UNIT 1 INTRODUCTION TO SETS Introduction to Sets

Structure
1.1 Introduction
Objectives
1.2 Sets
1.3 Types of Sets
1.4 Hierarchy of Sets
1.5 Venn Diagrams
1.6 Set Operations
1.7 Some Useful and Important Laws
1.8 Summary
1.9 Solutions/Answers

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Sometimes, we deal with some types of collections e.g.
i) Collection of books in a library of a university.
ii) Collection of natural numbers which are factors of say, 80 or any other
natural number.
Set is also a collection of objects but it is a well defined collection (we will By well defined
learn more about this in Sec 1.2). Consider the collection of states in India. We collection, we mean
know that presently there are 28 states in India and this figure is exactly 28 that given any object
(neither one less nor one more). Also if any number of persons (having a we must be able to
general knowledge of states in India) are asked to write the names of the states know as to whether it
then final list of every body will contain the same 28 names (order in which belongs to the
they write the names of the states does not matter). Such type of a well defined collection or does not
collection is known as set. belong to the
collection.
In this unit, we will introduce the notations and terminology used for sets. The
unit defines set, its various types, discusses hierarchy of sets, Venn diagrams,
various operations on sets and finally the unit is closed by giving an idea of
some important and commonly used laws. Concept related to sets is very
elementary and it is used directly or indirectly in the rest of our courses. So
you must understand the concepts discussed in this unit before you proceed
further in the course.
Objectives
After completing this unit, you should be able to:
 define a set;
 write a set in different forms;
 explain the types of sets;
 draw Venn diagrams.
 apply the operations on sets;
 get the idea of super sets and subsets; and
 get an idea of some important laws related to sets like associative, De-
Morgan’s laws, etc.
7
 Fundamentals of Mathematics-I 1.2 SETS
A well defined collection of distinct objects is called a set. A set is generally
denoted by capital letters such as A, B, C, X, Y, Z, etc. and the objects which
A set remains the same belong to the set are known as elements or members of the set and are
if some or all of its generally denoted by small letters a, b, c, x, y, z, etc.
elements are repeated
or rearranged. If ‘a’ is an element of a set A then we write a  A (read it as ‘a’ belongs to A).
If ‘a’ is not an element of A then we write aA (read as ‘a’ does not belong to
For example, if a set A).
contains the elements
0, 1, – 1 and another Following example illustrates the term “well defined collection” or “set”.
set contains the
Example 1: Consider the following collections and state reasons whether they
elements – 1, – 1, 1, 0,
form set or not.
0, 0, 1, 0, 1, then these
two sets are nothing (i) Collection of good cricketers in India.
but represent the same (ii) Collection of honest students in a particular university in India.
set having three
(iii) Collection of natural numbers which are less than 5.
elements 0, 1, – 1.
(iv) Collection of rich persons in India.
(v) Collection of letters of the word “ASSIGNMENT”
Solution:
(i) This collection does not form a set, because a given player may be good
according to some person but the same player may not be good according
to some other person.
(ii) This collection does not form a set, because a student may be honest
according to some person but the same student may not be honest
according to some other person.
(iii) Yes, this collection forms a set and elements of this set are 1, 2, 3, 4.
(iv) Richness is not a well defined property, because according to someone, a
person may be rich while he/she may not be rich in view of some other
person. So this collection does not form a set.
(v) It is a set and elements of this set are A, S, I, G, N, M, E, T.
Now, you can try the following exercise:

E1) Give reasons whether the following collections are sets or not.
(i) Collection of intelligent students in a particular school.
(ii) Collection of good hockey players in India.
(iii) Collection of good actors in India.
(iv) Collection of vowels in the word “INDIA”.

Methods of Representing a Set

A set is generally represented by two methods as given below.
1. Roster Method
Dictionary meaning of ‘Roster’ is ‘a list showing persons who perform their
duties in turn’. As its meaning suggests, in this method each and every element
is listed and put, separating by commas, in curly brackets. This method is also
known as Tabular Form or Listing Method.

