INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MECHANICS

An Explanation of Possible Damascus Steel

Manufacturing Based on Duration of Transient
Nucleate Boiling Process and Prediction of the Future
of Controlled Continuous Casting
NIKOLAI KOBASKO
Intensive Technologies Ltd, Kyiv, Ukraine and IQ Technologies Inc, Akron, USA

Abstract - In the paper the new explanation in cementite microstructure were also found in the
manufacturing of Damascus steel, based on discovered archeological items from Pol'tse, a settlement at Amur
the specific characteristics of transient nucleate boiling river, V-IV century B.C. Raw materials and Damascus
processes, is provided. Also, the future of continuous steel crafting instruction are not longer available. Details
casting in the paper is discussed. According to of technology, which was used by the capable
discovered characteristics, duration of transient nucleate metallurgists from Pol'tse, is not known [8]. The ancient
boiling process is directly proportional to squared size of technique reached modern - day Turkmenistan and
a steel part and inversely proportional to thermal Uzbekistan around 900 A.D., and then the Middle East
diffusivity of material, depends on configuration and circa 1000 A.D. There are numerous publications where
initial temperature of component, thermal properties of this matter is widely discussed [9 - 16]. It is underlined
liquid. The surface temperature of steel part during that India has been reputed for its iron and steel since
transient nucleate boiling process maintains at the level ancient times, the time of Alexander the Great (356 B.C.
of boiling point of liquid and cannot be below it. Based - 323 B.C.) [5] . When Alexander the Great got to India
on these characteristics, the new hypothesis regarding he ordered to be delivered to him “100 talents of Indian
manufacturing of Damascus steel is proposed according steel” [5]. Studies on “wootz” indicate that is was an
to which the melted high carbon steel (containing 1 – 2% ultra - high carbon steel with 1 - 2% carbon. Metal
carbon) was casted into copper forms cooled by cold smiths in India and Sri Lanka developed a technique that
water and then the steel was many times forged and produced unusually high purity “wootz” steel. Glass was
quenched in special water salt solutions until finishing added to a mixture of iron and charcoal and then heated.
transient nucleate boiling process. Such simple The glass would act as a flux and bind to other
technology provided extremely small spherical carbides impurities in the mixture, allowing them to rise to the
distributed in steel which acted as a saw and made steel surface and leave a pure steel when the mixture cooled.
very strong. It is stated that high strength materials with It is interesting to know that more than two millennium
fine microstructure can be achieved by applying ago ancient metallurgists manufactured pure ultra - high
intensive cooling to continuous casting. carbon steel which was of high quality [4, 5]. Later the
main features of the method of ancient metallurgists
Keywords - Transient nucleate boiling process, were rediscovered by Anosov in his systematic research
Damascus steel, Hammering, HTMT and LTMT at Zlatoust Arms Factory in Russia during 1828 - 1840
processes, Highly strengthened plain carbon steels, [1, 2]. The essence of the Anosov's method consists in
Continuous casting. many cycles of forging the ultra - high carbon steel at
high temperature with intermediate annealing. Accurate
I. INTRODUCTION microstructure studies of Damascus steel with correct
explanation of its strengthening due to formation of fine
Damascus steel was a hot - forged steel which was used
spheroidized carbides were published by N.T.Belaiew in
in Middle East's sword making from 1000 to 1700 A.D.
Journal of the Iron and Steel Institute [3]. Microstructure
[1-5]. The foundation for Damascus steel was "wootz"
of a typical Damascus sword is characterized by
steel which originated in India, Sri Lanka and later
formation of spherical cementite particles of 5 - 20 µm
spread to Persia [4 - 7]. Steel making sites were found in
Sri Lanka that made high carbon steel as early as 300 [3, 8]. Fundamental scientific research on the
B.C. According to Ref. [8], the small spherical grains of development of high-carbon steel with the uniform

