Properties of Natural Gases:

1. It is a fossil fuel formed from plant and animal remains millions of years ago.
2. It is hydrocarbon component with methane as a major component.
3. It is colorless and odorless. For security during transportation or processing, a commercial
odorant is added to allow users to detect the gas for safety.
4. It is lighter than air with a specific gravity of about 0.6-0.8. If leaks, it disperses upward and
dissipates into the air quickly.
5. It is inflamed during a range of 5-15% by volume of gas in air. The self-ignition temperature
of natural gas is 537-540 0C.
6. As it is a clean fuel with cleaner burning nature, natural gas has lower environmental impact
when compared with other types of fuel.
7. Natural gas is non-toxic and environmentally friendly. It can replace the use of high grade fuel
oil and diesel in producing steam for hotel and hospital.
8. Decrease transportation problems and cost as the natural gas is transported through pipeline.
9. Natural gas reduces greenhouse effect which is a main cause of global warming.
10. Natural gas is cheaper than other types of fuel e.g. fuel oil and LPG.
Compositions of Natural Gas:
Gas hydrates
Natural gas hydrates are ice-like structures composed of water and natural gas molecules. Under
favorable conditions of high pressure and low temperature, water molecules form cages which
encapsulate gas molecules inside a hydrogen-bonded solid lattice. Hydrates currently cause
blocking in some underwater natural gas pipelines. When water molecules come in contact with
gas molecules at low temperature and high pressure, different geometric structures contrary to
that of a hexagonal ice are formed. The water molecules serve as host molecules and create cage
lattices that can hold gas molecules as guest molecules. These cage-like crystalline structures are
less dense than crystalline water structure because of the presence of the gas molecules. The gas
hydrate formed is held together by the hydrogen bonds of the water molecules and also stabilized
by Vander Waals forces holding the gas and water molecules together. The Vander Waals force
is responsible for the stable nature of the gas hydrate and even makes the hydrate more stable
than normal ice formed by water. Natural gas hydrates are solid materials which have higher
densities than hydrocarbon components forming natural gas mixtures.

Hydrate Forming Conditions:

Hydrates can form when 4 ingredients are present:
1. Free Water
2. Natural Gas (N2, H2S, CO2, C1, C2, C3,C4)
3. Low Temperature
4. High Pressure
Serious Effects of Gas Hydrates in Drilling Operations:
(i) Plugging of choke and kill lines

(ii) Formation of a plug at or below BOP, preventing monitoring of pressures below BOP

(iii) Plugging tubing, downhole tools and wireline during DST operation

(iv) Free water tied up with hydrates can cause thickening of the mud.

Once hydrates have formed, it can be remove by:

1. Reduce pressure and Increase temperature
2. Chemical (Thermodynamic) inhibitor such as methanol or glycol to decrease hydrate
formation temperature.
3. Kinetic inhibitors use to prevent the aggregation of hydrate crystals and slow the rate of
formation of hydrate.
4. Mechanical removal
Salts:
Normally sodium chloride, use as a salt 20-24% by weight for removal of gas hydrates.
Potassium chloride can also be used for hydrate removal but it is significantly more expensive
and saturated KCl muds have performed poorly in offshore environments. Calcium Chloride,
very expensive and not as effective as NaCl for hydrate removal.

Methanol or mono-ethylene glycol (MEG) is injected in flowlines to prevent hydrate formation

and prevent corrosion. Hydrates are crystalline compounds that form in water crystalline
structures as a function of composition, temperature and pressure. Hydrates appear and freeze to
hydrate ice that may damage equipment and pipelines.
For normal risers, hydrates form only when production stops and the temperature starts to drop.
Hydrate formation can be prevented by depressurization which adds to startup time, or by
methanol injection. On longer flowlines in cold seawater or Arctic climates, hydrates may form
under normal operating conditions and require continuous methanol injection. In this case, the
methanol can be separated and recycled.
Hydrate prediction model software can be used to determine when there is a risk of hydrate
formation and to reduce methanol injection or delay depressurization.
Condensate stabilization
The liquids that are separated from the gas stream in the first separator may be flowed directly to
a tank or may be "stabilized" in some fashion. These liquids contain a large percentage of
methane and ethane, which will flash to gas in the tank. This lowers the partial pressure of all
other components in the tank and increases their tendency to flash to vapors. The process of
increasing the amount of intermediate (C3 to C5) and heavy (C6+) components in the liquid phase
is called "stabilization." In a gas field this process is called condensate stabilization and in an oil
field it is called crude stabilization.
In almost all cases the molecules have a higher value as liquid than as gas. Crude oil streams
typically contain a low percentage of intermediate components. Thus, it is not normally
economically attractive to consider other alternatives to multistage separation to stabilize the
crude. In addition, the requirement to treat the oil at high temperature is more important than
stabilizing the liquid and may require the flashing of both intermediate and heavy components to
the gas stream.
Gas condensate, on the other hand, may contain relatively high percentage intermediate components
and can be easily separated from entrained water due to its lower viscosity and greater density
difference with water. Thus, some sort of condensate stabilization should be considered for each
gas well production facility.
Multistage Separation

