Health Systems

HEALTH SYSTEMS
Aside from being scientific truisms, wellness and illness are social, cultural, and
political constructs as well. This lesson explores these facets of health and health systems
seen as products of human experience, and hence revolve around a multiplicity of
meaning-making systems involving the body, nature, and relations. The body is a
template that can be a playground for social forces and cultural practices, resulting in a
smorgasbord of culture-specific syndromes and systems of diagnosis. At the end, the
lesson tackles the issue of health as a human right and emphasizes its political facet.
SOCIOLOGY OF HEALTH AND ILLNESS
This emerging field within sociology examines the interaction between society and
health. This aspect of sociology differs from medical sociology in that this branch of
sociology discusses health and illness in relation to social institutions such as family,
employment, and school. The sociology of medicine limits its concern to the patient-
practitioner relationship and the role of health professionals in society. The sociology of
health and illness covers sociological pathology (causes of disease and illness), reasons
for seeking particular types of medical aid, and patient compliance or noncompliance
with medical regimes.
Health, or lack of health, was once merely attributed to biological or natural

conditions. Sociologists have demonstrated that the spread of diseases is heavily
influenced by the socioeconomic status of individuals, ethnic traditions or beliefs, and
other cultural factors. Where medical research might gather statistics on a disease, a
sociological perspective on an illness would provide insight on what external factors
caused the demographics who contracted the disease to become ill.
There has historically been a long-term decline in mortality within industrialized

societies, and on average, life-expectancies are considerably higher in developed,
rather than developing or undeveloped, societies. Patterns of global change in health
care systems make it more imperative than ever to research and comprehend the
sociology of health and illness. Continuous changes in economy, therapy, technology
and insurance can affect the way individual communities view and respond to the
medical care available. These rapid fluctuations cause the issue of health and illness
within social life to be very dynamic in definition. Advancing information is vital because
as patterns evolve, the study of the sociology f health and illness constantly needs to be
updated.
HEALTH SYSTEMS IN THE PHILIPPINES
In the Philippines, there is a decentralized health delivery system, and it is headed

by the Department of Health as the regulatory authority. It develops national plans,
technical standards, and healthcare guidelines for all Filipinos. Local Government Units
(LGUs) and private sector agencies act as adjuncts. There are Centers for Health
Department (CHDs) exist in every municipality to improve access to healthcare.
CULTURAL CONSTRUCTS OF HEALTH AND THE
FILIPINO ATTRIBUTIONS OF ILLNESS
Cultures around the world have manifold ways of taxonomizing the various levels
of health and an equally esoteric classification of illness. Hence, illness and health
syndromes can be culture specific as well. The Philippines, for example, has its set of
language to refer to health and illness, most of which pertains to either the corporeal
body or spirit: “may nararamdaman ka,” masama ang pakiramdam, sakit ng katawan,”
are reflections of the nuances of these categories.
In addition, the Filipinos have their own culture—specific syndromes and

attributions on illness such as usog and bughat.
 Usog is a Filipino belief regarding the discomfort brought about by a stranger or

visitor who is thought to have an evil eye (masamang mata) or who brings an evil
wind (masamang hangin) or a hex.
 Bughat (Ilonggo term) or binat (Tagalog version) is the term used to refer to the
ailments (headache, chills, body pains, malaise, dizziness, muscle weakness, and
in some it is blindness) a mother experiences after giving birth or after suffering
from an abortion or miscarriage if she did not follow certain rituals after childbirth.
FILIPINO SYSTEMS OF DIAGNOSIS P R E V E N T I O N,
H E A L I N G, AND HEALTH PROMOTION
When it comes to health promotion and treatment concepts, the Filipino beliefs
are oriented toward protection of the body in three metaphoric ways-–flushing, heating,
and protecting. As to flushing, Filipinos thought of the body to be a vessel or container
which can collect impurities. Hence, it must be cleansed of debris by stimulating
physiological events such as sweating, vomiting, expelling gas, or having appropriate
volume of menstrual bleeding. The concepts of hot and cold is included as dichotomy
of balance. So by heating, balance is believed to be restored. Protecting is a general
procedure that act as a gate keeping system to guard the body or covering it.
HEALTH BELIEFS AND BEHAVIORS
Filipino health beliefs is characterized by the principle of balance (tag.timbang).

This is a key indigenous health concept that includes a complex set of fundamental
principles. The balance is noticeably anchored on the range of “hot” and “cold” beliefs
concerning humoral balances in the body and food and dietary balances includes the
following:
1. Rapid shifts from hot to cold lead to illness.

