PRINCIPLES

OF
GEOGRAPHIC
INFORMATION
SYSTEMS (GIS)

LECTURE NOTES FOR SEMESTER ONE 2016/17

BY MS. MAUREEN TUSIIME

BSC. SLIS, KYU
MSC. GEOINFORMATICS, UTM, MALAYSIA
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

TABLE OF CONTENTS ........................................................................................................... 2

REFERENCES: ......................................................................................................................... 4

1. INTRODUCTION TO GIS................................................................................................ 5

Definition of GIS ................................................................................................................... 5

History of GIS ........................................................................................................................ 5

The Applications GIS ............................................................................................................ 6

The Nature of GIS .................................................................................................................. 7

Multidisciplinary nature of GIS ............................................................................................. 7

GIS and Digital Mapping ....................................................................................................... 7

Importance of GIS.................................................................................................................. 8

2. GIS COMPONENTS ......................................................................................................... 9

Computer Hardware ............................................................................................................... 9

GIS Software .......................................................................................................................... 9

GIS Data............................................................................................................................... 10

Procedures ............................................................................................................................ 11

Network................................................................................................................................ 11

People................................................................................................................................... 11

3. DIGITAL DATA FOR GIS ............................................................................................. 12

Nature of GIS data ............................................................................................................... 12

Feature definition in a GIS ................................................................................................... 12

Feature Position ............................................................................................................... 13

Feature Attributes............................................................................................................. 15

Feature Relationships ....................................................................................................... 15

Data Structures in GIS ......................................................................................................... 18

The spaghetti structure ..................................................................................................... 18

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 The polygonal structure ................................................................................................... 18

The topological structure ................................................................................................. 19

4. GIS DATA CAPTURE AND EDITING ......................................................................... 22

The GIS Data Capture Process ............................................................................................ 22

GIS Data Editing .................................................................................................................. 29

Common Editing Problems .............................................................................................. 29

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REFERENCES:
(i) Longley, P.A., M.F. Goodchild, D.J. Maguire, and D.W. Rhind, Geographic
Information Systems and Science. Wiley Ed. ISBN 0-471-89275-0, 2001.
(ii) Burrough P.A. and R.A. McDonnell, Principles of geographical information systems.
University Press, 1997.
(iii)Heywood, I., Cornelius, S., & Carver, S: An Introduction to Goegraphical Information
Systems, Pearson education publishers, 2006.
(iv) Mulaku, G.C.: lecture notes for FSP 591-Land Information Systems I, University of
Nairobi, unpublished, 2005.

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 1. INTRODUCTION TO GIS

Definition of GIS
Geographic Information Systems is a term applied to computerized data/information input,
management (storage, updating and retrieval), processing and retrieval systems that have
hardware and software specifically designed to cope with geographically referenced spatial
data and the corresponding attribute data.
The sources of such spatial data could be maps, field surveys, censuses, aerial photographs
and satellite imagery. It is therefore evident that these data sets vary in format, level of detail,
accuracy, and reference.
The ability of GIS to combine spatial data from different sources and non-spatial data
(attribute data) distinguishes it from other data processing software.
Geoinformatics/Geomatics is that discipline that deals with all aspects of spatial data
handling. It is a science which develops and uses information science infrastructure to
address the problems of geosciences and related branches of engineering. The Three main
tasks of geoinformatics are development and management of databases of geodata; analysis
and modeling of geodata; and development and integration of computer tools and software
for the first two tasks.

History of GIS
Controversy about the history of GIS exists since parallel developments took place in North
America, Europe and Australia but much of the published history focuses on the US
contributions.
What is certain is that the extraction of simple measures largely led to the development of the
first real GIS namely the Canadian Geographic Information System (CGIS) in the mid-60s as
a computerized map measuring system.
In the late-60s, the US bureau of the Census recognized a need for creating digital records of
all US streets to support automatic referencing and aggregation of census records.
In separate developments cartographers and mapping agencies were debating on the use of
computers to reduce on the costs and shorten the time taken to create a map.
The UK Experimental Cartography Unit (ECU) pioneered high quality computer mapping in
1968 and published the world‟s first computer-made map in a regular series in 1973 with the
British Geological Survey.

