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Workplace and family support and work–life balance:

Implications for individual psychological availability
and energy at work
a b c
Marcello Russo , Anat Shteigman & Abraham Carmeli
a
Kedge Business School, Bordeaux, France
b
Bank Hapoalim, Tel Aviv, Israel
c
Faculty of Management, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
Published online: 07 Apr 2015.
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To cite this article: Marcello Russo, Anat Shteigman & Abraham Carmeli (2015): Workplace and family support and work–life
balance: Implications for individual psychological availability and energy at work, The Journal of Positive Psychology:
Dedicated to furthering research and promoting good practice, DOI: 10.1080/17439760.2015.1025424

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 The Journal of Positive Psychology, 2015
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2015.1025424

Workplace and family support and work–life balance: Implications for individual
psychological availability and energy at work
Marcello Russoa*, Anat Shteigmanb and Abraham Carmelic
a
Kedge Business School, Bordeaux, France; bBank Hapoalim, Tel Aviv, Israel; cFaculty of Management, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv,
Israel
(Received 6 October 2014; accepted 4 February 2015)

This study presents three studies that explore the ways in which multiple support sources (workplace and family social
support) help individuals to experience work–life balance (WLB) and thereby develop a sense psychological availability
and positive energy at work. We examine this serial mediation model across three population groups in Israel using
time-lagged data from part-time students (sample 1), as well cross-sectional data from workers in the industrial sector
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(sample 2) and physicians in public hospitals (sample 3). The results indicate a complex process in which workplace
and family support augment employee positive energy through WLB and psychological availability. The findings shed
light on the importance of support from work and nonwork sources for the pursuit of employees to achieve balance in
the spheres of work and life and suggest that the WLB helps in the development of psychological availability and
augmenting employee positive energy.
Keywords: work–life balance; workplace support; family support; energy; psychological availability

Introduction 2007) and adopt a processual approach that allows a

Work–life balance (WLB) is attracting increasing schol- more nuanced understanding of the process by which
arly attention for its potential to advance positive out- WLB may influence behavioral outcomes (Carlson,
comes for both individuals and organizations Kacmar, Grzywacz, Tepper, & Whitten, 2013; Gröpel &
(Beauregard & Henry, 2009; Greenhaus & Allen, 2011; Kuhl, 2009).
Greenhaus & Kossek, 2014; Greenhaus, Ziegert, & In this study, using three separate samples (part-time
Allen, 2012; Kossek, Valcour, & Lirio, 2014). However, students, workers in the industrial sector and physicians
research on WLB has remained relatively underdevel- in a public hospital), we develop and test a mediation
oped (Greenhaus & Allen, 2011; Valcour, 2007). Specifi- model – presented in Figure 1 – wherein we hypothesize
cally, studies on the individual and the contextual factors that perceptions of receiving social support both at work
influencing WLB and on positive outcomes associated and in the home domain may help individuals to achieve
with greater WLB have been relatively slow to accumu- greater WLB, which in turn engenders positive energy at
late (Greenhaus & Allen, 2011; Maertz & Boyar, 2011). work through psychological availability. Notably, in this
Furthermore, while some studies have begun to explore study, we focus on WLB rather than on work–family
the impact of work-related and family-related factors on balance to respond to the aforementioned claim and to
work–family balance (i.e., Ferguson, Carlson, Zivnuska, consider in this way a broader array of individual cir-
& Whitten, 2012; Greenhaus, Collins, & Shaw, 2003), cumstances. We draw on conservation of resource (COR)
only limited attention has been given to the broader con- theory (Hobfoll, 1989) to develop our theorizing about
cept of WLB. This is unfortunate as we need to consider why and how receiving social support at work and in the
people’s broader interests in life that can include other home domain can help employees in achieving greater
roles rather than family, including sport, leisure and WLB and thereby developing a sense psychological
community roles (Hall, Kossek, Briscoe, Pichler, & Lee, availability and engendering positive energy at work.
2013). Finally, we have yet to develop a fuller under- This study attempts to contribute to the literature in
standing about the processes linking role balance to posi- at least three ways. First, we focus on the link between
tive outcomes for individuals needs further development. WLB and individuals’ positive energy at work, a subject
This is particularly important considering that scholars of inquiry that has thus far received only limited atten-
have called for studies that go beyond examining a direct tion (Sanz-Vergel, Demerouti, Moreno-Jiménez, & Mayo,
relationship between role balance and individual out- 2010), but is fundamental given research suggesting that
comes (Ferguson et al., 2012; Virick, Lilly, & Casper, positive energy at work is vital for optimal functioning

*Corresponding author. Email: marcello.russo@kedgebs.com

© 2015 Taylor & Francis

 2 M. Russo et al.
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Figure 1. The research model.

Note: The model was tested across the three studies independently.

