CURVE RANGING

Aims
After studying this chapter you should be able to:
 Differentiate between different types of circular and horizontal curves.
 Understand the terminology and geometry of circular curves
 Calculate through chainage values along the centre lines of circular curves
 Appreciate the design process
 Setout the centre lines of circular curves on site using a variety of different methods
 Choose the most appropriate method of setting out for different situations where circular
curves are used.

Horizontal curves
In the design of roads and railways, straight sections of roads or tracks are connected by curves
of constant or varying radius. The purpose of the curves is to deflect a vehicle traveling along
one of the straights safely and comfortably through angle θ to enable it to continue its journey
along the other straight. For this reason, θ is known as the deflection angle.

There are two main types of horizontal curves:

i. Circular curves
ii. Transition curves
Circular curves
Types of circular curves include:
a) Simple circular curves which consists of one arc of constant radius R, as shown in the
figure below. These are the most commonly used types of circular curves.

(a) Simple circular curve

b) Compound circular curves which consist of two or more consecutive simple circular
curves of different radii. Figure (b) shows a typical two- curve compound curve where a
curve of radius R1 joins a curve of radius R2. The objective of such curves is to avoid
certain points, the crossing of which would involve great expense and which cannot be
avoided by a simple circular curve.
 (b) Compound curve
c) Reverse circular curves consist of two consecutive curves of different radii without any
intervening straight section and with their centers of curvature falling on opposite sides of
their common tangent point.

(c) Reverse curve

Terminology used in circular curves

Geometry of Circular curve

Some of the terms and symbols commonly used in circular curve geometry are defined as
follows:
 I is the intersection point
 TPU is a circular curve
 Length of the circular curve = LC
 T and U are the tangent points
 TI and UI are the tangent lengths
 P is the mid- point of the circular curve TPU
 Long chord = TSU
 S is the mid – point of the long chord TSU
 Deflection angle = θ = external angle at I = angle CIU
 Intersection angle = (180º - θ) = internal angle at I = TIU
 Radius of curvature of the circular curve = R
 Centre of curvature of the circular curve = O
 Q is any point on the circular curve TPU
 The mid- ordinate of the circular curve = PS
 Radius angle = angle TOU = deflection angle CIU = θ
 External distance = PI

Useful lengths
From the geometry of the circular curve, the following formulae can be derived for use in the
design and setting out procedures:
Tangent lengths IT and IU: in triangle IUO
    IU  
tan     IU  IT  R tan  
2 R 2
External distance PI: in triangle IUO
  R  
cos    IO  R sec 
 2  IO 2
But PI=OI-OP=OI-R
 
PI  R sec   R
2
Mid-ordinate PS: in triangle TSO
   OS  
cos    OS  R cos 
 2  OT 2
 
But PS=OP-OS= R  R cos 
2
Long chord TU: in triangle USO
   US US
sin    
 2  UO R
But TU=US + TS and US=TS
 
 TU  2 R sin  
2
For a curve of radius R
LC  R , where R is in metres and θ is in radians

Relationships:

Consider two points X and Y along the length of curve TU. The following relationships can be
identified:
 1. The tangential angle α, at T to any point, X, on the curve TU, is equal to half the angle
subtended at the center of curvature, O, by the chord from T to that point.
2. The tangential angle β, at any point, X, on the curve to any point, Y, on the curve is equal
to half the angle subtended at the centre by the chord between the two point.
3. The tangential angle to any point on the curve is equal to the sum of the tangential angles
from each chord up to that point i.e. ITY = (α+β)

Through chainage
Through chainage, which is often just referred to as chainage, is simply a distance and is usually
given in metres. It is a measure of the length from the starting point of the scheme to the
particular point in question and is used in road, railway, pipeline and tunnel and canal
construction as a means of referencing any point on the centre line.

Chainage along a circular curve

The figure above shows a circular curve, of length LC and radius R running between two tangent
points T and U, which occurs in the centre line of a new road. Chainage increases along the
centre line and is measured from the point Z at which the new construction begins. Z is known as
the position of zero chainage.