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National mapping agencies e.g. Britain„s Ordnance Survey, France„s Institut Geographique
National and the US Geological Survey and the Defense Mapping Agency (now the National
Geospatial-Intelligence Agency) began to investigate the use of computers to support the
editing of maps, to avoid the expensive and slow process of hand correction and redrafting.
It was not until 1995, that the first country (Great Britain) achieved complete digital map
coverage in a database.
Remote Sensing also contributed to the development of GIS as a source of technology as well
as source of data.
GIS took off in the early 1980s, when the price of computing hardware had fallen to a level
that could sustain a significant software industry and cost-effective application.

The Applications GIS

GIS is a technological tool that anyone can use. It has unlimited applications ranging from
rural to urban to global. Examples of applications of GIS are:
a) Land suitability analysis for growing certain crops;
b) Forestry and Wildlife management;
c) Flood control planning;
d) Environmental impact assessment;
e) Emergency vehicle response planning;
f) Development siting;
g) Monitoring desertification;
h) Analysing global disease distribution etc
It should be apparent from these diverse applications that GIS is a multidisciplinary field
requiring experts in many fields such as computer science, surveying, cartography,
geography, agriculture, ecology, forestry, geology, etc.
The strong backgrounds in the mapping sciences inherent among surveyors and cartographers
make them better placed to understand GIS data, its processing and to correctly interpret GIS
map products

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The Nature of GIS

Multidisciplinary nature of GIS

GIS and Digital Mapping

Digital mapping is the process of producing and reproducing maps from digital spatial data.
A digital mapping system enables data capture; limited data processing (scale change,
coordinate transformation etc), data visualization and data output. It is an automated map
making system that lacks the data analysis and modelling capabilities of GIS.
Every GIS has a digital mapping component but the converse is not true.

Advantages of Digital Mapping

a) Quick data retrieval to enable map production at different scales, on different projections
etc;
b) Quick and easy data addition or deletion thus speeding up map revision;
c) Ability to merge data sets;
d) Data storage over time without distortion (stretching, shrinking associated with paper
maps);
e) Selective browsing, magnification or highlighting of features;
f) Great data compaction in digital storage;
g) Ability to easily produce maps that are difficult to make by hands e.g. 3D maps

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Importance of GIS
Some of the problems associated with conventional methods of handling spatial data are:
a. Poor maintenance of Geospatial data
b. Maps and statistics are often out of date
c. Data and information are inaccurate
d. Inconsistency of Geospatial data
e. Lack of standards
f. No sharing of geospatial data
g. No retrieval capacities
h. Lack of scientific decision making

The following are the benefits of adopting GIS as a tool for handling spatial data:
1) Geospatial data maintained in a standard format
2) Easy to revise and update
3) Search, analysis and representation much easier
4) Possibility of value added products
5) Possible to share and exchange data
6) Productivity more improved
7) Time and cost saved
8) Lead to better decision making

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 2. GIS COMPONENTS
A Geographic Information System usually consists of the following six components:
1) Computer hardware;
2) Software modules;
3) Data;
4) Procedures;
5) Network; and
6) People.

Computer Hardware
Hardware consists of the technical equipment needed to run a GIS including a computer
system with enough power to run the software, enough memory to store large amounts of
data, and input and output devices such as scanners, digitizers, GPS data loggers, media
disks, and printers.
The purchase of hardware must be synchronised with that of software since most of GIS
software packages have certain hardware requirements especially with respect to host
computer, RAM size, etc.

GIS Software
Software is a set of instructions/programs written in a formal programming language that a
computer can carry out. Software requirements for a GIS may often be more expensive than
the hardware. GIS software is application software designed to run in a particular operating
system environment. It comes in the following modules some of which may be optional:

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(i) Digitizing and editing;
(ii) Data storage and management;
(iii)Analysis;
(iv) Plotting/display module;
(v) Data exchange
Examples of GIS software in the market include ArcGIS; ArcView; Idrisi; Erdas; ILWIS etc.