8
For example,
Introduction to Sets
(i) If A is the set of vowels of English alphabets, then A = {a, e, i, o, u}
(ii) If N is the set of natural numbers, then N = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, …} Three dots ‘…’ are
read as “and so on”
(iii) If W is the set of whole numbers, then W = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, …} which means all the
(iv) If Z is the set of integers, then Z = {… , – 3, – 2, – 1, 0, 1, 2, 3,…} elements following
this pattern are also
(v) If E is the set of even natural numbers, then E = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, …} included in the set.
(vi) If O is the set of odd natural numbers, then O = {1, 3, 5, …}
(vii) If P is the set of prime numbers, then Prime number: A
P = {2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, …} natural number (> 1)
is called a prime
Remark 1: Throughout the course, we use N, W and Z for the sets of natural number if and only if
numbers, whole numbers, and integers, respectively. it has only two
divisors 1 and itself.
2. Set-Builder Method For example, 2 is a
In this method, we consider one or more properties that are exclusive to the prime number as its
elements of a set so that no other elements can be the member of the set. This only divisors are 1
and the number
method is also known as Property Method or Rule Method.
itself.
For example,
But 15 is not a prime
(i) Let A = {x : x is a vowel of English alphabet}, then elements of A are a, e, number because it
i, o, u and having exclusive property of being a vowel no other alphabet has 3 and 5 as its
can be considered as an element of set A. factors other than 1
(ii) Let A = {x : x is a natural number and x is a multiple of 3}, then elements and the number
of A are 3, 6, 9, 12, … which have the exclusive property of being itself.
multiple of 3 and no other element can be consider as an element of A.
(iii) Let A = {x : x is a factor of 10 and x > 0}, then elements of A are 1, 2, 5, Rational number: A
10 and having exclusive property of being a factor of 10 and no other number which can be
element can be consider as an element of A. expressed in the form

 p  p
such that
(iv) If Q is the set of rational numbers then Q = x : x  , p, q  Z, q  0 q
 q 
p, q  Z, q  0 is
Remark 2:
known as rational
(i) In terminology of set the symbol “:” used in each part above is read as number. For
“such that”. example,
(ii) Throughout the course the sets of rational numbers, irrational numbers and 2 4
, , etc.
real numbers will be denoted by Q, I and R, respectively. 3 13
Note: Advantage of the second method, i.e. Set-Builder method lies in the fact Irrational number:
that sometimes (or in some situations) we cannot list the elements of the set or A number which
even if we can list them, it may not be practical or feasible to do so. cannot be expressed
p
For example, consider the set {x: x is a person who born in 2010 in India}. in the form where
Obviously you will be more comfortable with property method in this q
example. p, q are integers and
q  0, is called an
Consider another set {x : x is a real number and 1 < x < 4}. This set cannot be irrational number.
described by listing method, because number of elements in this set is For example,
uncountable.
2, 5, 3 10, etc.
Thus, above two examples show that in some situations either it is too difficult
to describe the set by listing method or it is impossible to describe it.
No doubt, there are some examples in which listing method has its advantage
For example, consider the set {28, Bihar, India}.
9
 It is a set having three elements 28, Bihar and India.
Fundamentals of Mathematics-I
Let us now consider some examples to make the ideas of two methods
discussed above more clear.
Real number: A Example 2: Write the following sets by roster method:
number which is
(i) A = {x : x is a letter of the word “FUNCTION”}
either rational or
irrational is called (ii) B = {x : 2x + 5 < 17, x  N}
real number. (iii) C = {x : x2 – x – 12 = 0, x  N}
(iv) D = {x : x2 – 4x – 21 = 0, x2 – 49 = 0, x  N}
Solution:
(i) A = {F, U, N, C, T, I, O} [Repeated elements are written once only]
(ii) B = {x : 2x < 17 – 5 , x  N} = {x : 2x < 12 , x N}
= {x : x < 6 , x  N} = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
(iii) C = {x : x2 – x – 12 = 0, x  N}= {x : x2 – 4x + 3x – 12 = 0, x N}
= {x : x( x – 4) + 3(x – 4) = 0, x N}= {x : ( x – 4) (x + 3) = 0, x  N}
= {x : x = 4, – 3, x  N} = {4} [ 3  N]
2 2
(iv) D = {x : x – 4x – 21 = 0, x – 49 = 0, x  N}
= {x : x2 – 7x + 3x – 21 = 0, x2 – 7 2 = 0, x  N}
= {x : x (x – 7) + 3(x – 7) =0, (x – 7) (x + 7) = 0, x  N}
= {x : (x – 7)(x + 3) = 0, x = 7, – 7, x  N}
= {x : x = 7, – 3, x = 7, – 7, x N}
here are two properties one says x  7,  3and second says 
= {7}  x  7,  7 but in case we have more than one properties, we 
 
 take common element(s) between them and in our case it is 7.