Figure. Multistage separation process

Figure shows a multistage separation process. By removing molecules of the light components
in the first separator they are not available to flash to gas from the liquid in the second separator,
and the partial pressure of intermediate components in the second separator is higher than it
would have been if the first separator did not exist. The second separator serves the same
function of increasing the partial pressure of the intermediate components in the third separator
and so forth.
The simplest form of condensate stabilization is to install a low-pressure separator downstream
of an initial high-pressure separator. Unless the gas well produces at low pressure (less than 500
psi) and the gas contains very little condensate (less than 100 bpd), the additional expenditure for
this stage of separation is almost always economical when balanced against increased liquid
production. If vapor recovery from the tank is required by environmental regulations, the flash
separator will significantly reduce the horsepower required. If vapor recovery is not required, the
gas from the flash separator may be economically feasible to be recovered and recompressed for
sales even if it is not feasible to recover stock tank vapors.

1.Condensate stabilizer system

Figure (1) shows a condensate stabilizer system. The well stream flows to a high pressure, three-
phase separator. Liquids containing a high fraction of light ends are cooled and enter the
stabilizer tower at approximately 200 psi. In the tower the liquid falls downward in a process that
results in many flashes at ever-increasing temperatures. At the bottom of the tower, some of the
liquids are cycled to a reboiler where they receive heat to provide the necessary bottoms
temperature (200°F to 400°F). The reboiler could be either a direct-fired bath, an indirect-fired
bath, or a heat medium exchanger.
The liquids leaving the bottom of the tower have undergone a series of stage flashes at ever-
increasing temperatures, driving off the light components, which exit the top of the tower. These
liquids must be cooled to a sufficiently low temperature to keep vapors from flashing to
atmosphere in the storage tank.
 Figure 1. Condensate stabilization system

2.Cold feed Distillation Tower

Figure (2) shows the cold feed distillation tower. The inlet stream enters the top of the tower. It is
heated by the hot gases bubbling up through it as it falls from tray to tray through the
downcomers. A flash occurs on each tray so that the liquid is in near-equilibrium with the gas
above it at the tower pressure and the temperature of that particular tray.
As the liquid falls, it becomes leaner and leaner in light ends, and richer and richer in heavy
ends. At the bottom of the tower some of the liquid is circulated through a reboiler to add heat to
the tower. As the gas goes up from tray to tray, more and more of the heavy ends get stripped out
of the gas at each tray and the gas becomes richer and richer in the light ends and leaner and
leaner in the heavy ends (just the opposite of the liquid). The gas exits the top of the tower.
The lower the temperature of the inlet liquid, the lower the fraction of intermediate components
that flash to vapor on the top trays and the greater the recovery of these components in the liquid
bottoms. However, the colder the feed, the more heat is required from the reboiler to remove
light components from the liquid bottoms. If too many light components remain in the liquid, the
vapor pressure limitations for the liquid may be exceeded. Light components may also encourage
flashing of intermediate components (by lowering their partial pressure) in the storage tank.
There is a balance between the amount of inlet cooling and the amount of reboiling required.
Typically, the liquid out the bottom of the tower must meet a specified vapor pressure. The tower
must be designed to maximize the molecules of intermediate components in the liquid without
exceeding the vapor pressure specification. This is accomplished by driving the maximum
number of molecules of methane and ethane out of the liquid and keeping as much of the heavier
ends as possible from going out with the gas.

Figure 2. Cold-feed distillation tower of condensate stabilization system.