Chainage continues to increase from Z along the centre line until a curve tangent point such as T
is reached. At T, the chainage can continue to increase in two directions, either along the curve
(that is, from T towards U) or along the straight (that is, from T along the line TI produced).
Hence intersection point I and tangent points T and U can all have chainage values.

Tangent point T is known as the entry tangent point because it is the point at which the curve is
entered in the direction of increasing chainage and tangent point U is known as the exit tangent
point because it is the point at which the curve is exited in the direction of increasing chainage

If the chainage of the intersection point, I is known and the curve is then designed, the chainages
of tangent points T and U, which both lie on the centre line, can be found as follows with
reference to the figure of the geometry of a circular curve.
  Through chainage of T = through chainage of I – IT
 Through chainage of U = through chainage of T + LC

DESIGN OF CIRCULAR CURVES

In circular curve design there are three main variables: the deflection angle θ, the radius of the
curve R and the design speed ν. All new roads are designed for a particular speed and the
chosen value depends on the road type and location of the proposed road. Design speeds for
particular classes of roads are normally specified by the particular country’s Ministry in charge
of Road works. Therefore, v will always be known which leaves θ and R to be determined.

R is chosen with reference to design values which are also stipulated by the department of
transport. A minimum value of R is chosen which meets safety measures for the design speed of
the road. If a radius value below the minimum is used, it is necessary to incorporate transition
curves into the design.

θ is determined and should be measured accurately in the field before design begins. The design
is completed by calculating the super-elevation required for the curve.

Nowadays, roads are almost invariably designed using software packages with values of θ and R
being input and amended as necessary until a suitable design is finalized. Occasionally hand
designs are still undertaken. In these, the straights are drawn on a plan of the area and the initial
value for θ is obtained by measuring it from the drawing.

During the design process, an initial radius value, greater that the minimum without transitions is
chosen. If a software package is being used, it automatically calculates the tangent lengths and
fits them onto the map. If a hand design is being perfomed, the tangent lengths should be
calculated and fitted on the drawing by measuring along the straights from the intersection point.
If there are no problems with this fit, this initial design can be used; otherwise a new radius value
is chosen and a new fit obtained. Once θ and R have been finalized the setting out of the centre
line onsite can begin.

Setting out circular curves

Methods of setting out
 Traditional methods, which involve working along the centre line itself using the
straights, intersection points and tangent points for reference. The equipment required to
carry out these methods can include tapes and theodolites.
 Coordinate methods, which use control networks as reference. These networks take the
form of control points located on site some distance away from the centre line for use
with theodolites, total stations or GPS receivers.
Coordinate methods have virtually superseded traditional ones for all major curve setting out
operations for a number of reasons:
1. Total stations and GPS equipments are increasingly being used for setting out purposes.
2. The almost universal adoption of highway design software packages which are invariably
based on coordinate methods, has eliminated the tedious nature of the calculations
involved in such methods and enables setting out data to be produced in a form ready for
immediate use by total stations and GPS receivers.
3. Coordinate methods have the advantage that relocating centre line pegs, which have been
disturbed, is much easier to carry out than by traditional methods.

Setting out circular curves by traditional methods.

The first step is to locate the intersection and tangent points on site. These must be set out very
precisely since they form the basis of any subsequent setting out.
Locating the intersection and the tangent points
1. Intersection point accessible

Procedure:
1. Locate the two straights AC and BD and define them on the ground using at least two
pegs on each straight. Use nails in the tops of the pegs to define the straight lines
precisely.
2. Set up a theodolite over the nail in a peg on one of the straights (say AC) and sight the
nail in another peg on this line so that the theodolite telescope is pointing in the direction
of the intersection point I.
3. Drive in two traditional pegs x and y on the straight AC such that straight BD will
intersect the line xy. Again, use nails in the tops of pegs x and y to define the straight AC
precisely.
4. Join the nails in the tops of pegs x and y using a string line.
5. Move the theodolite and set it up over the nail in the top of one of the pegs on straight
BD. Sight the nail in the top of another peg on BD so that the telescope is again pointing
towards I.
 6. Fix the position of I by driving in a peg where the line of sight from the theodolite on BD
intersects the string line xy. Again, define I precisely using a nail in the top of the peg.
7. Move the theodolite to I and measure angle AIB. Calculate the deflection angle, θ, from θ
= 180˚ - angle AIB.
 