Example 3: Express the following sets in the set-builder form:

(i) A = {3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, …}
(ii) B = {1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 10, 15, 30}
(iii) C = {5, 25, 125, 625, …}
1 1 1 1 1
(iv) D = {1, , , , , }
3 9 27 81 243
(v) E = {1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81, 100}
Solution:
(i) Here we see that elements in this set are multiple of 3 so in set-builder form
it can be written as A = {x: x is a multiple of 3, x  N}.
Similarly, by observing the pattern obeyed by the elements of other parts
we can write them as given below.
(ii) B = {x: x is a factor of 30, x  N}
(iii) C = {x: x = 5 n , n N}
1
(iv) D = {x: x = , 0  n  5, n  W}
3n
(v) E = {x : x = n 2 , 1  n  10 , n  N}

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Here are some exercises for you.
Introduction to Sets
E 2) Describe the following sets by roster method:
(i) A = {x: x = 2n + 3, n  W} (ii) B = {x : x = 7n, 0  n  3, n  N}
(iii) C = {x : x  N and x  W} (iv) D = {x : x  W and x  Q }
E 3) Express the following sets in set-builder form:
 1 1 1 
(i) {5, 10, 15, 20, …} (ii) 1, , , , ... (iii) {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, …}
 2 3 4 

1.3 TYPES OF SETS

We have seen that set is a well defined collection of distinct objects. Also
repetition of elements in a set is not allowed. So once a set is defined,
automatically number of elements contained by it has also become fixed. In
this section, we shall discuss the different names given to a set on the bases of
the number of elements contained by the set. Equivalent and equal sets are also
defined in this section.
Null Set
Consider a collection of those sons having their ages more than their respective
fathers. Of course we will find no such son in this world. This type of
collection is nothing but simply known as null set or empty set or void set in
the terminology of sets.
Let us now formally define null set.
A set is said to be null (or empty or void) if it has no element in it. Null set is
denoted by  or { }.
For example, A = {x : x is a natural number, 1 < x < 2 } is a null set as there is
no natural number between 1 and 2.
Singleton Set
Consider the collection of mothers of a baby. Obviously a baby has only one
mother. This type of collection having a single element is known as singleton
set in the terminology of sets. Thus, a singleton set is defined as follow.
A set is said to be singleton set if it contains only one element.
For example, A = {x : x is an even prime number} is a singleton set as there is
only one even prime number, i.e. 2 .
Finite Set
A set is said to be finite set if either it is an empty set or it has a finite number
of elements.
For example,
(i) A = {2, 5, 7, 15} is a finite set because it contains 4 elements, i.e. finite
number of elements.
(ii) B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, …} is not a finite set as the number of elements in it are
infinitely many.
(iii) C = {x : x +1 = 0, x  N} = {x : x = – 1, x  N}= { } is an empty set. So, it
is a finite set.

11
 Fundamentals of Mathematics-I
Cardinal Number of a Finite Set
The number of elements in a finite set say A is called its cardinality and is
denoted by n(A).
For example,
(i) If A = {x, y, z}, then n(A) = 3, i.e. cardinality of A is 3.
(ii) If B = {14, 2, 3, 9, 15}, then n(B) = 5, i.e. cardinality of B is 5.
Infinite Set
A set is said to be infinite if it is not finite.
For example, A = {1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, …} is an infinite set.
Remark 3: Infinite sets are either countable or uncountable. We shall discuss
it in Sec. 2.6 of Unit 2 of this block.
Equivalent Sets
Two finite sets A and B (say) are said to be equivalent if number of elements
in both the sets are equal in numbers, i.e. n(A) = n(B) and we denote it by
A ~ B (read as A is equivalent to B).
For example, if A = {a, b, c, d} and B= {2, 3, 5, 7}, then
A~B [  n(A) = n(B) = 4 ]
Equal Sets
Two sets A and B are said to be equal if every element of A is in B and every
element of B is in A and is written as A = B.
For example, if A = {a, b, c, d} and B = {c, b, d, a}, then A = B as order of
elements does not matter.
If two sets A and B are not equal then we write A  B.
Example 4: Give reasons whether the following statements are true or false:
(i) If A = {x : x is a vowel of English alphabet} and
B = {x : x is a natural number, 7 < x < 13}, then A = B
(ii) If A = {x : x2 = 9, x  z) and B = {3, – 3}, then A = B
(iii) If A = {x, y, z, w} and B = {d, e, 7, 9}, then A ~ B
(iv) If A = {x, x, y, z} and B = {x, y, z, w}, then A ~ B
Solution:
(i) Here, A = {a, e, i, o, u} and B = {8, 9, 10, 11, 12}.
Clearly, A  B (as there elements are not same). Hence, the given
statement is false.
we know that if x 2  a then x   a 
(ii) Here, A = {3, – 3} and  2 
x  9  x   9  3 
 all the elements of A are in B and 
B = {3, – 3}, Clearly, A = B  
all the element of B are in A. 
 the statement is true.
(iii) Here, n(A) = 4, n(B) = 4  A ~ B, therefore, it is a true statement.
(iv) Here, A = {x, x, y, z} = {x, y, z} [As repetition in a set is not allowed]
and B = {x, y, z, w}, so n(A) = 3, n(B) = 4.
 A ~ B, is false because n(A)  n(B).