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submicron-size cementite structure was performed by Below are equations describing the two mechanisms of
Sherby in the 1970s and 1980s. The Sherby method for precipitation hardening. Dislocations cutting through the
forming high-carbon steel closely resembles the method small carbides [19]:
of Damascus craftsmen. Both methods include numerous
cycles of intensive high temperature deformation and rγπ
annealing. While Damascus steel was formed by στ = (1)
forging, the Sherby method utilized rolling as the bL
deformation means. Several U.S. Patents of Sherby
describe an ultra high-carbon steel having a carbon about where στ is material strength, r is the second phase
1.0% - 2.3 % and an iron grain matrix with uniformly particle radius, γ is the surface energy, b is the
dispersed cementite [14, 15, 16]. magnitude of the Burgers vector, and L is the spacing
between pinning points. This governing equation shows
that the strength is proportional to r. This means that it is
easier for dislocations to cut through a material with the
smaller second phase particles. As the size of the second
phase particles increases, the particles impede
dislocation movement and it is very difficult for
dislocations to cut through the material. It means that the
strength of a material increases with increasing r.

Dislocations bowing around the particles is described by

Eq. (2) [19]:

Gb
στ = , (2)
L − 2r

where G is the shear modulus. This governing equation

Fig. 1 Microstructure of Damascus sword [8]. shows that for dislocation bowing the strength is
inversely proportional to the second phase particle radius
The iron grains in the steel were no greater than 10 r and distance between particles L. Dislocation bowing
microns with spherical carbides [9 - 13]. Unfortunately, is easily occurred when there are large particles presence
contemporary methods of manufacturing Damascus steel in the material.
are rather complicated and expensive; that is why they
are not widely used in practice. To decrease cost of Considered governing equations show that the
technology, author [8] proposed to cast high – carbon precipitation hardening mechanism depends on the size
steel in preheated to 700oC casting forms which provide of the precipitate particles. At small r cutting dominates,
optimal cooling rate for getting spherical small carbides while at large r bowing dominates.
(0.1 - 5 µm ) and enough strengthened ultra – high
carbon steel (1200 – 2500 MPa with 10% of plasticity)
without further thermomechanical treatment, quenching
and annealing. However, casting into preheated form
doesn’t allow achieving very small particles of carbides
without thermomechanical treatment and quenching. A
team of researches based on Technical University of
Dresden used x - rays and electron microscopy to
examine Damascus steel. They discovered the presence
of cementite nanowires and carbon nanotubes in ancient
Damascus steel [17, 18]. It is believed that these
nanostructures are as a result of the intensive forging
[17, 18].

II. GOVERNING EQUATIONS OF THE PROCESS

OF PRECIPITATION

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Fig. 3 Possible way of casting might have been used by

Fig. 2 Strength of steel versus radius of second phase ancient metallurgists: 1 is ladle; 2 is liquid metal; 3 is
particle [19]. water – cooled copper form; 4 is solidified metal; 5 is
water (quenchant); 6 is tank with water.
That is why a critical radius, at which max strengthening
occurs, can be evaluated [19]. This critical radius is Using Eq. (4) and Eq. (5), one can produce very high
within 5-30 nm or 0.005 - 0.03 µm[19]. Provided cooling rate and eliminate transformation of austenite
calculations show that spherical carbides of 0.1 – 5 µm into martensite. For this purpose the casting form is
are almost 1000 times larger as compared with the cooled by water or any suitable liquid quenchant. During
critical radius of carbides; and they cannot cause casting water starts to boil and duration of boiling can be
extremely high strength of steel. Authors [20] achieved
evaluated from Eq. (4). At the end of transient nucleate
nanoparticles by cooling intensively melted metal with
cold water using special technology. boiling process water in tank will be almost 100oC.
Since for UHCS martensite start temperature Ms is
100oC and below, no martensite transformation will
occur (see Fig. 4). So, Eq. (4) helps to evaluate duration
III. INTENSIVE COOLING OF MELTED UHCS TO
RECEIVE SUITABLE PARTICLES OF CARBIDES of transient nucleate boiling process [22], i.e.

