COMPUTER NETWORKS - I

( 12CS52 )

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 Data and Signals
This chapter discusses the relationship
between :
• data …. which are created by a device
and
• electromagnetic signals …. which are
transmitted over a medium

need :
to move data, in the form of electromagnetic
signals, across a transmission medium

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 Data and Signals
Introduction
data comprising text / numbers / images /
audio / video ….
to be transmitted across network
connections ……
must be converted to …..
electromagnetic signals
transmission media work by conducting
energy across a physical path
data and signals can be either in analog
or digital in form
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 Data and Signals
Analog and Digital Data
analog data → continuous information
digital data → discrete state information

analog digital

example of analog data : human voice

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 Data and Signals
Analog and Digital Data
speech, in the form of continuous waves,
can be captured by a microphone and
converted to analog signal
analog signal can also be sampled and
converted to digital signal
data stored in a computer takes on
discrete values viz. 1s and 0s
these need to be converted to digital
signal or modulated into an analog signal
for transmission
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across a medium 5
 Data and Signals
Analog and Digital Signals

infinite number of limited number of

values in a range values in a range

Analog Signal Digital Signal

• vertical axis : represents value or

strength of a signal
• horizontal axis represents time
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 Data and Signals
Analog and Digital Signals
Periodic signal :
completes a pattern in a time frame, called
a period, and repeats that pattern over
subsequent identical periods
completion of one full pattern is called a
cycle

Aperiodic signal :
changes without exhibiting a pattern or
cycle over time
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 Data and Signals
Analog Signals
commonly used in data communications :
• periodic analog signals
• aperiodic digital signals
Periodic Analog Signals :
simple : example - a pure sine wave
composite : composed of multiple sine waves
a sine wave can be represented by :
• peak amplitude
• frequency
• phase
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 Data and Signals
Analog Signals
(Volts)

absolute value of its highest intensity

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 Data and Signals
Analog Signals
Period and Frequency
these are just one characteristic of an
analog signal defined in two ways
Period : refers to the amount of time in
seconds a signal needs to complete 1 cycle
Frequency : refers to the number of periods
in 1 second (expressed in cycles per sec or Hz)
frequency and period are inverse of each other

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 Data and Signals
Analog Signals
Period and Frequency

12 Hz

6 Hz

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 Data and Signals
Analog Signals
Period and Frequency : Units of Period and frequency

Frequency can also be described as rate

of change with respect to time
high frequency → change in a short span of time
low frequency → change over a long span of time
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 Data and Signals
Analog Signals
Period and Frequency
Example - 1 BF4Ed3.3
The electric power we use at home has a
frequency of 50 Hz.
Determine the period of this sine wave.

T = (1 ÷ f ) = ( 1 ÷ 50 ) = 0.02 seconds
= 0.02 x 103 msec = 20 msec

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 Data and Signals
Analog Signals
Period and Frequency
Example - 2 BF4Ed3.10.17
Given the following periods of signals :
(a) 5 seconds
(b) 12 microseconds (µsec)
(c) 220 nanoseconds (nsec)

Compute the frequency of the above in

(a) Hz (b) KHz (c) MHz
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 Data and Signals
Analog Signals
Period and Frequency
Example - 2 BF4Ed3.10.17

(a) 0.2 Hz

(b) 83.333 KHz

(c) 4.545 MHz

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 Data and Signals
Analog Signals
Period and Frequency
Example - 3 BF4Ed3.10.25
What is the frequency of the signal shown
below ?