3.Distillation Tower with reflux

Figure (3) shows a stabilizer with reflux. The well fluid is injected into the tower, where the
temperature in the tower is equal to the temperature of the feed. This minimizes the amount of
flashing. In the tower, the action is the same as in a cold-feed stabilizer or any other distillation
tower. As the liquid falls through the tower, it goes from tray to tray, and gets increasingly richer
in the heavy components and increasingly leaner in the light components. The stabilized liquid is
cooled in the heat exchanger by the feed stream before flowing to the stock tank.
 Figure 3. Stabilizer with reflux and feed/bottoms heat exchanger
At the top of the tower any intermediate components going out with the gas are condensed,
separated, pumped back to the tower, and sprayed down on the top tray. This liquid is called
"reflux," and the two-phase separator that separates it from the gas is called a "reflux tank" or
"reflux drum," The reflux performs the same function as the cold feed in a coldfeed stabilizer.
Cold liquids strip out the intermediate components from the gas as the gas rises.
The heat required at the reboiler depends upon the amount of cooling done in the condenser. The
colder the condenser, the purer the product and the larger the percentage of the intermediate
components that will be recovered in the separator and kept from going out with the gas. The
hotter the bottoms, the greater the percentage of light components will be boiled out of the
bottoms liquid and the lower the vapor pressure of the bottoms liquid.
A condensate stabilizer with reflux will recover more intermediate components from the gas than
a cold-feed stabilizer. However, it requires more equipment to purchase, install, and operate.
This additional cost must be justified by the net benefit of the incremental liquid recovery; less
the cost of natural gas shrinkage and loss of heating value, over that obtained from a cold-feed
stabilizer.
TRAYS
The number of actual equilibrium stages determines the number of flashes that will occur. The
more stages, the more complete the split, but the taller and more costly the tower. Most
condensate stabilizers will normally contain approximately five theoretical stages
In a refluxed tower, the section above the feed is known as the rectification section, while the
section below the feed is known as the stripping section. The rectification section normally
contains about two equilibrium stages above the feed, and the stripping section normally contains
three equilibrium stages.
For most trays, liquid flows across an "active area" of the tray and then into a "downcomer" to
the next tray below, etc. Inlet and/or outlet weirs control the liquid distribution across the tray.
Vapor flows up the tower and passes through the tray active area, bubbling up through (and thus
contacting) the liquid flowing across the tray.
1. Sieve Trays
Sieve trays are the least expensive tray option. In sieve trays, vapor flowing up through the tower
contacts the liquid by passing through small perforations in the tray floor. Sieve trays rely on
vapor velocity to exclude liquid from falling through the perforations in the tray floor. If the
vapor velocity is much lower than design, liquid will begin to flow through the perforations
rather than into the downcomer. This condition is known as weeping. Where weeping is severe,
the equilibrium efficiency will be very low. For this reason, sieve trays have a very small
turndown ratio.
2. Valve Trays
Valve trays are essentially modified sieve trays. Like sieve trays, holes are punched in the tray
floor. However, these holes are much larger than those in sieve trays. Each of these holes is fitted
with a device called a "valve." Vapor flowing up through the tower contacts the liquid by passing
through valves in the tray floor. Valves can be fixed or moving. Fixed valves are permanently
open and operate as deflector plates for the vapor coming up through the holes in the tray floor.
For moving valves, vapor passing through the tray floor lifts the valves and contacts the liquid.
3. Bubble Cap Trays
In bubble cap trays, vapor flowing up through the tower contacts the liquid by passing through
bubble caps. Each bubble cap assembly consists of a riser and a cap. The vapor rising through
the column passes up through the riser in the tray floor and then is turned downward to bubble
into the liquid surrounding the cap. However bubble cap trays are also more expensive and have
a lower capacity/higher pressure drop than valve trays or sieve trays.
Acid Gas Treating
Carbon dioxide (CO2), hydrogen sulfide (H2S), and other sulfur compounds such as mercaptans
are compounds that may require complete or partial removal for acceptance by a gas purchaser.
These compounds are known as "acid gases". H2S combined with water forms a weak form of
sulfuric acid, while CO2 and water forms carbonic acid, thus the term "acid gas". Natural gas
with H2S or other sulfur compounds present is called "sour gas", while gas with only CO2 is
called "sweet". Both H2S and CO2 are undesirable, as they cause corrosion and reduce the
heating value and thus the sales value of the gas. H2S may cause hydrogen embrittlement in
certain metals.
Gas Sweetening Processes
Numerous processes have been developed for gas sweetening based on a variety of chemical and
physical principles. These processes can be categorized by the principles used in the process to
separate the acid gas and the natural gases as follows:
1. Solid bed absorption
A fixed bed of solid particles can be used to remove acid gases either through chemical reactions
or ionic bonding. Typically, in solid bed absorption processes the gas stream must flow through a
fixed bed of solid particles that remove the acid gases and hold them in the bed. When the bed is
saturated with acid gases, the vessel must be removed from service and the bed regenerated or
replaced. Since the bed must be removed from service to be regenerated, some spare capacity
must be provided. There are three commonly used processes under this category: the iron oxide
process, the zinc oxide process, and the molecular sieve process,
(i) Iron Sponge
The iron sponge process uses the chemical reaction of ferric oxide with H2S to sweeten gas
streams. This process is applied to gases with low H2S concentrations (300 ppm) operating at
low to moderate pressures (50-500 psig). Carbon dioxide is not removed by this process.
The reaction of H2S and ferric oxide produces water and ferric sulfide as follows:
2Fe2O3 + 6H2S 2Fe2S3 + 6H2O …………………………………… (1)
The reaction requires the presence of slightly alkaline water and a temperature below 110°F. If
the gas does not contain sufficient water vapor, water may need to be injected into the inlet gas
stream. Additionally, bed alkalinity should be checked daily. A pH level of 8-10 should be
maintained through the injection of caustic soda with the water.
The ferric sulfide can be oxidized with air to produce sulfur and regenerate the ferric oxide. The
reaction for ferric oxide regeneration is as follows:
2Fe2S3 + 3O2 2Fe2O3 + 6S ……………………………………………. (2)
S2 + 2O2 2SO2 …………………………………………………… (3)

