default location of files that are read or written by external tables.
The location is specified with a directory object, not a directory path.
ACCESS PARAMETERS :- describe the external data source and implements the type of external table that
was specified. Each type of external table has its own access driver that provides access parameters unique
to that type of external table.
LOCATION:-- specifies the location of the external data. The location is specified as a list of directory
objects and filenames. If the directory object is not specified, then the default directory object is used as
the file location.
To create EXTERNAL TABLE follow below steps.
Step 1 :- Creating Directory Object :-
The access driver does not allow you to specify a complete specification for files. This is because the server
may have access to files that you do not, and allowing you to read this data would affect security.
Instead, you are required to specify directory objects as the locations from which to read files and write
files. A directory object maps a name to a directory name on the file system. For example, the following
statement creates a directory object named ext_tab_dir that is mapped to a directory located at
/usr/apps/datafiles.
Directory objects can be created by DBAs or by any user with the CREATE ANY DIRECTORY privilege.
SQL>CREATE DIRECTORY ext_tab_dir AS '/usr/apps/datafiles';
After a directory is created, the user creating the directory object needs to grant READ and WRITE
privileges on the directory to other users.
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ORACLE 12c
SQL>GRANT READ,WRITE ON DIRECTORY ext_tab_dir TO scott;
Step 2 :- CREATE TABLE EMP :-
SQL>CREATE TABLE emp ( emp_no CHAR(6),

last_name CHAR(25),
first_name CHAR(20),
middle_initial CHAR(1));
Step 3 CREATE EXTERNAL TABLE :-
CREATE TABLE emp_load (employee_number CHAR(5), employee_last_name CHAR(20),

employee_first_name CHAR(15),
employee_middle_name CHAR(15))
ORGANIZATION EXTERNAL (TYPE ORACLE_LOADER DEFAULT DIRECTORY ext_tab_dir
ACCESS PARAMETERS (RECORDS DELIMITED BY NEWLINE FIELDS
(employee_number CHAR(2),
employee_dob CHAR(20),
employee_last_name CHAR(18),
employee_first_name CHAR(11),
employee_middle_name CHAR(11)))
LOCATION ('info.dat'));
Step 4 :- Load the data from the external table emp_load into the table emp:
INSERT INTO emp (emp_no, first_name, middle_initial, last_name)

(SELECT employee_number, employee_first_name, substr(employee_middle_name, 1, 1),
employee_last_name
FROM emp_load);
Step 5 :- Perform the following select operation to verify that the information in the .dat file was loaded
into the emp table:
SQL> SELECT * FROM emp;
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Analytical Functions
→Analytic Functions are commonly used to compute cumulative, moving, centered and reporting
aggregates.
→Oracle provides several analytic functions that help compute an aggregate value based on a group of
rows.
→Analytic Functions provided by Oracle open up a whole new way of looking at the data.
→It helps remove a lot of procedural code and complex code spec that would have taken a long time to
develop, to achieve the same result.
→Whatever an analytic function does, can be done by using SQL, with the help of joins and subqueries.
However, an analytic function always does it faster, when compared to native SQL.
Getting Started With Analytic Functions:-
Oracle provides the following Analytic Functions.
➔ AVG
➔ CORR
➔ COVAR_POP
➔ COVAR_SAMP
➔ COUNT
➔ CUME_DIST
➔ DENSE_RANK
➔ FIRST
➔ FIRST_VALUE
➔ LAG
➔ LAST
➔ LAST_VALUE
➔ LEAD
➔ MAX
➔ MIN
➔ NTILE
➔ PERCENT_RANK
➔ PERCENTILE_CONT
➔ PERCENTILE_DISC
➔ RANK
➔ RATIO_TO_REPORT
➔ STDDEV
➔ STDDEV_POP
➔ STDDEV_SAMP
➔ SUM
➔ VAR_POP
➔ VAR_SAMP
➔ VARIANCE
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ORACLE 12c
Syntax:-
Function(arg1,..., argn) OVER ( [PARTITION BY <...>] [ORDER BY <....>] [<window_clause>] )
Where,
Arguments: Analytic functions accept 0 to 3 arguments.
Query Partition Clause:
→The PARTITION BY clause logically breaks a single result set into N groups, according to the criteria set by
the partition expressions.
→The words partition and group are used synonymously here.
→The analytic functions cane be applied to each group independently.
Order By Clause:
The ORDER BY clause specifies how the data is sorted within each group [partition]. This will definitely
affects the outcome of any analytic function.
Windowing Clause:
The windowing clause allows defining a sliding or anchored window of data, on which the analytic function
will operate, within a group.
Windows can be used for:
→RANGES of data values

→ROWS offset from the current row
→An ORDER BY clause in an analytic function adds a default window clause of RANGE UNBOUNDED
PRECEDING which means all the previous rows available in a partition are considered.
How are analytic functions different from group or aggregate functions?