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 Data and Signals
Analog Signals
Period and Frequency
Example - 3 BF4Ed3.10.25

frequency = 8 cycles ÷ 4 msec

= 2 KHz

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 Data and Signals
Analog Signals
Phase
describes the position (or shift) of the
waveform relative to time 0
phase is measured in degrees or radians
o
a phase shift of 360 corresponds to a
shift of a complete period
o
360 = 2π π radians
o
1 = (2π
π / 360) radians
1 radian = (360 / 2ππ)
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 Data and Signals
Analog Signals
Phase
o
0

o
90

o
180

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 Data and Signals
Analog Signals
Phase
Example - 4 BF4Ed3.6
A sine wave is offset (1 ÷ 6) cycle w.r.t.
time 0.
What is its phase in degrees and radians?
o o
(1 ÷ 6) cycle = 360 ÷ 6 = 60
= 60 x ( 2π
π / 360 ) = ( π / 3 )
= 1.047 radians
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 Data and Signals
Analog Signals
Phase
Example - 5 BF4Ed3.10.18
What is the phase shift of the following ? :

(a) a sine wave with maximum amplitude

at time 0
(b) a sine wave with maximum amplitude
after ¼ cycle

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 Data and Signals
Analog Signals
Phase
Example - 5 BF4Ed3.10.18

(a) 90 degrees or ( π / 2 ) radians

(b) 0 degrees or 0 radians

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 Data and Signals
Analog Signals
Wavelength
is a characteristic of a signal travelling
through a medium
frequency of a signal is independent of
the medium through which it travels
wavelength depends on both frequency
and the medium
wave length is the distance a simple signal
can travel through a medium in one period

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 Data and Signals
Analog Signals
Wavelength

Wavelength = propagation speed x period

λ = ( c ÷ f ) = propagation speed ÷ frequency

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 Data and Signals
Analog Signals
Wavelength
wavelength is normally expressed in
microns or µmeters or µm
propagation speed ( c ) of electromagnetic
signals depends on the medium
in vacuum or free space,
c = 3 x 108 m/sec or 3 x 105 Km/sec
in other medium, say, Cu or OFC,
c ≈ 2 x 108 m/sec or 2 x 105 Km/sec
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 Data and Signals
Analog Signals
Example - 6 WS7Ed4.8

Stories abound of people who receive

radio signals in fillings in their teeth.
Suppose you have one filling that is
2.5 mm long that acts as a radio antenna.
That is, it is equal in length to one-half the
wave length.
What frequency do you receive ?
Express your answer in GHz.
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 Data and Signals
Analog Signals
Example - 6 WS7Ed4.8

Given : (λ ÷ 2) = 2.5 x 10-3 meter

So, λ = 5.0 x 10-3 meter

f=c÷λ= 3 x 108 meters per second

--------------------------------------
5.0 x 10-3 meter
= 60 GHz
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 Data and Signals
Analog Signals
Time and Frequency domains
a sine wave is comprehensively defined by :
• amplitude
• frequency
• phase
time domain plot :
shows changes in signal amplitude w.r.t. time
frequency domain plot :
shows relationship between peak amplitude
and frequency → →
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 Data and Signals
Analog Signals
Time and Frequency domains - plots
Time domain

Frequency domain
a sine wave represented as a
single spike in frequency domain

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 Data and Signals
Analog Signals
Time and Frequency domains - plots

Time domain and Frequency domains of three signals

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 Data and Signals
Analog Signals
Composite Signals
in reality, simple sine waves have very
few uses
examples : electric power, alarms, ..

human voice, in particular, is a composite

signal
a composite signal can be considered to be
made up of …. many simple sine waves with
different amplitudes, frequencies and phases
19.08.2016 15:18 Fourier Analysis 31
 Data and Signals
Analog Signals
Composite Signals : periodic
periodic composite signal can be
decomposed into series of simple sine
waves with discrete frequencies

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 Data and Signals
Analog Signals
Composite Signals : periodic
fundamental frequency or 1st harmonic

1st harmonic
discrete spikes
3rd harmonic
9th harmonic
Frequency

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 Data and Signals
Analog Signals
Composite Signals : aperiodic
aperiodic composite signal can be
decomposed into a combination of sine
waves with continuous frequencies

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 Data and Signals
Analog Signals
Bandwidth
the range of frequencies contained in a
composite signal
the bandwidth of a composite signal is the
difference between the highest and the
lowest frequencies contained in that signal
normal human voice comprises…..
a continuous range of frequencies…..
between 0 and 4 KHz
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 Data and Signals
Analog Signals
Bandwidth : periodic and aperiodic composite signals
Periodic