12
Here is an exercise for you.
Introduction to Sets
E 4) Give reasons whether the following statements are true or false:
(i) If A = {2, 9, 7, 7, 5}, B = {5, 2, 2, 9, 7}, then A = B
(ii) If A = { , , } , B = { , ,  }, then A ~ B
(iii) If A = {4, – 4, 5, 5}and
B = {x : either x 2 = 16 or x 2  x  20  0, x  Z}, then A = B
(iv) If A = {a, a, b, b, b, c} and B = {d, e, e, f, g, h}, then A ~ B

1.4 HIERARCHY OF SETS

For given any two real numbers a and b, you know that either a = b or a < b or
a > b. This section will focus on how this type of association is setup in case of
sets. Actually, here, we consider the sets contained in some other sets and
define them with their appropriate designations.
Subset
Suppose A be the set of all working ladies and B be the set of all ladies then
obviously all working ladies are ladies first. That is all the members of the set
A are members of the set B. If it is so, then in the terminology of the sets A is
known as subset of B.
Now, let us formally define the term subset.
Let A and B be two sets. Then A is said to be subset of B (or B is super set of
A) if every element of A belongs to B and is denoted by A  B .
“A  B ” read as A is contained in B or A is a subset of B.
If we write it as “B  A” then we read it as B contains A and we call B is a
super set of A.
Remark 4: From above definition of subset, we see that a set A(say) will not
be subset of another set B(say) if there is at least one element in A which is not
in B. And it is denoted by A  B (read as A is not a subset of B or A is not
contained in B).
For example,
(i) If N = {1, 2, 3, 4, …}, W = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, …},
p
Z = {…, – 3, – 2, – 1, 0, 1, 2, 3 ,…}, Q = { : p, q  Z, q  0 },
q
then N  W, W  Z, Z  Q, i.e. N  W  Z  Q.
(ii) If A = {1, 2, 4}, B = {1, 2, 4, 7, 9}, then A  B
(iii) If A  a , b, c, B  b, c, d, e, then A  B  a  A but a B

Proper Subset
Let A and B be two sets. Then A is said to be proper subset of B if all the
elements of A are in B and B has at least one element other than elements of
A and is denoted by A  B.
For example, if A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5},
 all the elments of A are in Band B
then A  B.  has two extra elements, i.e.4 and 5. 
 

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 Remark 5:
Fundamentals of Mathematics-I
(i) Empty set is subset of every set, i.e.   A for any set A.
(ii) Every set is a subset of itself, i.e. A  A for every set A.
Power Set
Let us first consider some examples:
(i) If A = { }, then  is only subset of A.
That is, there is only 1 (= 2 0 ) subset of A.
(ii) If A = {a}, then possible subsets of A are  , {a}.
That is, there are only 2 (= 21 ) subsets of A.
(iii) If A = {a, b}, then possible subsets of A are  , {a}, {b}, {a, b}.
That is, there are only 4 (= 2 2 ) subsets of A.
(iv) If A = {a, b, c}, then possible subsets of A are  , {a}, {b}, {c}, {a, b},
{a, c}, {b, c}, {a, b, c}.
That is, there are only 8 (= 2 3 ) subsets of A.
(v) Similarly, if A has n elements then total number of subsets of A are 2 n.
Now, let us define what we mean by power set of a set.
Let A be any set. Then set of all subsets of A is known as power set of A and is
denoted by P (A).
For example, in above discussed cases (i) to (iv) power set of A is given by
(i) P (A) = {  }
(ii) P (A) = {  , {a}}
(iii) P (A) = {  , {a}, {b}, {a, b}}
(iv) P (A) = {  , {a}, {b}, {c}, {a, b}, {a, c}, {b, c}, {a, b, c}}

Here is an exercise for you.

E 5) If A = {a, b, c, d}, then write P(A).

Universal Set
In IGNOU there are 21 schools such as school of humanities (SOH), school of
social sciences (SOSS), school of sciences (SOS), etc. (source IGNOU dairy
2011). If U is the set of all faculties of IGNOU and A 1 , A 2 , A 3 , ... , A 21 are sets
representing the faculties of 21 schools. Then, of course, faculties of all these
21 schools are faculties of IGNOU. That is, all the members of these 21
schools are present in the set U. Here U plays the role of universal set for the
sets A 1 , A 2 , A 3 , ... , A 21 .
Now, let us formally define the universal set.
A set U is said to be universal set if all the sets under study are subsets of U.
For example,
(i) If A = {1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 9}, B = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}, C = {3, 5, 7}, D = {8, 9, 10},
then U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10} can play the role of universal set.
(ii) If in a study, only integers are involved as the elements of the sets, then Z,
the set all integers, is the universal set.