SQL>SELECT deptno,COUNT(*) DEPT_COUNT
FROM emp
WHERE deptno IN (20, 30)
GROUP BY deptno;
Consider the above and its result. The above returns departments and their employee count. Most
importantly it groups the records into departments. As such any non-"group by" column is not allowed in
the select clause.
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ORACLE 12c
SQL>SELECT empno, deptno, COUNT(*) OVER (PARTITION BY deptno) DEPT_COUNT

FROM emp
WHERE deptno IN (20, 30);
Now consider the analytic function query and its result. Note the repeating values of DEPT_COUNT
column.This brings out the main difference between aggregate and analytic functions. Analytical function
returns aggregate data along with detailed data.
Analytic functions are computed after WHERE clause, GROUP BY and HAVING . The ORDER BY clause of
the query operates after the analytic functions. So analytic functions can only appear in the select list and
in the ORDER BY clause of the query.
In absence of any PARTITION or <window_clause> inside the OVER( ) portion, the function acts on entire
record set returned by the where clause.
ROW_NUMBER( ) :-
gives a running serial number to a partition of records. It is very useful in reporting, especially in places
where different partitions have their own serial numbers. In below ecxmple the function ROW_NUMBER( )
is used to give separate sets of running serial to employees of departments 10 and 20 based on their
HIREDATE.
SQL> SELECT empno, deptno, hiredate,ROW_NUMBER( ) OVER (PARTITION BY deptno
ORDER BY hiredate NULLS LAST) SRLNO
FROM emp
ORDER BY deptno, SRLNO;
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ORACLE 12c
SQL>SELECT empno,ename,sal,SUM(sal) OVER (ORDER BY sal ROWS UNBOUNDED PRECEDING)

AS cum_sal
FROM emp ;
RANK () and DENSE_RANK() :-
Computes the RANK of a row in an ordered group of rows and returns rank as a number begins with 1.this
function is useful to find top-N & bottom-N records.
Example :-
SQL> SELECT empno, deptno, sal,

RANK() OVER (PARTITION BY deptno ORDER BY sal DESC NULLS LAST) RANK,
DENSE_RANK() OVER (PARTITION BY deptno ORDER BY sal DESC NULLS LAST) DENSE_RANK
FROM emp
ORDER BY 2, RANK;
NOTE :- The difference between RANK & DENSE_RANK is RANK function generates gaps but DENSE_RANK
function doesn’t generate gaps.
RANK() and DENSE_RANK() function can be used to find top-N records as follows :-
Display top 3 maximum salaries in emp table ?
SQL>SELECT DISTINCT sal FROM

(SELECT sal, DENSE_RANK() OVER (ORDER BY sal DESC) AS RNK FROM EMP)
WHERE RNK <=3;
LEAD and LAG:-

LEAD has the ability to compute an expression on the next rows (rows which are going to come after the
current row) and return the value to the current row. The general syntax of LEAD is shown below:
LEAD (<sql_expr>, <offset>, <default>) OVER (<analytic_clause>)
<sql_expr> is the expression to compute from the leading row.

<offset> is the index of the leading row relative to the current row.
<offset> is a positive integer with default 1.
<default> is the value to return if the <offset> points to a row outside the partition range.
The syntax of LAG is similar except that the offset for LAG goes into the previous rows.below example
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ORACLE 12c
and its result show simple usage of LAG and LEAD function.
SQL> SELECT deptno, empno, sal,

LEAD(sal, 1, 0) OVER (PARTITION BY deptno ORDER BY sal DESC NULLS LAST) NEXT_SAL,
LAG(sal, 1, 0) OVER (PARTITION BY deptno ORDER BY sal DESC NULLS LAST) PREV_SAL
FROM emp
ORDER BY deptno, sal DESC;
FIRST VALUE and LAST VALUE function:-
The general syntax is:
FIRST_VALUE(<sql_expr>) OVER (<analytic_clause>)
The FIRST_VALUE analytic function picks the first record from the partition after doing the ORDER BY. The
<sql_expr> is computed on the columns of this first record and results are returned. The LAST_VALUE
function is used in similar context except that it acts on the last record of the partition.
How many days after the first hire of each department were the next employees hired?
SQL>SELECT empno, deptno,hiredate, hiredate - FIRST_VALUE(hiredate)

OVER (PARTITION BY deptno ORDER BY hiredate) DAY_GAP
FROM emp
ORDER BY deptno, DAY_GAP;
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ORACLE 12c
FIRST & LAST functions :-

The FIRST and LAST function can be used to return the first or last value from an ordered sequence. For
example we want to display the salary of each employee , along with the lowest and highest within in their
department.
The general Synatx:-
Function( ) KEEP (DENSE_RANK FIRST ORDER BY <expr>) OVER (<partitioning_clause>)
SQL>SELECT empno,
deptno,
sal,
MIN(sal) KEEP (DENSE_RANK FIRST ORDER BY sal) OVER (PARTITION BY deptno) "Lowest",
MAX(sal) KEEP (DENSE_RANK LAST ORDER BY sal) OVER (PARTITION BY deptno) "Highest"
FROM emp
ORDER BY deptno, sal ;
How each employee's salary compare with the average salary of the first year hires of their
department?
SQL>SELECT empno, deptno, TO_CHAR(hiredate,'YYYY') HIRE_YR, sal,