Aperiodic

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 Data and Signals
Analog Signals
Bandwidth : examples

• periodic or aperiodic ?
• frequencies ?
• amplitudes ?
• bandwidth ?
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 Data and Signals
Analog Signals
Bandwidth : examples

• periodic or aperiodic ?
• frequencies : highest ? ; lowest ?
• amplitudes ?
• bandwidth ?
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 Data and Signals
Analog Signals
Bandwidth : examples

20 V

• periodic or aperiodic ?
• middle frequency ? ; highest ? ; lowest ?
• amplitudes ?
• bandwidth ?
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 Data and Signals
Analog Signals
Example - 7 BF4Ed3.10.19

A composite signal can be decomposed

into five sine waves with frequencies
0, 20, 50, 100 and 200 Hz.
All peak amplitudes are same.
Draw the frequency domain representation.
What is the bandwidth of the signal ?

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 Data and Signals
Analog Signals
Example - 7 BF4Ed3.10.19

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 Data and Signals
Analog Signals
Example - 8 BF4Ed3.10.20

A periodic composite signal with a

bandwidth of 2 KHz is composed of two
sine waves.
The first one has a frequency of 100 Hz with
a maximum amplitude of 20 V; the second
one has a maximum amplitude of 5 V.
Draw the frequency spectrum.

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 Data and Signals
Analog Signals
Example - 8 BF4Ed3.10.20

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 Data and Signals
Analog Signals
Example - 9 BF4Ed3.10.34

The light of the sun takes approximately

8.3 minutes to reach the earth.

What is the distance between the sun and

the earth ?

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 Data and Signals
Analog Signals
Example - 9 BF4Ed3.10.34

Time taken = 8.3 minutes = 498 seconds

Speed of light = 3 x 105 Km per sec

Distance = 3 x 105 x 498 = 14,94,00,000 Km

≈ 149 million Kms

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 Data and Signals
Analog Signals
Example - 10 BF4Ed3.10.35

A signal has a wave length of 1 µm in air.

How far can the front of the wave travel

during 1000 periods ?

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 Data and Signals
Analog Signals
Example - 10 BF4Ed3.10.35

Distance travelled
= 1 µm x 1000
= 1000 µm
= 1 mm

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 Data and Signals
Digital Signals

recall ……
information can be represented by :
• an analog signal
• a digital signal

a digital signal can have only a limited

number of defined values
often represented as 1 and 0
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 Data and Signals
Digital Signals
a positive voltage can represent a digital 1
a zero voltage can represent a digital 0

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 Data and Signals
Digital Signals
a positive voltage can represent a digital 1
a zero voltage can represent a digital 0

a digital signal with two levels

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 Data and Signals
Digital Signals

a digital signal with four levels

if a signal has L levels, each level needs
log2 (L) bits
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 Data and Signals
Digital Signals
Bit Rate
is used to describe digital signals
(recall : frequency for analog signals)
it is the number of bits sent in 1 second
it is expressed as bits per second or bps
Bit Length
is the distance occupied by one bit on the
transmission medium
(recall : wavelength for analog signal)
bit length = propagation speed x bit duration
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 Data and Signals
Digital Signals
Example : BF4Ed3.18
A text document is to be downloaded
at the rate of 100 pages per minute

Each page has 24 lines of 80 characters

each

Compute the bps of the channel

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 Data and Signals
Digital Signals
Example : BF4Ed3.18

The bps of the channel can be computed as :

(100 ÷ 60) x 24 x 80 x 8 = 25600 bps

= 25.6 Kbps

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 Data and Signals
Digital Signals
Example : BF4Ed3.19

A digitized voice channel, is made by

digitizing a 4 KHz bandwidth analog voice
signal.
This signal needs to be sampled at twice
the highest frequency (two samples per
hertz).
Assume that each sample requires 8 bits.
What is the required bit rate?
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 Data and Signals
Digital Signals
Example : BF4Ed3.19