To obtain very small particles, cooling rate of melted D2

τ nb = Ω k F kW , (4)
steel should be very high (see Eq. 3) [21]. a
2σ where value Ω depends on initial temperature and
rcr = . (3)
∆f V condition of cooling (generalized Biot number during
convective heat transfer). Coefficient k F depends on
Here σ is surface tension; ∆fV is difference of free
configuration of castings. For plate- shaped forms k F =
energy for one unit of volume between initial phase and
supercooled phase. The higher cooling rate, the smaller 0.1013; for cylinder – shaped form k F = 0.0432; for
size of particles to be precipitated. However, during spherical – shaped forms k F = 0.0253; kW is
intensive quenching transformation austenite into
dimensionless coefficient which depends on liquid flow
martensite should be prevented to escape crack
formation and big distortion of the castings. It can be velocity. For motionless liquid kW = 1. For high flow
easily done by using very simple technique shown in velocity of liquid which prevents nucleate boiling
Fig. 3 which is governed by main laws of nucleate kW = 0. That is why for different condition we have
boiling processes (Eq. (4) and Eq. (5)).
0 ≤ kW ≤ 1. D is thickness of the body: diameter of
cylinder, sphere or thickness of the plate; a is thermal

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diffusivity of material. The character of surface thermomechanical treatment (LTMT) can be easily
temperature changing during transient nucleate boiling fulfilled for high carbon steel and UHCS. It cannot be
(self- regulated thermal process) is shown in Fig, 5 (see done when quenching high carbon steel and UHCS in
curve 2). Such trend can be written as [22]: oil. Only alloy steels can be used for LTMT processing.
Discovered characteristics (see (Eq.(4) and Eq. (5))
Tsf = TS + ξ 0 ≈ const , (5) make LTMT possible and this process is effective for
plain carbon steels including high carbon steel and
where T sf is average surface temperature of a body; TS is UHCS. There is a great probability that ancient
saturation temperature; ξ 0 = Tsf − T S is average wall metallurgists might have used some empirical data
connected with the boiling processes. It could be copper
overheat. Very fast cooling can cause martensite melting form immersed into cold water (see Fig. 3).
transformation which will results in crack formation (see After the melted material is powered into the form, water
curve 1 in Fig. 5). is heated to boiling point and remains at this
temperature until end of solidification. Since martensite
Equation (4) can be used at continuous casting
start temperature is equal to boiling point of water, no
secondary cooling to accelerate cooling rate of
martensite transformation occur. Then UHCS was
solidifying slabs. It can be also widely used when
heated to high temperature and many times forged. Low
intensive quenching IQ-2 process is applied to
temperature and high temperature thermomechanical
quenching of slabs after their solidification. Both
treatment possibly was used to improve significantly
processes increase significantly mechanical properties of
mechanical properties of UHCS. During
materials due to formation of fine microstructure during
thermomechanical treatment, quenching process should
intensive quenching.
be interrupted at the end of nucleate boiling process to
prevent martensite transformation at LTMT.

Fig.4 Martensite start temperature MS and martensite

finish temperature MF versus content of carbon in steel.

IV. HIGH TEMPERATURE AND LOW

TEMPERATURE THERMOMECHANICAL
TREATMENT Fig. 5 Surface temperature versus time during transient
nucleate boiling (self - regulated thermal process): 1 is
For ultra – high carbon steel (UHCS) martensite start conventional process; 2 is intensive cooling process
temperature is equal to 100oC and less (see Fig. 4); and it which delays transformation austenite into martensite.
means that during transient nucleate boiling process
transformation of austenite into martensite will be
delayed for enough long time which can be calculated
by Eq. (4). During this time low temperature