8. Calculate tangent lengths IT and IU using R tan   .
2
9. Fix tangent points T and U by measuring back along the straights from I, either using
tapes or a total station, allowing for the slope of the ground. Drive in pegs and mark the
exact positions of T and U using nails in the tops of the pegs.
10. Check the setting out by measuring angle ITU, which should equal θ/2.

2. Intersection point inaccessible

Sometimes to the intersection point is inaccessible; for example, it may fall on a very steep
hillside, in marshy ground or in a lake or a river.

Procedure:

1. Choose points A and B somewhere on the straights such that it is possible to sight from A
to B and from B to A and also to measure AB.
2. Measure AB
3. Measure angles  and β, calculate  from  = 180º - (  + β) and obtain θ, either from
θ= (180º-  ) or θ = (  + β).
 Use the Sine Rule to calculate IA and IB.
 
 Calculate IT and IU using R tan  
2
 Using AT = IA- IT and BU = IB – IU, set out T from A and U from B. If A and B were
chosen to be on the other side of T and U then AT and BU will have negative values.
 
 If possible, measure angle ITU as a check- ( it should equal   )
2
Method 1: The tangential angles method
This is the most accurate of the traditional methods and it can be used for any circular curve.
Angles  1 ,  2 &  3 are tangential angles.

An assumption is made that arc TK = chord TK if the chord ≤ (R/20)

Therefore, length of the chord TK is given by R2  1 (  1 in radians)
Converting radians to degrees and rearranging gives
 TK  180 
1     Degrees
 2 R   
Similarly
 KL  180 
2     Degrees
 2 R   
And
 LM  180 
3     Degrees
 2 R   
 chordlength  90 
In general      Degrees
 R   
Procedure
1. Determine the total length of the curve
2. Select a suitable chord length ≤ (R/20), for example, 10m or 20m. This will leave a sub-
chord at the end and it is usually necessary to have an initial sub- chord in order to ensure
that pegs are placed on the centre line at exact multiples of through chainage.
 3. A series of tangential angles is obtained from the equations above. Only three tangential
angles need to be calculated (since all chords except the first and the last will be equal )–
one for the initial sub- chord, one for a general chord length (say 20m) and one for a final
sub- chord
The results are normally tabulated before setting out the curve on site. This would show
cumulative tangential angles and individual chord lengths against chainage

Setting out using a theodolite and a tape

1. In this method, the tangent points are fixed and the theodolite is set up at one of them,
preferably the one from which the curve swings to the right. This ensures that the
tangential angles set on the horizontal circle will increase from 0.
2. The intersection point I is sighted and the horizontal circle is set to read zero.
3. The theodolite is rotated so that the tangential angle  1 for the first chord TK is set on the
horizontal circle.
4. The first chord TK is then set out by lining in the tape with the theodolite along this
direction and marking off the length of the chord from the tangent point. The chord
lengths derived in the calculations are considered in the horizontal plane; therefore the
chord length being set out must either be corrected for slope or stepped as required. Once
the first point has been located a peg and a nail are used to mark the precise position of K.
5. The telescope is then turned until the horizontal circle gives a reading of (  1 +  2 )-i.e.
pointing from T towards L. Using the tape, the chord length KL is measured to locate the
position of L. A peg and a nail are used to precisely mark this position.
6. The procedure is repeated for all the other points to be fixed on the curve until point U is
set out. In each case the cumulative angle from the tangent point T with reference to the
tangent line TI is set on the theodolite, but the chord length measured is the individual
length from the previous peg fixed on the curve.