GIS Data
A GIS with the best hardware/software combination will still fail if there is inadequate or in
appropriate input data, since data is the raw material from which information will be
processed.
Data in a GIS consists of feature positions, attributes and relationships amongst features. The
data is kept in a database and is managed by a database management system.
Perhaps the most time consuming and costly aspect of initiating a GIS is creating a database.
There are several things to consider before acquiring geographic data. It is crucial to check
the quality of the data before obtaining it.
Errors in the data set can add many unpleasant and costly hours to implementing a GIS and
the results and conclusions of the GIS analysis most likely will be wrong. Several guidelines
to look at include:
Lineage – This is a description of the source material from which the data were derived,
and the methods of derivation, including all transformations involved in producing the
final digital files. This should include all dates of the source material and updates and
changes made to it.
Positional Accuracy – This is the closeness of an entity in an appropriate coordinate
system to that entity‟s true position in the system. The positional accuracy includes
measures of the horizontal and vertical accuracy of the features in the data set.
Attribute Accuracy – An attribute is a fact about some location, set of locations, or
features on the surface of the earth. This information often includes measurements of
some sort, such as temperature or elevation or a label of a place name. The source of error
usually lies within the collection of these facts. It is vital to the analysis aspects of a GIS
that this information be accurate.
Logical Consistency - Deals with the logical rules of structure and attribute rules for
spatial data and describes the compatibility of a datum with other data in a data set.
Consistency checks should be run at different stages in the handling of spatial data.

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 Completeness – This is a check to see if relevant data is missing with regards to the
features and the attributes. This could deal with either omission errors or spatial rules
such as minimum width or area that may limit the information.
Building a GIS database may take up to 70% of the total cost of setting up a GIS.

Procedures
In order for a GIS to succeed, it needs an appropriate organizational environment.
Organizational procedures must be put in place in order to create awareness about the GIS
and fit it appropriately in the overall operations of the concerned organisation. Some
important issues involved in setting up a GIS include the development of standards, access
protocols, database administration, quality assurance and system security.

Network
The network is used for communication as well as for digital information sharing. GIS today
relies heavily on the internet and intranets of organizations. This enables connecting
computers hence linking together distributed users. It also allows information exchange and
delivery of GIS software products over the internet.

People
The people are the component who actually makes the GIS work. They include a number of
positions including GIS managers, database administrators, application specialists, systems
analysts, and programmers. They are responsible for maintenance of the geographic database
and provide technical support. People also need to be educated to make decisions on what
type of system to use. People associated with a GIS can be categorized into: viewers, general
users, and GIS specialists.
Viewers: the public at large whose only need is to browse a geographic database for
referential material. These constitute the largest class of users.
General Users: people who use GIS to conduct business, performing professional
services, and making decisions. They include facility managers, resource managers,
planners, scientists, engineers, lawyers, business entrepreneurs, etc.
GIS specialists: people who make the GIS work. They include GIS managers,
database administrators, application specialists, systems analysts, and programmers.
They are responsible for the maintenance of the geographic database and the
provision of technical support to the other two classes of users

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 3. DIGITAL DATA FOR GIS
A GIS database is an abstract of the real world. In the real world, data is normally analogue
and continuous. These data must be made discrete (digitised) before it can be handled by a
computer.

Analogue

Digital

Nature of GIS data

In GIS, data consist of geographic features or entities e.g. roads, rivers, cities, etc. All such
features are represented by one of four mathematical objects:
Points e.g. borehole;
Lines e.g. river;
Polygons e.g. lake; and
Surfaces e.g. DEM for a hill.
Note that feature representation by any mathematical object may depend on scale, e.g. a city
can be a point at small scale and a polygon at large scale.

Feature definition in a GIS

In a GIS database, any feature is defined by three parameters:
a. Its position;
b. Its attributes; and
c. Its relationship with other features.

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Feature Position
It consists of locational data defining a features spatial extent. Locational data may be
expressed in one of two formats: vector or raster.
In the vector format, locational data consists of Cartesian coordinates in some frame of
reference e.g. UTM projection. A point feature is represented by one pair of coordinates, a
line feature is represented by a series of coordinates, a polygon is represented by a series of
coordinates closing back on itself and a surface is represented by a set of 3D coordinates.