Bit Rate = 2 x 4000 x 8

= 64,000 bps
= 64 Kbps

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 Data and Signals
Digital Signals
Example - 11 BF4Ed3.10.22

What is the bit rate for each of the

following signals ?
(a) a signal in which 1 bit lasts 0.001 sec
(b) a signal in which 1 bit lasts 2 msec
(c) a signal in which 10 bits last 20 µsec
(d) a signal in which 1000 bits last 250 psec

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 Data and Signals
Digital Signals
Example - 11 BF4Ed3.10.22

(a) 1 Kbps
(b) 500 bps
(c) 500 Kbps
(d) 4 Tbps

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 Data and Signals
Digital Signals
Example - 12 BF4Ed3.10.23

A device is sending out data at the rate of

1000 bps.
(a) How long does it take to send out 10 bits ?
(b) How long does it take to send out a
single character of 8 bits ?
(c) How long does it take to send out a file
of 100,000 characters ?
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 Data and Signals
Digital Signals
Example - 12 BF4Ed3.10.23

(a) 10 ÷ 1000 = 10 msec

(b) 8 ÷ 1000 = 8 msec
(c) ( 8 x 100,000 ) ÷ 1000 = 800 seconds

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 Data and Signals
Digital Signals
Example - 13 BF4Ed3.10.33

The bandwidth of a channel is 5 Kbps.

How long does it take to send a frame of
100,000 bits through the channel ?

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 Data and Signals
Digital Signals
Example - 13 BF4Ed3.10.33

Time taken = (100,000 ÷ 5000 ) = 20 sec

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 Data and Signals
Digital Signals
Example - 14 BF4Ed3.10.38

A file contains 2 million bytes.

How long does it take to download this
file using
(a) 56 Kbps channel
(b) 1 Mbps channel

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 Data and Signals
Digital Signals
Example - 14 BF4Ed3.10.38

(a) 2000000 x 8 ÷ 56000 = 285.6 seconds

(b) 2000000 x 8 ÷ 1000000 = 16 seconds

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 Data and Signals
Digital Signals
Example - 15 BF4Ed3.10.39

A computer monitor has a resolution of

1200 x 1000 pixels.
Each pixel uses 1024 colours.
Calculate the time required to send the
complete contents of a screen through a
channel with a bandwidth of 1 Mbps.
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 Data and Signals
Digital Signals
Example - 15 BF4Ed3.10.39

Number of bits required to represent 1024

colours = log2 1024 = 10

Total no. bits in the screen

= 1200 x 1000 x 10 = 12 Mbits

Time taken to send this on a 1 Mbps

channel = 12 seconds
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 Data and Signals
Digital Signals
Digital signal as a composite analog signal
in the time domain, a digital signal
comprises connected vertical and
horizontal line segments

vertical line means sudden change in time

or a frequency of infinity

horizontal line means no change in time

or a frequency of zero
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 Data and Signals
Digital Signals
Digital signal as a composite analog signal

changing from a frequency of zero to a

frequency of infinity implies that all
frequencies in between are part of the
domain

digital signal can be decomposed using

Fourier analysis
→→
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 Data and Signals
Digital Signals
Digital signal as a composite analog signal
Periodic digital signal
infinite bandwidth ;
discrete frequencies

Aperiodic digital signal infinite bandwidth ;

continuous frequencies

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 Data and Signals
Digital Signals
Transmission of Digital signals

in reality, a digital signal is aperiodic and..

has continuous frequencies occupying
the entire spectrum (i.e. zero to infinity)

two approaches for transmission of digital

signals (from sender to receiver) :
• baseband transmission
• broadband transmission (using modulation)
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 Data and Signals
Digital Signals
Transmission of Digital signals
Baseband transmission
means sending a digital signal ( a composite
analog signal with an infinite bandwidth ) over a
channel without changing the digital
signal to an analog signal