2. Warm environment is essential to maintain optimal health.
3. Cold drinks or food should be avoided in the morning.
4. An overheated body (as in childbirth or fever) is vulnerable; and heated body
or muscles can get “shocked” when cooled suddenlt.
5. A layer of fat is preferred to maintain warmth and protect vital energy.
6. Heat and cooling rate to quality and balance of air in the body.
7. Sudden changes in weather patterms, cool breezes, exposure in evening hours
to low temperature, intense heat immediately after a lengthy rain, and vapors
rising from the soil all may upset the body balance.
FILIPINO THEORIES OF ILLNESS
Physical and mental health and illness are viewed holistically as an equilibrium
model. Explanatory models may include mystical, personalistic, naturalistic, and
viral/bacterial causes.
1. Mystical causes are often associated with experiences or behaviors such as

retribution from ancestors for unfulfilled obligations. Some believe in soul loss
and that sleep related to the wandering of the soul out of the body known as
bangungot, or nightmares after a heavy meal may result in death.
2. Personalistic causes may be attributed to social punishment or retribution by
supernatural being such as evil spirit, witch, or mangkukulam (sorcerer). A
stronger spirit such as a healer or priest may counteract this force. For
protection, using holy oils, wearing religious objects or an anting-anting (amulet
or talisman) may be recommended.
3. Naturalistic causes include a range factors from nature events, excessive stress,
incompatible food and drugs, infection, pr familiar susceptibility. The basic
logic of health and illness consists of prevention and curing; it is a system
oriented to moderation.
4. Bacterial/Viral causes: There is an increasing number of people who are
already swayed by the power of science. The concept virus and bacteria,
hence of infection and allergies, and poisoning. A lot of illnesses are now
attributed to as effects of these entities invading the body and making the
body weak and defenseless.
CULTURAL HEALTH ACTORS
Cultural health actors are specified in each health practices mentioned. They
perform specific activities that are more or less associated with flushing, heating, and
protecting. Cultural healers help to “protect” the body and treat it supernaturally with
herbal/medicinal treatments, incantations, and offering.
Just like in the biomedical world, the hierarchy of healers and specialists in
Philippines folk medicine can be categorized as some sort of specialists in their own right.
What set these cultural health actors is that they consider their healing skills and craft as
God-given. They believe they were “called” by God or supernatural being.
Consequently, their healing practices and procedures are profusely infused with prayers
and religious rituals, performed through mediation with the Holy Spirit. Although they are
predominantly and usually rural-based, they are present in urban and suburban
communities as well, mostly in small scattered niches, serving bourgeois’ alternative
needs, the impoverished, or the urban-tramsplanted rural folk.
HEALTH AS HUMAN RIGHT
All individuals have the right to health. This right implies an economic, social, and
cuktural right to a universal minimum standard of health. The right to health is cited in
international agreements which include the Universal Declaration of Human Rights,
International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, and the Convention on
the Rights of Persons with Disabilities. However, interpretations of these basic principles
are tossed in different directions because of the different approaches to how health is
defined, what minimum entitlements are encompassed by the right to health, and which
institutions are responsible for ensuring this right is upheld.
The human right to health means that everyone has the right to the highest
attainable standard of physical and mental health, which includes access to all medical
services, sanitation, adequate food, decent housing, healthy working conditions, and a
clean environment. Specifically, the human right to health entitles every individual to the
following:
 The human right to health guarantees a system of health protection for all.
 Everyone has the right to the health care they need and to living conditions
that enable them to be healthy.
 Health care must be provided as a public good for all, financed publicly
and equitably.
The three points above suggest that hospitals, clinics, medicines, and doctors’
services must be accessible, available, acceptable, equitable, and of good
quality for everyone, accordingly, the design of a health care system must be
guided by the following key human rights standards:
1. Universal access
2. Availability
3. Acceptability and dignity
4. Quality
5. Non-discrimination
6. Transparency
7. Participation

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HEALTH SYSTEMS

SOCIOLOGY OF HEALTH AND ILLNESS

Health, or lack of health, was once merely attributed to biological or natural

There has historically been a long-term decline in mortality within industrialized

HEALTH SYSTEMS IN THE PHILIPPINES

In the Philippines, there is a decentralized health delivery system, and it is headed

FILIPINO ATTRIBUTIONS OF ILLNESS

In addition, the Filipinos have their own culture—specific syndromes and

 Usog is a Filipino belief regarding the discomfort brought about by a stranger or

FILIPINO SYSTEMS OF DIAGNOSIS P R E V E N T I O N,

H E A L I N G, AND HEALTH PROMOTION

HEALTH BELIEFS AND BEHAVIORS

Filipino health beliefs is characterized by the principle of balance (tag.timbang).

1. Rapid shifts from hot to cold lead to illness.

FILIPINO THEORIES OF ILLNESS

1. Mystical causes are often associated with experiences or behaviors such as

CULTURAL HEALTH ACTORS

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