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small carbides (nano – carbides) by means of controlled

secondary cooling as shown in Fig. 8. Since martensite
start temperature of UHCS is below 100oC, the plain
water can be used to keep surface temperature at the
level of boiling point. It can be done by taking into
account characteristics of transient nucleate boiling
processes ( se Eq 4 and Eq 5 ). Delaying martensite
transformation prevents crack formation and makes
possible to increase cooling rate of solid metal within
AC 3 − M S to provide fine microstructure. The
continuous controlled casting with the use of non –
linear wave technology was for the first time mentioned
in the certificate of the authors in 1985 [25]. In many
cases continuous casting, rolling (including HTMT and
LTMT processes), intensive quenching and tempering
should be non – interrupted controlled continuous
Fig. 6 The scheme of low and high temperature thermo technological line allowing manufacture high quality
mechanical heat treatment [21]. steels and other metallic materials. To make such
The scheme of high temperature and low temperature approach possible to apply into the practice, more
thermomechanical treatment is shown in Fig. 6; and investigations are needed. In particular, the nonlinear
incorrect low temperature thermomechanical treatment wave mechanics is not used enough in metallurgical
(LTMT) (a) and correct LTMT (b) are shown in Fig. 7. processes to distribute nano – carbides in melted
So, discovered characteristics of transient nucleate materials and provide condition for getting fine and nano
boiling processes can introduce very simple way of – microstructures. Also, characteristics of air – water
achieving nanoparticles of carbides to strengthen plain sprays are not enough investigated depending on many
carbon steels including UHCS. parameters: pressure, distance, temperature, amount of
water and air and so on. All of these should be
investigated very carefully prior to apply to the
continuous casting.

Fig. 7 Scheme of incorrect (a) and correct (b) low

temperature thermomechanical treatment (LTMT) [21].

V. THE FUTURE OF CONTROLLED CONTINUOUS

CASTING
Fig. 8 Continuous casting with the air – water spray
At present time, the continuous casting is widely used to
manufacture high quality steels with the fine cooling governed by micro-processor and system for
microstructure. The further improvement of continuous providing delivery nano –particles into melted material
casting could be based on using of non – linear wave [25]: 1 is crystallization system; 2 is ladle; 3 is channel
mechanics [26, 27] to modify melted material and even to cool crystallization system by water; 4 is vibration
distribute nano – carbides in it. Also, the continuous system to provide delivery nano – particles into melted
casting is very suitable to produce UHCS with extremely

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material based on phenomena of non- linear mechanics is martensite start temperature; AC3 is critical point of
[26, 27]; 5 is vibrating hole tube to deliver nano – austenite transformation.
particles; 6 are movable air – water sprayers; 7 is support
roll; 8 is boundary between melted and solid material. Turning on and off air – spray method was used by
authors [29] in 1991 to simulate oil cooling. There is no
doubt that turning on and off air – spray method can be
used to simulate transient boiling process which occur
during quenching in cold water and water salt solutions
of optimal concentration. Therefore, the air – spray
controlled cooling can be used to optimize quenching
processes shown in Fig. 9. This process is called the
secondary cooling because metal is cooled second time
after its solidifying.

It was reported by author [30] that intensive secondary

cooling of melted Al – Si alloy resulted in silicon nano –
particles creation. The nano – microstructure of Al – Si
Fig. 9 Existing types of continuous casting methods
is shown in Fig. 11. More detailed information on
[28]: 1 is vertical continuous casting; 2 is curved
performed investigation involving secondary intensive
continuous casting; 3 is horizontal casting; 4 is strip
cooling of melted materials was discussed at the
casting of steels. Spray air – water cooling is governed
International Congress on Heat Treatment of Metals and
by computer [1].
Alloys in 2007 by Stestsenko [30].
The existing types of continuous castings are shown in
Fig. 9 which include spray cooling [28]. By turning on
and off the air – spray cooling, one can keep the surface
temperature above the level of martensite start
temperature as shown in Fig. 10.

Fig. 11 Nano – microstructure of Al – Si alloys [30,

31].