Example : LAN
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 Data and Signals
Digital Signals
Transmission of Digital signals
Baseband transmission
requires low-pass channel, a channel with
a bandwidth that starts from zero
ideal

low-pass channel, wide bandwidth

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 Data and Signals
Digital Signals
Transmission of Digital signals
Baseband transmission :
A. low-pass channel with wide bandwidth
preservation of exact amplitudes of all
frequency components at the receiver
requires …..
the entire spectrum i.e. continuous range
of frequencies from 0 to infinity
generally, amplitudes of frequencies at the
edges of the band are small → can be ignored
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 Data and Signals
Digital Signals
Transmission of Digital signals
Baseband transmission :
A. low-pass channel with wide bandwidth

≈0
very high

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 Data and Signals
Digital Signals
Transmission of Digital signals
Baseband transmission :
B. low-pass channel with limited bandwidth

digital signal is approximated as an

analog signal

level of approximation depends on the

bandwidth available

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 Data and Signals
Digital Signals
Transmission of Digital signals
Baseband transmission :
B. low-pass channel with limited bandwidth
assumptions :
• signal of bit rate N
• signal has alternate 1s and 0s
i.e 010101…. or 101010….
• positive peak = 1; negative peak = 0
corresponding bandwidth required is
equal to ( N ÷ 2)
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 Data and Signals
Digital Signals
Transmission of Digital signals
Baseband transmission :
B. low-pass channel with limited bandwidth

pattern
010

19.08.2016 15:18 simulating a digital signal with f, 3f and 5f 77

 Data and Signals
Digital Signals
Transmission of Digital signals
Baseband transmission :
B. low-pass channel with limited bandwidth
to achieve better accuracy …..
i.e. to make the shape of the analog signal
look more like that of a digital signal…..
more higher order harmonics need to be
considered
this means, we need higher bandwidths
i.e. (3N ÷ 2), (5N ÷ 2), …………
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 Data and Signals
Digital Signals
Transmission of Digital signals
Baseband transmission :
B. low-pass channel with limited bandwidth
in baseband transmission, the required
bandwidth is proportional to the bit rate;
if the need is to send bits faster, more
bandwidth would be necessary

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 Data and Signals
Digital Signals
Transmission of Digital signals
Broadband transmission ( using modulation )
the digital signal is changed or modulated
to generate an analog signal that is
Example : sending computer data
transmitted over telephone line
modulation allows the use of a .......
bandpass channel, that is easily realizable

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 Data and Signals
Digital Signals
Transmission of Digital signals
Broadband transmission ( using modulation )
using a
carrier signal

composite analog signal

19.08.2016 15:18 Sender Receiver 81

 Data and Signals
Transmission impairment
imperfections in the medium through
which signals travel causes signal
impairment
causes of impairment :
• attenuation
• distortion
• noise

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 Data and Signals
Transmission impairment
Attenuation
means loss of energy in overcoming the
resistance of the medium
attenuation and amplification

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 Data and Signals
Transmission impairment
Attenuation
decibel (dB) :
is a measure of relative strengths of two
signals or
one signal at two different points
decibel value is
• negative if signal is attenuated
• positive if signal is amplified

dB = 10 log10 (P2 ÷ P1)

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 Data and Signals
Transmission impairment
Attenuation - decibel (dB) :
Example BF4e3.26

A signal travels through a transmission

medium and its power is reduced to
one-half.

Calculate the attenuation in dB.

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 Data and Signals
Transmission impairment
Amplification - decibel (dB) :
Example BF4e3.27

A signal travels through an amplifier and

its power is increased 10 times.

Calculate the gain of the amplifier in dB.

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 Data and Signals
Transmission impairment
Attenuation / Amplification - decibel (dB) :
Example BF4e3.28
decibel numbers can be added or
subtracted corresponding to amplification
or attenuation

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 Data and Signals
Transmission impairment
Attenuation
Example BF4e3.30

The specifications of a cable indicate that

the loss in the cable is 0.3 dB / Km.

The signal at the beginning of a 5 Km long

cable of the above specifications is 2 mW.

What is the signal at the end of the cable?