The regeneration step must be performed with great care as the reaction with oxygen is
exothermic (that is, gives off heat). Air must be introduced slowly so the heat of reaction can be
dissipated. If air is introduced quickly the heat of reaction may ignite the bed.
Some of the elemental sulfur produced in the regeneration step remains in the bed. After several
cycles this sulfur will cake over the ferric oxide, decreasing the reactivity of the bed. Typically,
after 10 cycles the bed must be removed from the vessel and replaced with a new bed.

In some designs the iron sponge may be operated with continuous regeneration by injecting a
small amount of air into the sour gas feed. The air regenerates ferric sulfide while H2S is being
removed by ferric oxide. This process is not as effective at regenerating the bed as the batch
process. It requires a higher pressure air stream, and if not properly controlled may create an
explosive mixture of air and gas.
Due to the difficulty of controlling the regeneration step, the eventual coating of the bed with
elemental sulfur, the low cost of iron sponge material, and the possibility of hydrocarbon liquids
coating the bed, iron sponge units are normally operated in the batch mode. The spent bed is
removed from the unit and trucked to a disposal site. It is replaced with a new bed and the unit
put back in service. The spent bed will react with the oxygen in air as shown in Eqn. (2) and (3).

(ii) Sulfa Treat

Sulfa Treat process is similar to the iron sponge process. It uses proprietary mixture of ferric
oxide and triferric oxide to react with H2O to sweeten gas streams. In Sulfa Treat process the iron
oxides are supported on the surface of an inert, inorganic substrate forming a granular material.
The Sulfa Treat starting material and the spent product are safe and stable. The spent product can
be recycled or disposed in a landfill.
Two vessels arranged in series, will allow the Sulfa Treat material to be used more efficiently
with no interruption in unit service and greater process reliability.
(iii) Zinc Oxide
The zinc oxide process is similar to the iron sponge process. It uses a solid bed of granular zinc
oxide to react with the H2S to form water and zinc sulfide:
ZnO + H2S ZnS + H2O
The rate of reaction is controlled by the diffusion process, as the sulfide ion must first diffuse to
the surface of the zinc oxide to react. High temperature (>250°F) increases the diffusion rate and
is normally used to promote the reaction rate.
Zinc oxide is usually contained in long, thin beds to lessen the chances of channeling. Pressure
drop through the beds is low. Bed life is a function of gas H2S content and can vary from 6
months to in excess of 10 years. The spent catalyst is discharged by gravity flow and contains up
to 20 weight percent of sulfur. The process has seen decreasing use due to increasing disposal
problems with the spent catalyst, which is classified as a heavy metal salt.

(iv) Molecular Sieves

The molecular sieve process uses synthetically manufactured solid crystalline zeolite in a dry bed
to remove gas impurities. The crystalline pores exactly the same size. Within the pores the
crystal structure creates a large number of localized polar charges called active sites. Polar gas
molecules, such as H2S and water that enter the pores form weak ionic bonds at the active sites.
Non-polar molecules such as paraffin hydrocarbons will not bond to the active sites. Thus,
molecular sieve units will "dehydrate" the gas (remove water vapor) as well as sweeten it.
Molecular sieves are available with a variety of pore sizes. A molecular sieve should be selected
with a pore size that will admit H2S and water while preventing heavy hydrocarbons and
aromatic compounds from entering the pores. However, carbon dioxide molecules are about the
same size as H2S molecules and present problems. Even though the CO2 is non-polar and will
not bond to the active sites, the CO2 will enter the pores. Small quantities of CO2 will become
trapped in the pores. In this way small portions of CO2 are removed. More importantly, CO2 will
obstruct the access of H2S and water to active sites and decrease the effectiveness of the pores.
Beds must be sized to remove all water and to provide for interference from other molecules in
order to remove all H2S. The absorption process usually occurs at moderate pressure. The
molecular sieve bed is regenerated by flowing hot sweet gas through the bed. Typical
regeneration temperatures are in the range of 300-400°F.
Chemical Solvents
Chemical solvent processes use an aqueous solution of a weak base to chemically react with and
absorb the acid gases in the natural gas stream. The absorption occurs as a result of the driving
force of the partial pressure from the gas to the liquid. The reactions involved are reversible by
changing the system temperature or pressure, or both. Therefore, the aqueous base solution can
be regenerated and thus circulated in a continuous cycle. The majority of chemical solvent
processes use either an amine or carbonate solution.

