1. Why HT water temp should be between 75 – 90 deg.

C (or) why preheating of engine

required?

Heavy fuel oils are generally slow burning fuels i.e. have very low ignition quality. This
may cause problems during starting and low load operation, especially if the engines are not
sufficiently preheated. Low ignition quality may also result in long ignition delay and as a
consequence, in high firing pressure rise ratio, which may cause damage to engine
components.
Eg: Piston rings, In general, unfavorable condition like low inlet air temp. in addition to low
pre-heating temp. Of engine may impair starting of engine. And also cylinder head cracks at
the inlet seat bore are often related to HT water temperature fluctuation or starting a cold
engine.

2. What is the difference between strainer and filter?

Strainers and filters are similar in function to filter contaminants of fluids. Generally
strainers are fitted on the suction side of the pumps to prevent foreign materials entering the
pump and causing pump and of the full-flow type. Filters may be of the full flow type or by
–pass type and are fitted in discharge lines and filters contaminants down to minute size are
prevented from going into circulation and protects system equipments.

3. Why tappet clearance is to be provided?

The valve mechanism operates the inlet and outlet valves at required timings. It consists of
valve tappet, push rods, rocker arm, cams and a yoke guided by a yoke pin. The valve tappet
movement follows the cam profile and transfers the movement through pushrods to the
rocker arms. The rocker arms operate inlet and exhaust valves through a yoke. The clearance
between cam, tappet and valve must be slowly taken up and valve slowly lift to avoid noise
and wear and to compensate for heat expansion – a clearance must exist between the rocker
arm and yoke and adjustments are done on a cold engine.

4. What is water hammering?

Opening of steam suddenly into cold pipe in which condensed water collected causes water
hammer in a steam system. When steam in contact with condensed water, eventually
condenses and vacuum is then formed which would cause the water in the pipe to acquire a
very high velocity. When this collection hits obstruction such as bends, valves, steam traps
on the sides of pipe like that of a sledgehammer. It is likely to cause sever damage to
fittings, equipment may also cause explosions, rupture of pipe, valves etc., Water hammer
can be eliminated by providing slope to pipe work in the direction of flow, adequate no. Of
drain points, selection of right pipe work etc., Admission of the steam into the cold pipe line
must be slow and gradual and as a temp. Raises and noise from the drain the line changes to
that of the steam blow, pr. In line can be increased by opening the steam valve further.
5. Blow down in the boiler

Water contains certain level of dissolved solids and depends on the feed water quality, the
treatment process used and boiler operating procedures. As water is converted in the steam
in a boiler, dissolved solids concentration in the boiler will increase either dissolved (or)
suspended state. Above a certain level of concentration, this solid encourages foaming and
cause carry over of water in to steam. This leads to scale formation inside the boiler,
resulting in localized overheating and failure of tube. It is therefore necessary to control the
concentration level of the solids by the process of blowing down certain volume of water to
ensure constant TDS and steam purity.

6. Soot blowing of Boiler:

All fuels create soot, Ash during combustion and leaves and deposits on the heat transfer
surfaces of boiler such as boiler tubes, economizer, super heater, Air pre-heater, furnace
walls etc., These soot deposits drastically reduce heat transfer from the gases to water and
gas temp. will rise. Deposition of soot increases the draught losses. To increase the
performance of boiler, cleaning of the heat transfer surface during operation is very essential.
This cleaning is carried with the device called soot blower by directing the jet of the steam
(or) air to blow across tube in the direction of the gases. The soot blower has multi jet of
nozzles.

7. Why fuel oil viscosity to be maintained?

Engines are designed to operate satisfactorily on Heavy fuel oil with certain viscosity range.
If the high viscosity of the fuel injected the degree of atomization and penetration affected
and causes after burning. Eventually the point will be reached when the fuel will come into
contact with the piston crown, the side of the piston and cylinder walls and will burn on these
surfaces of the parts. The fuel coming into contact with the cylinder walls destroys the Lub
Oil film and causes increased wear. Fuel on the piston side enters the ring grooves; forms
carbon deposits and seizes the piston ring movement in the grooves so that blow-past of
gases occurs. The sides of the piston burn away in localized areas.