14
You can now solve the following exercise.
Introduction to Sets
E 6) If A = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}, B = {2, 4, 6, 8}, C = {2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23},
and D = {5, 10, 15, 20, 25}, then what will be the smallest universal set?

1.5 VENN DIAGRAMS

As we know that examples play an important role to understand the concepts
of theory/definitions. Similarly a diagram speaks more than the words that we
may use and they also make the ideas simple and easy to understand even for a
fresh reader. Euler (1707-1783), a Swiss mathematician was the first who took
the step to represent the sets diagrammatically. Then John Venn (1834-1923), a
British mathematician, moving a step ahead simplifying the ideas and made it
more user friendly. That is why diagrammatical representation of sets is also
known as Venn-Euler diagram. But usually they are known as Venn-diagrams.
In Venn diagrams, sets are represented by enclosed areas in a plane as
described below:
Notations Used in Venn Diagrams
1. Universal Set
Universal set U is represented by the interior of a rectangle as shown in
Fig. 1.1
U

Fig. 1.1
2. Subsets
Subsets of U are described by the interior of closed curves (known as
circular discs) within the rectangle, representing the universal set U.
Fig. 1.2 shows the case when A and B have no common element,
while Fig.1.3 shows the case when A and B have some common elements.
Fig. 1.4 shows the case when A  B, and Fig. 1.5 shows the case when
B  A.
U U
A B A B

If A  B =  If A  B  
Fig. 1.2 Fig. 1.3

U U
B A
A B

If A  B If B  A
Fig. 1.4 Fig. 1.5
Remark 6:
(i) In general when nothing is mentioned about the common elements of A
and B, presentation of Fig. 1.3 is used.
(ii) Sizes that we use to present A and B do not matter.

15
 Fundamentals of Mathematics-I 1.6 SET OPERATIONS
In school days, a child first learns counting numbers and then he/she learns
how operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication and division are used on
two numbers.
A similar type of approach is being used here. In sections 1.2 and 1.3 of this
unit you have become familiar with the definition and types of sets
respectively. In this section, we will learn about some commonly used
operations on sets.
Union
Let A be a set containing the persons getting salary (in Rs) between 10000 and
100000 per month and another set B containing the persons getting salary (in
Rs) between 5000 and 20000 per month. For this example, if we are interested
in finding those persons who are getting the salary within the range 10000-
100000 or 5000-20000 then such persons will be those having salary between
5000 and 100000. The set of such persons is nothing but the union of two sets
A and B.
Now, let us formally define the union of two sets.
Let A and B be two sets then union of A and B is denoted by A  B and is
defined as
A  B = {x: either x  A or x  B}.
i.e. A  B contains all the elements of A as well as of B (see Fig. 1.6).

Fig. 1.6

For example,
(i) If A = {2, 3, 5}, B = {3, 5, 7, 11}, then A  B = {2, 3, 5, 7, 11}.
(ii) If A = {a, b, c, d}, B = {d, e, f}, then A  B = {a, b, c, d, e, f}.
(iii) If Q = set of all rational numbers and I = set of all irrational numbers, then
Q  I = R = set of all real numbers.
That is, if all rational and irrational numbers are mixed then that mixture
will be the set of real numbers.
Now, you can do the following exercises.
E 7) If A = {3}, B = {a, b, c}, then write A  B.
E 8) If A = {a, b}, B = {e, f}, then write A  B.
E 9) If A = {1, 2, 3}, B = {3, 4, 5, 6}, C = {3, 6, 7}, then write A  B  C.

Intersection
Let us again consider the example given above. For this example, if we are
interested in finding those persons who are getting the salary within the
common range then such persons will be those having salary between 10000
and 20000. The set of such persons is nothing but the intersection of two sets A
and B.

16
 Now, let us formally define the intersection of two sets.
Introduction to Sets
Let A and B be two sets then intersection of A and B is denoted by A  B and
is defined as
A  B = {x: x A and x B }.
i.e. A  B contains common elements of A and B ( see Fig. 1.7).

Fig. 1.7

For example,
(i) If A = {a, b, c}, B = {b, c, d, e}, then A  B = {b, c}.
(ii) If A = {5, 7, 9}, B = {10, 11, 18}, then A  B = { } =  = empty set,
as there is no common element in the two sets.
Note: If A  B =  then we say that two sets A and B are disjoint.

Here are some exercises for you.

E 10) If A = { }, B = {1, 4, 7}, then write A  B.

E 11) If A = {2, 4, 6, 8}, B = {2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13}, then write A  B.