1. Amine Processes
Several processes are available that use the basic action of various amines. These amines can be
categorized as primary, secondary, or tertiary according to the number of organic groups bonded
to the central nitrogen atom. Primary amines are stronger bases than secondary amines, which
are stronger than tertiary amines. Amines with stronger base properties will be more reactive
toward CO2 and H2S gases and will form stronger chemical bonds.
A typical amine system is shown in Figure (4). The sour gas enters the system through an inlet
separator to remove any entrained water or hydrocarbon liquids. Then the gas enters the bottom
of the amine absorber and flows counter-current to the amine solution. The absorber can be
either a trayed or packed tower. Conventional packing is usually used for 20-in. or smaller
diameter towers, and trays or structured packing for larger towers. An optional outlet separator
may be included to recover entrained amines from the sweet gas.
The amine solution leaves the bottom of the absorber carrying with it the acid gases. This
solution containing the CO2 and H2S is referred to as the rich amine. From the absorber the rich
amine is flashed to a flash tank to remove almost all the dissolved hydrocarbon gases and
entrained hydrocarbon condensates. A small percentage of the acid gases will also flash to the
vapor phase in this vessel. From the flash tank the rich amine proceeds to the rich/lean amine
exchanger. This exchanger recovers some of the sensible heat from the lean amine stream to
decrease the heat duty on the amine reboiler. The heated rich amine then enters the amine
stripping tower where heat from the reboiler breaks the bonds between the amines and acid
gases. The acid gases are removed overhead and lean amine is removed from the bottom of the
stripper.
 Figure 4. Amine system for gas sweetening

The hot lean amine proceeds to the rich/lean amine exchanger and then to additional coolers to
lower its temperature to no less than 10°F above the inlet gas temperature. This prevents
hydrocarbons from condensing in the amine solution when the amine contacts the sour gas. The
cooled lean amine is then pumped up to the absorber pressure and enters the top of the absorber.
As the amine solution flows down the absorber it absorbs the acid gases. The rich amine is then
removed at the bottom of the tower and the cycle is repeated.

Mono-ethanol amine (MBA) is a primary amine that can meet nominal pipeline specifications
for removing both H2S and CO2. MBA is a stable compound and in the absence of other
chemicals suffers no degradation or decomposition at temperatures up to its normal boiling point.
Di-ethanol amine (DBA) is a secondary amine that has replaced MEA as the most common
chemical solvent. As a secondary amine, DEA is a weaker base than MEA, and therefore DEA
systems do not typically suffer the corrosion problems. In addition, DEA has lower vapor loss,
requires less heat for regeneration per mole of acid gas removed.
2. Hot Potassium Carbonate Process
The hot potassium carbonate (K2CO3) process uses hot potassium carbonate to remove both CO2
and H2S. It works best on a gas with CO2 partial pressures in the range of 30-90 psi. The main
reactions involved. In this process are:

It can be seen from the above Equation that H2S alone cannot be removed unless there is
sufficient CO2 present to provide KHCO3, which is needed to regenerate potassium carbonate.
Since these equations are driven by partial pressures, it is difficult to treat H2S to the very low
requirements usually demanded (1/4 grain per 100 scf). Thus, final polishing to H2S treatment
may be required. The reactions are reversible based on the partial pressures of the acid gases.

