Doha Forum on

Decent Work and Poverty Reduction

25-26 October 2011
Doha, Qatar

Background Paper*

Skills development for job creation, economic

growth and poverty reduction

Mary Kawar

* The author is a Senior Regional Specialist on Skills and Employability at the ILO Decent Work Technical
Support Team, Regional Office for the Arab States. This Background Paper should not be reported as
representing the views of the ILO. The views expressed in this Paper are those of the author(s) and do not
necessarily represent those of the ILO or ILO policy. Background papers prepared for this event are made
available to participants to elicit comments and to further debate.
 1. Introduction

Education, vocational training and lifelong learning are central pillars of employability,
employment of workers and sustainable enterprise development within the Decent
Work Agenda, and thus contribute to achieving the Millennium Development Goals to
reduce poverty. Skills development is key in stimulating a sustainable development
process and can make a contribution to facilitating the transition from the informal to
the formal economy.

Skills development is also essential to address the opportunities and challenges to meet
new demands of changing economies and new technologies in the context of
globalization. The principles and values of decent work provide guidance for the design
and delivery of skills development and are an effective way of efficiently managing
socially just transitions.

At the International Labour organization’s (ILO) 2008 International Labour Conference

(ILC), representatives of governments, employers and workers adopted a set of
conclusions for using skills development to improve productivity, employment growth
and development. The conclusions comprise a set of guidelines that can help sustain the
competitiveness of enterprises and the employability of workers. In this framework,
skills development can help build a “virtuous circle” in which the quality and relevance
of education and training for women and men fuels the innovation, investment,
technological change, enterprise development, economic diversification and
competitiveness that economies need to accelerate the creation of more jobs, but also
more productive jobs.

This paper builds on these ILO conclusions. It provides a broad definition of the issue of
skills development and its role in promoting economic growth and poverty reduction. It
reviews approaches to skills development within the context of international
instruments such as the Millimuim Development Goals (MDGs) and reviews trends in
the Arab Region. It then proceeds to address the key policy challenges with an
international perspective through citing examples of skills development efforts from
countries outside the Arab region. The paper concludes with key messages for the
future.

2. Broad definition of training and skills

The future prosperity of countries depends ultimately on the number of persons in

employment and how productive they are at work. Nevertheless skills development
need to be connected to broader growth, employment and development strategies and
that requires that governments, working with the social partners, build policy coherence
in linking education and skills development to today’s labour markets and to the

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technology, investment, trade and macroeconomic policies that generate future
employment growth.

Nevertheless, training and skills development can have multiple meanings as they
include wide ranging elements. In the current discussion it is understood in broad terms
to include:

• Basic education ensures each individual the development of their

potential, laying the foundation for employability;

• Initial training provides core work skills and the underpinning knowledge,
industry-based and professional competencies that facilitate the
transition into the world of work;

• Lifelong learning ensures that individuals’ skills and competencies are

maintained and improved as work, technology, and skill requirements
change;

• Different countries focus on different elements, as they see relative

strengths and weaknesses in their own skills development systems, and
as they learn more about innovations and experience in other countries.

Box One: Skills for work and adult life

‘
Skills have a multiple meanings and many elements and might be categorized in the
following way:

Basic literacy, numeracy and ICT skills

Core, key, generic, soft - ‘employability’ – skills – This may include communication,
application of numbers, team working, problem solving, learning to learn etc.

Higher order skills – for example: logic, reasoning, analysis, synthesis, statistics, etc.

Specialist, vocational, technical, academic skills - technical knowledge including

enterprise, business know-how, financial skills etc

Attitudinal and behavioural skills – such as initiative, confidence, willingness,

perseverance, determination etc.

Life skills - social, health, interpersonal skills

Evidence on the benefits from adequate investments in quality education and training
firmly establishes that good education and training:

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 • Enhances people’s capacities and creativity, opportunities, and
satisfaction at work;

• Empower people to develop their full capacities and seize employment

and social opportunities;

• Raise productivity of workers and of enterprises;

• Contribute to boost future innovation and development;

• Encourage domestic and foreign investment, thus job growth lowering

unemployment and underemployment;

• Lead to higher wages; and

• When broadly accessible, expand labour market opportunities and

reduce inequalities between different groups of people.