Complement of a Set
Suppose we have set of persons of a locality having voting right. Then set of
those persons of the locality who do not have voting right is its complement, if
the set of all persons of that locality is considered as a universal set.
Now, let us formally define complement of a set.
Let U be the universal set, then complement of a set A (where A  U) is
U
denoted by A c or A or A' and is defined as
A ' = {x  U: x  A} .
That is A ' contains those elements of U which are not in A, i.e. A' contains all
the elements of U other than A (see Fig. 1.8.).

Fig. 1.8

For example, if U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10} and A = {1, 2, 4, 7, 9, 10},

then A ' = {3, 5, 6, 8}, i.e. those elements of U which are not in A.
Here is an exercise for you.

E 12) If U = {x: x is an English alphabet} and

A = {x : x is an vowel of English alphabet}, then write A ' .

17
 Fundamentals of Mathematics-I
Difference of Two Sets
Let A and B be two sets then difference of A and B is denoted by A – B and is
defined as
A – B = {x: x  A but xB}. See Fig. 1.9

Fig. 1.9

For example,
(i) If A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, B = {4, 5, 6, 7}, then A – B = {1, 2, 3}
(ii) If A = {a, b, c}, B = {a, b, c, d, e}, then A – B = { }
Now, you can do the following exercise.

E 13) If W = set of whole numbers and N = set of natural numbers then write
W – N.

Symmetric Difference of Two Sets

Let A and B be two sets, then symmetric difference of A and B is denoted by
A  B and is defined as
A  B = (A– B)  (B– A). See Fig. 1.10

Fig. 1.10

For example, if A = {1, 2, 3, 4}, B = {3, 4, 5, 6, 7}, then A – B = {1, 2},

B – A = {5, 6, 7}
 A  B = (A – B)  (B – A) = {1, 2}  {5, 6, 7} = {1, 2, 5, 6, 7}.
Example 5: With the help of the Venn diagrams, show the following sets:
(i) A (ii) A' (iii) A  B (iv) A – B (v) B – A (vi) A  B (vii) A  B (viii) B  A
Solution:
(i) (ii)

(iii) (iv)

18
(v) (vi)
Introduction to Sets

(vii) (viii)
U U
B A
A B

Now, you can try the following exercise.

E 14) With the help of the Venn diagram justify the following
(i) A  A  B (ii) B  A  B (iii) A  B  A (iv) A  B  B
(v) (A  B)' = A'  B' (De-Morgan’s law) (vi) A  B  B'  A '

1.7 SOME USEFUL AND IMPORTANT LAWS

Some commonly used laws of sets are listed below.
1. Idempotent Laws
For any set A
(i) A  A = A (ii) A  A = A
2. Identity Laws
For any subset A of the universal set U
A   = A, A  U = A, where  is empty set
3. Commutative Laws
For any two sets A and B
(i) A  B = B  A (ii) A  B = B  A
4. Associative Laws
If A, B, C are any three sets then
(i) ( A  B)  C = A  (B  C)
(ii) (A  B)  C = A  (B  C)
5. Distributive Laws
If A, B, C are any three sets then
(i) A  (B  C) = (A  B)  (A  C)
(ii) A  (B  C) = (A  B)  (A  C)
6. De-Morgan’s Laws
For any two sets A and B
(i) (A  B) '  A '  B '
(ii) (A  B) '  A '  B '
Example 6: If A = {1, 3, 5}, B = {3, 5, 7, 9}, C = {2, 6, 8, 9} are subsets of
the universal set U = {1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9} then verify
(i) De-Morgan’s laws and
(ii) Distributive laws

19
 Solution:
Fundamentals of Mathematics-I
(i) De-Morgan’s laws state that
(a) (A  B)'  A'  B'
(b) (A  B)'  A'  B'
To verify (a)
A  B = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}
 (A  B)'  {2, 6, 8}
A' = {2, 6, 7, 8, 9}, B' = {1, 2, 6, 8}
 A'  B'  {2, 6, 8}
We see that here (A  B)'  A'  B' .
Hence verified.
To verify (b)
A  B  {3, 5}
 (A  B)' = {1, 2, 6, 7, 8, 9} and
A'  B' = {1, 2, 6, 7, 8, 9}
We see that here (A  B)'  A'  B' .
Hence verified.
(ii) Distributive laws state that
(a) A  (B  C)  (A  B)  (A  C)
(b) A  (B  C)  (A  B)  (A  C)
To verify (a)
B  C = {9}
 A  (B  C) = {1, 3, 5, 9}
A  B = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}, A  C = {1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 8, 9}
 (A  B)  (A  C) = {1, 3, 5, 9}
We see that here A  (B  C)  (A  B)  (A  C) .
Hence verified.
To verify (b)
B  C = {2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}
 A  (B  C) = {3, 5}
A  B = {3, 5}, A  C = {}
 (A  B)  (A  C) = {3, 5}
We see that here A  (B  C)  (A  B)  (A  C)
Hence verified.
Now, you can do the following exercise.