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 Data and Signals
Transmission impairment
Attenuation
Example BF4e3.30

dB = 10 log10 (P2 ÷ P1)

Total loss in the cable = 0.3 dB / Km x 5 Km
-1.5 dB = 10 log10 (P2 ÷ P1)
(P2 ÷ P1) = 10-0.15 = 0.71
P2 = 2 mW x 0.71 = 1.42 mW
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 Data and Signals
Transmission impairment
Attenuation
Example - 16 BF4e3.10.31

The attenuation of a signal is 10 dB.

What is the final signal power if it was

originally 5 W ?

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 Data and Signals
Transmission impairment
Attenuation
Example - 16 BF4e3.10.31

-10 = 10 log10 (P2 ÷ 5)

log10 (P2 ÷ 5) = −1

(P2 ÷ 5) = 10−1 = 0.1

P2 = 0.5 W = 500 mW
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 Data and Signals
Transmission impairment
Attenuation / Amplification
dBm :
is a measure of relative strength with
reference to 1 milliwatt of power
dBm = 10 log10 (Pm)

where Pm is the power in milliwatts

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 Data and Signals
Transmission impairment
Attenuation
Example - 17 WS9.1

Determine the following :

(a) the power levels in dBm for signal

levels of 10 mW and 0.5 mW

(b) the difference between the two power

levels in dB
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 Data and Signals
Transmission impairment
Attenuation
Example - 17 WS9.1

(a) dBm = 10 log10 (10 mW ÷ 1 mW) = 10 dBm

dBm = 10 log10 (0.5 mW ÷ 1 mW) = - 3 dBm

(b) dB = 10 log10 (10 mW ÷ 0.5 mW) = 13 dB

or
dB = 10 dBm - (- 3 dBm ) = 13 dB
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 Data and Signals
Transmission impairment
Distortion
means… signal changes its form or shape
can occur in a composite signal where ….
signal is made of different frequency
components
each component has its own propagation
speed through a medium
so, each component can have its own
delay in arriving at the final destination
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 Data and Signals
Transmission impairment
Distortion
differences in delay may create difference
in phase
i.e. signal components at the receiver
have phases different from what they had
at the transmitter
so, shape of the signal at the receiver may
not be the same

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 Data and Signals
Transmission impairment
Distortion

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 Data and Signals
Transmission impairment
Noise
several types of noise may corrupt a
signal travelling through a medium

sources of noise :
(a) thermal noise : due to random motion
of electrons in a cable ; a signal not
originally sent is generated
(b) induced noise : generated from sources
like motors and similar appliances
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 Data and Signals
Transmission impairment
Noise
sources of noise :
(c) cross talk : effect of signal passing
through one cable on an adjacent cable
(d) impulse noise : spikes generated by
high voltage / power lines, lightning, …

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 Data and Signals
Transmission impairment
Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR)
defined as :
average signal power ÷ average noise power
is the ratio of wanted signal to unwanted
SNRdB = 10 log10 (SNR)
high SNR → signal less corrupted by noise
low SNR → signal more corrupted by noise
ideal SNR → very high or infinity

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 Data and Signals
Transmission impairment
Signal - to - Noise Ratio (SNR)

large SNR

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small SNR 101
 Data and Signals
Data Rate Limits
data rate determines how fast data (bps)
can be sent over a channel
data rate depends on three factors :
• bandwidth available
• levels of signals used
• quality (noise level) of channel

two theoretical formulae have been developed :

• Nyquist for noiseless channels
• Shannon for noisy channel
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 Data and Signals
Data Rate Limits
Noiseless channel : Nyquist Bit Rate

Bit Rate = 2 x BW x log2 L

BW = band width of the channel

L = no. of signal levels used
Bit rate = theoretical maximum bit rate (bps)

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 Data and Signals
Data Rate Limits
Noiseless channel : Nyquist Bit Rate
Example BF4e3.36

Consider the need to send 265 Kbps over

a noiseless channel with a bandwidth of
20 KHz.