3. Skills development within MDGs and other global frameworks

The poverty reduction paradigm behind the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) has
been moving closer to a labour-market-centered approach. This is based on the
reasoning that labour is the only asset of the poor and that a growth process that does
not create more and better jobs with adequate social protection might fail to reduce
poverty.

An educated and skilled workforce is a critical component of this new emphasis on

labour markets and their performance. The ILO has for years been advising member
States on skills development policies, and developing research and analysis in this area.
Skills development policies constitute a core element of the ILO’s Global Employment
Agenda (GEA), the ILO’s policy framework for the employment promotion objective of
the Decent Work Agenda. The Human Resources Development Recommendation, 2004
(No. 195), also provides guidance for effective skills and employment policies.

Given the importance of these issues, the ILO’s 2008 International Labour Conference
(ILC) general discussion on how skills development could better serve the twin
objectives of increasing the quantity of labour employed and the productivity of labour
was timely. The ILC adopted conclusions that provide a forward-looking framework for
strengthening linkages between skills, productivity, employment, development and
decent work. These conclusions underscore the principle that effective skills
development policies need to be integral components of national development
strategies in order to prepare the workforce and enterprises for new opportunities and

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preparedness to deal with change. In order to successfully link skills to productivity and
employment creation skills policies should target three objectives: matching supply to
current demand for skills; helping workers and enterprises adjust to change; and
anticipating and delivering the new and different skills that will be needed in the future.

The framework adopted in the conclusions also identifies prime responsibilities for
governments and the social partners, and establishes priorities for support from the
Office in five areas: (1) to boost skills development at the workplace and along value
chains; (2) to help manage global drivers of change; (3) to allow early identification of
current and future skills needs to feed national and sectoral development strategies; (4)
to link education, skills development, labour market entry and lifelong learning; and (5)
to promote social inclusion by extending access to education and training for those who
are disadvantaged in society.

There is also a parallel process which focuses on education, rather than skills and labour
market but which is equally important as a global mechanism that embeds an approach
this is the Education For All which is a global movement led by UNESCO, aiming to meet
the learning needs of all children, youth and adults by 2015. This was a result of 2 World
conferences1 which aimed to "universalize primary education and massively reduce
illiteracy by the end of the decade". From these conferences, the World Declaration on
Education for All (EFA) was adopted, which stressed that education is a fundamental
human right and pushed countries to strengthen their efforts to improve education in
order to ensure the basic learning needs for all were met. The resulting Framework for
Action to Meet the Basic Learning Needs established six goals one of which is lifelong
learning and which directly addresses the issue of skills development among young
people as well as adults. The EFA goals also contribute to the global pursuit of the eight
Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), especially MDG 2 on universal primary
education and MDG 3 on gender equality in education, by 2015.

These global tools and mechanisms play a very important role in setting agendas at the
global and national levels and provide guidance in principles and approaches. They also
provide the set up for measuring progress. For example monitoring the achievement of
the MDGs has given the ILO an opportunity to develop a set of indicators and a process
to actually be able to measure decent work attainment. In relation to skills development
one of the 4 indicators is labour productivity.2

1
World Conference on Education for All, Jomtien Thailand 1990 and World Education Forum Dakar Senegal 2000.
2
Indicators for measuring progress towards full and productive employment and decent work for all is
Employment-to-population ratios Labour productivity vulnerable employment and share of working poor

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 4. Overview of trends in skills development in the Arab Region

While recognizing the variety of challenges facing individual countries, the common
problem identified, especially in the Arab region is that investments in education and
training are not yet resulting in satisfactory levels of productive employment. Young
people face uncertainty in moving from education into decent work. Enterprises often
have trouble finding enough people with the skills they need to be able to expand their
business or adopt new technologies. And the opportunities for employment growth due
to industrial diversification, trade patterns, may be jeopardized because skills
development systems are not oriented towards preparing the workforce for the future.

Thus we see cases of high unemployment among workers, or employment concentrated

in work of low productivity in the informal economy, coinciding with labour shortages
for enterprises. Skill gaps are not the only likely explanation, of course. Labour market
conditions, especially prevailing wages, the industrial structure of the economy and
population growth are other key explanatory factors. Over and above despite
impressive improvements in education in most Arab countries in the region, the
percentage of young people who are both out of school and our of work is higher in the
Arab region than in any other developing region (60%).