E 15) If the universal set U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8} and A = {1, 3, 5, 6, 7},

B = {5, 6, 7, 8}, C = {1, 5, 7, 8}are subsets of U, then verify
(i) commutative laws and (ii) associative laws

Application of Sets
Venn diagrams are helpful in establishing many important relations between
different sets, some of them are mentioned as under which are helpful in
solving many practical problems too.
1. n(A  B) = n(A) + n(B) – n(A  B)
2. n(A  B) = n(A – B) + n(A  B) + n(B – A)

20
3. n(A – B) = n(A) – n(A  B)
Introduction to Sets
4. n(B – A) = n(B) – n(A  B)
5. n(A  B  C) = n(A) + n(B) + n(C) – n(A  B) – n(A  C)
– n(B  C) + n(A  B  C)
Let us consider an example based on above formulae.
Example 7: In a group of 500 persons, 400 can speak Hindi and 150 can speak
English. Then how many can speak
(i) both Hindi and English
(ii) Hindi only
(iii) English only
Solution: Let A and B denote the set of persons who can speak Hindi and
English, respectively. Then in usual notations, we are given
n(A  B) = 500, n(A) = 400, n(B) = 150
(i) We know that
n(A  B) = n(A) + n(B) – n(A  B)
 500 = 400 + 150 – n(A  B  n(A  B) = 550 500 = 50
 number of persons who can speak both Hindi and English = 50
(ii) We know that
n(A – B) = n(A) – n(A  B) = 400 50 = 350
 number of persons who can speak Hindi only = 350
(iii) We know that
n(B – A) = n(B) – n(A  B) = 150 50 = 100
 number of persons who can speak English only = 100
Here is an exercise for you.

E 16) Out of the 50 students in a class, 24 play cricket, 15 play hockey, 18

play football, 6 play cricket and hockey, 8 play cricket and football, 5
play hockey and football and 10 students do not play any of the three
games. Then how many play (i) all the three games, (ii) hockey but not
football and (iii) cricket and football but not hockey.

1.8 SUMMARY
Let us now summarise what we have covered in this unit.
1) Definition of a set with examples.
2) Two methods of writing a set.
3) Definition of various types of sets including empty set, singleton set, finite
set, infinite set, equivalent sets, and equal sets.
4) Definition of subsets, proper subset, super set, universal set, power set.
5) Introduction of Venn diagrams.
6) Various operations on sets.
7) Idempotent, identity, commutative, associative, distributive and De-
Morgan’s laws.

21
 Fundamentals of Mathematics-I 1.9 SOLUTIONS/ANSWERS
E 1) (i) It is not a set, because a student may be intelligent according to
someone while the same student may not be intelligent according to
some other person.
(ii) It is not a set because a hockey player may be good in someone’s
view while the same player may not be good in view of some other
person.
(iii) It is not a set because an actor may be good in someone’s point of
view while the same actor may not be good in the view of some
other person.
repetition of elements 
(iv) It is a set having elements I, N, D, A  
in a set is not allowed. 
E 2) (i) x = 2n + 3, n  W = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, …}
 Values are obtained on putting 
 n  0,1, 2,... in x  2n  3 
 x = 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, …  
 e.g. when we put n  0, we get 
 
 x  2(0)  3  3 
And, therefore, A = {3, 5, 7, 9, 11,…}
 
(ii) B = 7 0 ,71 ,7 2 ,7 3 = {1, 7, 49, 343}
(iii) N = {1, 2, 3, 4,…} and W = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4,…}
 if x  N and x  W then the elements which satisfy both
are 1, 2, 3, 4, … and hence
C = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, …}.
(iv) W = {0, 1, 2, 3, …}and Q = set of rational numbers,
 the elements which are common to both are 0, 1, 2, 3, … as no
other rational number is a whole number and hence
D = {0, 1, 2, 3,…}.
E 3) (i) {x  N : x = 5n, n  N }
1
(ii) {x : x = , n N }
n
(iii) {x  N : x = 2n, n  N }
E 4) (i) A = {2, 9, 7, 5}, B = {5, 2, 9, 7} as repetitions in a set are not
allowed.
We see that all the elements of A are in B and all the elements of B
are in A.
 A = B. Hence the statement is true.
(ii) Here, n(A) = 3, n(B) = 3 and so the statement A ~ B is true.
(iii) A = {4, – 4, 5}, B = {x: x 2 = 16, x 2 + x – 20 = 0, x  Z}
= {x: x =  4, ( x  5)(x  4)  0, x  Z}
= {x: x =  4 , x = – 5, 4, x  Z} = {4}
Here, – 4  A but – 4B
 A  B, hence the statement is false.
(iv) Here, A = {a, b, c}, B = {d, e, f, g, h}.Thus, n(A) = 3, n(B) = 5.
A ~ B is false because n(A)  n(B).

22
E 5) P(A) ={  , {a},{b}, {c},{d}, {a, b}, {a, c}, {a, d}, {b, c},{b, d},
Introduction to Sets
{c, d},{a, b, c}, {a, b, d}, {a, c, d}, {b, c, d}, {a, b, c, d}}
Notice that it has 2 4  16 elements.
E 6) Smallest universal set is
{1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 13, 15, 17, 19, 20, 23, 25}.
E 7) A  B = {3, a, b, c}.
E 8) A  B = {a, b, e, f}.
E 9) A  B  C = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}.
E 10) A  B = { } =  .
E 11) A  B = {2}.
E 12) A' = {x: x is a consonant of English alphabet}.
E 13) We know that
W = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, …} and N = {1, 2, 3, 4, …}
 W – N = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4,…} – {1, 2, 3, 4, …}= {0}
E 14) (i)

L.H.S. R.H.S.
Two Venn diagrams justify the relationship A  A  B.

(ii)

L.H.S. R.H.S.
Two Venn diagrams justify the relationship B  A  B.

(iii)

L.H.S. R.H.S.
Two Venn diagrams justify the relationship A  B  A.

23
 (iv)
Fundamentals of Mathematics-I

L.H.S. R.H.S.

Two Venn diagrams justify the relationship A  B  B.

(v)

Two Venn diagrams justify the relationship (A  B)' = A'  B' .

(vi)
U U
B B
A
A

L.H.S. R.H.S.
B' A'

Two Venn diagrams justify the relationship A  B  B'  A ' .

E 15) (i) Commutative laws state that

(a) A  B = B  A
(b) A  B = B  A
To verify (a)
A  B = {1, 3, 5, 6, 7}  {5, 6, 7, 8} = {1, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8}
 B  A = {5, 6, 7, 8}  {1, 3, 5, 6, 7}= {1, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8}
 we see that here A  B = B  A.
Hence verified.
To verify (b)
A  B = {1, 3, 5, 6, 7}  {5, 6, 7, 8} = {5, 6, 7}
and B  A = {5, 6, 7, 8}  {1, 3, 5, 6, 7}= {5, 6, 7}
We see that here A  B = B  A
Hence verified.

24
 (ii) Associative laws state that
Introduction to Sets
(a) (A  B)  C = A  (B  C)
(b) (A  B)  C = A  (B  C)
To verify (a)
A  B = {1, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8}
 (A  B)  C = {1, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8}
B  C = {5, 6, 7, 8}  {1, 5, 7, 8} = {1, 5, 6, 7, 8}
 A  (B  C) = {1, 3, 5, 6, 7}  {1, 5, 6, 7, 8}= {1, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8}
We see that here (A  B)  C = A  (B  C).
Hence verified.
To verify (b)
A  B = {5, 6, 7}
 (A  B)  C = {5, 6, 7}  {1, 5, 7. 8} = {5, 7}
B  C = {5, 6, 7, 8}  {1, 5, 7, 8} = {5, 7, 8}
 A  (B  C) = {1, 3, 5, 6, 7}  {5, 7, 8}= {5, 7}
We see that here (A  B)  C = A  (B  C).
Hence verified.
E 16) Let C, H, F, denote the set of students who play cricket, hockey and
football respectively. Then in usual notations, we are given.
n(C) = 24, n(H) = 15, n(F) = 18, n(C  H) = 6, n(C  F) = 8,
n(H  F) = 5, n( C'  H ' F' ) = 10
(i) Before finding the required number of students, we are to first obtain
the number of students who play at least one of the three games
which is given as
= n(C  H  F) = 50 – n( C'  H '  F' ) = 50 – 10 = 40
Now, we know that
n(C  H  F) = n(C) + n(H) + n(F) – n(C  H) – n(C  F) – n(H  F)
+ n(C  H  F)
 40 = 24 + 15 + 18 – 6 – 8 – 5 + n(C  H  F)
 40 = 57 19 + n(C  H  F) = 38 + n(C  H  F)
 n(C  H  F) = 40 – 38 = 2
 number of students who play all the three games = 2
(ii) We know that
n(H – F) = n(H) – n(H  F)
= 15 – 5 = 10

H U
C

 number of students who play hockey but not football = 10

25
 Fundamentals of Mathematics-I
(iii) n((C  F)  H)  n (C  F)  n ((C  F)  H) = 8 – 2 = 6
 n (A  B)  n (A )  n (A  B)
Here A  C  F, B  H 
 
number of students who play cricket and football but not
hockey = 6

26