TRUNC(AVG(sal) KEEP (DENSE_RANK FIRST ORDER BY TO_CHAR(hiredate,'YYYY') )
OVER (PARTITION BY deptno)) AVG_SAL_YR1_HIRE
FROM emp
ORDER BY deptno, empno, HIRE_YR;
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ORACLE 12c
WINDOW clause :-
Some analytic functions (AVG, COUNT, FIRST_VALUE, LAST_VALUE, MAX, MIN and SUM among the ones
we discussed) can take a window clause to further sub-partition the result and apply the analytic function.
An important feature of the windowing clause is that it is dynamic in nature.
The general syntax of the <window_clause> is

[ROW or RANGE] BETWEEN <start_expr> AND <end_expr>
<start_expr> can be any one of the following
1.UNBOUNDED PECEDING
2.CURRENT ROW
3.<sql_expr> PRECEDING or FOLLOWING.
<end_expr> can be any one of the following
1.UNBOUNDED FOLLOWING or
2.CURRENT ROW or
3.<sql_expr> PRECEDING or FOLLOWING.
For ROW type windows the definition is in terms of row numbers before or after the current row. So for
ROW type windows <sql_expr> must evaluate to a positive integer.
For RANGE type windows the definition is in terms of values before or after the current ORDER. We will
take this up in details latter.
The ROW or RANGE window cannot appear together in one OVER clause. The window clause is defined in
terms of the current row. But may or may not include the current row. The start point of the window and
the end point of the window can finish before the current row or after the current row. Only start point
cannot come after the end point of the window. In case any point of the window is undefined the default is
UNBOUNDED PRECEDING for <start_expr> and UNBOUNDED FOLLOWING for <end_expr>.
If the end point is the current row, syntax only in terms of the start point can be can be
[ROW or RANGE] [<start_expr> PRECEDING or UNBOUNDED PRECEDING ]
[ROW or RANGE] CURRENT ROW is also allowed but this is redundant. In this case the function behaves as
a single-row function and acts only on the current row.
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ORACLE 12c
ROW Type Windows:-
For analytic functions with ROW type windows, the general syntax is:
Function( ) OVER (PARTITIN BY <expr1> ORDER BY <expr2,..> ROWS BETWEEN <start_expr> AND
<end_expr>)
or
Function( ) OVER (PARTITON BY <expr1> ORDER BY <expr2,..> ROWS [<start_expr> PRECEDING or
UNBOUNDED PRECEDING]
For ROW type windows the windowing clause is in terms of record numbers.
SQL>SELECT ename,sal,
SUM(sal) over (order by sal ROWS UNBOUNDED PRECEDING)
as cum_sal
from emp ;
Data Pump
Oracle Data Pump (expdp and impdp) introduced in Oracle Database 10g is faster and more flexible
alternative to the "exp" and "imp" utilities used in previous Oracle versions. In addition to basic import and
export functionality data pump provides a PL/SQL API and support for external tables.
To use DATA PUMP utilities first we must create a directory object . The directory object is only a pointer to
a physical directory, creating it does not actually create the physical directory on the file system.
SQL>CONN SYSTEM/MANAGER
SQL>CREATE OR REPLACE DIRECTORY test_dir AS 'C:\WINDOWS’
SQL>GRANT READ, WRITE ON DIRECTORY test_dir TO scott;
Existing directories can be queried using the ALL_DIRECTORIES view.
Table Exports/Imports :-
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ORACLE 12c
The TABLES parameter is used to specify the tables that are to be exported. The following is an example of
the table export and import syntax and command should be executed at command prompt.
expdp scott/tiger@db10g tables=EMP,DEPT directory=TEST_DIR dumpfile=EMPDEPT.dmp

logfile=expdpEMP_DEPT.log
impdp scott/tiger@db10g tables=EMP,DEPT directory=TEST_DIR dumpfile=EMPDEPT.dmp

logfile=impdpEMP_DEPT.log
The TABLE_EXISTS_ACTION=APPEND parameter allows data to be imported into existing tables.

Schema Exports/Imports
The OWNER parameter of exp has been replaced by the SCHEMAS parameter which is used to specify the
schemas to be exported. The following is an example of the schema export and import syntax.
expdp scott/tiger@db10g schemas=SCOTT directory=TEST_DIR dumpfile=SCOTT.dmp

logfile=expdpSCOTT.log
impdp scott/tiger@db10g schemas=SCOTT directory=TEST_DIR dumpfile=SCOTT.dmp

logfile=impdpSCOTT.log
Database Exports/Imports
The FULL parameter indicates that a complete database export is required. The following is an example of
the full database export and import syntax.
expdp system/password@db10g full=Y directory=TEST_DIR dumpfile=DB10G.dmp

logfile=expdpDB10G.log
impdp system/password@db10g full=Y directory=TEST_DIR
INCLUDE and EXCLUDE options:-
The INCLUDE and EXCLUDE parameters can be used to limit the export/import to specific objects. When
the INCLUDE parameter is used, only those objects specified by it will be included in the export/import.
When the EXCLUDE parameter is used, all objects except those specified by it will be included in the
export/import. The two parameters are mutually exclusive, so use the parameter that requires the least
entries to give you the result you require. The basic syntax for both parameters is the same.
expdp scott/tiger@db10g schemas=SCOTT include=TABLE:"IN ('EMP', 'DEPT')" directory=TEST_DIR

dumpfile=SCOTT.dmp logfile=expdpSCOTT.log
expdp scott/tiger@db10g schemas=SCOTT exclude=TABLE:"= 'BONUS'" directory=TEST_DIR

dumpfile=SCOTT.dmp logfile=expdpSCOTT.log
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ORACLE 12c
Regular Expressions
The database provides a set of SQL functions that allow you to search and manipulate strings using regular
expressions. You can use these functions on any datatype that holds character data such as CHAR, NCHAR,
CLOB, NCLOB, NVARCHAR2, and VARCHAR2
A regular expression must be enclosed or wrapped between single quotes. Doing so, ensures that the
entire expression is interpreted by the SQL function and can improve the readability of your code.
Regualar Expression Functions:-