How many signal levels are necessary in

this case?
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 Data and Signals
Data Rate Limits
Noiseless channel : Nyquist Bit Rate
Example BF4e3.36

265000 = 2 x 20000 x log2 (L)

log2 (L) = 6.625

L = 26.625 = 98.7 levels → 128 levels

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 Data and Signals
Data Rate Limits
Noisy channel : Shannon Capacity

Capacity = BW x log2 (1 + SNR)

BW = band width of the channel

SNR = Signal-to-Noise ratio
Capacity = Capacity of the channel (bps)

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 Data and Signals
Transmission impairment
Signal - to - Noise Ratio (SNR)
Example - 19 BF4e3.10.37

The bandwidth of a telephone line is 4 KHz.

Measurement of the performance of a
telephone line reveals that the noise is 5
mV when the signal is 10 V.
What is the maximum data rate supported
by this line ?
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 Data and Signals
Transmission impairment
Signal - to - Noise Ratio (SNR)
Example - 19 BF4e3.10.37

SNR = (10 ÷ 0.005) = 2000

Capacity or maximum data rate

= 4,000 log2 ( 2001 )
= 4000 x 10.97 = 43,866 bps

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 Data and Signals
Performance

important performance parameters for

networks :
• bandwidth
• throughput
• latency (delay)
• bandwidth-delay product
• jitter
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 Data and Signals
Performance
Bandwidth
in hertz : is the range of frequencies
contained in a composite signal or the
range of frequencies a channel can pass

in bps : number of bps a channel / link /

network can transmit

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 Data and Signals
Performance
Throughput
is a measure of how fast data can be sent
through a network

Bandwidth vs. Throughput

bandwidth is a measure of the potential of
a link i.e. available capacity
throughput is an actual measurement of
how fast the data can be sent
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 Data and Signals
Performance
Throughput : Example BF4e3.44

A network with a bandwidth of 10 Mbps

can pass an average of 12,000 frames per
minute.

Size of each frame is 10 Kilobits

Throughput of the network

= ( 12,000 ÷ 60 ) x 10,000 = 2 Mbps
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 Data and Signals
Performance
Latency or delay
is defined as the time taken ....
for the entire message to completely
arrive at the destination ...
from the time the first bit is sent out from
the source
Latency =
propagation time +
transmit time +
time spent in queue +
processing delay
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 Data and Signals
Performance
Latency or delay
Propagation time
is the time required for a bit to travel from
the source to the destination
Propagation time = Distance ÷ Propagation speed

Transmission time
time required for transmission of a message
(first bit to last bit) through the medium
Transmission time = Message size ÷ Bandwidth
of the channel
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 Data and Signals
Performance
Propagation time vs. Transmit time :
Example ( of high vs. low ) BF4e3.46
An e-mail message of 2.5 KB is to be
transmitted on a network of bandwidth
1 Gbps.
The distance between sender and receiver
is 12,000 Kms and the medium supports a
speed of 2.4 x 108 metres / sec.
Calculate the Propagation time and
Transmission time.
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 Data and Signals
Performance
Propagation time vs. Transmit time :
Example ( of high vs. low ) BF4e3.46

Propagation time = 12000 ÷ 2.4 x 105

= 50 msec

Transmission time = 2500 x 8 ÷ 109

= 0.020 msec

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 Data and Signals
Performance
Propagation time vs. Transmit time :
Example ( of low vs. high ) BF4e3.47
An image of 5 MB is to be transmitted on
a network of bandwidth 1 Mbps.
The distance between sender and receiver
is 12,000 Kms and the medium supports a
speed of 2.4 x 108 metres / sec.
Calculate the Propagation time and
Transmission time.
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 Data and Signals
Performance
Propagation time vs. Transmit time :
Example ( of low vs. high ) BF4e3.47

Propagation time = 12000 ÷ 2.4 x 105

= 50 msec

Transmission time = 5 x 106 x 8 ÷ 106

= 40 seconds

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 Data and Signals
Example - 20 : Performance AT 1.6
A client-server network uses a satellite
network.
Height of satellite is 40,000 Km.
What is the best-case delay in response to
a request ? Express your answer in msec.
Satellite

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 Data and Signals
Example - 20 : Performance AT 1.6