If the viscosity of the fuel is low, excessive atomization takes place, does not penetrate
properly into dense compressed air. They will cluster around the fuel injector tip and
becoming oxygen starved during combustion. The rate of combustion will be reduced,
leading to after burning. Afterburning results in high exh. Gas temp. lower peak pressure,
high component temp. and higher specific fuel consumption. The degree of penetration is
depended on the amount of atomization provided nozzle hole size, injection pressure and
viscosity do not change. If engine is operated for longer duration with lower viscosity fuels,
the FIP plunger and nozzle needle may seizure. After burning also leads fouling of piston
rings, inefficient lub. Of the cylinder, burnt exh. Valves, high thermal stresses of cylinder
heads, piston etc.,

8. Why Boiler water is to be pre-heated?

 Water contains dissolved gases besides suspended and dissolved solids. The Oxygen and
carbon-di-oxide are the main dissolved gases in the water. Oxygen and carbon di oxide
cause harmful corrosion and fitting on the metal surfaces of water lines, boilers, heat
exchanger, feed water heater etc, Some of the oxygen is removed by preheating the water and
remaining residual oxygen is removed by adding chemical such as sodium sulphite or
hydrazine. The effect of carbon di oxide is neutralized by addition of ammonia or
neutralizing amines in water. This is necessary because carbon di oxide decreases the PH
valve of feed water. Corrosion is prevented by maintaining alkaline condition of water
maintaining Ph value in the range of 10.

9. Why EGB vent valves are left open till the pressure build-up?

Any boiler is filled with water by opening vent valves on boiler, recirculating line,
economizer, super heater etc., to vent out air, and water is filled just below the high level
mark to allow for expansion of water when heated and to provide steam space. This steam
space is occupied by air during filling of boiler water. To ensure the removal of air, steam
should be escaped through the vents for a sufficient period. When the pressure in the boiler
is about 1.75 kg/sq.cm, drum vents should be closed.

10. Turbo Charger turbine water washing:

Combustion products are deposited on nozzle ring and blades of turbine in the form of
sodium compounds, sulphates, vanadium compounds, soot deposits, carbonaceous materials
due to impurities in fuel and (or) poor combustion. Formulation of dirt deposits on the
turbine side causes high exh. Gas temp. and higher stresses of bearing due to imbalances.
Periodical cleaning prevents the build of significant deposits of turbine blades and nozzle
ring during operation. Water must be injected into the exh. System with the engine running
at reduced output. The necessary water flow is basically depended on the volume of gas and
its temp. The flow of water should be adjusted so that 95% of water is evaporated and while
the remaining water drains from the exh. Casing through the valve. The cleaning effect is
based on the water solubility of deposits, thermal shock and mechanical abrasion of the water
drop lets striking the turbine / nozzle ring blades.

Speed and thermal load of turbocharger is gradually reduced and stabilized before washing,
during washing load on engine is to be maintained constant, after washing dry up the parts
sufficiently and then increase the load on the engine and speed of turbo charger gradually.
Water drain cocks are left open until all the water cleared.

11. Compressor water washing of Turbocharger:

Air borne dirt particles are accumulated on compressor wheel over a period of time. These
deposits are removed by spraying water with a special apparatus mechanically by the impact
of the water droplets when the engine output is maximum. The water must be free from
impurities and injected water must be dried up as early as possible to avoid vibration.
12. What is surging? When it occurs and its impacts?