In the raster format, the data space is subdivided into an array of pixels or cells. Locational
data then consists of the row and column numbers of such pixels. A point is represented by an
isolated pixel that is surrounded by pixels whose values are different from the pixel in
question. A line is represented by a series of contiguous pixels of the same value while a
polygon is represented by a 2D extent of pixels of equal value. A surface is represented by a
2D extent of pixels of equal value plus a height value at each pixel.
The positional accuracy can be no better than the pixel size.

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Advantages of vector model Disadvantages of vector data model
a. Precise point location.
a. Complicated Structure
b. Very fine output graphics
b. Difficulty in overlay
c. Suitable for network analysis,
c. Difficulty in updating
buffer
d. Expensive Data Capture
d. Less Data Volume
e. Fast Retrieval
f. Fast Conversion
g. best for storing discrete features
(e.g., roads, shorelines,

Advantages of raster Disadvantages of raster

a. Faster data acquisition especially for 1. Large Data Volumes.
dense data e.g. contours. 2. Low Precision hence unsuitable for
b. Simple Data Structure point feature representation
c. Easy to perform mathematical and overlay 3. Difficulty in network analysis.
operations 4. Slow Conversion and high resolution
d. Suitable for 3D display required
e. Easy to integrate map data with image
data sets. Used for updating topo maps
f. Automated Data capture
Better represents “continuous”- type data

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Feature Attributes
This is data that specify the non-geometric characteristics of a feature. Positional data are
meaningless by themselves. Attributes may be numeric (size, slope, height etc) or semantic
(name, type, etc)
Position Attributes
Feature type Feature Name
Point (x,y) Hill Vyumba hill
Line (x1,y1), (x2,y2),….(xn,yn) Road Nyagatare road
Polygon (x1,y1), (x2,y2….(xn,yn), Land Parcel L/R 50/37
(x1,y1)

In the raster format, feature types may not need to be explicitly stated, instead being encoded
by the pixel values e.g. pixel value 0-water; 55-forest; 256-cloud.
In general, feature attributes in GIS are stored by means of feature codes. A feature code is a
concise alphanumeric code that describes the type of feature that the given coordinates
represent according to some chosen coding scheme. Example RDTC2D could represent 2-
way, dual carriage way, tarmac road. A coding system will be highly dependent on the
organization and the GIS system in use. However, it should be systematic and exhaustive.
A commonly used coding technique is that of generalization and specialization.
By this technique, features are arranged hierarchically in a tree structure and codes assigned.

Feature Relationships
Spatial relationships e.g. neighbourhood are quite obvious in analogue data but not apparent
in digital data.

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Digital data cannot adequately represent the real world without relationships. In real life,
relationships are more used to position features than coordinates. Example: my home is about
4km down the road to Rukomo from Nyagatare town and quite near bright academy primary
school; my home is at about (,) = (0o20‟, 34o20‟).

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Kinds of Relationships
a) Proximal: describe the closeness of non-adjacent features i.e. nearness or farness. This is
however very difficult to encode digitally.
b) Hierarchical: describe the relationship of feature subclasses to their superclasses eg the
fact that a secondary road belongs to a feature class road. It is often encoded by a tree
structure.
c) Topological: describe the neighbourhood, connectivity and inclusion properties of
features. This is the most important relationship in GIS. Topology is a branch of
mathematics that deals with the study of those properties of geometric figures that are
invariant under continuous distortion i.e. if the shape of the figure is twisted, stretched,
shrunk or otherwise distorted, these properties do not change. Some of the properties are
connectivity, adjacency and inclusion.

Topological relationships are important because they speed up GIS responses to users‟
topological queries, which are very difficult to answer using coordinates. Topological
relationships are encoded via a topological data structure in a process called topology
building.

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Data Structures in GIS
A data structure is a set of rules that determine how points, lines and polygons are organised
and related to each other in digital storage. A good data structure must strike a compromise
between data storage requirements and data processing speed.