REGEXP_LIKE
This function searches a character column for a pattern. Use this function in the WHERE clause of a query
to return rows matching the regular expression you specify.
REGEXP_REPLACE
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ORACLE 12c
This function searches for a pattern in a character column and replaces each occurrence of that pattern
with the pattern you specify.
REGEXP_INSTR
This function searches a string for a given occurrence of a regular expression pattern. You specify which
occurrence you want to find and the start position to search from. This function returns an integer
indicating the position in the string where the match is found.
REGEXP_SUBSTR
This function returns the actual substring matching the regular expression pattern you specify.
Metacharacters Supported in Regular Expressions:-
Operator Name Description
. Any Character
+ One or More
? Zero or One
* Zero or more
{m} Interval--Exact Count
{m,} Interval--At Least Count
{m,n} Interval--Between Count
[ ... ] Matching Character List
[^ ... ] Non-Matching Character List
| Or
( ... ) Subexpression or Grouping
\n Backreference
\ Escape Character
^ Beginning of Line Anchor
$ End of Line Anchor
[:class:] POSIX Character Class
[.element.] POSIX Collating Sequence
[=character=] POSIX Character Equivalence Class
Constructing Regular Expressions:-

As mentioned earlier, regular expressions are constructed using metacharacters and literals.
Metacharacters that operate on a single literal, such as '+' and '?' can also operate on a sequence of literals
or on a whole expression. To do so, you use the grouping operator to enclose the sequence or
subexpression.
Match Any Character—Dot:-

The dot operator '.' matches any single character in the current character set. For example, to find the
sequence--'a', followed by any character, followed by 'c'--use the expression:
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ORACLE 12c
a.c
This expression matches all of the following sequences:
abc
adc
a1c
a&c
The expression does not match:

abb
One or More—Plus:-
The one or more operator '+' matches one or more occurrences of the preceding expression. For example,
to find one or more occurrences of the character 'a', you use the regular expression:
a+
This expression matches all of the following:
a
aa
aaa
bbb
Zero or One--Question Mark Operator:-
The question mark matches zero or one--and only one--occurrence of the preceding character or
subexpression. You can think of this operator as specifying an expression that is optional in the source text.
For example, to find--'a', optionally followed by 'b', then followed by 'c'--you use the following regular
expression:
ab?c
This expression matches:
abc
ac
adc
abbc
Zero or More—Star:-
The zero or more operator '*', matches zero or more occurrences of the preceding character or
subexpression. For example, to find--'a', followed by zero or more occurrences of 'b', then followed by 'c'--
use the regular expression:
ab*c
ac
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ORACLE 12c
abc
abbc
abbbbc
adc
Interval--Exact Count:-
The exact-count interval operator is specified with a single digit enclosed in braces. You use this operator
to search for an exact number of occurrences of the preceding character or subexpression.
For example, to find where 'a' occurs exactly 5 times, you specify the regular expression:
a{5}
This expression matches:
aaaaa
aaaa
Interval--At Least Count:-
You use the at-least-count interval operator to search for a specified number of occurrences, or more, of
the preceding character or subexpression. For example, to find where 'a' occurs at least 3 times, you use
the regular expression:
a{3,}
This expression matches all of the following:
aaa
aaaaa
aa
Interval--Between Count:-
You use the between-count interval operator to search for a number of occurrences within a specified
range. For example, to find where 'a' occurs at least 3 times and no more than 5 times, you use the
following regular expression:
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ORACLE 12c
a{3,5}
aaa
aaaa
aaaaa
aa
Matching Character List:-
You use the matching character list to search for an occurrence of any character in a list. For example, to
find either 'a', 'b', or 'c' use the following regular expression:
[abc]
This expression matches the first character in each of the following strings:
at
bet
cot
def
The following regular expression operators are allowed within the character list, any other metacharacters
included in a character list lose their special meaning (are treated as literals):
Range operator '-'