Figure 5. Hot carbonate system for gas sweetening

Figure (5) shows a typical hot carbonate system for gas sweetening. The sour gas enters the
bottom of the absorber and flows counter-current to the potassium carbonate. The sweet gas then
exits the top of the absorber. The absorber is typically operated at 230°F; therefore, a sour/sweet
gas exchanger may be included to recover sensible heat and decrease the system heat
requirements.
The acid-rich potassium carbonate solution from the bottom of the absorber is flashed to a flash
drum, where much of the acid gas is removed. The solution then proceeds to the stripping
column, which operates at approximately 245°F and near-atmospheric pressure. The low
pressure, combined with a small amount of heat input, drives off the remaining acid gases. The
lean potassium carbonate from the stripper is pumped back to the absorber. The lean solution
may or may not be cooled slightly before entering the absorber. The heat of reaction from the
absorption of the acid gases causes a slight temperature rise in the absorber.
The solution concentration for a potassium carbonate system is limited by the solubility of the
potassium bicarbonate (KHCO3) in the rich stream. The high temperature of the system increases
the solubility of KHCO3, but the reaction with CO2 produces two moles of KHCO3 per mole of
K2CO3 reacted. For this reason the KHCO3 in the rich stream limits the lean solution K2CO3
concentration to 20-35% by weight.
The entire system is operated at high temperatures to increase the solubility of potassium
carbonate. Therefore, the designer must be careful to avoid dead spots in the system where the
solution could cool and precipitate solids. If solids do precipitate, the system may suffer from
plugging, erosion, or foaming.
The hot potassium carbonate solutions are extremely corrosive. All carbon steel must be stress-
relieved to limit corrosion. A variety of corrosion inhibitors are available to decrease corrosion.