The spaghetti structure

This is the simplest structure by which data are represented by strings of coordinates with no
restriction on their start or end points. Common polygon boundaries are digitised twice, once
for each polygon. The resulting data are often referred to as spaghetti due to the haphazard
intertwining. This structure enables easy digitizing due to the few rules that an operator has to
follow, and a topological structure can be later computed from it. There is however a lot of
redundant data resulting in wastage of storage space. The presence of slivers, gaps and
unclosed polygons lead to geometrical inconsistency. No topological information is encoded.
As a result, no real GIS analysis is possible with the spaghetti structure and its use is limited
to simple mapping provided the geometrical inconsistencies mentioned are not resolvable at
mapping scale.

The polygonal structure

In this structure, each point is digitised only once and point line and polygon features are
referenced not to point coordinates but to point labels. The polygon structure reduces data
redundancy since polygon shared boundaries are digitized only once; it eliminates slivers,
gaps and unclosed polygons; it has some topological information e.g. polygon that has
common points must be neighbours but it is difficult to tell which is to which side of the
other.
The absence of full topology still limits the polygonal structure to automated cartography and
very limited GIS analysis.

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The topological structure
The topological data structure is one in which the topological relationships amongst features
are determined and explicitly tabulated in the procedure of topology building. It is the most
flexible structure for GIS analysis and most modern GIS software packages incorporate it.
The topological data structure has its mathematical origins in graph theory.
Some definitions: A graph is an object consisting of a node set and an arc set; An arc is a line
that starts and ends at a node; A node is the intersection of two arcs. Anode may also occur at
the end of a dangling arc or on its own as a floating node; adjacent arcs are arcs incident on
the same node; adjacent nodes are nodes joined by an arc; order of a node is the number of
arcs meeting at the node; floating arc is an arc that is not connected to any other arc; multiple
arcs are arcs joining the same end nodes; a directed graph is a graph that has directed arcs.
Two types of graphs exist:
 Planar graph: which can be drawn without arcs crossing except at nodes;
 Non-planar graph: a graph that cannot be drawn without arcs crossing at places other than
nodes
In the topological data structure, the GIS database is considered to be a planar graph. Only in
a planar graph can polygons be defined.
A polygon is a closed chain of arcs; each arc borders on exactly two polygons, the left
polygon and the right polygon.
An Island is a polygon within a polygon. It may be a simple or compound island. A loop is an
arc that has the same node for its head and tail. A simple graph is a graph in which no loops
or multiple arcs occur. A pseudo-graph is one in which loops and multiple arcs occur. A
bridge is an arc the removal of which will create an island. Such an arc has the same polygon
on both sides.
Plane graphs are always topologically equivalent. In topological analysis, shape and distance
are immaterial.
Euler‟s formula for planar graphs: p-a+n-i=1; p is the number of polygons; a is the number of
arcs; i is the number of islands and; n the number of nodes. The formula is used to check for
the non planarity of any graph in the database. Examples???

How does the topological data structure work? The map graphic is broken down into a
directed planar graph consisting of arcs, with some arcs chained to form polygons. Thus area
features are represented by polygons, line features by arcs and point features by floating
nodes which are also considered to be island polygons. For each arc, the left and right
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polygons are specified. Tables are then drawn up to relate the nodes, arcs, polygons and
coordinates.
To see how topology is represented or modeled, it is useful to consider an example to see
how connections are coded into a database. This involves recording more than use the
absolute location of points, lines, and regions.
The first step is to record the location of all "nodes," that is endpoints and intersections of
lines and boundaries.

Based upon these nodes, "arcs" are defined. These arcs have endpoints, but they are also
assigned a direction indicated by the arrowheads. The starting point of the vector is referred
to as the "from node" and the destination the "to node." The orientation of a given vector can
be assigned in either direction, as long as this direction is recorded and stored in the database.

By keeping track of the orientation of arcs, it is possible to use this information to establish
routes from node to node or place to place. Thus, if one wants to move from node 3 to node
1, we can locate the necessary connections in the database.

Now, "polygons" are defined by arcs. To define a given polygon, trace around its area in a
clockwise direction recording the component arcs and their orientations. If an arc has to be
followed in its reverse orientation to make the tracing, it is assigned a negative sign in the
database.

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Finally, for each arc, one records which polygon lies to the left and right side of its direction
of orientation. If an arc is on the edge of the study area, it is bounded by the "universe."