POSIX character class [::]
POSIX collating sequence [. .]
POSIX character equivalence class [= =]
Non-Matching Character List
Non-matching character list :-

used to specify characters that you do not want to match. Characters that are not in the non-matching
character list are returned as a match. For example, to exclude the characters 'a', 'b', and 'c' from your
search results, use the following regular expression:
[^abc]
This expression matches

abcdef
ghi
Page 171
ORACLE 12c

abc
As with the matching character list, the following regular expression operators are allowed within the non-
matching character list (any other metacharacters included in a character list are ignored):
For example, the following regular expression excludes any character between 'a' and 'i' from the search
result:
[^a-i]
This expression matches the characters 'j' and 'l' in the following strings:
hijk
lmn
The expression does not match the characters:
abcdefghi
Or
Use the Or operator '|' to specify an alternate expression. For example to match 'a' or 'b', use the following
regular expression:
a|b
Subexpression:-
You can use the subexpression operator to group characters that you want to find as a string or to create a
complex expression. For example, to find the optional string 'abc', followed by 'def', use the following
regular expression:
(abc)?def
This expression matches strings 'abcdef' and 'def' in the following strings:
abcdefghi
defghi
The expression does not match the string:
ghi
Backreference:-
The backreference lets you search for a repeated expression. You specify a backreference with '\n', where
n is an integer from 1 to 9 indicating the nth preceding subexpression in your regular expression.
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ORACLE 12c
For example, to find a repeated occurrence of either string 'abc' or 'def', use the following regular
expression:
(abc|def)\1
This expression matches the following strings:
abcabc
defdef
The expression does not match the following strings:
abcdef
abc
Escape Character:-
Use the escape character '\' to search for a character that is normally treated as a metacharacter. For
example to search for the '+' character, use the following regular expression:
\+
This expression matches the plus character '+' in the following string:
abc+def
The expression does not match any characters in the string:
abcdef
Beginning of Line Anchor:-
Use the beginning of line anchor ^ to search for an expression that occurs only at the beginning of a line.
For example, to find an occurrence of the string def at the beginning of a line, use the expression:
^def
This expression matches def in the string:
defghi
The expression does not match def in the following string:
abcdef
End of Line Anchor:-
Page 173
ORACLE 12c
The end of line anchor metacharacter '$' lets you search for an expression that occurs only at the end of a
line. For example, to find an occurrence of def that occurs at the end of a line, use the following
expression:
def$
This expression matches def in the string:
abcdef
The expression does not match def in the following string:
defghi
POSIX Character Class:-
[:alnum:] Alphanumeric characters