Gas Dehydration
Gas dehydration is the process of removing water vapor from a gas stream to lower the
temperature at which water will condense from the stream. This temperature is called the "dew
point" of the gas. Dehydration to dew points below the temperature to which the gas will be
subjected will prevent hydrate formation and corrosion from condensed water. It is important in
gas streams containing CO2 or H2S where the acid gas components will form an acid with the
condensed water.
The capacity of a gas stream for holding water vapor is reduced as the stream is compressed or
cooled. Thus, water can be removed from the gas stream by compressing or cooling the stream.
However, the gas stream is still saturated with water so that further reduction in temperature or
increase in pressure can result in water condensation. The first step in evaluating or designing a
gas dehydration system is to determine the water content of the gas. The water content of a gas is
dependent upon gas composition, temperature, and pressure.
Glycol Dehydration
By far the most common process for dehydrating natural gas is to contact the gas with a
hygroscopic liquid such as one of the glycols. This is an absorption process, where the water
vapor in the gas stream becomes dissolved in a relatively pure glycol liquid solvent stream.
Glycol dehydration is relatively inexpensive, as the water can be easily "boiled" out of the glycol
by the addition of heat. This step is called "regeneration" or "reconcentration" and enables the
glycol to be recovered for reuse in absorbing additional water with minimal loss of glycol.
Process Description
Most glycol dehydration processes are continuous. That is, gas and glycol flow continuously
through a vessel, where they come in contact and the glycol absorbs the water. The glycol flows
from the contactor to a "reboiler" where the water is removed or "stripped" from the glycol and is
then pumped back to the contactor to complete the cycle.
Figure (6) shows a typical trayed contactor in which the gas and liquid are in counter-current
flow. The wet gas enters the bottom of the contactor and contacts the "richest" glycol (glycol
containing water in solution) just before the glycol leaves the column. The gas encounters leaner
and leaner glycol (that is, glycol containing less and less water in solution), as it rises through the
contactor. At each successive tray the leaner glycol is able to absorb additional amounts of water
vapor from the gas. The counter-current flow in the contactor makes it possible for the gas to
transfer a significant amount of water to the glycol and still approach equilibrium with the
leanest glycol concentration.
As the glycol falls from tray to tray it becomes richer and richer in water. As the gas rises it
becomes leaner and leaner in water vapor. Glycol contactors will typically have between 6 and
12 trays, depending upon the water dew point required. To obtain a 7 lb/MMscf specification, 6
to 8 trays are common.
 Figure 6. Typical glycol contactor in which gas and liquid are in counter-current flow.
As with a condensate stabilizer, glycol contactors may have bubble cap trays as shown in
Figure(6). The gas reaches near equilibrium with the rich glycol. The glycol will absorb heavy
hydrocarbon liquids present in the gas stream. Thus, before the gas enters the contactor it should
pass through a separate inlet gas scrubber to remove liquid and solid impurities that may carry
over from upstream vessels or condense in lines leading from the vessels. The inlet scrubber
should be located as close as possible to the contactor.
On larger streams, filter separators are used as inlet scrubbers to further reduce glycol
contamination and thus increase the life of the glycol charge. Due to their cost, filter separators
are not normally used on streams less than approximately 50 MMscfd. Often on these smaller
units a section in the bottom of the contactor is used as a vertical inlet scrubber as shown in
Figure (7).
 Figure 7. The bottom of the contactor is often used as a vertical inlet scrubber
Dry gas from the top of the gas/glycol contactor flows through an external gas/glycol heat
exchanger. This cools the incoming dry glycol to increase its absorption capacity and decrease its
tendency to flash in the contactor and be lost to the dry gas. In some systems, the gas passes over
a glycol cooling coil inside the contactor instead of the external gas/glycol heat exchanger.
The glycol reconcentration system is shown in Figure (7). The rich or "wet" glycol from the base
of the contactor passes through a reflux condenser to the glycol/glycol preheater where the rich
glycol is heated by the hot lean glycol to approximately 170°F to 200°F. After heating, the glycol
flows to a low pressure separator operating at 35 to 50 psig, where the entrained gas and any
liquid hydrocarbons present are removed. The glycol/condensate separator is a standard three-
phase vessel designed for at least 15-30 minutes retention time and may be either horizontal or
vertical. It is important to heat the glycol before flowing to this vessel to reduce its viscosity and
encourage easier separation of condensate and gas.
 Figure 8-6. Glycol reconcentration system
The gas from the glycol/condensate separator can be used for fuel gas. In many small field gas
packaged units this gas is routed directly to fire lubes in the reboiler, and provides the heat for
reconcentrating the glycol. This separator is sometimes referred to as a gas/glycol separator.
The wel glycol from the separator flows through a sock filter to remove solids and a charcoal
filter to absorb small amounts of hydrocarbons that may build up in the circulating glycol. Sock
filters are normally designed for the removal of 5-micron solids. On units larger than 10 gpm it is
common to route only a sidestream of 10 to 50% of total glycol flow through the charcoal filter.
The filters help minimize foaming and sludge build-up in the reconcentrator.
The glycol then flows through the glycol/glycol heat exchanger to the still column mounted on
the reconcentrator, which operates at essentially atmospheric pressure. As the glycol falls
through the packing in the still column, it is heated by the vapors being boiled off the liquids in
the reboiler. The still works in the same manner as a condensate stabilizer. The falling liquid gets
hotter and hotter. The gas flashing from this liquid is mostly water vapor with a small amount of
glycol. Thus, as the liquid falls through the packing it becomes leaner and leaner in water. Before
the vapors leave the still, they encounter the reflux condenser. The cold rich glycol from the
contactor cools them, condensing the glycol vapors and approximately 25 to 50% of the rising
water vapor. The result is a reflux liquid stream, which reduces the glycol losses to atmosphere
to almost zero. The water vapor exiting the top of the still contains a small amount of volatile
hydrocarbons and is normally vented to atmosphere at a safe location. If necessary, the water
vapor can be condensed in an aerial cooler and routed to the produced water treating system to
eliminate any potential atmospheric hydrocarbon emission.
Since there is a large difference between the boiling point of triethylene glycol (546°F) and water
(212°F), the still column can be relatively short (10 to 12 ft of packing). The glycol liquid in the
reboiler is heated to 340°F to 400°F to provide the heat necessary for the still column to operate.
Higher temperatures would vaporize more water, but may degrade the glycol.
If a very lean glycol is required, it may be necessary to use stripping gas. A small amount of wet
natural gas can be taken from the fuel stream or contactor inlet stream and injected into the
reboiler. The stripping gas can be taken from the fuel stream or the contactor inlet stream and
injected into the reboiler. The lean glycol flows from the reboiler to a surge tank which could be
constructed as an integral part of the reboiler as in Figure (7). The surge tank must be large
enough to allow for thermal expansion of the glycol and to allow for reasonable time between
additions of glycol.
Choice of Glycol
The commonly available glycols and their uses are:
1. Ethylene glycol— High vapor equilibrium with gas so tend to lose to gas phase in contactor.
Use as hydrate inhibitor where it can be recovered from gas by separation at temperatures below
50° F.
2. Diethylene glycol— High vapor pressure leads to high losses in contactor. Low
decomposition temperature requires low reconcentrator temperature (315°F to 340°F) and thus
cannot get pure enough for most applications.
3. Triethylene glycol— Most common reconcentrate at 340°F to 400°F for high purity. At
contactor temperatures in excess of 120°F tends to have high vapor losses to gas. Dew point
depressions up to 150°F are possible with stripping gas.
4. Tetraethylene glycol— More expensive than triethylene but less losses at high gas contact
temperatures. Reconcentrate at 400°F to 430°F.
Almost all field gas dehydration units use triethylene glycol for the reasons indicated.
Compressors
Compressors are used whenever it is necessary to flow gas from a lower pressure to a higher
pressure system. Flash gas from low-pressure vessels used for multistage stabilization of liquids,
oil treating, water treating, etc., often exists at too low a pressure to flow into the gas sales
pipeline. Sometimes this gas is used as fuel and the remainder flared or vented. Often it is more
economical or it is necessary for environmental reasons to compress the gas for sales. In a gas
field, a compressor used in this service is normally called a "flash gas compressor." Flash gas
compressors are normally characterized by low throughput rate and high differential pressure.
The differential pressure is expressed in terms of overall compressor ratio, RT, which is defined
as:
RT = Pd/Ps
Where, RT = overall compressor ratio
Pd = discharge pressure, psia
Ps = suction pressure, psia
Flash gas compressors typically have an overall compressor ratio in the range of 5 to 20.