Now that this information has been recorded in the database, it is possible to pose questions
about connectivity and location. For example:
What polygons adjoin polygon A? To find the solution, we first look to see what arcs define
polygon A, then we check to see what other polygons are defined by these arcs in their
negative orientation.
What is the shortest route from node 3 to node 2? Trace all arc paths that lead from node 3
to node 2, sum their lengths by calculating distances from node list. Choose path with
shortest total length.
What polygon is directly across from polygon B along arc D? Search for the polygon that is
defined by the inverse (negative) of arc D.

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 4. GIS DATA CAPTURE AND EDITING
GIS data capture and editing means the identification, collection, digitization and correction
of errors for the data necessary in the building of a GIS database. This is the most expensive
and critical phase in GIS setup. Building a GIS database could take up to 5-10 times the cost
of hardware and software or 70-80% of the total cost.
The main sources of data for GIS are:
a) Analogue maps and plans;
b) Digital RS images
c) Surveying field notes
d) Aerial photographs
e) Tabular data e.g. census, rainfall, soils etc
f) GPS receivers
g) Direct import from other GIS systems.

When collecting data, collect only the data needed to provide for the information needs of
users as determined from user needs assessment. For cost effectiveness, go for the minimum
quality that will get the job done.

The GIS Data Capture Process

a) Data Identification: a user needs assessment is carried out in order to identify user
information needs. This helps identify the data required for their applications.
Subsequently, the appropriate data sources and their location are identified.
b) Analogue data collection: in many cases, a lot of the available data are in the form of
analogue maps. These maps are collected and evaluated as to their quality, completeness
and complexity. If acceptable, they may then be prepared for digitization. In large
projects, where maps will be digitized over a long time, maps should be stored in
optimum temperature and humidity conditions while awaiting digitization.

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c) Analogue Data Preparation: at this stage, the features to be digitized are chosen and
feature codes assigned to them. If necessary, they are highlighted for easy recognition.
The manuscript may also require reformatting to conform to the digitization method to be
used, e.g reduction in size, opaquing, cleaning etc.
d) Digitization and Editing: digitization is the conversion of analogue data to digital by a
variety of techniques. During editing, the digital data are displayed, checked and
corrected for errors. If no attribute data were entered during digitization, they are entered
at this stage.

Methods of Digitization
Vector format: manual digitizing; onscreen digitization
Raster format: manual gridding; scanning; video digitizing

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Manual Digitizing
This method uses a manual digitizer which consists of digitizing table and a host computer.
The digitizing table consists of a two layer magnetized wire mesh that is sandwiched between
a very flat top made of stable material and a metallic or plastic bottom. The electrical
connections are such that when the cursor button is pressed at any point on the table surface,
electrical impulses are sent to the control unit where they are interpreted versus digital table
coordinates of the cursor position relative to a defined origin on the table. The cursor must
have at least one button for coordinate registration but usually has more-4, 24 or 16 to server
various command and coding functions. A menu box is usually provided on the table. This
consists of a number of designated areas on the table where the activation of the cursor sends
a particular command e.g. „map mounting‟ or „digitizer configuration‟. The control unit
provides interface to the host computer, while the user terminal enables keyboard data and
command entry plus receipt of messages from the system.

Digitizing Software must be provided to enable activation/deactivation of the system,

definition of the area to be digitized, map mounting and general control of the digitizing
process. Map mounting involves the computation of transformation parameters between the
table and map coordinate systems via an affine transformation.

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Modes of Manual Digitizing
 Point Mode: the cursor is depressed at each characteristic point of a feature. It is the best
mode for optimal data volumes, but requires skilled operator to recognize characteristic
points.
 Stream Mode: coordinates are continually output at either equal time or equal distance
intervals in X and Y.
 Switch Stream Mode: coordinates are continually output as in stream mode but only when
the cursor button is depressed.
The stream modes place less strain on the operator but result in very high data volumes. In
the stream mode, distance constraint version, a feature may be under defined if it has many
undulations of small amplitude.
Blind digitizing involves digitizing where no results are immediately seen. The coordinate
are just stored. The digitized features can then be displayed later in a separate procedure. The
digitizing progress has therefore to be marked on the map.
Interactive digitizing involves digitized features being immediately echoed on the screen. It
is easier to follow the digitizing progress but the operator is under greater strain.