Across the Arab region, employers often identify lack of the right skills as a barrier to
expanding business and employment. According to results of representative surveys of
firms in different regions conducted by the World Bank, this concern is more prominent
in the Arab region than elsewhere (Figure 1). One quarter of the enterprises surveyed in
the Arab region cited skills and education as a major constraint to business growth,
compared with, for example, about 5 per cent in East Asia. However, employers’ level of
concern does not appear to be matched by similar level of commitment to provide on-
the-job learning opportunities. As also shown in Figure 1, the Arab region shared with
South Asia the distinction of having the lowest incidence of formal training at the
workplace, with just under 20 per cent of firms surveyed reporting that they provide
formal training to their workers. The Arab region was the only one where more firms
cited skills and education as major constraints than helped meet that need by providing
formal training.

The concern about skills expressed in the survey is not about the quantity of young
people that receive vocational training but about the quality or relevance of that
training. This was the motivation behind a survey conducted by the ILO to trace
vocational school graduates’ experience in entering the labour market and to gauge
their employers’ satisfaction. The results showed that only 17 per cent of the employers
found the technical and vocational training (TVET) graduates able to meet expectations.
The graduates also seemed less than satisfied, with just under one in five reporting that
their training had directly led to wage employment or self-employment.

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Figure One. Employers’ perceptions of TVET and provision of workplace training3

70
% of firms surveyed
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
South Asia Arab Europe and Africa Latin East Asia
Region Central America & and Pacific
(MENA) Asia the
Caribbean

% of firms surveyed that cite skills & education as major constraints

% of firms surveyed that offer formal training

Within this context of low economic participation, low investment in training and a large
public sector where most young people prefer to be, the Arab Region has very low
productivity rates as compared to other regions in the World (Figure 2).

Figure Two: Annual rate (%) of productivity growth by region, 1991-20104

3
Investment Climate Capacity Enhancement Program, The World Bank Institute (Hong, 2006)
4
Tzannatos (2011) based on Trends Econometric Models”, Geneva, ILO October 2010 in Arab Development
Challenges Background Paper 2011 - Employment, Vulnerability, Social Protection and the Crisis of Arab Economic
Reforms, Khalid Abu-Ismail, Gihan Ahmed, Jennifer Olmsted and Mohamed Moheiddin

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It is important to highlight that skills development and other investments in human in
human capital comprise one of the factors necessary for productivity growth. Improving
productivity is not an end in itself, but a means to improving workers’ lives, enterprises’
sustainability, social cohesion and economic development. Continued improvement of
productivity is also a condition for competitiveness and economic growth and therefore
poverty reduction.

5. Policy Challenges with focus on Arab Region

In this section, the principal issue of skills mismatch and persistent unsatisfactory
employment outcomes of education and training is broken down into three policy
challenges and responses with the use of good practice examples from around the
world

Relevance of training – linking skills demand and supply;

Quality of training – standards and accountability; and
Access to training – availability of skills development opportunities, encompassing
equity and labour market issues.

5.1 Relevance of training

This relates to linking skills demand and supply. There is often a gulf between the world
of learning and the world of work. The pace of change in the world of world is also high
and keeping up with the changes is a challenge for education institutions.

The primary employer of educated new labour market entrants in most Arab economies
used to be the public sector, resulting in a skills development system with few links to
the private sector. The traditional attraction of employment guarantee in the public
sector coupled with the disconnection between training provided by the education
sector and the skills required by businesses help explain this tendency. With growing
market economies in the region, the introduction of new technologies, and greater
integration into the world economy, the demand for labour in higher-productivity
private sectors is increasing, and the response by many public education systems in
Arab States is lagging behind this new demand.

All over the world, teachers and trainers face the same problem: they tend to teach
what they know instead of what their students need to learn. The involvement of
employers in the management of training institutions helps to keep them abreast of
changing technologies and ICT equipment in use at the workplace, as well as to track
what occupations and skills are declining or rising in demand.

Sector-based bodies comprising employers’ and workers’ representatives, business

associations, and specialized learning and research institutions is one institutional

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mechanism to facilitate a continuous process of updating information on skill
requirements. Both employers and trade unions can analyse the impact of emerging
technologies or markets on future skill needs.