The quantity of air discharged against pressure ratios of the turbocharger is consumed by the
engine. This is stable operation and any change in the amount of air taken in to the
turbocharger is accommodated by a change in pressure, one change is balanced by another.
As the pressure ratio reaches the maximum value the amount of air-discharged increase the
pressure ratio is seen to fall away, this is called region of unstable. When the turbocharger
operates under unstable condition any reduction of air demand on the discharge side of the
compressor causes the pressure to fall. If this occurs, the pressure falls rapidly and airflows
back from the scavenge air to the diffuser. The increase in pressure then causes an increase
in the airflow. As the engine cannot consume this air, the pressure starts to fall again and the
action is repeated, and irregular violent thus can hear as the air flows back to the compressor
inlet, and rapid surge in the scavenge air pressure (as flow through the impeller is choked off,
air does not acquire enough energy to overcome discharge pressure. Flow drops abruptly at
this point and an oscillation begins as the air flutters back and forth in the impeller). This
condition will continue until the air demand is increased and turbocharger is allowed to
operate under stable conditions again. If surge occurs the engine load must be reduced
immediately to help to reduce the shocks from air flow surges. The reasons for surging are,
dirt intake air filters and irregular airflow. Repeated surging may cause bursting of
compressor wheel.

13. What is blow-by of gases? What happens if crank case pressure increases?

Blow-by is the phenomenon of leakage of un-burnt air-fuel mixture and combustion products
past the piston and piston rings from the cylinder to the crankcase. These losses are
dependent on the inlet pressure and compressors ratio high blow-by is quite harmful in that
results in higher ring temperatures and contamination of lubricating oil. If the crankcase
pressure exceeds 30 mm of H2O, check the venting system. If that is in good working
condition, pull the piston and investigate. Blow-by increases deposit build up on piston ring
and ring groove and lube oil consumption. If it exceeds certain level, crankshaft seal leakage
may occur.

14. Why breather lines are provided?

Since blow-by gases enter into the crankcase due to various reasons, there is an every chance
that these contaminants will cause sludge and corrode metal parts. Therefore a means of
removing these contaminants before they act on the oil is essential. Another reason of using
crankcase ventilation is to relieve any pressure build-up, which may cause crankshaft seal
leakage. In the crankcase ventilation system, a fresh air is induced into the crankcase with
the help of breather. This air picks up the blow-by gases and flows back to the atmosphere.

15. Why EGB mounted chimneys are insulated?

During heat recovery in EGB, the exhaust gas temperature after EGB will drop and further
drop in temperature might encounter while passing through the chimney. If the temperature
of gases is below 170 deg C, Sulfur dew point of the gases may be reached and chimney
 material is corroded. The EGB mounted chimneys are insulated to keep the exhaust gas
temperature above sulfur dew point to avoid corrosion.

16. Why the different temperatures are maintained in HFO storage, Buffer and Day tanks?

The fuels supplied are obtained by blending a residual fuel having a relatively higher
viscosity with a distillate fuel having a lower viscosity. The resultant blend has a viscosity
complying the viscosity grade stated in order. Fuels are not pure hydrocarbons, they contain
inorganic matter such as grit, clay, sand and Ash etc., and these sediments can generally be
removed from the fuel by settlement, centrifuging and filtration. The challenge for a fuel
producer is to blend a fuel, which is stable during periods of storage and treatment at elevated
temperatures. In simple terms, the finished fuel must have a sufficient aromatic is depleted;
asphaltenic sludge will be precipitated from the fuel.

High viscosity fuels need to be heated well above the pour point to achieve the desired
pumping viscosity. However these fuels should be stored at a temperatures around 10 deg. C
above the pour point if wax deposition to be avoided. The wax may cause blocking of filters
and can deposit on heating surfaces like heat exchanger.

Classification rules give instruction on the permissible temperature at which fuels can be
stored. In general fuels should not be heated above 10 deg. C below the flash point. Flash
point is considered to be useful indicator of the fire hazard associated with the storage of
fuels. Even if fuels are stored at a temperature below the determined flash points, flammable
vapors may still develop in the tank headspace. The risk of electrical charges should be
considered when using metallic sounding or sampling devices. Such devices should be
earthed (or) bonded to the tank structure.

The fuel may be further heated in settling tank or buffer tank and retained there for a 12 – 24
hours while the fuel is in buffer tanks, some of the solids, emulsion and water separates out
and collects at the bottom of the tank.

The fuel is further heated and treated in centrifugal separators and stored in day tank and day
tanks are meant for 12 – 24 hour consumption.

17. Sweetening of Engine Sump oil:

Lubricating oil has to perform different function like reduce friction, prevent corrosion, act as
a cooling media, cleaning and sealing media apart from lubrication. Design trends like
installation of anti polishing rings, reduced lube oil system volumes, higher firing and fuel
pump pressures, reduction in lube oil consumption, retarded ignition timing for low NO X
emission have increased the stress on the lubricating oil i.e., contaminated. Deteriated
physical and chemical properties may significantly affect on the performance of the lube oil.

Base number BN or TBN is a measure of the alkaline of lube oil expressed in mg/KoH oil.
During combustion the sulphur in fuel is converted into acidic combustion products mainly
sulphur oxides. These acidic compounds will attack the combustion space and other engine
 components if not neutralized. TBN of lube oil drops quite fast in the beginning but
gradually reaches equilibrium level. The minimum allowed TBN level is 50% depletion
from fresh oil levels.

Viscosity is one of the most important properties for establishing the thickness of pressure
and temperature of lube oil film. Oil film thickness increases with viscosity as does the
fluids friction and consequently power loss. Viscosity of lube oil increases gradually during
operation due to oxidation, increase of solid contents in the oil etc., A change of approx 24%
(plus (or) minus) from typical level indicates some corrective action.

Water presents in lube oil contribute various forms of corrosive and cavitations damages on
bearing surfaces catalyze oil oxidation and acid formation, precipitate the oil additive
compounds. The maximum allowed water content in the lube oil is  0.3 mass%.

In soluble are generally oxidation, carbonaceous material, microorganisms, oil additives or

water reaction products etc. These and other particulates contribute to sludge, which collects
and plugs pipes, pumps and orifices resulting in low oil flow. The maximum allowed
insoluble level is 2% by weight.

In order to keep lube oil condition at satisfactory levels owing to the above facts, sweetening
of lube oil is to be carried by topping up not more than 10% of the oil quantity in the system

18. Valves –Gate, Globe, Needle, Butterfly, Relief, and safety valves

Valves are introduced in the pipe network to control the pressure, rate of flow and the
direction of fluids in accordance with basic principles of flow. Valves are classified into three
categories.
a. Valve element moves transversely across the flow
b. Valve element rotates about an axis transverse to the flow
c. Valve element slides axially or longitudinally

Pressure control valves limit and reduce pressure by maintaining backpressure on the
underside of flow.

Flow control valves vary the fluid rate using restrictions in the fluid passages, which may be
fixed, variable or flow and pressure compensated.

Directional control valves are used to check, divert, shuttle, proportion and by other means to
manage the flow of fluid in one, two, three or four or many ways. Pressure and flow
compensation are commonly included in this type of valves.

Valves may be direct acting because of arrangement of the internal mechanism design or
pilot operated. The actuator force to operate the valve can be supplied manually by human
operator directly by the fluid under pressure or from a pilot circuit or by electrical devices
such as solenoids or servo electrical devices. The internal mechanisms to accomplish valving
action use an element including poppets, diaphragms, flat slides, balls, round shear action
plates and rotating and sliding spools.

Gate valves are used in large pipelines, in high-pressure steam lines, in all services where
small friction loss is desirable. They should always fully shut or open and not to be used for
throttling the flow. Gate valves give straight way opening.

Globe valves so called because their globular shapes do not give a straight way passage and
offer more frictional resistance than gate valve and pressure drop is more when compare to
gate and ball valves. These are not suitable where free and unrestricted passage is desirable.
Globe valves do not allow a line to drain completely. The globe valves are preferred to gate
valves on small pipelines because discs and seats can be more easily replaced and where
throttling is desired (both water and steam).

Butterfly valves have cylindrical valve body forming a continuation of pipe itself and it
houses a moving element of elliptical shape. Rotation of valve spindle brings the valve
element either into the closed position or into the fully opened position in which it is parallel
with the pipe axis.

Needle valves needle or element moves axially. The operation piston is formed integrally
with the needle, which regulates the area of the flow. High-pressure liquid admitted to one
side or the other side of the piston causes the needle to take up the desired position like fully
open, fully close or partly closed positions. Needle valves resist cavitations damage by
keeping eddies near the axis of flow, far away from the walls. Gate or sluice valves are more
susceptible to cavitations particularly when used in partly opened position.

Relief valves are the most common of the pressure control valves. They are located near the
pump out let to protect the pump and provide the system plumbing and components with
protection against pressure overloads. Spring pressure acts to keep the ball element against
the seat and the valve in the closed position. System pressure at inlet port acts against the
exposed area of the ball. When the force of the fluid (pressure X area) becomes greater than
the opposing resistance offered by the spring, the ball is forced from its spring and the valve
opens and fluid is directed at low pressure through the outlet port. The pressure at which the
valve opens is called the cracking pressure. The pressure at which the rated flow passes
through the valve is termed full flow pressure. The pressure at which the valve ceases to pass
fluid after being opened is called the closing pressure.

Relief valve is a form of safety valve but usually less intended for severe service and less
importance from the safety point of view. If a relief valve installed on a steam drum it would
open slightly when the specified pressure was exceeded, a small amount of steam is
discharged and the valve would close again. Thus a relief valve on a steam drum
continuously opening and closing and this repeated action would damage the seat and disc
and wire drawing.

In order to over come the above difficulty, safety valves are designed to open completely at
the specified pressure and remains wide open until the pressure has fallen to pre set pressure
 when it quickly closes. This quick action is obtained in all pop safety valves by suddenly
increasing the upward force on the spring that holds the valve down on its seat. A projecting
lip or ring on the disc of the valve extends beyond the seat surfaces and forms hudding
chamber. This extension on the valve presents a greater area to the upward pressure of
escaping steam as soon as the valve opens. The design of hudding chamber in the seat
determines that steam sufficient to produce a certain pressure drop must be exhausted before
the valve will close. Initial lift of the valve disc is caused by static pressure of steam acting
upon the valve disc. As soon as begins to open larger area is exposed to stem pressure to act
upon and opens quickly and completely, hence the name pop safety valve. This quick
opening and closing action prevents wire drawing of the stem. Safety valves are used for gas
or vapour service. A relief valve is used primarily for liquid and gas service.

Ball valves are quick and easy to shut and open, easy to repair and service, trouble free
operation in all positions. Flow loss in these valves is small and furnished with pneumatic
actuators. These valves are widely used in the piping systems of heavy and light oil, petrol,
diesel oil and chemicals, water mains, compressed air and heating piping systems.

19.Why the power factor to be maintained?

The major loads in industrial electrical distribution systems are resistive and inductive.
Resistive loads are incandescent lighting and resistive heating. In case of pure resistive loads,
the voltages (V), current (I), resistance(R), are linearly related. i.e. V=IR and Power=VI

Typical inductive loads are AC motors, induction furnaces, transformers and ballast type
lighting. Inductive loads require two kinds of power.1) Active power (KW) to perform work
and 2) Reactive power (KVAR) to create and maintain electro magnetic fields

The vector sum of the active and reactive power makes up the total power used (KVA). This
the power generated by EBs for the user to perform a given amount of work.

The active power and reactive power are 900 apart in a pure inductive circuit i.e. reactive
power is lagging the active power and KVA reflects the actual electrical load on distribution
system. The ratio of KW to KVA is called power factor which is always less than or equal to
unity. If all loads have unity power factor, maximum power can be transferred for the same
distribution system capacity. However loads are inductive in nature with the PF ranging from
0.2 to 0.90,the electrical distribution network is stressed for capacity at low PF.

To improve the PF is to add PF correction capacitors to the plant power distribution system.
They act as reactive power generators and provide the needed reactive power to accomplish
KW of work. This reduces the amount of reactive power and thus the total power generated
by utilities.

As the load on the motor comes down the magnitude of actual current reduces. However
there is no corresponding reduction in the magnetizing current, which is proportional to
supply voltage with the result the motor PF reduces with a reduction in applied load.
 Induction motors specially those operating below their rated capacity are the main
reasons for low PF in electric system.

PF capacitors improve PF from the point of installation back to the generating side i.e. PF
capacitor installed at the startor terminals of the motor will not improve the operating PF of
the motor but PF from the startor terminals to the power generation side will improve. The
size of the capacitors required for a motor should not more than 90% of no load magnetizing
KVAR of the motor. Required KVAR increase with the decreases in speed of the motor, as
the magnetizing current requirements of low speed motor is more in comparison to high-
speed motor for the same HP of motor.

Advantages:

1. Reduced KVA demand

2. I2 R losses are reduced because of reduction in current
3. Voltage level at the load end is increased
4. Reactive component of the network is reduced and also the total current in the system
from the source end
5. Overall efficiency of the plant electrical system

Note:

1. Capacitors are used to correct PF by causing the current to lead the voltage. When the A
C currents are kept in phase with voltages operating efficiency of the system is
maintained.
2. The primary purpose of capacitor is to reduce the maximum demand; additional benefits
are derived by capacitor location. The maximum benefit of the capacitor is derived by
locating as close as possible to the load.
3. Capacitor location at the receiving sub station only helps the utility in loss reduction.
Locating capacitors at tail end will help to reduce loss reduction within the plant
distribution network as well and directly benefit the user by reduced consumption.

20. Why Turbocharger rpm is increased?

The combustion products are deposited on nozzle ring and turbine blades due to impurities in
fuel and/or poor combustion over a period of engine operation .The deposits on nozzle ring
reduces the area, which causes change in pressure conditions in the exhaust manifold before
turbine. This varied exhaust gas pressure may run turbine at higher rpm at expense of
increased velocity of gases at the nozzle ring. This creation of backpressure in the exhaust
manifold changes pressure ratios of cylinder during exhaust process leading to induction of
slight less charge air than the normal turbocharger engine. As the amount of air developed is
not accommodated or inducted by cylinders, the amount of air discharged by the
turbocharger increases the pressure, the pressure ratio seen to fall away into the regions of
unstable. When turbocharger operates in the region of unstable, the pressure falls rapidly and
air flows back in to the diffuser, then the increase in the pressure causes air to flow forward.
Surging takes place if similar action is repeated.
 Formation of deposits on turbine side causes high exhaust gas temperatures, higher stresses
on the bearings of turbocharger due to imbalance, higher fuel consumption and higher
thermal stresses on cylinder components.

21. What is the difference between Generator breaker trip, Engine shutdown, and Auto
stop of engine?

When the Generator breaker trip occurs, the PLC system automatically stops the engine after
2 minutes cooling run. During cooling run, after normalizing the fault, it is possible to
interrupt the stopping sequence.

In the event of shutdown signal generates by PLC, the breaker is opened and the engine is
stopped instantly.

The engine auto stop activates the stopping sequence, which unloads the engine load and
opens the breaker. Unloading of the engine cannot be interrupted even if the reason is
normalized. Once the breaker is opened and auto stop is active, the engine will stop
immediately. If the auto stop is disappeared, the engine will run idle for 30 seconds then it
will stop. During idle run period the stop sequence can be interrupted either by pushing start
button or initiating synchronizing.

22. What is meant by de rating of engine?

De rating is the reduction of maximum active power according to the ambient, HT&LT
water, charge air temperatures. The PLC system calculates the maximum active set value in
real time for the Genset. The maximum active power limit cannot be exceeded either in auto
control mode or manual mode. De rating is necessiated to keep the thermal and mechanical
stresses of engine components with in the safe working limit.

Engines are designed, tested and delivered at ISO (standard reference conditions) conditions
and rated for output according to the performance of every engine. But altitude and average
ambient temperature of the site will differ from the ISO conditions; hence the engine output
is de rated and locked with the prevailing site conditions.

Standard reference conditions:

Total barometric pressure: 100Kpa

Air temperature : 250c
Relative humidity : 30%
C/A coolant temperature : 250c

Site reference conditions:

Altitude at mean sea level: 430 m

 Ambient air temperature : 330c
Ambient air pressure : 1013 mbar
LT water temperature : 410c

23. Peak pressure

The combustion or firing pressure recorded at the end of the second stage of the combustion
i.e. rapid or uncontrolled combustion after ignition delay is maximum during the cycle. This
maximum pressure are measured and recorded to evaluate the performance of the engine.
When measuring peak pressure the compression pressure should also be recorded. If an
engine is operated with maximum combustion pressure in excess of maximum designed
pressure, the crankshaft will be subjected to greater stress than it allows. This may lead to
fatigue cracks in the crankshaft or the engine structure. Cylinder relief valve should lift and
give warning of excess pressure.

The maximum cylinder pressure obtained during the test should be compared with the test
bed data for engine. If the pressures are low, the compression pressure can be checked to
ascertain whether the low peak pressure is caused by low compression pressure. If the peak
pressure is low due to low compression pressure, the condition of the piston rings be
evaluated. Operating an engine at low peak pressure increase fuel consumption.

The peak pressure may be increased or decreased by advancing or retarding the fuel pump
cam relative to crankshaft position. Helix and port controlled type FIP can be lowered or
raised on their foundation to increase or decrease the peak pressure. Lowering FIP body
causes injection to commence earlier and also to finish earlier.

After burning creates high exhaust gas temperatures and may cause over heating of the
engine in severe cases and usually accompanied by some drop in the peak pressure. After
burning is said to occur when the third phase of combustion extends over a long period. It
may be caused by incorrect fuel grade, bad atomization, poor or excess penetration, incorrect
fuel temperature, incorrect injection timing, insufficient air supply or any combination of
these.

24.Tuning of engine

Pulsating flow from each cylinders exhaust process sets up pressure waves and interacts with
the pipe junctions and ends in exhaust manifold and pipe. These interactions cause pressure
waves to be reflected back towards engine cylinder. In multi cylinder engines, the pressure
waves set by each cylinder transmitted through the exhaust and reflected from the end can
interact with each other. These pressure waves may aid or inhibit the gas exchange process.
When they aid the process by reducing the pressure in the exhaust port towards the end of the
exhaust process, the exhaust system is said to be tuned.

The time varying inlet flow to the cylinder causes expansion waves to be propagated back
into the inlet manifold. These expansion waves can be reflected at the open end of the
manifold causing positive pressure waves to be propagated towards the cylinder. If the timing
of these waves is approximately arranged, the positive pressure waves will cause the pressure
at the inlet valve at the end of the intake process to be raised above the nominal inlet
pressure. This will increase the inducted mass of air. Such an intake system is described as
tuned.

Note:

1.The pressure in the cylinder is lesser than the charge air housing due to friction in the each
part of the system. This pressure drop is the sum of pressure loss in each component like
manifold, inlet port, and inlet valve with the port and valve contributing largest drop.
2.The pressure in the inlet manifold varies during each cylinders intake process due to the
piston velocity variation, valve open area variation i.e. due to geometric variations, unsteady
flow results. The mass of air inducted into the cylinder is determined by the pressure levels in
the inlet port during the short period before the inlet valve is closed.
3.Since inlet valve closes after the start of compression stroke, a reverse flow of fresh charge
from the cylinder back into intake can occur as cylinder pressure raises due to piston motion
towards TDC.The reverse flow is largest at the lowest engine speeds.

25.Advancing and Retarding of fuel injection timing

For a well tuned engine, the end of injection occurs approximately at or slightly beyond the
maximum pressure point and this is the point where the rate of pressure raise changes is the
end of the second phase of combustion

The peak pressure may be increased or decreased by advancing or retarding the fuel pump
cam relative to crankshaft position. Helix and port controlled type FIP can be lowered or
raised on their foundation to increase or decrease the peak pressure. Lowering FIP body
causes injection to commence earlier and also to finish earlier and actual stroke as well as
effective stroke of ram remains unchanged. Alteration of the cam position by advancing or
retarding does not alter the amount of fuel injected.

Advancing of fuel injection timing results in higher Nox, and peak pressure and lower fuel
consumption, turbocharger speed and exhaust gas temperature.

Retarding of fuel injection timing results in higher fuel consumption, turbocharger speed and
exhaust gas temperature and lower NOx and peak pressure

Since heavy fuel oils have low ignition quality and long ignition delay, advancing of fuel
injection timing produces further ignition delay as fuel is injected at a lower compression
pressure and temperature.

26.Effects of water and other substances present in heavy fuel oil

Some lighter fractions of oil will be present in heavy fuel oils depending on the distillation
process and a proportion of these may have been added to adjust the viscosity. De- gassifiers
are installed in the lines whenever pre-heaters are used in suction lines to avoid pressure
build up since the lighter fractions become vapors and escape at a lower temperature and
pressure. In addition, when the pump pressurizes heavy fuel oil any vapor bubbles present
due to light fractions oil are carried into high pressure regions and whenever pressure falls
bellow the vapor pressure of light fraction bubbles will collapse and cavitate. Any water
present in the oil can turn to steam when heated and have a similar effect. Cavitations
increase wear and shorten the pump life. To stop this happening, the pump inlet pressure
must be high enough to ensure that any water or light oil present remains in liquid state.

27.Running in of Engine

Probably the most critical period in the life of the cylinder is the first few hours of operation.
During this time, the piston rings have to form an effective seal against the passage of
destructive blow by gases. The most important requirement in this process being the
smoothing of surface roughness (hills and valleys) on both cylinders and rings so that the two
surfaces slide freely against one another without the asperities welding together when the
engine is under load. It is also important to attain geometric conformity between the two
surfaces since it is unlikely that the cylinder will be perfectly round over the whole area of
ring travel. Satisfactory conformity may require several hundred running hours to attain,
whereas the smoothing of surface asperities should take place in a much shorter period
perhaps 10-20 hours depending on the engine type.

In addition metallurgical changes take place on metal surfaces during initial running, in that a
relatively thick work hardened layer is formed which has good anti wear properties in
subsequent operation. High temperatures during the running in might impede the
development of such a layer and lead to a certain undesirable constituents, which have poor
frictional properties and could promote “ scuffing “.

Careful operation of engine during running in is therefore essential to ensure good bedding-in
of the piston rings and a satisfactory low wear afterwards. Engines are usually run-in on
manufacturers test bed at gradually increasing speeds and loads but a further running-in
period is desirable after the engine has been installed before full service load is applied.

28.Generator motoring

When operating several generators in parallel, varying the prime mover input or the amount
of fuel changes the amount of torque, which affects the output power .A governor failing to
provide enough input to the total loss of prime mover torque will cause the generator to act as
a motor. When this happens, it remains in synchronism with the system and continuous to
run as a synchronous motor, drawing power to drive the prime mover. This condition can
cause serious damage to the prime mover of steam turbines, hydro turbines but diesel engines
and gas turbines are less susceptible to immediate harm. With diesel engines, there is a
danger of fire from un burnt fuel.

The amount of power required to motor a generator depends primarily on the type of prime
mover it is connected to. A diesel engine with no cylinders firing represents a load of up to
25% of rating. The reverse power relay must be sensitive enough to detect a power level
lower than that required to motor the generator.