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Parameters for evaluating a digitizer
a) Table active area:
b) Resolution:
c) Repeatability:
d) Stability:
e) Accuracy:
f) Skew:
g) Data rate:
h) Band rate:
i) Price:

Advantages of manual digitizing

Comparatively cheap hardware/software
Well documented history of success
Operators easily trained.

Problems with manual digitizing

Slow progress for dense data e.g. contours
Operator stress and fatigue which deteriorates the quality of output.

Another method of manual digitizing that is common is the on-screen digitization. It entails
using a scanned map or image and displaying this on the screen and using a normal mouse,
the features of interest are picked and their locations recorded.

Digitization in the Raster Format

 Manual gridding;
 Scanning;
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 Video digitizing.

Scanning
It is an automatic method of digitization carried out using a scanner. The scanner senses the
binary grey tone or colour values of the analogue data and outputs them as a series of pixels
in parallel scan lines.
Scanners may be flat bed (document mounted on flat surface) or drum (document mounted on
drum surface). In both types, the actual scanning is done by a scanning head which is able to
sense reflected light (for opaque documents) or transmitted light (for transparent documents)
and to turn the light intensity into a pixel value.
Drum scanners occupy less space and are faster but are more expensive. Before scanning, the
document must be well prepared to ensure that line widths are resolvable, line separations
exceed pixel sizes and unwanted data are opaque out.

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Parameters for evaluating a Scanner
a) Scanner resolution: smallest image size sensible by scanner expressed in dpi (dots per
inch). The larger dpi the fine the resolution and the slower the scan and greater the data
volume and vice versa. Most scanners have a range of resolution of 100-200 dpi.
b) Maximum document size: modern large format scanners are drum.
c) Binary/grey tone/ colour capability: best scanners provide all the three capabilities.
d) Radiometric range: number of grey tone levels-the standard one is 256
e) Geometric accuracy: how much data is distorted by the scanning process?
f) Weight
g) Maximum document thickness: typically 3-5mm
h) Price.

Advantages of Scanning
1. Fast means of digitizing large or dense data formats
2. Process is largely automatic and puts minimum strain on operator
3. Output data can be easily integrated with satellite remotely sensed data.

Disadvantages of Scanning
1. High cost of hardware/software
2. Very intensive manuscript preparation
3. Selective digitizing impossible.

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GIS Data Editing
This is the process of detecting and correcting the errors introduced into data during the data
capture process. Editing may be carried out in two modes:
a. Batch mode;
b. Interactive mode.

Batch Mode
In this method, software is used to recognize and correct specific error condition in the whole
dataset at ago e.g. find and correct all undershoots and overshoots. The main advantages of
this mode are that errors of the sane type are corrected in bulk at speed and repeatedly. Batch
programmes can also be left to run during slack period e.g at night.

Interactive Mode
This is a mode in which small portions of the digitized graphic are edited at a time by the
issuance of appropriate edit commands. The advantages of this mode are:
a. It is the only way to correct error conditions that batch mode cannot handle
b. Immediate verification of corrections
c. Enables simultaneous digitizing and editing
The disadvantage is that it is very slow and repetitive.
Most modern GIS packages enable editing in both batch and interactive modes. A part from
the graphics, attributes and relationships may also need editing.

Common Editing Problems

Vector Data
 Polygon misclosures;
 Overshoots/undershoots;
 Polygon labels;
 Knots, backtracks, wild lines
 Slivers and gaps
 Map sheet combination
 Line generalization

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Raster Data
 Noise removal: uncharacteristic pixel values due to malfunctioning of system used to
collect data or some items that were in the dataset if not required. Removed by digital
filtering.
 Line thinning: making lines to be one pixel wide
 Gap removal: no pixel values due to malfunctioning of system-average corresponding
scan lines
 Stray pixel removal
 Re-assigning: giving pixels different values, happens when resampling
 Re-sampling: changing pixel size of the image

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