Setting out using two theodolites

This method is used when the ground between the tangent points is of such a nature that taping
becomes difficult.
Two theodolites are used, one being set at each tangent point. In the figure above, to fix point X,
α is set out from T relative to IT and (360-θ/2 + α) is set out from U relative to UI. The two lines
of sight intersect at X where a peg should be driven. Other points along the curve are set out in a
similar way.

Method 2: Setting out by Offset methods

Offsets from the tangent length
It is suitable for short curves and it may be used to set out additional points between those
previously established by the tangential angles method. Consider the figure below:

In this method, the offset X at a known distance Y along the tangent from T to the curve is
required.
In triangle OBC
OB2 =OC2 +BC2
R2 =(R-X) 2 +Y2
X =R-√ (R2-Y2)
OR
R2 =R2 -2RX + X2 + Y2
Y2   X 2 
Dividing through by 2R gives X      
 2R   2R 
But the 2nd term in the above equation will be very small since R is very large compared to X and
therefore it can be neglected to give
Y 2 
X   
 2R 
However this equation is accurate only for large radii curves and will give errors for small radii
curves where the effect of neglecting the 2nd term cannot be justified.

Offsets from the long chord

This method is suitable for curves of small radius and is very useful when the triangle lengths are
inaccessible.
In this method all offsets are established from the mid-point F of the long chord TU. Let the
length of chord TU be W, see figure below:

In triangle TFO
OT2 = OF2 + TF2
R2 = (R –Xm) 2 + (W/2)2
(R-Xm) =√ [R2 – (W/2)2]
Xm = R - √ [R2-(W/2)2]…………………………………………………..(i)
In triangle ODE
OD2 = OE2 + DE2
R2 = (OF +X) 2 +Y2
(OF +X) 2 = √ [R2 –Y2]
But OF= (R-Xm), therefore substituting Xm from equation (i) we get
OF = √ [R2 – (W/2)2]
Hence X = √ (R2-Y2) – (R2-(W/2)2]

Once the tangent points are fixed, the long chord can be defined and point F established. The
offsets are then calculated at regular intervals from point F along FT secondly along FU. The
corresponding X offsets are then measured at night angles from the long chord in order to set out
the curve.

Method 3: Setting out methods involving co-ordinates

This is the method commonly used. National grid or local coordinates of points on the curve are
calculated and these points are then fixed by either Intersection (from 2 control points around the
scheme) or bearing and distance (polar rays) method.
Procedure:
 Locate T and U (as discussed previously)
 Obtain coordinates of T and U ( by either intersection or traversing )
 Calculate chord length TX, XY, YU and the respective tangential angles.
 Calculate the bearings TX, XY and hence the coordinates of points X and Y.
 Set out the points and hence the curve.

Advantages of using coordinates

 The setting out can be done by anyone who is capable of using a theodolite, knowledge
of curve design is not necessary.
 The construction work can proceed undisturbed since there is no need to set the
theodolite at the tangent points
 Any disturbed pegs can quickly be relocated from the traverse stations.
 Each point on the curve is fixed independently hence chances of error accumulating from
one point to the next are eliminated
 Key sections of the curve can be set out in isolation e.g. a bridge centre line so that work
can progress in more than one area of the site.
 Obstacles can be by passed
 During construction, it is necessary to relocate the centerline several times as the various
stages in the operation are reached. This is easily achieved using traverse station.

Disadvantages
1. There is very little check on the final setting out. Large errors will be noticed when the
curve does not take the required shape but small errors could pass unnoticed.
2. Often long distances are involved in the polar ray’ method. If only tapes are available,
accurate measurement can be difficult to achieve however the introduction of EDM has
eased this problem.
Note: Of the several methods discussed, the one finally chosen depends on the project involved.
Tangential angles methods and methods involving coordinates are in common use owing to their
greater accuracy. Offset methods are used for less important curves e.g. minor roads, kerb lines,
boundary walls, housing estates etc.