Respiratory Distress Syndrome of The Newborn Infant: Obstetrical and Gynecological Survey August 1995
Respiratory Distress Syndrome of The Newborn Infant: Obstetrical and Gynecological Survey August 1995
Respiratory Distress Syndrome of The Newborn Infant: Obstetrical and Gynecological Survey August 1995
net/publication/15631950
CITATIONS READS
32 1,457
1 author:
Rita P Verma
Nassau University Medical Center
39 PUBLICATIONS 201 CITATIONS
SEE PROFILE
Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:
All content following this page was uploaded by Rita P Verma on 02 December 2017.
Obstetrical & Gynecological Survey
Issue: Volume 50(7), July 1995, pp 542555
Copyright: © Williams & Wilkins 1995. All Rights Reserved.
Publication Type: [CME Review Article]
ISSN: 00297828
Accession: 0000625419950700000021
[CME Review Article]
Respiratory Distress Syndrome of the Newborn Infant
Verma, Rita P.
Author Information
Department of Pediatrics, Division of Neonatology, Hahnemann University Hospital, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
Reprint requests to: Rita P. Verma, MD, Associate Director of Neonatal Research, Hahnemann University Hospital,
Philadelphia, Pa 19102.
Authors whose names are accompanied by an asterisk (*) have indicated, in accordance with the Accreditation
Council for Continuing Medical Education (ACCME) Standards, that they have a relationship which could be
perceived by some people as a real or apparent conflict of interest, but do not feel it has influenced their
participation.
Abstract
Pulmonary immaturity, including deficiency in the surfactant system, incomplete structural/functional
development of lungs and high chest wall compliance contribute to the pathogenesis of respiratory distress
syndrome (RDS). Pulmonary edema and overperfusion, resulting from a patent ductus arteriosus, may further
worsen the respiratory failure, and aggravate the surfactant deficiency. Infants born prematurely present with
respiratory distress within the first few minutes of life. This quickly becomes lifethreatening, and may result in
death from severe respiratory failure if appropriate respiratory and general supportive therapy are not immediately
instituted. The oxygenation deficit in RDS is secondary to V/Q mismatch and rightleft shunting of blood via
pulmonary and extrapulmonary routes. Hypoxemia induced pulmonary vasoconstriction further contributes to V/Q
mismatch and RL shunting. Hypoventilation in RDS is due to decreased tidal volume, increased dead space
ventilation, and finally, decreased minute ventilation. Characteristically, pulmonary compliance, both static and
dynamic, are greatly reduced resulting in a high work of breathing, whereas airway resistance is normal or only
slightly increased. This combination of abnormal pulmonary mechanics results in lower respiratory time constant
in respiratory units, and helps in achieving ventilation and oxygenation by using low inspiratory time in the
ventilator. Management of RDS starts with prenatal identification of the risk, prolongation of pregnancy by
tocolysis and prenatal administration of pharmacological agents, like betamethasone. These agents increase the
pulmonary gas exchange surface area and induce endogenous pulmonary surfactant in the fetus. Advances in
ventilatory and general management techniques have strikingly improved the outcome and prognosis of children
suffering from RDS since the 1960s. Recent advancements in the prevention and treatment of RDS, e.g.,
acceleration of lung development by prenatal pharmacological manipulations and postnatal provision of
exogenous surfactant, have significantly contributed to the decrease in mortality from RDS. Pharmacological
induction of lung maturation by drugs in combination, and improved technology in lung ventilation are expected to
further improve the course and outcome of the disease in future.
Chief Editor's Note: This article is the 20th of 36 that will be published in 1995 for which a total of up to 36 Category
1 CME credits can be earned.
http://ovidsp.tx.ovid.com/sp3.21.1b/ovidweb.cgi 1/24
9/15/2016 Ovid: Respiratory Distress Syndrome of the Newborn Infant.
Respiratory distress syndrome (RDS), which was previously known as hyaline membrane disease, is the most
common cause of respiratory failure in neonates, especially in those born prematurely. The disease affects about 2
percent of all liveborn infants [1]. It is defined as respiratory distress that occurs in a newborn infant after the onset
of breathing, within the first few hours of life, and is due primarily to a deficiency of the pulmonary surfactant system
[2].
The specific clinicalradiological findings of RDS, however, are the result of several pathophysiological processes that
may be independent of total pulmonary surfactant content, as the latter is found in adequate quantity to prevent
RDS by 28 to 30 weeks of gestation [3,4]. These pathophysiological processes are related to the overall immaturity
of respiratory structures, characterized by: 1) a lack of adequate surface area for gas exchange, 2) incomplete
approximation of alveolarendothelial membrane due to deficits of alveolar epithelial flattening and vascular
penetration, and 3) a highly compliant chest wall that does not allow chest cage stabilization and generation of
sufficient negative intrathoracic pressure for effective lung expansion during inhalation [5]. In addition, premature
lungs are prone to develop pulmonary edema due to inadequate fluid clearance from the airway and alveoli, and an
immature epithelial and endothelial cellular barrier. This tendency is compounded by pulmonary overperfusion,
brought about by lefttoright shuning of blood across the patent foramen ovale, ductus arteriosus and other fetal
channels [5,6]. All these factors contribute further to hypoxemia and hypercarbia, and aggravate the original
surfactant deficiency, causing a secondary surfactant deficiency that can have significant implications for the
morbidity and mortality of the disease.
The disease is gestational agerelated, and all aforesaid pathophysiological processes manifest clinically with an
acuity that is inversely related to the level of maturation [7]. However, with the availability of exogenous surfactant
and prenatal steroid therapy, an increasing number of low birthweight infants now present with relatively clear chest
radiographs at birth and a milder clinical course requiring low ventilatory support. Over a transitional period of 2 to 3
weeks the disease in such cases progresses into a clinicalradiographical picture which is consistent with mild BPD.
Such a state is sometimes more aptly described as pulmonary insufficiency of prematurity.
EPIDEMIOLOGY
Sixty thousand to seventy thousand cases of RDS are reported annually in the United States [8]. This is a significant
increase from the earlier incidence of 40,000 cases/annum. The reason for this is an increase in the number of
preterm deliveries and, primarily, a decrease in the lower weight and gestational age limit for resuscitation and
survival. The mortality rate has improved, and now 5000 children die of RDS annually, reduced from an earlier
number of 7500 [8]. RDS constitutes about 20 percent of all neonatal deaths. Approximately 14 percent of all low
birth weight infants suffer from it. The incidence is 80 percent for infants less than 28 weeks of gestation, about 60
percent in infants born after 29 weeks of gestation, and less than 1 percent at 39 weeks of gestation [7,9]. The
disease is distributed worldwide.
RISK FACTORS
http://ovidsp.tx.ovid.com/sp3.21.1b/ovidweb.cgi 2/24
9/15/2016 Ovid: Respiratory Distress Syndrome of the Newborn Infant.
By far the most important risk factor for RDS is prematurity Table 1. All infants less than 37 completed weeks are
susceptible. At 36 weeks of gestation a surge in the amount of surfactant is demonstrated in the fetus [4]. There is a
distinctly higher maletofemale ratio in incidence, morbidity and mortality, which may be related to a higher
testosterone concentration in the male, or to a higher estrogen concentration in the female. Dihydrotestosterone
decreases phosphatidylcholine synthesis in human fetal lungs, whereas in fetal rabbits estrogen significantly
increases phospholipid synthesis and the amount of choline phosphaticytidyl transferase [1014]. Furthermore,
strogen is known to increase the number of catecholamine receptors; the catecholamines participate in surfactant
gene induction during intrauterine life.