The pumps can be classified as either positive-displacement or kinetic. The same is true for
compressors. In a positive displacement compressor the gas is transported from low pressure to
high pressure in a device that reduces its volume and thus increases its pressure. The most
common type of positive displacement compressors are reciprocating and rotary (screw or vane)
just as was the case for pumps.
Kinetic compressors impart a velocity head to the gas, which is then converted to a pressure head
in accordance with Bernoulli's Law as the gas is slowed down to the velocity in the discharge
line. Just as was the case with pumps, centrifugal compressors are the only form of kinetic
compressor commonly used.
Natural gas liquefaction
LNG-Liquefied natural gas is gas that has been cooled to -260°F (-160°C) and converts to a
liquid state. When natural gas is in a liquid form, it takes up approximately 1/600th of the space
it would as a vapor, making transportation much more efficient and economical. LNG is mostly
methane plus a small percent of ethane, propane and butane, and trace amounts of nitrogen.
When natural gas is liquefied, there is a 600% reduction in volume.
LNG is very safe to transport, and the industry’s safety record is exemplary. LNG has been
safely transported around the world in tankers. LNG is an odorless, non-toxic, non-corrosive
liquid and leaves no residue after it evaporates. LNG will not ignite until it becomes a vapor, and
even then the vapor won’t ignite until it mixes with air and becomes extremely diluted (5- 15%
vaporized gas-to-air ratio).
LNG is safely transported by sea because every precaution is taken to mitigate the possibility of
a release. If there were a release, vaporizing LNG is not soluble in water and any liquid released
on land or in the ocean would quickly evaporate. There is no possibility for land or water
contamination. LNG is non-toxic and it does not chemically react unless it is ignited.

The Liquefaction Process:

Natural gas is converted to a liquid in a liquefaction plant, or “train”. An LNG train performs
three main processes:
1. Pretreatment :
Dust and slug (water and condensate) is removed along with hydrogen sulfide (H2S) and mercury
(Hg). These pollutants can cause corrosion and freezing problems, especially in aluminum heat
exchangers.
2. Acid Gas Removal and Dehydration :
Carbon dioxide (CO2) is absorbed and removed from natural gas with an amine absorber (acid
gas removal or AGR) and an adsorbent is used to remove water. These impure substances are
removed so that ice will not form during the subsequent liquefaction process.
3. Heavy Hydrocarbon Separation and Liquefaction :
Heavy hydrocarbons (C5+) are removed by fractionation before liquefaction. As shown in the
liquefaction process schematic, natural gas is pre-cooled to about -31°F (-35°C) by propane.
After pre-cooling, natural gas moves through a tube circuit in the main cryogenic heat exchanger
(MCHE) where it is liquefied and sub-cooled to between -238°F (-150°C) to -260°F (-162°C) by
mixed refrigerant (MR). The MR is also pre-cooled and then separated in a high pressure
separator. The vapor and liquid streams pass through separate tube circuits in the MCHE where
they are further cooled, liquefied, and sub-cooled. The two sub-cooled streams are let down in
pressure, further reducing their temperatures. As the mixed refrigerant vaporizes and flows
downward on the shell side of the MCHE, it provides refrigeration for liquefying and sub-
cooling the natural gas. The LNG end flash at the outlet of the MCHE and in the receiving LNG
storage tank generates flash gas and boil-off gas to make up the fuel gas needed mainly by the
propane and MR gas turbine driven compression cycles.

Figure: The Liquefaction Process

LNG is stored in full-containment tanks, which typically have a capacity of 160,000 m3 . LNG
tank pressures are kept at just above one atmosphere. Full-containment systems have two tanks,
an inner one for the product and an outer one providing security against leakage. LNG is
transported in special double-hull ships. The most commonly used cargo-tank types are
Membrane cargo tanks that are supported by the ship’s hull. LNG is reheated with at least one
heat exchanger and converted to gas.