[:alpha:] Any alphabet either upper or lower case.
[:cntrl:] Any control character. A non-printable character is called as control character.
[:digit:] Any digit.
[:lower:] Any lower case letter.
[:print:] Any printable character.
[:punct:] Any punctuation character.
[:space:] All space characters.
[:upper:] Any upper case letter.
Examples:-
SQL>SELECT ename FROM emp WHERE regexp_like (ename, '^S.*T$');
The above example displays enames that start with S and end with T. It may contain anything in between
these two.
If you want to modify the way REGEXP_LIKE compares characters then third parameter, which contains
either 'c' for case sensitive or 'i' for ignore case, can be given as shown below.
SQL>SELECT ename FROM emp WHERE regexp_like ( ename, '^S.*T$','i')
Now let us see how REGEXP_SUBSTR is used to extract a substring based on regular expression.
SQL>SELECT regexp_substr('Oracle Database 10g is first grid aware database','[0-9]+') version FROM
DUAL;
The above query displays 10 as it is consisting of one or more digits.
SQL>SELECT regexp_substr('Oracle Database 10g is first grid aware database','[0-9]+[a-z]') version FROM
DUAL;
Page 174
ORACLE 12c
The following query displays the starting position of one or more digits.
SQL>SELECT regexp_instr('Oracle Database 10g is first grid aware database','[0-9]+') position FROM
DUAL;
The following query returns the positon of first non-alphabet in the given string.
SQL>SELECT regexp_instr('Abc123 xyz123','[^[:alpha:]]') FROM DUAL;
The following query places a space between Oracle its version using REGEXP_REPLACE function. For
example, Oracle9i will become Oracle 9i, Oracle10g will become Oracle 10g.
SQL>SELECT regexp_replace('Oracle10g','([[:alpha:]]+)([[:digit:]]+.)','\1 \2') FROM DUAL;
We extract series of alphabets and take them as group 1. Then we are looking for a group of digits
followed by any character and treat it as group 2. Then we replace the original with \1 (group 1) a space
and \2 (group 2).
Queries to practice:-
1.Display the dept information from department table
2.Display the details of all employees
3.Display the name and job for all employees
4.Display name and salary for all employees
5.Display employee number and total salary for each employee
6.Display employee name and annual salary for all employees
7.Display the names of all employees who are working in department number 10
8.Display the names of all employees working as clerks and drawing a salary more than 3000
9.Display employee number and names for employees who earn commission
10.Display names of employees who do not earn any commission
11.Display the names of employees who are working as clerk , salesman or analyst and drawing a salary
more than 3000
12.Display the names of employees who are working in the company for the past 5 years
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ORACLE 12c
13.Display the list of employees who have joined the company before 30 th june 90 or after 31 st dec 90
14.Display current date
15.Display the list of users in your database (using log table)
16.Display the names of all tables from the current user
17.Display the name of the current user
18.Display the names of employees working in department number 10 or 20 or 40 or employees working
as clerks , salesman or analyst
19.Display the names of employees whose name starts with alphabet S
20.Display employee name from employees whose name ends with alphabet S
21.Display the names of employees whose names have sencond alphabet A in their names
22.Display the names of employees whose name is exactly five characters in length
23.Display the names of employees who are not working as managers
24.Display the names of employees who are not working as SALESMAN or CLERK or ANALYST
25.Display all rows from emp table. The system should wait after every screen full of information
26.Display the total number of employees working in the company
27.Display the total salary and total commission to all employees
28.Display the maximum salary from emp table
29.Display the minimum salary from emp table
30.Display the average salary from emp table
31.Display the maximum salary being paid to CLERK
32.Display the maximum salary being paid in dept no 20
33.Display the minimum salary being paid to any SALESMAN
34.Display the average salary drawn by managers
35.Display the total salary drawn by analyst working in dept no 40
36.Display the names of employees in order of salary i.e. the name of the employee earning lowest salary
shoud appear first
37.Display the names of employees in descending order of salary
38.Display the details from emp table in order of emp name
39.Display empnno,ename,deptno and sal. Sort the output first based on name and within name by deptno
and witdhin deptno by sal;
40) Display the name of employees along with their annual salary(sal*12). the name of the employee
earning highest annual salary should appear first?
41) Display name,salary,Hra,pf,da,TotalSalary for each employee.
The out put should be in the order of total salary ,hra 15% of salary ,DA 10% of salary .pf 5% salary Total
Salary
will be (salary+hra+da)-pf?
42) Display Department numbers and total number of employees working in each Department?
43) Display the various jobs and total number of employees working in each job group?
44)Display department numbers and Total Salary for each Department?
45)Display department numbers and Maximum Salary from each Department?
46)Display various jobs and Total Salary for each job?
47)Display each job along with min of salary being paid in each job group?
48) Display the department Number with more than three employees in each department?
49) Display various jobs along with total salary for each of the job where total salary is greater than 40000?
50) Display the various jobs along with total number of employees in each job.The
output should contain only those jobs with more than three employees?
51) Display the name of employees who earn Highest Salary?
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ORACLE 12c
52) Display the employee Number and name for employee working as clerk and earning highest salary
among the clerks?
53) Display the names of salesman who earns a salary more than the Highest Salary of the clerk?
54) Display the names of clerks who earn a salary more than the lowest Salary of any salesman?
55) Display the names of employees who earn a salary more than that of jones or that of salary greater
than that of scott?
56) Display the names of employees who earn Highest salary in their respective departments?
57) Display the names of employees who earn Highest salaries in their respective job Groups?
58) Display employee names who are working in Accounting department?
59) Display the employee names who are Working in Chicago?
60) Display the job groups having Total Salary greater than the maximum salary for Managers?
61) Display the names of employees from department number 10 with salary greater than that of ANY
employee working in other departments?
62) Display the names of employees from department number 10 with salary greater than that of ALL
employee working in other departments?
63) Display the names of employees in Upper Case?
64) Display the names of employees in Lower Case?
65) Display the names of employees in Proper case?
Q:66) Find the length of your name using Appropriate Function?
67) Display the length of all the employee names?
68) Display the name of employee Concatinate with Employee Number?
69) Use appropriate function and extract 3 characters starting from 2 characters from the following string
'Oracle' i.e., the out put should be ac?
70) Find the first occurance of character a from the following string Computer Maintenance Corporation?
71) Replace every occurance of alphabet A with B in the string .Alliens (Use Translate function)?
72) Display the information from the employee table . where ever job Manager is found it should be
displayed as Boss?
73) Display empno,ename,deptno from tvsemp table. Instead of display department numbers display the
related department name(Use decode function)?
74) Display your Age in Days?
75) Display your Age in Months?
76) Display current date as 15th August Friday Nineteen Nienty Seven?
77) Display the following output for each row from tvsemp table?
78) Scott has joined the company on 13th August ninteen ninety?
79) Find the nearest Saturday after Current date?
80) Display the current time?
81) Display the date three months before the Current date?
82) Display the common jobs from department number 10 and 20?
83) Display the jobs found in department 10 and 20 Eliminate duplicate jobs?
84) Display the jobs which are unique to department 10?
85) Display the details of those employees who do not have any person working under him?
86) Display the details of those employees who are in sales department and grade is 3?
87) Display thoes who are not managers?
88) Display those employees whose name contains not less than 4 characters?
89) Display those department whose name start with"S" while location name ends with "K"?
90) Display those employees whose manager name is Jones?
91) Display those employees whose salary is more than 3000 after giving 20% increment?
92) Display all employees with their department names?
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ORACLE 12c
93) Display ename who are working in sales department?