Because it is not possible to prepare students for every new technological breakthrough,
the most important skill students can acquire is how to continue learning. “Learning
how to learn” includes many core skills – in communication, math, computers,
teamwork, and problem-solving, for example.5 It is very difficult to train workers in
these core competencies once they have finished their education. So it is important
that employers help education and training institutions see this level of learning as one
of their key responsibilities. Equipped with the ability to learn, workers can then more
easily profit from on-job-training and employers are therefore more likely to invest in
training workers.

Opportunities for workplace training can ease the transition from school to work for
young people. Experiential learning, such as internship and apprenticeship programmes,
enhance the classroom-based knowledge through practical application. This dual
approach may be particularly appropriate for higher-skilled occupations, which require
theoretical education and learning through doing.

Opportunities for workplace learning are important not only for young people entering
the job market but for all workers throughout their careers. Lifelong learning smoothes
the transition from declining to emerging sectors for workers and makes it easier for
enterprises to adopt new technologies.

Another prime area of government responsibility is to collect, analyse and disseminate

labour market information. Timely and accessible information on national trends in
occupations and industries provides an informed basis for training institutions to adapt
their training provision and for employment services to provide better informed advice
to students and TVET institutions.

5
ILO, Portability of skills, Committee on Employment and Social Policy, Governing Body, 298th Session,
Geneva, March 2007.

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Box Two: International experience and good practices on relevance of training:
upgrading skills of workers

In France, national and particularly regional government provided generous funding to help
enterprises train or retrain workers, often in combination with reduced working hours, but
without loss of salary, as an alternative to retrenchment. A Social Investment Fund financed
by the State. the European Social Fund (EUR 5 billion) and social partners (EUR 500 million)
was set up to finance measures which promote the employment of young people, enable
workers made redundant to re-enter the labour market, and facilitate access to vocational
training

In Germany, reimbursement of employers’ social security contributions increases to 100 per

cent if the employer devotes down time to staff training.

In Canada, individual training plans range from upgrading skills in current jobs, preparing for
promotions, and even training for jobs outside the company. Workers remain employed –
helping retain aggregate demand in hard-hit communities – and acquire new skills, while
employers are able to retain staff and avoid having to train new workers when markets pick
up.

Source: ILO (2009) A skilled Workforce fo strong sutainable and balanced grouth: Proposals to G20
leaders for a Training Strategy, Pittsburg G20 Leaders meeting

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Box Three: International experience and good practices on relevance of training:
Anticipating future skills needs and stimulating growth

• Ireland’s Expert Group on Future Skill Needs (EGFSN) analyses future skill needs and
develops proposals for how to meet them, through a broad membership including
business representatives, educationalists, trade unionists, and policy makers. The
breadth of participation enables EGFSN to identify changing occupational profiles within
sectors and the demand for different occupations. EGFSN identified the key elements to
be included in a generic skills portfolio for the future: basic or fundamental skills (literacy,
numeracy, ITC); people-related skills (communication, team-working...); and
conceptual/thinking skills (collecting and organising information, problem solving, planning
and organizing, learning to learn, innovation and creative skills). They provide advice on
how to improve the awareness of job seekers of sectors where there is demand for skills
and the qualifications required.

• The wide replication of Brazil’s national training institution, SENAI, is a good measure of
success. SENAI is run by association of industries, funded by a levy on the industrial
payroll, and has sister institutions serving different sectors (agriculture, small enterprise,
service sector, etc.). Senai’s “Prospecting Model” adjusts training provision based on
analysis of take up rates of emerging technologies and of new forms of work organization.
The model generates estimates of job requirements over a five-year period based on
studies of technological and organization prospecting, tracking of emerging occupations
and monitoring demand trends for vocational training. The quality of basic education is
challenging the share of young people able to take advantage of training opportunities.

• At the core of the Republic of Korea’s sustained growth pattern lays a government-led
skill development strategy. The rapid progress in closing the productivity gap reflected an
economic development strategy based on investment and research and development.
Investment in a well-educated and highly-skilled workforce was an integral part of
encouraging adoption of new technologies. A current challenge is to avert shortages in
the higher-end vocational occupations by increasing the attractiveness of non-academic
skill development paths.

Source: ILO (2009) A skilled Workforce fo strong sutainable and balanced grouth: Proposals to G20
leaders for a Training Strategy, Pittsburg G20 Leaders meeting

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5.2 Quality of training
Higher school enrolment rates across the Arab region have coincided with declines in
quality. Many countries in the Arab region have found it difficult to maintain standards
for teaching staff or to invest in infrastructure, equipment and curriculum development.
Measures to improve the quality of education and training systems need to be
considered through social dialogue with all stakeholders. Some of the measures aiming
at improving the quality of education and the training system in Arab states that are
under consideration or being implemented as part of TVET reform include:7

Developing more effective teacher training programmes and creating incentives
for teachers and training institutions by linking a portion of teacher salaries or
institution budgets to performance;

Establishing standards for what students should know and be able to do at
various stages of the education and training system;

Enhancing the use of information technology in the educational process; and

Linking improved quality of training and employability of graduates to higher
perceptions of the value of vocational education and training.

Some countries have attributed low social esteem of vocational training to early tracking
systems that seem to curtail young people’s options instead of being the gateway to
multiple paths towards lifelong learning and decent and productive work. Some
countries in the region are moving from a tracked system to a more integrated
programme with more options for students. In Tunisia, following the 2002 education
reform, bridges have been built between general and vocational education enabling
students to move from vocational training onto the baccalaureate track and so gain
access to higher education. A similar system operates in Lebanon where vocational
secondary school can lead to a technical baccalaureate that opens to post-secondary
technical or to university education.

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 Box Four: International experience and good practices on Quality of Training

European Qualification Framework The EQF is a “translation grid” between European

Member States’ qualification systems to help employers and workers better understand EU
citizens’ qualifications. Intended to support mobility and lifelong learning, the EQF establishes
equivalences between qualifications and certificates obtained in different countries. It is a
reference tool for both employers and workers when comparing the qualification levels of
different countries and various education and training systems. The EQF includes eight broad
categories of skills – “reference levels” – ranging from basic to the most advanced
qualifications. Each category includes descriptions of what workers should know and be able
to do, regardless of where their diplomas, qualifications or certificates were obtained. In part,
this responds to the particular circumstance of opening labour markets at the Europe-wide
level, where individual institutions’ reputations for quality of training are not known throughout
the wider EU.

Argentina focuses on improving training at the enterprise level through uses of its Tax
Credit Regime to target incentives to SMEs to invest in training workers. SMEs can finance
training projects up to the equivalent of 8 per cent of the sum of total remuneration. They can
also be reimbursed for costs incurred for skills assessment and certification in addition to
actual training – an incentive to boost recognition of skills learned informally or on-the-job.
This feature helps make the programme (begun in 2007) attractive to SMEs, who comprise
70% of beneficiaries.
Source: ILO (2008) Skills for Improved Productivity, Employment Growth and Development, International Labour
Conference, 97th Session, report V, Geneva

5.3 Access to training

Increased provision of training must accompany the enhanced flow of information
about what kind and levels of training are needed. Otherwise training institutions will
not be able to respond and extend the availability of training to young people and to
those already in the labour market. In addition, there is a need in many countries to
expand training opportunities to broader segments of society in order to help them
meet their potential for productive work, for example, by improving skills development
in the informal economy, by overcoming barriers that deter women from training, by
extending good quality education into rural areas and to areas recovering from crises,
and by enabling persons with disabilities to receive training and use it to get better jobs.
Measures such as these serve the twin objectives of reducing inequality and meeting
labour market needs.

Across the region the large formal economy coexists with a large informal economy.
The high growth sectors with high value added requiring higher-skilled workers are not
necessarily the ones creating the majority of new jobs, while at the same time training
of poor quality traps workers in low-productivity work in the informal economy. For
example, in Egypt employment is expanding at a good pace and unemployment is
declining but major concerns remain about the quality of jobs being created as public
sector employment growth slows, the population bulge of youth starts to enter the
labour market, and the private sector does not create enough good jobs.

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Box Five: International experience and good practices on improving access to training
for specific target groups

“Second chance” programme in Spanish cities The programme accepts students and
trainees who do not have skills or want to diversify their skills. It provides technical training
and individualized support services to help young people make the transition into the labour
force. The programme is flexible to accommodate for the schedules of the trainees. This
programme is run by the European Association of Cities for Second Chance Schools and is
being implemented in four Spanish cities: Bilbao, Cadiz, Gijón and Barcelona. The
programme is divided into phases with a decreasing share of coursework and an increasing
proportion of workshops, tutoring and in-company work over a two-year period. The
programme benefits from the strong local involvement of employers in raising the success
level.

Assisting girls and young women with access to secondary education and skills
training in Bangladesh The Female Secondary School Assistance Programme, financed by
the International Development Association (IDA), supported government efforts to improve
girls’ access to secondary education (grades 6–10) in rural areas. They and their families were
given cash stipends to cover tuition and personal costs. This incentive was combined with
efforts to increase the proportion of female teachers, to invest in the provision of water and
sanitation facilities, and to improve community involvement in the incorporation of
occupational skills into the training. Overall, access to secondary education increased for girls
in Bangladesh, jumping from 1.1 million in 1991 to 3.9 million in 2005. An increasing number
of the girls enrolled come from disadvantaged or remote areas.

Skills Development for people with Disabilities in Australia

The Bridging Pathways national action plan 2000–05 was introduced with the aim of creating a
vocational education and training system that would lead to international best practice in
achieving equitable outcomes for people with disabilities. Specifically, the plan of action aims
to increase access for persons with disabilities to vocational education and training; to improve
their successful participation and achievement in all fields of study and levels; and to achieve
outcomes in employment and lifelong learning that also increase their contribution to the
economic and social life of the community. Following recognition that people with a disability in
vocational education and training continue to experience lower levels of employment before
and after training, compared to the general result, a revised Bridging Pathways Blueprint was
introduced in 2004. This Blueprint points to progress achieved but says “despite pockets of
achievement, we are still struggling to see substantial employment outcomes”.

Source: ILO (2008) Skills for Improved Productivity, Employment Growth and Development, International Labour
Conference, 97th Session, report V, Geneva

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 6. Key concluding messages

In brief, the building blocks of any skills strategy must be: solid foundation for skills and
stronger links between the worlds of education and work. This in turn requires: good
quality in childhood education; good information on changes in skill demands;
responsiveness of the education and training system to structural changes; and
recognition of skills and competences. To be effective, policy initiatives in these areas
will also need to be closely linked with economic and social policy agendas.

There is a wide agreement on a few broad guiding principles linking skills and work

Quality basic education for all is an agreed goal and an essential prerequisite for
further skills development.

Connecting vocational education and training and skills development to the

world of work increases the odds of imparting the “right” skills, responding to
the evolving demands of labour markets, enterprises and workplaces in different
economic sectors and industries.

Effective partnerships between governments and employers’ and workers’

organisations and training institutions and providers anchor the world of
learning in the world of work.

Broad and continued access to training and skills development fosters

opportunities and benefits of initial and lifelong learning to all, meeting the
aspirations of women and men, young, adult and older, in urban or rural areas.

Dedicated policies and measures are required to facilitate access to training and
skills development to persons and groups hindered by various barriers, including
low income, ethnic origin and disabilities.

Education and skills policies are more effective when well coordinated with
employment and social protection policies and with industrial, investment and
trade policies.

Timely information enables the world of learning to monitor the match between
the supply of skills and the demand.

Employment services and vocational guidance put that information at the

disposal of young people and workers to help them make better-informed
education choices.

The pace of change of the world of work, set by innovation, technology and
markets, is high. Keeping up with this pace of change is a continuing challenge

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 for learning institutions. The active participation of employers’ and of workers’
representatives in vocational education and training institutions is essential to
bridging this gulf.

Assessing the continued relevance and quality of training institutions and

programmes, relative to their cost, is a challenge. Tools and methods, including
international comparisons, require further development at the national level

Most importantly, skills by themselves do not automatically lead to more and

better jobs. Skills policies must be part of a broad set of policies that are
conducive to high rates of growth and investment, strong employment
generation of high quality, investments in basic education, health and
infrastructure, respect for workers’ rights.

********

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 Selected references:

European Commission. 2010. New Skills for New Jobs: Action Now; A report by the
Expert Group, February, Brussels.

ILO. 2009 A skilled Workforce fo strong sutainable and balanced grouth: Proposals to
G20 leaders for a Trainign Strategy, Pittsburg G20 Leaders meeting

ILO. 2008a. International Labour Conference (97th session, 2008), Conclusions on skills
for improved productivity, employment, growth and development, Geneva.

ILO.2008b. Skills for Improved Productivity, Employment Growth and Development,

International Labour Conference, 97th Session, report V, Geneva.

ILO. 2000. International Labour Conference (88th session, 2000), Conclusions concerning
human resources training and development, Geneva.

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