Table 1. Risk factors for RDS
White infants do worse in terms of incidence, severity and fatality than black infants for undetermined reasons. This
could possibly be related to a relatively less exposure of white fetuses to chronic intrauterine stress. The disease is
more common in infants born via cesarean section [15]. Labor is known to increase fetal surfactant production.
Moreover, emergency cesarean section may be a cause and/or effect of acute perinatal stress, which can
compromise both the quality as well as the quantity of endogenous surfactant [15]. Large infants of diabetic mothers
are more susceptible [16]. Insulin is the major growth factor in intrauterine life, and although it promotes cellular
multiplication and hyperplasia, it inhibits the entrance of pulmonary alveolar cells into stage 0, and thereby
differentiation into type II cells. Insulin is also known to block fetal cortisol production and surfactant associated
protein synthesis [17,18]. Moreover, hyperglycemia inhibits intracellular surfactant synthesis by discouraging glucose
uptake and its utilization as a substrate in the process [19]. In IDM, available surfactant may be functionally deficient
[6].
http://ovidsp.tx.ovid.com/sp3.21.1b/ovidweb.cgi 3/24
9/15/2016 Ovid: Respiratory Distress Syndrome of the Newborn Infant.
Secondborn infants of a twin gestation are at higher risk, probably due to longer exposure to acute perinatal stress.
The history of RDS in siblings is a poorly understood risk factor and suggests a genetic predisposition. Acute
perinatal asphyxia damages the pulmonary surfactant system via hypoxemia, acidosis, hypercarbia and
hypoperfusion, and can cause RDS even in a fullterm infant. On the other hand, chronic intrauterine stress, brought
about by chronic uteroplacental insufficiency or other specific maternal/fetal factors, appears to have a mitigating
effect. It is believed to protect by promoting endogenous steroid production, thereby increasing alveolar surface area
and pulmonary surfactant synthesis and release.
Prenatal steroid administration, maternal toxemia, maternal hypertension and chronic nephritis, chronic or subacute
abruption of placenta, maternal diabetes with vascular disease, substance abuse and narcotic addiction, especially to
heroin, and prolonged rupture of the membrane are other known factors that decrease the risk of RDS [14,15].
Chronic cocaine abuse is shown to have a mitigating effect, whereas it is biologically plausible that acute stress
caused by acute cocaine intoxication may injure the pulmonary surfactant system and cause RDS [20]. Intrauterine
growth retarded infants appear to be at lesser risk than infants that are appropriate for gestational age, although
there are conflicting reports on this issue [21,22]. Term infants who may show evidence of classical RDS due to
surfactant deficiency are infants of diabetic mothers, infants who are large for gestational age due to
other/nonspecified reasons, acutely septic infants and those who suffer from acute perinatal asphyxia and hypoxic
ischemic encephalopathy. Term infants born with shock due to antepartum hemorrhage, especially associated with
abruptio placentae, and those suffering from acute pneumonia or Rh isoimmunization, are also prone to develop
RDS [23]. Although most of these setups result in secondary surfactant deficiency, IDM and those born with Rh
isoimmunization may suffer from a primary surfactant deficiency due to hyperinsulinism. In the latter condition,
chronic hemolysis probably results in the release of low dose glocuse into the system, thereby inducing
hyperinsulinism. However, since the availability of antiD immune globulins, this setup has been virtually eliminated.
PATHOPHYSIOLOGY
Role of Surfactant Deficiency
In 1959 Avery and Mead reported that the lack of a surface active material, which they called surfactant, led to
higher pulmonary surface tension and caused respiratory distress in a prematurely born infant [2]. Before birth, the
newborn infant depends on the placenta for the exchange of gases. After birth, the infant's first few high pressure
breaths establish a functional residual lung volume and a liquid air interface at the alveolar surface level. This is
immediately followed by the appearance of a protein phospholipid lining at the alveolar surface that decreases the
intraalveolar surface tension, enables the alveoli to maintain stability throughout the respiratory cycle and facilitate
retention of alveolar gas at endexpiration. If water lines the alveolar surface, the intraalveolar surface tension is 72
dynes/cm. If surfactant particles are placed side by side, the equivalent intraalveolar surface tension decreases to
about 25 dynes/cm. When surfactant particles are compressed during deflation, the surface tension is reduced to
almost zero. The alveoli act as spherical structures, and, applying Laplace's law, the pressure required to prevent
collapse of an air space is twice the value of surface tension multiplied by 10, then divided by the radius of air space,
or
p = 2 ST X 10/r
where P is pressure (cm of water), ST is surface tension (dynes/cm) and r is radius (micrometer). Factor 10 corrects
for the number of alveolar units. At the end of deflation, transpulmonary pressure is about 2 cms of water and, if ST
is 10 dynes/cm, alveoli with r smaller than 100 micrometer will collapse. If ST is 1 dyne/cm, then, at endexpiration,
units with a radius smaller than 10 micrometer will collapse. By reducing ST to nearly 0, the surfactant maintains the
volume and stability of even the smallest alveolar air space during the entire respiratory cycle and at the end of
expiration. This maximizes the surface area and gas exchange capabilities of the lung.
http://ovidsp.tx.ovid.com/sp3.21.1b/ovidweb.cgi 4/24
9/15/2016 Ovid: Respiratory Distress Syndrome of the Newborn Infant.
In the absence of surfactant, as lung volume decreases during deflation, the pressure opposing alveolar collapse
increases more for the smaller alveoli, which have a shorter internal diameter than the larger ones. This results in the
formation of a pressure gradient between smaller and larger alveoli, and a tendency of the smaller alveoli to drain
into the larger ones and collapse. The consistently rising intraalveolar pressure in the smaller units through expiration
eventually exceeds the transpulmonary pressure that opposes the alveolar collapse, and facilitates the process of
alveolar atelectasis. Surfactant, by equilibrating the surface tension between alveoli of different diameters throughout
the entire respiratory cycle eliminates the interalveolar pressure gradient and prevents the collapse of smaller alveoli
during deflation and at endexpiration. Thus, surfactant achieves maximum alveolar recruitment for gas exchange,
and by increasing pulmonary compliance, reduces the work of breathing. Surfactant also decreases pulmonary
edema produced by high intraalveolar ST, and protects against alveolar epithelial disruption and infection. Surfactant
associated protein A is known to bind to microorganisms and promote opsonization. The overall functions of the
surface active material of the lungs are still unfolding.
Pressure volume studies with air and saline, done by Avery et al. in 1974, in infants who died from HMD, proved that
RDS is due primarily to developmental deficiencies in the amount of surfactant present at the airliquid interface of
the lung [23]. However, it has recently been demonstrated that although total lung phospholipid content may be
adequate in RDS, only a small proportion of it may be surface active [4,24]. Furthermore, there may be defects in
the packaging, storage, export and release of saturated phosphatidylcholine to the alveolar surface. It is also known
that leakage of plasma protein into the respiratory bronchiole and alveoli, due to overdistension and epithelial
damage, further denatures and inhibits the function of surfactant. This process can progress into a vicious cycle and
cause secondary surfactant deficiency in conditions of RDS [25].