94) Display employee name,dept name,salary,and commission for those sal in between 2000
to 5000 while location is Chicago?
95) Display those employees whose salary is greater than his managers salary?
96) Display those employees who are working in the same dept where his manager is work?
97) Display those employees who are not working under any Manager?
98) Display the grade and employees name for the deptno 10 or 30 but grade is not 4 while
joined the company before 31-DEC-82?
99) Update the salary of each employee by 10% increment who are not eligible for commission?
100) Delete those employees who joined the company before 31-Dec-82 while their department Location
is New York or Chicago?
101) Display employee name ,job,deptname,loc for all who are working as manager?
102) Display those employees whose manager name is jones and also display their manager
name?
103) Display name and salary of ford if his salary is equal to hisal of his grade?
104) Display employee name ,job,deptname,his manager name ,his grade and make an
under department wise?
105) List out all the employee names ,job,salary,grade and deptname for every one in a company except
'CLERK' . Sort on salary display the highest salary?
106) Display employee name,job abd his manager .Display also employees who are with out
managers?
107) Display Top 5 employee of a Company?
108) Display the names of those employees who are getting the highest salary?
109) Display those employees whose salary is equal to average of maximum and minimum?
110) Select count of employees in each department where count >3?
111) Display dname where atleast three are working and display only deptname?
112) Display name of those managers name whose salary is more than average salary of
Company?
113) Display those managers name whose salary is more than average salary salary of his
employees?
114) Display employee name,sal,comm and netpay for those employees whose netpay is
greater than or equal to any other employee salary of the company?
115) Display those employees whose salary is less than his manager but more than salary of
other managers?
116) Display all employees names with total sal of company with each employee name?
117) Find the last 5(least) employees of company?
118) Find out the number of employees whose salary is greater than their managers salary?
119) Display the manager who are not working under president but they are working under
any other manager?
120) Delete those department where no employee working?
121) Delete those records from emp table whose deptno not available in dept table?
122) Display those enames whose salary is out of grade available in salgrade table?
Ans: select empno,sal from tvsemp where sal<(select min(LOSAL) from salgrade )
OR sal>(select max(hisal) from salgrade)
123) Display employee name,sal,comm and whose netpay is greater than any othere in the
company?
124) Display name of those employees who are going to retire 31-Dec-99 if maximum job period
is 30 years?
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ORACLE 12c
125) Display those employees whose salary is odd value?

126) Display those employees whose salary contains atleast 3 digits?
127) Display those employees who joined in the company in the month of Dec?
128) Display those employees whose name contains A?
129) Display those employees whose deptno is available in salary?
130) Display those employees whose first 2 characters from hiredate - last 2 characters sal?
131) Display those employeess whose 10% of salary is equal to the year joining?
132) Display those employees who are working in sales or research?
133) Display the grade of jones?
134) Display those employees who joined the company before 15th of the month?
135) Display those employees who has joined before 15th of the month?
136) Delete those records where no of employees in particular department is less than 3?
137A) Delete those employeewho joined the company 10 years back from today?
137B) Display the deptname the number of characters of which is equal to no of employee
in any other department?
138) Display the deptname where no employee is working?
139) Display those employees who are working as manager?
140) Count th number of employees who are working as managers (Using set opetrator)?
141) Display the name of the dept those employees who joined the company on the same date?
142) Display those employees whose grade is equal to any number of sal but not equal to first number of
sal?
143) Count the no of employees working as manager using set operation?
144) Display the name of employees who joined the company on the same date?
145) Display the manager who is having maximum number of employees working under him?
146) List out the employee name and salary increased by 15% and express as whole number of Dollars?
147) Produce the output of the emptable "EMPLOYEE_AND JOB" for ename and job ?
148) Lust of employees with hiredate in the format of 'June 4 1988'?
149) print list of employees displaying 'Just salary' if more than 1500 if exactly 1500
display 'on taget' if less than 1500 display below 1500?
150) Which query to calculate the length of time any employee has been with the company
151) Given a string of the format 'nn/nn' . Verify that the first and last 2 characters are numbers .And that
the middle character is '/' Print the expressions 'Yes' IF valid 'NO' of not valid . Use the following values to
test your solution'12/54',01/1a,'99/98'?
152) Employes hire on OR Before 15th of any month are paid on the last friday of that month
those hired after 15th are paid the last friday of th following month .print a list of employees .their
hiredate and first pay date sort those who se salary contains first
digit of their deptno?
153) Display those managers who are getting less than his employees salary?
154) Print the details of employees who are subordinates to BLAKE?
151.Display those who working as manager using co related sub query
152.Display those employees whose manager name is JONES and also with his manager name
153.Define variable representing the expressions used to calculate on employees total annual
renumaration
154.Use the variable in a statement which finds all employees who can earn 30000 a year or more
155.Find out how many managers are there with out listing them
156.Find out the avg sal and avg total remuneration for each job type remember salesman earn
commission
157.Check whether all employees number are indeed unique
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ORACLE 12c
158.List out the lowest paid employees working for each manager, exclude any groups where minsal is less
than
1000 sort the output by sal
159.List ename,job,annual sal,depno,dname and grade who earn 30000 per year and who are not clerks
160.Find out th job that was falled in the first half of 1983 and the same job that was falled during the
same period on 1984
161.Find out the all employees who joined the company before their manager
162.List out the all employees by name and number along with their manager's name and number also
display
'NO MANAGER' who has no manager
163.Find out the employees who earned the highest sal in each job typed sort in descending sal order
164.Find out the employees who earned the min sal for their job in ascending order
165.Find out the most recently hired employees in each dept order by hire date
166.Display ename,sal and deptno for each employee who earn a sal greater than the avg of their
department order by deptno
167.Display the department where there are no employees
168.Display the dept no with highest annual remuneration bill as compensation
169.In which year did most people join the company. Display the year and number of employees
170.Display avg sal figure for the dept
171.Write a query of display against the row of the most recently hierd employee.display ename hire date
and column max date showing
172.Display employees who can earn more than lowest sal in dept no 30
173.Find employees who can earn more than every employees in dept no 30
174.select dept name and deptno and sum of sal
175.Find out avg sal and avg total remainders for each job type
176.Find all dept's which have more than 3 employees
177.If the pay day is next Friday after 15th and 30th of every month. What is the next pay day from
their hire date for employee in emp table
178.If an employee is taken by you today in your organization and is a policy in your company to have a
review after 9 months the joined date (and of 1st of next month after 9 months) how many days from
today
your employee has to wait for a review
179.Display employee name and his sal whose sal is greater than highest avg of deptno
180.Display the 10 th record of emp table (without using rowid)
181.Display the half of the enames in upper case and remaining lower case
182.Display the 10th record of emp table without using group by and rowid
183.Delete the 10th record of emp table
184.Create a copy of emp table
185.select ename if ename exists more than once
186.Display all enames in reverse order
187.Display those employee whose joining of month and grade is equal
188.Display those employee whose joining date is available in deptno
189.Display those employee name as follows A ALLEN, B BLAKE
190.List out the employees ename,sal,pf from emp
191.Display RSPS from emp without using updating,inserting
192.Create table emp with only one column empno
193.Add this column to emp table ename varchar2(20)
194.OOPSI i forget to give the primary key constraint. Add it now
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ORACLE 12c
195.Now increase the length of ename column to 30 characters