Speed of travel = 3 x 105 Km/sec

One-way propagation delay

= (4 x 104) ÷ (3 x 105) = 133.3 msec

Four-way delay = 533 msec

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 Data and Signals
Performance
Queuing time

time required by ….
each intermediate node (active network
component) or an end device (host) to …..
hold the message before processing it
(recall : store and forward)

queuing time varies depending upon the

load on the network
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 Data and Signals
Performance
Round-trip-time (RTT)
time taken for data to travel from one end
to another end and back

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 Data and Signals
Performance
Example PD 1.15

Suppose a 100 Mbps point-to-point link is being

set up between Earth and a new Lunar colony

The distance from the moon to Earth is

approximately 3,85,000 Km

(a) Calculate the RTT for the link

→→
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 Data and Signals
Performance
Example PD 1.15
(b) A camera on the lunar base takes pictures of
Earth and saves them in digital format to disk.
Suppose Mission Control on the Earth wishes to
download the most current picture comprising
12 colour frames each of size 1024 x 768 pixels,
with each pixel represented by 24 bits.
What is the minimum amount of time that will
elapse between when the request for the data
goes out and the transfer is finished ?

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 Data and Signals
Performance
Example PD 1.15

(a) RTT
= (2 x 385 x 106 m) ÷ (3 x 108 m / sec)
= 2.57 sec

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 Data and Signals
Performance
Example PD 1.15

(b) Size of image

= 1024 x 768 x 24 x 12 = 226492416 bits
Transfer time @ 100 Mbps
= 2.26 seconds
One RTT is required before the picture
could begin arriving at the earth ;
Total elapsed time
= 2.57 + 2.26 = 4.83 seconds
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 Data and Signals
Performance
Bandwidth - Delay product
bandwidth-delay product refers to the
product of a data link's capacity (in bps)
and its end-to-end delay (in seconds)
the result, an amount of data measured in
bits, is equivalent to the maximum
amount of data on the network at any
given time
i.e. data that has been transmitted but not
yet received i.e. data in transit / in “flight”
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 Data and Signals
Performance
Bandwidth - Delay product

link is analogous to a pipe

cross section of pipe represents bandwidth
length of pipe represents delay
volume of pipe represents the bandwidth-
delay product
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 Data and Signals
Performance
Bandwidth - Delay product
defines the number of bits that can fill the link

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 Data and Signals
Performance
Bandwidth - Delay product
5
x
xx
25

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 Data and Signals
Performance
Bandwidth - Delay product
Example - 21 BF4e3.10.47

How many bits can fit a link with a

2 msec delay if the bandwidth of the link is :

(a) 1 Mbps
(b) 10 Mbps
(c) 100 Mbps
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 Data and Signals
Performance
Bandwidth - Delay product
Example - 21 BF4e3.10.47

(a) Number of bits = bandwidth × delay =

1 Mbps × 2 ms = 2000 bits = 2 Kb
(b) Number of bits = bandwidth × delay =
10 Mbps × 2 ms = 20,000 bits = 20 Kb
(c) Number of bits = bandwidth × delay =
100 Mbps × 2 ms = 200,000 bits = 200 Kb
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 Data and Signals
Performance
Bandwidth - Delay product (significance of)
this measurement is important if …..
sender is required to send data in bursts
and
wait for acknowledgement of each burst
before sending the next burst
the size of the burst depends on the
maximum capacity of the link
for good performance, the receiver’s
window (more in later lessons) must be as large
as the bandwidth-delay
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product 133
 Data and Signals
Performance
Bandwidth - Delay product
bandwidth-delay product is higher for
faster circuits with long-delay links such
as geo satellite connections
a network with a large bandwidth-delay
product is commonly known as a long fat
network (shortened to LFN)
a network is considered an LFN if its
bandwidth-delay product is significantly
larger than 105 bits (≈ 12 KB)
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 Data and Signals
Performance
Jitter :
variation in latency from packet to packet

happens when packets experience

different queuing delays in a multi-hop
packet-switched network
jitter control is important in the case of delay-
sensitive applications i.e. audio / video
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