Alveolar Gas Exchange in RDS
The clinical picture of RDS is characterized by hypoxemia and hypercarbia. Hypoxemia is due to V/Q mismatch and
rightleft shunting at pulmonary and extrapulmonary levels Table 2 and Table 3. There is no diffusion limitation [26].
The functional residual volume of the lungs is decreased, and corresponds to the degree of hypoxemia in RDS [27].
AaDO sub 2 is high and the rightleft shunt can be as much as 50 to 90 percent of cardiac output at the level of the
FO, PDA and atelectatic lung areas [26]. However, supplemental oxygen therapy improves paO2 and the capillary
venous admixture and decreases AaDO2. This indicates the presence of an open but poorly ventilated lung
compartment with a low V/Q ratio. The severity of arterial hypoxemia in RDS is directly related to the size of this
open but poorly ventilated lung compartment, which may form a significant portion of the lungs. Hypoxemia induced
variable pulmonary vasoconstriction resulting in pulmonary hypertension further adds to the RL shunting and V/Q
mismatch [28]. Although perfusion of the open low V/Q compartment of the lung is greatly reduced by hypoxic
vasoconstriction, it makes only a small contribution to the cardiac output yet it makes a significant contribution to the
oxygenation defect. In RDS, measurements of AaDN2 are unchanged [28].
Table 2. Pathophysiological factors contributory to RDS
http://ovidsp.tx.ovid.com/sp3.21.1b/ovidweb.cgi 5/24
9/15/2016 Ovid: Respiratory Distress Syndrome of the Newborn Infant.
Table 3. Pathophysiology of RDS
Hypercarbia is due to alveolar hypoventilation, secondary to a decreased tidal volume and increased alveolar dead
space, which results in a high AaDCO2 [29]. Tidal volume is decreased due to low compliance of the lung, in
response to which the respiratory rate is initially elevated to maintain minute ventilation. However, as the patient
gets exhausted due to the high work of breathing, Vmin may finally decrease and contribute significantly to
hypercarbia.
Pulmonary Mechanics
http://ovidsp.tx.ovid.com/sp3.21.1b/ovidweb.cgi 6/24
9/15/2016 Ovid: Respiratory Distress Syndrome of the Newborn Infant.
RDS is characterized by a marked reduction in the static as well as dynamic Cl of the lung, with an average value
being only 0.5 ml/kg/cm, compared with a normal value of 3 to 6 ml/kg per cm of water [30]. Distensibility is
significantly reduced and the lungs collapse more readily with deflation [31]. Pulmonary airway resistance, initially
normal, tends to increase with positive pressure ventilation and oxygen support during the early course of the
disease. The average value of Rs is 69 cm of water/liter/ second compared with a normal value of 42 ml of
water/liter/second [27]. The work of breathing is increased by almost 56 times, the normal value being 1440
gm/cm/minute, thus increasing the O2 cost of breathing [32]. Although some areas of the lung may have prolonged
time constants, overall time constant of the airway is decreased to less than 0.05 seconds due to low Cl and a
normal Rs [27]. This is a biological advantage that is exploited in the ventilatory management of the newborn infant.
A low time constant allows achievement of ventilation and oxygenation with very low inspiratory time, thereby
permitting the utility of a high rate and low inspiratory pressure strategy, which potentially can reduce barotrauma
and the oxygen requirement. This explains the success and advantage of high frequency ventilation therapy in severe
respiratory failure of RDS.
Pathology
Macroscopically, the lungs appear congested, atelectatic and solid. Micropathologically, alveolar atelectasis and
pulmonary edema are seen, with pulmonary capillaries disrupted or engorged with blood, and lymphatics and
interstitial spaces filled with edema fluid [33]. There is an abundance of interstitial tissue, present in inverse
relationship to maturation. Epithelial damage appears within 30 minutes, and the hyaline membrane is formed with
fibrin exudates, RBC, WBC, and cellular debris within 3 hours of life. Alveoli are either collapsed or overdistended,
especially those which are located perihilarly. These bronchial lesions can be modified and, to some extent,
prevented with supplemental surfactant therapy.
PRENATAL IDENTIFICATION OF THE RISK OF RDS
Assessment of possibility and identification of the risk of RDS in an infant can be made prenatally. This provision
allows the option and timing of instituting tocolysis in infants who have immature lung profiles, and terminating
pregnancy in those who have mature lungs. If further permits vital decisions regarding transfer of a high risk mother
to an appropriately equipped perinatal center, and the utility and need of prenatal steroid administration.
Furthermore, it warrants the presence of a pediatric group at the time of delivery that is skilled in resuscitation and
might be equipped with prophylactic surfactant therapy. Prenatal evaluation of lung maturity by amniotic fluid allows
identification of 40 to 80 percent of those preterm infants who do not require surfactant substitution and may thus be
exempt from this expensive, invasive and potentially harmful treatment [34].
Prenatal identification of RDS in a fetus at risk can be made by measuring the various components of surfactant
present in the amniotic fluid. The egress of fetal lung fluid from the terminal respiratory unit toward larger airways,
then out of the body, accomplishes the carriage of surfactant into amniotic fluid. Amniotic fluid can be sampled by
amniocentesis or by collection of the vaginal pool if the membranes are ruptured. The ratio of lecithin, which
increases consistently through the gestational age in amniotic fluid, and sphingomyelin which stays relatively
constant (L/S ratio), measured by chromatography, constitutes a useful predictive test, with sensitivity of 90100
percent and specificity of 50 to 85 percent [17,35]. An L/S ratio greater than 2 signifies lung maturity, whereas
values between 1 to 1.5 or less indicate lung immaturity. Those between 1.5 and 2 are assessed as transitional. The
normal L/S ratio at 28 weeks of gestation is 0.5. It increases to 0.5 to 1 between 28 and 32 weeks, to 1 to 1.5
between 32 and 36 weeks, and after 36 weeks is above 2. The chances of having RDS are 40 percent if the L/S
ratio is less than 1.5; this decreases to 33 percent as the L/S ratio increases to 1.5 to 2, then to 10 percent and 1
percent, respectively, as the ratio increases to greater than 2 and greater than 2.5. However, in cases of IDM and Rh
isoimmunization, L/S ratios greater than 2 may not predict lung maturity; in IDM, only when the ratio reaches greater
than 3.5 do the infant's chances of having RDS fall below 5 percent [35].
http://ovidsp.tx.ovid.com/sp3.21.1b/ovidweb.cgi 7/24
9/15/2016 Ovid: Respiratory Distress Syndrome of the Newborn Infant.
Contamination of amniotic fluid with blood, meconium, or vernix may give a false positive report for the L/S ratio, as
these body fluids may contain lecithin and sphingomyelin. Presence of these substances in body fluids may
erroneously increase a low L/S ratio and decrease a high L/S ratio value. Under such conditions, evaluation of
amniotic fluid for the presence of phosphatidylglycerol or quantitative saturated phosphatidylcholine may provide a
more accurate predictive test, as the test for its detection is not affected by the presence of meconium or blood. [6].
The presence of phosphatidylglycerol in amniotic fluid, or a value of saturated phosphatidylcholine higher than 500
mg/dl are associated with pulmonary maturity. In IDM, saturated phosphatidylcholine concentrations between 500
and 1000 mg/dl may be associated with a 7 to 10 percent chance of RDS, which decreases to less than 5 percent as
values increase to 1000 mg/dl or above [36]. Phosphatidylglycerol appears in amniotic fluid at around 36 weeks of
gestation, and is absent in almost all infants who develop RDS.
CLINICAL FEATURES
The patient with RDS is typically a preterm newborn infant who presents with respiratory distress and cyanosis at
birth. The classic respiratory findings are tachypnea, retractions, expiratory grunting, and cyanosis on room air.
Tachypnea is due to an attempt to increase Vmin to compensate for a decreased Vt and an increased Vd. Intercostal,
as well as subcostal, retractions indicate the infant's efforts to increase negative intrapleural pressure to inflate the
lungs. The premature infant with RDS has a highly compliant chest wall due to the underdevelopment of intercostal
and subcostal muscles and ribcage, which he is unable to stabilize during inspiration. The high intrapleural pressure
generated to inflate stiff lungs results in distortion of the chest cage and insucking of intercostal and subcostal
muscles. Expiratory grunting is characteristic, and is produced as the infant expires against a closed glottis in order
to maintain endexpiratory lung volume and gas exchange during expiration. Pulmonary edema is present secondary
to increased blood flow and congestive heart failure from PDA, and can be visualized on a chest radiograph. PDA
and pulmonary edema contribute to the basic problem of surfactant deficiency and may require specific therapeutic
interventions. Auscultation of the lungs may reveal decreased air movement and fine rales. The chest radiographic
picture is characteristic and determines the clinical diagnosis. It shows hypovolemia of the lungs and an opacity that
ranges from diffuse granularity to a ground glass appearance, and finally, total whiteout of the lung fields, making
them indistinguishable from the adjacent viscera. An air bronchogram is often present [37]. The heart size is normal
or slightly increased, and the diaphragms look domed up due to hypovolemia of the lungs. The radiographic
appearance of the lungs often corresponds to the clinical presentation of mild, moderate or severe disease. Apart
from severity of the disease, the radiographic picture of the lungs is liable to be altered by the degree of prematurity,
positive pressure ventilation and surfactant therapy. Other organ systems in RDS may show hypothermia,
hypotension, and hypotonia.
With appropriate respiratory and other organ support, the course of the disease may take one of the following paths.
The infant shows an increasing oxygen requirement after the initial improvement, following correction of hypothermia
and other metabolic problems, which may reach as high as 100 percent over the following 48 hours. The urine output
is low during this period. Soon afterward, diuresis ensues and, with this, if RDS is uncomplicated, recovery starts.
Decline in oxygen and positive pressure support rapidly occurs. Both may be discontinued after 1 to 2 weeks. More
severely affected infants have an immediate high oxygen requirement, that progresses rapidly to 100 percent, and
despite maximum support, they die early in the course of the disease due to severe respiratory failure. In a third
group of infants, who present with severe lung disease at birth, the initial course may be very critical. It may be
complicated with hypotension, pulmonary and extrapulmonary air leaks, including pulmonary interstitial emphysema,
pneumothorax and pneumomediastinum, significant patency of a ductus arteriosus, intracranial hemorrhage,
pulmonary hemorrhage, and marked metabolic and electrolyte abnormalities. These infants may require intensive
management and supportive therapy, including surfactant replacement, inotrope infusion, multiple volume and blood
products transfusion, indomethacin therapy and alternative ventilatory strategies like HFJV or HFOV. These patients
may survive through the neonatal age and end up with significant chronic lung disease. In a last group, very low
birthweight infants (less than 1000 gm) require mechanical ventilation for a prolonged period of time, maybe at
lower settings after the initial few days, and generally end up with mild BPD.
LABORATORY DIAGNOSIS AND MONITORING
http://ovidsp.tx.ovid.com/sp3.21.1b/ovidweb.cgi 8/24
9/15/2016 Ovid: Respiratory Distress Syndrome of the Newborn Infant.
RDS is a clinicalradiological diagnosis. Laboratory findings support the diagnosis and help in monitoring the success
or failure of its management. Infants show mild, moderate or severe oxygenation defects with varying degrees of
hypoventilation and mild metabolic acidosis, associated with some elevation of blood lactate [38]. The severity of
hypoxemia and hypercarbia is monitored by frequent intermittent blood sampling from an indwelling central catheter
placed in the umbilical artery, or peripherally in the radial, posterior tibial or temporal arteries. Blood sampling by
intermittent arterial punctures instead of indwelling catheters is not recommended. A mixed capillary blood sample
from a warmed heal may be used for blood gas and pH monitoring but is limited in value for assessment of
oxygenation.
Routine transcutaneous, continuous, noninvasive blood gas monitoring, although available, is not popular, as results
depend on blood flow apart from PaO2 and PaCO2. When blood flow is compromised, transcutaneous O2 is low and
transcutaneous CO2 is high, despite normal PaO2 and PaCO2 values. Moreover, these monitors have heated probes
which can cause thermal burn and infection. Continuous oxygensaturation monitoring has been very popular and
helpful in evaluation and maintenance of normoxia. The readings correlate strongly with actual hemoglobin O2
saturation, and photosensors are neither heated nor require calibration. However, they depend on vascular pulsation
and carboxyhemoglobin and methemoglobin concentrations. Continuous blood pressure monitoring via indwelling
arterial catheter, and continuous cardiorespiratory monitoring are routine. Hypovolemia is often present, and if
uncorrected can result in intractable, at times terminal, hypoxemia [39].
Metabolic problems encountered in RDS include acidosis due to anaerobic metabolism and lactate accumulation,
hypoglycemia, mild hyponatremia, and hyperkalemia. The latter suggests ongoing tissue catabolism and/or non
oliguric hyperkalemia of prematurity due to renal inability to excrete K in VLBWI. Hypernatremia, often present in
VLBWI, suggests dehydration due to excessive cutaneous insensible water loss and fluid restriction, particularly if the
infant is unsupplemented with Na. Hyponatremia within the first few days of course indicates iatrogenic
overhydration, SIADH or fluid retention due to renal inability to handle water. VLBWI may manifest signs of
hyperosmolar dehydration syndrome with hypernatremia, hyperkalemia and hyperglycemia. Other associated
laboratory anomalies during the course of RDS are low hemoglobin levels, low total leukocyte count and
hyperbilirubinemia. A basal assessment of intracranial structures via a portable ultrasound machine is done around
72 hours of life for the diagnosis of intracranial hemorrhage, unless warranted earlier. This is repeated as needed to
document the late occurrence of intracranial hemorrhage, the absence of IVHPVH or the progression of bleeding.
PRINCIPLES OF MANAGEMENT
Before 1960, 25,000 neonates died of RDS per year. That figure has now decreased to 5,000, notwithstanding a
much lowered gestational age limit for resuscitation [40]. This indicates great strides in the successful management
of RDS. Following is a brief outline of the principles of management.
Anticipation and Resuscitation
http://ovidsp.tx.ovid.com/sp3.21.1b/ovidweb.cgi 9/24
9/15/2016 Ovid: Respiratory Distress Syndrome of the Newborn Infant.
Perinatal asphyxia increases the morbidity and mortality of RDS considerably. As features of RDS become evident
and lifethreatening within the first few seconds of birth, the presence of a skilled resuscitation team, headed by a
neonatologist or pediatrician, is strongly recommended at delivery to minimize perinatal stress in infants at high risk
for RDS Table 4. Such personnel should be trained in early recognition and treatment of RDS, and in resuscitation.
These deliveries should preferably take place in an active perinatal center which has a Level III, or at least a Level II
neonatal care unit.
Table 4. Principles of management of RDS
Management of the Infant in Respiratory Distress in the Delivery Room
http://ovidsp.tx.ovid.com/sp3.21.1b/ovidweb.cgi 10/24
9/15/2016 Ovid: Respiratory Distress Syndrome of the Newborn Infant.
The immediate and compelling requirements are provision of oxygen and pressure support to optimize oxygenation
and ventilation, and to minimize WOB in the infant Table 5. Secondary to respiratory treatment, but as crucial, are
maintenance of body temperature and intravascular volume, prevention of heat loss and correction of acidosis.
Warmed and humidified O sub 2 can be administered by blow by via mask connected to an oxygen source through
tubes, by manual ventilation with an anesthesia bag and mask applied to the face, or by endotracheal intubation and
manual positive pressure ventilation. As both surfactant synthesis and secretion are impaired by inadequate lung
expansion at birth, it may be prudent to intubate infants who are in significant respiratory distress or who weigh less
than 1000 g. Larger premature infants who are apneic, depressed or unable to sustain effective spontaneous
respiration may need intubation. Surfactant delivery is not commonly done in the delivery room and is undertaken
only in specific situations, e.g., under a protocol for research. For volume and/or HCO3 infusion, a peripheral
intravenous line, or, preferably, a UV line should be placed. Epinephrine, if needed, may be given via endotracheal
tube or intravenously.
Table 5. Delivery room management of infant in respiratory distress
Respiratory Management in Neonatal Intensive Care Unit
http://ovidsp.tx.ovid.com/sp3.21.1b/ovidweb.cgi 11/24
9/15/2016 Ovid: Respiratory Distress Syndrome of the Newborn Infant.
After transfer to NICU, the infant is evaluated for severity of respiratory distress, and thereby, the magnitude of
respiratory support needed Table 6. Ventilators traditionally used for neonates are timecycled and pressurelimited.
An ideal ventilator in RDS should have the capability to deliver a small volume of fractionated gas at a high
respiratory rate, and be equipped with higher and lower settings for positive pressure, fractional oxygen concentration
and intermittent mandatory breaths, as well as limit alarms. HFJV or HFOV are alternative ventilatory strategies and
produce favorable results in intractable respiratory failure associated with RDS, PIE and severe early BPD. Assist
control and negative pressure ventilation are still experimental, and not recommended for routine use until controlled
prospective studies establish their utility and benefit in RDS. All infants, especially those on PPV, require frequent
monitoring of arterial blood gas tension in order to ensure minimal acceptable oxygenation and ventilation, while
minimizing barotrauma and O2 related toxicity.
Table 6. Guidelines for early respiratory management of RDS in NICU
O2 supplementation in RDS improves pAO2 in open low V/Q pulmonary units, thereby increasing paO2 and arterial
O2 saturation. It also relieves hypoxemiainduced vasoconstriction and reduces RL shunting. CPAP via nasal prongs
or ET tube reduces mortality, especially if started early with less Fio2 requirement [41]. It also reduces the O2 and
PPV requirement and the incidence abnd severity of BPD. Mechanical ventilation is often needed and can be life
saving. PPV may result in air leak syndromes, reduction in venous return and cardiac output, and BPD. Other
complications of PPV are decreased renal perfusion, SIADH, and possibly IVHPVH, especially with HFOV [42].
Surfactant Replacement
Supplementation of exogenous SF strictly addresses the underlying problem in RDS. However, SF is not curative, as
the signs and symptoms of RDS are due not only to surfactant deficiency, but also to structural immaturity of
respiratory structures (refer: pathophysiology). These are further contributed to by defects in central respiratory
control and the metabolic and immunological function of pulmonary endothelial cells. Results of clinical trials of SF
therapy have demonstrated a reduction in the acuity and pulmonary complications of RDS, a decrease in
requirement of FiO2 and pressure support during the initial stage of the disease, and an increase in incidence of
survival without BPD in infants who receive exogenous SF, as opposed to those who do not [43,44]. Surfactant
replacement therapy is indicated in all intubated infants who have radiologically proven RDS. The dose is 75 to 100
mg/kg, instilled intratracheally. Treatment schedules and protocols are prophylactic vs. rescue, and single vs. multiple
dose therapy, the latter as two, or even more doses, at 12 hours intervals. Recent studies have suggested that more
than two or three doses are probably not necessary in RDS, as by the third or fourth day adequate endogenous
functional SF is available at the alveolar interface.
http://ovidsp.tx.ovid.com/sp3.21.1b/ovidweb.cgi 12/24
9/15/2016 Ovid: Respiratory Distress Syndrome of the Newborn Infant.
Complications of SF therapy include acute deterioration in pulmonary status, air leaks if, immediately following the
treatment, respiratory settings are not appropriately adjusted, and pulmonary hemorrhage, especially in infants who
weigh less than 750 gm at birth. Rescue therapy is generally undertaken and the number of treatments is decided
based upon clinical response and preference of the caretaking neonatologist. SF is available in natural (bovine or
human), synthetic, and semisynthetic forms. Overall efficacy and safety issues regarding SF are still evolving.
Detailed information on SF is beyond the scope of this article.
General Supportive Therapy
This aspect of management is extremely important for a favorable outcome. Correction of acidosis, provision of a
neutral thermal environment, recognition and correction of hypovolemia and hypotension, and maintenance of
adequate hemoglobin concentration are essential. Thermal neutrality is achieved by servocontrolling the anterior
abdominal skin temperature to 36.5 degrees C on an overhead warmer bed. Continuous systemic BP and HR
monitoring help ensure euvolemia. CVP monitoring via UV line is feasible, although not always accurate in the
presence of PPV; however, digital trends can provide information regarding intravascular volume status. Frequent
blood gas, serum electrolyte, serum glucose and percent hematocrit monitoring is essential, and the normal internal
biochemistry of Na, K, Ca, glucose, creatinine, BUN and HCO3 can be maintained with some liberalization of the
level of acceptance. Fluid is provided by means of a 5, 7.5, or 10 percent dextrose solution, added with calcium.
Fluid restriction to 60 to 80 ml/kg per day for the first 48 hours or until the diuresis supervenes is practiced, and
urinary output, serum Na level and body weight are watched to assess hydration status. Heart rate and blood
pressure are checked to avoid significant volume deficit. Allowance of 10 percent loss of birth weight by the end of
the first or second week can result in avoidance of complications like PDA, IVHPVH, and BPD. If the serum sodium
level increases sharply and exceeds 150 mEq/liter, fluid intake is liberalized. Hyperkalemia and hypocalcemia are
monitored and treated as needed. Blood pressure is supported by a slow infusion of 10 to 20 ml/kg of 5 percent
albumin, 0.9 percent saline or blood products, as indicated. If hypovolemia is ruled out, dopamine infusion at 2 to 10
micro/kg per minutes is usually effective. Metabolic acidosis increases pulmonary vascular resistance, impairs
surfactant synthesis, reduces cardiac output, and, ultimately, reduces ventilation. If the serum bicarbonate level is 15
mEq/liter or less, very slow infusion of NaHCO3 is recommended. If PDA is present after 48 to 72 hours of life, as
confirmed by 2D echocardiography and pulsed Doppler ultrasonography, and adjudged clinically significant, it should
be closed with indomethacin, particularly if evidence suggests that spontaneous closure within a reasonable period of
time is unlikely. External stimuli delivered by endotracheal suction, diaper change, etc. should be kept to a minimum.
Such procedures reduce arteriole oxygen tension, increase oxygen consumption and may contribute to cerebral
hemorrhage. Trophic, gutstimulatory enteral feeding may be initiated in very small volume in mildly sick infants.
However, it is inappropriate for infants with severe RDS, especially during the acute stage. Total fluid intake is
determined on the basis of body weight, serum Na level and chronological age. It may reach, more or less, a total of
140 ml/kg per day by the end of first week, depending upon gestational age at birth, severity of the disease and
associated complications. Hyperalimentation should be begun on the third day and graded up gradually over 3 to 5
days, to a total of 3 gm/kg per day of both protein and fat supplementation. A caloric intake of 80 to 90 kcal/kg per
day for TPNdependent infants, and 110 to 120 kcal/kg per day for the rest should be maintained.
COMPLICATIONS OF RDS
http://ovidsp.tx.ovid.com/sp3.21.1b/ovidweb.cgi 13/24
9/15/2016 Ovid: Respiratory Distress Syndrome of the Newborn Infant.
Acute complications include alveolar rupture due to PPV (2040 percent), and, consequently, pulmonary interstitial
emphysema, pneumothorax, pneumomediastinum, pneumopericardium or pneumoperitoneum Table 7. Also included
are IVHPVH, PDA and congestive heart failure, hypotension, temperature instability, renal failure, electrolyte
imbalance and other metabolic abnormalities, and sepsis. Some of these may be considered part of the usual course
of RDS. Longterm complications are BPD (20 percent), retinopathy of prematurity, neurodevelopmental impairment,
cerebral palsy, growth retardation, feeding difficulties, prolonged hyperalimentation dependence and family
psychopathology. The incidence of child abuse is higher in survivors of RDS. Survivors of RDS, particularly those
who are treated with PPV and supplementation of O2, may return frequently for respiratory complications like
infection and wheezing. Many complications of RDS overlap with those of prematurity and are not always
distinguishable.
Table 7. Complications of RDS
DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS
http://ovidsp.tx.ovid.com/sp3.21.1b/ovidweb.cgi 14/24
9/15/2016 Ovid: Respiratory Distress Syndrome of the Newborn Infant.
RDS should be differentiated from all other causes of respiratory distress at birth. This is generally easy because of
the presentation and characteristic radiographic picture. Other causes which should be ruled out are delayed
transition, sepsis, air leaks, congenital anomaly of pulmonary or extrapulmonary structures, cardiac lesions, central
and neuromuscular causes of respiratory distress, certain metabolic and hematological abnormalities, and persistent
pulmonary hypertension. However, the most important entity that can be clinicoradiographically indistinguishable
from RDS is group B streptococcal pneumonia. A positive culture and a clinical presentation in disproportionate
severity to the radiographic picture may provide a clue to the diagnosis of group B streptococcal pneumonia. A
newborn infant is prone to respond to any noxious stimulus or pathological process by displaying varying degree of
respiratory distress. Figure 1
Figure 1. Chest radiograph of a 6hourold newborn infant, born at 23 weeks of gestation, showing pulmonary
consolidation consistent with respiratory distress syndrome. The infant received surfactant and indomethacin, and stayed
on high ventilatory support for more than a month.
PREVENTION AND PROPHYLAXIS
http://ovidsp.tx.ovid.com/sp3.21.1b/ovidweb.cgi 15/24
9/15/2016 Ovid: Respiratory Distress Syndrome of the Newborn Infant.
The most effective and economical way to prevent RDS is to prevent premature birth by prolonging gestation.
Prediction of risk by antenatal testing and antenatal steroid administration to accelerate fetal lung maturation are
other available means. Antenatal steroid treatment improves pulmonary function and overall survival [4548]. It
decreases the incidence (25 percent) and severity of RDS, and the incidence of PDA, IVHPVH, and probably renal
complications. However, it may increase the risk of infection in the infant [49]. Thyrotropinreleasing hormone is
known to have a striking synergism with the maturational effects of glucocorticoids. Antenatal TRH therapy in
combination with betamethasone has been shown to decrease the incidence of BPD, and related mortality [5052].
However, significant reduction in the incidence of RDS was not seen with the combination, except in one study [53].
A combination of antenatal steroid and postnatal surfactant treatment can significantly improve the outcome of RDS.
PROGNOSIS
Chances of survival in HMD are directly related to birth weight and the initial severity and complications of the
disease. It is further modified by antenatal steroid and postnatal surfactant replacement therapy. Except for VLBWI,
neurological and other aspects of prognosis are comparable to those infants who do not have RDS, if treatment is
started early and done appropriately.
FUTURE TRENDS
Currently the focus is on two important aspects of management: prevention and improvement in ventilatory therapy.
Potentially, the most promising method of prevention is prenatal pharmacological manipulation of the fetus to
accelerate lung maturity. Among available alternative methods of lung ventilation, liquid ventilation seems to be the
most promising [54].
http://ovidsp.tx.ovid.com/sp3.21.1b/ovidweb.cgi 16/24
9/15/2016 Ovid: Respiratory Distress Syndrome of the Newborn Infant.
Type II pneumocytes are influenced by a number of hormones, namely thyroxine, triiodothyronine, insulin, and
prolactin. Administration of some of these agents appears to prematurely stimulate the biosynthetic pathway of SF.
Prospects of a parturient imminent for delivery of a preterm infant at high risk for RDS can be improved considerably
by prenatal treatment with some of these substances. Drugs under investigation for pharmacological enhancement of
lung maturity include TRH, prolactin, intralipids, ambroxol, aminophyllin and betaagonists. The clinical disadvantage
is that all these agents need to be introduced at least 48 to 72 hours before delivery to demonstrate significant
results. Figure 2
Figure 2. Chest radiograph of a 4hourold newborn infant, delivered during 25th week of gestation, who received steroid
prenatally. The mother had rupture of the membrane for 7 days. Please note relatively clearer lung fields and better lung
expansion. The infant needed minimal ventilatory support from the first postnatal day.
http://ovidsp.tx.ovid.com/sp3.21.1b/ovidweb.cgi 17/24
9/15/2016 Ovid: Respiratory Distress Syndrome of the Newborn Infant.
On the cutting edge of neonatal research today is liquid ventilation, the new and most promising technique for
delivery of PPV. Liquid ventilation offers a ventilatory modality that is less invasive than gas ventilation, and may
eventually result in better pulmonary support with less tissue damage. It may possibly be used for drug delivery to
the lungs as well. Liquid ventilation has been studied extensively in animals and now is being studied in humans,
with promising preliminary results. The conveying fluid used is perfluorochemicalan inert, clear, colorless, odorless,
nonbiotransferable and nontoxic liquid that has high O2 and CO2 solubility. As perfluorochemical, mixed with gases,
is introduced at a slow rate and lower positive pressure, barotrauma and a decrease in cardiac output are minimized.
Perfluorochemical has low surface tension and spreading properties like SF, and can be delivered via total liquid
ventilation or via liquid ventilation in combination with gas ventilation. Two human trials on liquid ventilation in
terminally ill infants have shown improvement in PaO sub 2 and pulmonary Cl [54]. Other trials with different
protocols are under way. The future of liquid ventilation in the ventilatory management of RDS is promising,
although issues regarding its costeffectiveness will warrant serious consideration before the technique is undertaken
for routine use.
FINAL COMMENTS
Respiratory distress syndrome of the newborn infant constitutes a major morbidity of the preterm infants worldwide,
and contributes significantly to the neonatal mortality. It imparts tremendous medical and socioeconomic impact on
issues related to the care of patients in pediatric age group. Significant progress has been achieved in the
management of the disease during past 30 years, which has made possible many VLBWI survive with minimal or no
obvious pulmonary sequelae. Many infants who are born with a body weight less than 1000 gm, demonstrate
minimal or no lung disease at birth. This indicates the capacity of the preterm lungs to functionally mature before the
natural timetable. With prenatal steroid exposure, this timetable may shift by as much as 25 percent of the human
gestation. Lung maturation extends beyond surfactant system, and now with the availability of SF, the focus is on
increasing pulmonary alveolarization and air exchange surface area, and decreasing the excessive interstitium and
the tendency to develop pulmonary edema in low birth weight infants by prenatal pharmocological manipulation.
This, combined with improved modalities of mechanical ventilation, may further improve the outlook of infants who
are born prematurely and suffer with severe RDS at birth. Figure 3
http://ovidsp.tx.ovid.com/sp3.21.1b/ovidweb.cgi 18/24
9/15/2016 Ovid: Respiratory Distress Syndrome of the Newborn Infant.
Figure 3. Pulmonary interstitial emphysema with drained pneumothorax in a 4dayold male neonate, who was born during
26th week of gestation, as the second infant of a twin pregnancy. The infant suffered from severe RDS at birth and died on
12th postnatal day due to respiratory failure. The firstborn female sibling required significantly lower ventilatory support at
birth, and survived with mild BPD.
REFERENCES
1. Centers for Disease Control. Low birth weight: United States. 19751987. MMWR 1990;39:148. Request from
NUMC Library [Context Link]
2. Avery ME, Mead J. Surface properties in relation to atelectasis and hyaline membrane disease. Am J Dis Child
1959;97:517. [Context Link]
3. Ikegami M, Jobe A, Yamada T et al. Relationship between alveolar saturated phosphatidylcholine pool sizes and
compliance of preterm rabbit lungs. Am Rev Respir Dis 1989;139: 367. Request from NUMC Library Bibliographic
Links [Context Link]
4. Clements JA, Tooley WH. Kinetics of surface active material in the fetal lung. In: Hodson WA, ed. Development
of the Lung. New York: Marcel Dekker, 1977, pp. 349346. [Context Link]
5. Jobe AH. Pathogenesis of respiratory failure in the preterm infant. Ann Med 1991;23:687. Request from NUMC
Library Bibliographic Links [Context Link]
6. Stark AR, Frantz 3rd ID. Respiratory distress syndrome. Pediatr Clin North Am 1986;33:533. [Context Link]
7. Usher RH, Allen AC, McLean FH. Risk of respiratory distress syndrome related to gestational age, route of
delivery and maternal diabetes. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1971;111:826. [Context Link]
8. Wegman ME. Annual summary of vital statistics1989. Pediatrics 1990;86:835. Request from NUMC Library
Bibliographic Links [Context Link]
9. Farrell PM, Avery ME. State of the art: Hyaline Membrane Disease. Am Rev Respir Dis 1975;111:657 [Context
Link]
10. Torday JS. Androgens delay human fetal lung maturation in vitro. Endocrinology 1990;126:3240. Request from
NUMC Library Bibliographic Links [Context Link]
11. Gross I. Regulation of fetal lung maturation. Am J Physiol 259 (Lung Cell Mol Physiol 3):1990;L337. [Context
Link]
12. Kresch MJ, Gross I. The biochemistry of fetal lung development. Clin Perinatol 1987;14:481. Request from
NUMC Library Bibliographic Links [Context Link]
13. Rooney SA. The surfactant system and lung phospholipid biochemistry. Am Rev Respir Dis 1985;131:439.
Request from NUMC Library Bibliographic Links [Context Link]
14. Miller HC, Futrakul P. Birth weight, gestational age and sex as determining factors in the incidence of respiratory
distress syndrome of prematurely born infants. J Pediatr 1968;72:628. Request from NUMC Library Bibliographic
Links [Context Link]
http://ovidsp.tx.ovid.com/sp3.21.1b/ovidweb.cgi 19/24
9/15/2016 Ovid: Respiratory Distress Syndrome of the Newborn Infant.
15. Fedrick J, Butler NR: Hyaline membrane disease. Lancet 1972;2:768. Request from NUMC Library
Bibliographic Links [Context Link]
16. Robert MF, Neff RK, Hubbell JP et al. Association between maternal diabetes and the respiratory distress
syndrome in the newborn. N Engl J Med 1976;294:357. Request from NUMC Library Bibliographic Links
[Context Link]
17. Gluck L, Kulovich MV. Lecithinsphingomyelin ratios in amniotic fluid in normal and abnormal pregnancy. Am J
Obstet Gynecol 1973;115:539. [Context Link]
18. Snyder JM, Mendelson CR. Insulin inhibits the accumulation of the major lung surfactant apoprotein in human
fetal lung explants maintained in vitro. Endocrinology 1987;120:1250. Request from NUMC Library Bibliographic
Links [Context Link]
19. Bouborn JR, Farrell PM. Fetal lung development in the diabetic pregnancy. Pediatr Res 1985;19:253. [Context
Link]
20. Zuckerman B, Maywood EC et al. A preliminary report of prenatal cocaine exposure in respiratory distress
syndrome in preterm infants; Am J Dis Child 1991;145:696. [Context Link]
21. Pena IC, Teberg AJ, Finella KM. The premature small for gestational age infant during the first year of life:
Comparison by birth weight and gestational age. J Pediatr 1988;113:1066. Request from NUMC Library
Bibliographic Links [Context Link]
22. Gluck L, Kulovich MV. The evaluation of functional maturity in the human fetus. In: Gluck L, ed. Modern
Perinatal Medicine. Chicago, Yearbook Medical Publishers, 1974. [Context Link]
23. Avery ME, Fletcher BD: The lung and its disorders in the newborn infant. Philadelphia, WB Saunders Company,
1974. [Context Link]
24. Rieuport M, Ferrell PM, et al. Changes in fetal rat lung surfactant phospholipids from normal to diabetic
pregnancy. Pediatr Res 1986;20:650. Request from NUMC Library [Context Link]
25. Jacob J, Gluck L, DiSessa T et al: The contribution of PDA in the neonate with severe RDS. J Pediatr
1980;96:79. Request from NUMC Library Bibliographic Links [Context Link]
26. Strang LB, MacLeish MH. Ventilatory failure and right to left shunt in newborn infants with respiratory distress.
Pediatrics 1961;18:17. [Context Link]
27. Hjalmarson O, Olsson T. Mechanical and ventilatory parameters in healthy and diseased newborn infants. Acta
Paediatr Scand 1974;247Suppl:26. Request from NUMC Library [Context Link]
28. Corbet, AJS, Ross JA, Beaudry PH et al. Ventilation perfusion relationships as assessed by AaDN sub 2 in
hyaline membrane disease. J Appl Physiol 1974;36:74. [Context Link]
29. Hansen TN, Corbet AJS, Kenny JD et al. Effects of oxygen and constant positive pressure breathing on AaDCO
sub 2 in hyaline membrane disease. Pediatr Res 1979;13:1167. Request from NUMC Library Bibliographic Links
[Context Link]
http://ovidsp.tx.ovid.com/sp3.21.1b/ovidweb.cgi 20/24
9/15/2016 Ovid: Respiratory Distress Syndrome of the Newborn Infant.
30. Dreizzen E, Migdal M, Praud JP et al. Passive compliance of total respiratory system in preterm newborn infants
with respiratory distress syndrome. J Pediatr 1988;112:778. Request from NUMC Library Bibliographic Links
[Context Link]
31. Gribetz I, Frank NR, Avery ME. Static volume pressure relations of excised lungs of infants with hyaline
membrane disease, newborn, and stillborn infants. J Clin Invest 1959;38: 2168. Request from NUMC Library
Bibliographic Links [Context Link]
32. Fanaroff A, Martin RJ, eds. Neonatal Perinatal Medicine, CV Mosby Co., 4th ed. 1987; pp. 579. [Context Link]
33. FinlayJones JM, Papadimitrious JM, Barter RA. Pulmonary hyaline membrane: Light and election microscopic
study of the early stage. J Pathol 1974;112:117. Request from NUMC Library Bibliographic Links [Context Link]
34. Hallman M. Lung surfactant in respiratory distress syndrome. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 1991;95(Suppl):1521.
Request from NUMC Library [Context Link]
35. Hallman M, Teramo K. Measurement of the lecithin sphingomyelin ratio and phosphatidylglycerol in amniotic
fluid: An accurate method for the assessment of fetal lung maturity. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1981;88:806. Request
from NUMC Library Bibliographic Links [Context Link]
36. Torday J. Tests for pulmonary surfactant. In: Cloherty J, Stark A. Manual of Neonatal Care, 2nd Ed. Little Brown
and Co, Boston, 1985: pp. 174176. [Context Link]
37. Donald I, Steiner RE. Radiography in the diagnosis of hyaline membrane disease. Lancet 1953;2:846. Request
from NUMC Library [Context Link]
38. Sinclair JC. Pathophysiology of hyaline membrane disease. In Winter RW, ed. The body fluids in pediatrics.
Boston, Little Brown, 1973. [Context Link]
39. Phibbs R. What is the evidence that blood pressure monitoring is useful in problems of neonatal intensive care
units? Report of 59th Ross Conference on Pediatrics. Columbus, OH, Ross Laboratories, 1969; pp. 8189. [Context
Link]
40. Wiswell TE, Mendida Jr Joe. Respiratory distress syndrome in the newborn: Innovative therapies. Am Fam Phys
1993;47: 407. Request from NUMC Library Bibliographic Links [Context Link]
41. Rodes PG, Hall RT. Continuous positive airway pressure delivered by face mask in infants with idiopathic
respiratory distress syndrome: A controlled study. Pediatrics 1973;52:1. [Context Link]
42. HIFI study group. High frequency oscillatory ventilation compared with conventional mechanical ventilation in the
treatment of respiratory failure in preterm infants. N Engl J Med 1989;320:88. Request from NUMC Library
Bibliographic Links [Context Link]
43. Morley CJ. Surfactant treatment for premature babiesA review of clinical trials. Arch Dis Child 1991;66:445.
Request from NUMC Library Bibliographic Links [Context Link]
44. Gortner L. Natural surfactant for neonatal respiratory distress syndrome in very premature infants: A 1992
update. J Perinat Med 1992;20:409. Request from NUMC Library Bibliographic Links [Context Link]
http://ovidsp.tx.ovid.com/sp3.21.1b/ovidweb.cgi 21/24
9/15/2016 Ovid: Respiratory Distress Syndrome of the Newborn Infant.
45. Liggins GC, Howie RN. A controlled trial of antepartum glucocorticoid treatment for prevention of the respiratory
distress syndrome in premature infants. Pediatrics 1972;50:515. Request from NUMC Library Bibliographic Links
[Context Link]
46. Ballard RA, Ballard PL, Granberg JP et al. Prenatal administration of betamethasone for prevention of
respiratory distress syndrome. J Pediatr 1979;94:97. Request from NUMC Library Bibliographic Links [Context
Link]
47. Rider E, Jobe A, Ikegami M et al. Effects of maternal corticosteroid dose on surfactant pool sizes, protein leaks,
and SPC incorporation in preterm rabbits. Clin Res 1989;37: 207A. Request from NUMC Library [Context Link]
48. Roberts WE, Morrison JC. Pharmacologic induction of fetal lung maturity. Clin Obstet Gynecol 1991;34:319
Ovid Full Text Bibliographic Links [Context Link]
49. Ali H, Verma R, Ross D. Prenatal administration of betamethasone in very low birth weight infants (abstr).
Pediatr Res 1993;33:254A. Request from NUMC Library [Context Link]
50. Ballard RA, Ballard PL, Creasy RK et al. Respiratory distress in very lowbirthweightinfants after prenatal
thyrotropinreleasing hormone and glucocorticoid. Lancet 1992;339:510515. Request from NUMC Library
Bibliographic Links [Context Link]
51. Morales WJ, O'Brien WF, Angel JL et al. Fetal lung maturation: The combined use of corticosteroids and
thyrotropinreleasing hormone. 1989;73: 111116. [Context Link]
52. Liggins GC, Schellenberg J, Manzai M et al. Synergism of cortisol and thyrotropinreleasing hormone in lung
maturation in fetal sheep. J Appl Physiol 1988;65:1880. [Context Link]
53. Knight DB, Liggins GC, Weathall SR. A randomized, controlled trial of antepartum thyrotropinreleasing hormone
and betamethasone in the prevention of respiratory distress in preterm infants. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1994;171:11
16. Request from NUMC Library Bibliographic Links [Context Link]
54. Wolfson MR, Kechner NE, et al. Improved gas exchange and pulmonary mechanics during and following slow
tracheal instillation of PFC in neonatal respiratory disease. Crit Care Med 1994;149:A545. Request from NUMC
Library [Context Link]
IMAGE GALLERY
Select All Export Selected to PowerPoint
Equation 1
Table 2
http://ovidsp.tx.ovid.com/sp3.21.1b/ovidweb.cgi 22/24
9/15/2016 Ovid: Respiratory Distress Syndrome of the Newborn Infant.
Table 1
Table 5
Table 4
Table 3
Table 6
Table 7
Figure 1
http://ovidsp.tx.ovid.com/sp3.21.1b/ovidweb.cgi 23/24
View publication stats
9/15/2016 Ovid: Respiratory Distress Syndrome of the Newborn Infant.
Figure 3
Figure 2
Back to Top
Equation 1
OvidSP_UI03.21.01.101, SourceID 106844
http://ovidsp.tx.ovid.com/sp3.21.1b/ovidweb.cgi 24/24