196.Add salary column to emp table
197.I want to give a validation saying that sal can not be greater 10000(note give a name to this column)
198.For the time being i have decided that i will not impose this validation. My boss has agreed to pay
more than 10000
199.My boss has changed his mind. Now he doesn't want to pay more than 10000 So revoke that salary
constraint
200.Add column called as mgr to your emp table
201.Oh! This column should be related to empno, Give a command tdo add this constraint
202.Add dept no column to your emp table
203.This deptno column should be related to deptno column of dept table
204.Create table called as new emp. Using single command create this table as well as to get data into
this table (use create table as)
205.Create table called as newemp. This table should contain only empno,ename,dname
206.Delete the rows of employees who are working in the company for more than 2 years
207.Provides a commission to employees who are not earning any commission
208.If any employee has commission his commission should be incremented by 100% of his salary
209.Display employee name and department name for each employee
210.Display employee number,name and location of the department in which he is working
211.Display ename,dname even if there no employees working in a particular department(use outer join)
212.Display employee name and his manager name.
213.Display the department name along with total salary in each department
214.Display the department name and total number of employees in each department
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What are the different types of people involved in DBMS development?

What are the different types of people involved in DBMS development?

What is an ER model?

What is an ER model?

ORACLE 12c

On line Transactional Processing :-

On line Analytical Processing (Data Warehouse) :-

• Reduced data redundancy

• Database systems are complex, difficult, and time-consuming to design

Types of people involved:-

Three types of people are involved with a general-purpose DBMS:

An entity-relationship model (ERM) is a conceptual representation of data. Entity-relationship

The building blocks of ER model :-

In ERD attributes are represented by using symbol ellipse.

A relationship is an association between entities of entity sets and it is represented by using

• A Database is a collection of tables.

Year Version Features

1979 version 1 Not comercially released.

1980 Version 2 First commercial SQL database (PDP11/VAX)

1982 Version 3 First portable database

First RDBMS to support SMP

1984 Version 4 Introduced Read Consistency

1986 Version 5 Supports Client/Server Architecture

1988 Version 6 Financial Applications built on ORACLE.

1992 Version 7 Varchar2 datatype

1997 Version 8 - first Web Database

Object Oriented Features

1998 version 8i Java support, SQLJ, XML and Oracle interMedia.

2001 version 9i RAC

2004 version 10g Flashback Query

2007 version 11g read only table

SQL has the following advantages:

• SQL statements are not case sensitive.

• SQL statements can be entered on one or many lines.

SQL*Plus is an environment in which you can do the following :-

Character data of variable length up to 2 gigabytes, or 231 -1 bytes.

TIMESTAMP(fractional_seconds_precision) WITH TIME ZONE:-

TIMESTAMP(fractional_seconds_precision) WITH LOCAL TIME ZONE:-

Raw binary data of variable length up to 2 gigabytes.

A binary large object. Maximum size is 4 gigabytes.

A. Only one LONG column can be used per table.

A. DATE B. NUMBER C. TIMESTAMP

Operators in ORACLE categorized into following categories

➔ Operators * , / having higher precedence than operators + , -

> greater than

AND used to combine two conditions

Different types of tables can be created in ORACLE.

SQL> CREATE TABLE <Table Name>

Rules for creating a table :-

• tablename should start with alphabet

Which is the valid CREATE TABLE statement?

Inserting Data into a Table:-

INSERT command is used to insert record into a table.

INSERT INTO <table name> VALUES(list of values)

Note :- Strings and Dates must be enclosed in single quotes.

SQL>INSERT INTO emp VALUES(1000,’BLAKE’,’MANAGER’, ’10-JAN-10’,5000,500,10) ;

Inserting NULL values :-

→NULL values are inserted when value is

Inserting NULL values EXPLICITLY: