The Cellular Level of Organization

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Epithelial cells are cells that come from surfaces of your body, such as your skin,
blood vessels, urinary tract, or organs. They serve as a barrier between the inside
and outside of your body, and protect it from viruses.

Muscle cells, commonly known as myocytes, are the cells that make up muscle
tissue. There are 3 types of muscle cells in the human body; cardiac, skeletal, and
smooth

fibroblast: A type of cell found in connective tissue that synthesizes the

extracellular matrix and collagen. connective tissue: A type of tissue found in
animals whose main function is to bind, support, and anchor the body.

Neurons are nerve cells, or cells found in the nervous system. These are
specialized cells designed to stimulate other cells in the body in order to
communicate. Neurons are excitable, which means they function by using
electrical stimulation
Cells function differently in unicellular and multicellular
organisms, but in every organism, each cell has
specialized cell structures, or organelles, of which there are
many. These organelles are responsible for a variety of
cellular functions, such as obtaining nutrients, producing
energy, and making proteins. Unicellular organisms are
made up of only one cell that carries out all of the
functions needed by the organism, while multicellular
organisms use many different cells to function.
A cell is the basic, living, structural and functional
unit of the body.
Cell Theory:
the building blocks of all plants and animals
all cells come from the division of preexisting
cells
cells are the smallest units that perform all vital
physiological functions
each cell maintains homeostasis at the cellular
level.
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• Cells are measured in micrometers.
• Cells vary in size and shape.
• Shape is determined by function.
• Two types of cells:
– Sex cells
– Somatic (body) cells
• Cells are surrounded by extracellular fluid, which
is called interstitial fluid in most tissues

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Every Eukaryotic cell has three main parts:

Plasma (cell) membrane - separates inside of cell

from external environment.

Nucleus – organelle that contains the cell’s DNA and

is surrounded by a double membrane.

Cytoplasm – everything from the nuclear membrane

to the plasma membrane

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Cytoplasm refers to cytosol plus organelles and
inclusions.
Cytosol - contains proteins, enzymes, nutrients, ions,
and other small molecules
organelles - highly organized structures with
characteristic shapes that are specialized
for specific cellular activities.
inclusions - are temporary structures in the
cytoplasm that contain secretions and
storage products of the cell.

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 Plasma membrane
The plasma membrane, also called the cell
membrane, is the membrane found in all cells that
separates the interior of the cell from the outside
environment. In bacterial and plant cells, a cell wall
is attached to the plasma membrane on its outside
surface.

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Most of the surface area of the cell membrane is
made of phospholipid, but accounts for only 42% of
the weight of the membrane.
Proteins – important in many functions
Also find glycolipids and cholesterol.
Phosphoslipid is an amphipathic molecule –
phosphate heads on the outside and inside, and fatty
acid tails in the middle.
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Amphipathic molecules are oils and fats, which are known
as lips in science. They have both hydrophilic (water loving)
and hydrophobic (water-fearing) portions, which means
that one side wants to associate with water and the other
side does not.
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Membrane is fluid
- fatty acid tails are unsaturated
The membrane is selectively permeable – it
allows fat soluble substances to pass through
(such as steroid hormones) and some other
small, uncharged molecules.
Cholesterol is a large molecule, and helps to
stabilize the membrane.

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 Membrane carbohydrates
• 3-5 % of membrane
• Proteoglycans, glycoproteins and glycolipids
• Gylcocalyx
– Lubrication and protection
– Anchoring and locomotion
– Specificity in binding
– Recognition

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Fluid mosaic model - proteins float like
icebergs in a sea of phospholipids.

Proteins can be integral proteins – go all the way

through the membrane, or may be
peripheral proteins -bound to the inside or outside
membrane.

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Integral Proteins can be channels or
transporters.
Peripheral proteins can be receptors,
enzymes or can be cell identity markers

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Integral Proteins can be channels or
transporters.
Peripheral proteins can be receptors,
enzymes or can be cell identity markers

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 Membrane proteins
• Anchoring proteins
• Recognition proteins
• Enzymes
• Receptor proteins
• Carrier proteins
• Channels

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 Intercelluar junctions
Tight junctions – membranes of adjacent cells bound
together by occludins and claudins forming an
impermeable junction.Claudins are a family of
proteins which, along with occludin, are the most
important components of the tight junctions
• Desmosomes are protein “spot welds” in skin and
cardiac muscle:
– plaques, linker protein filaments, and thicker
filaments across inside of cell

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 Intercellular junctions
• Gap junctions are tubular channels (connexons)
that connect the cytoplasm of one cell with that
of another.
– Ions, simple sugars and other small molecules
• Cellular Adhesion Molecules help cells form
• temporary attachments to other cells. CAMs

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 Membrane proteins
• Anchoring proteins
• Recognition proteins
• Enzymes
• Receptor proteins
– Ligands bind
• Carrier proteins
– allows establishment of electro chemical gradient
• Channels
• Rafts –lipid rafts – tails saturated; more cholesterol
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 Membrane Physiology
• Cell membrane function:
– Cellular communication
– Establish an electro chemical gradient
– Are selectively permeable
• Lipids
• Size
• Electrical charge
• Presence of channels and transporters

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 Movement of materials
• Passive processes:
– Depend on concentration and kinetic energy
– Do not require energy
– Move substances from an area of high
concentration to an area of low concentration
• Down a concentration gradient

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 Vesicular Transport
Exocytosis (moving substances outside the cell) Exocytosis is an
important process of plant and animal cells as it performs the
opposite function of endocytosis.

Endocytosis – (taking substances into the cell clathrin proteins) In

endocytosis, substances that are external to a cell are brought into the
cell. In exocytosis, membrane-bound vesicles containing cellular
molecules are transported to the cell membrane

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Pinocytosis – “cell drinking”
the ingestion of liquid into a cell by the budding
of small vesicles from the cell membrane.

Phagocytosis – “cell eating”

the ingestion of bacteria or other material by
phagocytes and amoeboid protozoans.
Receptor-mediated endocytosis (RME), also called clathrin-
mediated endocytosis, is a process by which cells absorb
metabolites, hormones, proteins – and in some cases viruses
– by the inward budding of the plasma membrane
(invagination)
Exocytosis

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Receptor mediated Endocytosis

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