VI. DISCUSSION

It has been fulfilled numerous investigations worldwide

and written numerous books and articles since 1841
concerning the process of Damascus steel
Fig. 10 Governing the process of cooling by turning on manufacturing. Due to these investigations, it has been
and off air – water spray aided by micro- computer [29]: established that Damascus steel is ultra – high carbon
1 is surface temperature during quenching in vaporizable steel containing spherical small carbides (5 – 20 µm).
liquid; 2 is air – water cooling curve obtained by turning These small carbides create chains (see Fig. 1) which are
on and off spray system governed by micro – computer, visible clearly as a macrostructure (Fig. 12).
3 is core temperature of steel part during quenching; MS

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is provided in the monograph [27] where new wave

technologies in different industries, as already
mentioned, are widely discussed.

VII. CONCLUSION

1. The possible technology of Damascus steel

manufacturing is explained on the basis of
discovered specific characteristics of transient
nucleate boiling processes [22].

2. A method for achieving high cooling rate of

melted high carbon steel and UHCS is proposed,
which can eliminate martensite transformation
and provide formation of nanoparticles of
carbides in steel.
3. It is impossible to achieve nanoparticles by
casting high carbon steel or UHCS into copper
or preheated to 700oC forms [23, 24] without
their intensive cooling.
4. 4. Continuous casting can be used for ultra –
carbon steels with air – water spray cooling of
Fig. 12 Close-up of a 16th century Damascus steel solid cast to cool its surface up to martensite
sword [5].
start temperature and support this temperature at
Calculations show that optimal size of carbides should the same level by means of turning on and off
be at least 100 times less to provide high strength of the spays governed by microprocessor.
material. Fig. 1 shows that along with small carbides 5. 5. Delay of martensite transformation prevents
could be invisible carbides. Authors [17, 18] observed crack formation during cooling and allows
even nanotubes which must have been as a result of
engineers and metallurgists to receive fine
intense hammering. It should be underlined that it is
impossible to manufacture Damascus steel just cooling microstructure consisting of pearlite, bainite,
melted UHCS in preheated to 700oC casting form or and nano – carbides.
copper form. This process will provide raw material 6. In the future non – linear wave mechanics will
which should be many times hammered and quenched to be widely used to distribute nano – particles in
receive high strengthened material like Damascus steel. the melted materials during continuous casting
The new characteristics of transient nucleate boiling and controlled intensive cooling will be applied
process have been discovered by author [22] which can
for receiving fine microstructures.
be used to manufacture high strength materials on the
basis of plain carbon steels including UHCS. Also, the
nonlinear wave mechanics should be involved to these
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www.nytimes.com/1981/09/29/science/the- [21] N.I.Kobasko, M.A.Aronov, J.A.Powell,

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Nikolai I. Kobasko, PhD, FASM

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Dr. Kobasko received his Ph.D. from the National

Academy of Sciences of Ukraine. He is a leading expert
on quenching and heat transfer during the hardening of
steels. He was the Head of the laboratory of the Thermal
Science Institute of the National Academy of Sciences of
Ukraine. He is Director of Technology and Research and
Development for IQ Technologies, Inc., Akron, Ohio
and supervisor of Intensive Technologies, Ltd, Kyiv,
Ukraine. The aim of both companies is material savings,
ecological problem-solving, and increasing service life
of steel parts. He is an ASM International Fellow
(FASM). Dr. Kobasko is the author and co-author of
more than 250 scientific and technical papers, several
books and more than 30 patents and certificates. He
received the Da Vinci Diamond Award and Certificate in
recognition of an outstanding contribution to thermal
science. Dr. Nikolai Kobasko was Editor-in-Chief and
Co-Editor of the WSEAS Transactions on Heat and
Mass Transfer; and is currently a member of the
Editorial Board for the International Journal of
Mechanics (NAUN) and the Journal of ASTM
International (JAI). The new characteristics of transient
nucleate boiling processes were discovered by him
which are basis for new technologies development
including hypothesis for explanation of Damascus steel
manufacturing presented in this paper.

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