(Cole, Bruch, & Vogel, 2012; Spreitzer, Porath, & individual’s life, which is unique for each person
Gibson, 2012; Spreitzer, Sutcliffe, Dutton, Sonenshein, (Kossek et al., 2014) and that can vary throughout the
& Grant, 2005). Second, our study also contributes to course of people’s life according to their career or life
the literature by shedding light on the process by which stage and that depends upon an individual’s life values,
social support from work and home sources drives indi- goals, and aspirations (Greenhaus & Allen, 2011). It is
vidual’s feelings of positive energy at work. Specifically, important to note that WLB is a concept relevant for all
we expand on Kahn’s (1990) theory on psychological working people, regardless of their life and family cir-
conditions for one’s engagement in a particular behavior cumstances (i.e. also for single, childless employees
to suggest that WLB makes employees more psychologi- without other care-taking responsibilities) since it cap-
cally available such that they develop positive energy at tures the individual’s capacity of doing well the things
work. In so doing, we elaborate theory on WLB as a they care about (Kossek et al., 2014). Drawing on this
key mechanism for increasing people’s perception of conceptualization, in the next sections, we develop our
being psychologically available to engage in multiple theorizing regarding the role of multiple social support
roles, which unleashes the positive energy that allows for the development of WLB across different groups of
people to meet multiple life demands successfully. Third, individuals who are at different stages in their profes-
by drawing on three distinct samples, including part-time sional life. Notably, given that prior research is largely
students and full-time employees working in different dominated by studies on work–family balance, we rely
type of organizations (private and public), our study and draw a parallelism with this literature to build our
highlights the importance of WLB and its potential reasoning.
benefits for a wide range of people at different life and
career stages and employed in different occupations and
industries. Multiple support sources and WLB
Social support refers to the extent to which employees
believe that others in their social environment value their
Theoretical background and hypotheses contribution and care about their global well-being
Work–life balance (Kottke & Sharafinski, 1988). Social support theorists
Consistent with recent work (e.g., Greenhaus & Allen, (Cohen & Wills, 1985) posit that supportive relationships
2011; Haar, Russo, Suñe, & Ollier-Malaterre, 2014; promote individuals’ well-being as they increase their
Maertz & Boyar, 2011; Valcour, 2007), we conceptualize capacity to cope constructively with life adversities. The
WLB as an individual’s perception of how well his or presence of supportive relationships can provide people
her life roles are balanced. This definition is grounded access to valuable resources such as empathy, assistance,
on the person-centered approach that conceives WLB to advice, aid, and information that are helpful to navigate
be an holistic concept, embracing all regions of an life challenges (Eisenberger, Armeli, Rexwinkel, Lynch,
 The Journal of Positive Psychology 3

& Rhoades, 2001; Hammer, Kossek, Yragui, Bodner, & resources that favor the attainment of the things they
Hanson, 2009; Kossek, Pichler, Bodner, & Hammer, value (Hobfoll, 1989). Workplace support has been
2011). In work–life research, scholars have demonstrated shown to be a crucial contextual resource that can help
that work and family social support are related to posi- employees to accomplish the things they value, including
tive work and family outcomes, including low work– greater WLB (Aryee et al., 2005; Ferguson et al., 2012;
family conflict and high work–family enrichment (Aryee, Greenhaus et al., 2012). This is likely to happen for two
Srinivas, & Tan, 2005; Ferguson et al., 2012; Greenhaus main reasons: first, workplace social support can promote
et al., 2012; Hammer, Kossek, Zimmerman, & Daniels, greater WLB by providing employees with valuable
2007; Wayne, Randel, & Stevens, 2006). However, there resources that facilitate the accomplishment of work and
are few studies that have empirically demonstrated the nonwork commitments. For example, workplace social
link between social support and WLB. In this study, we support may manifest in the allowance of a flexible work
shed light on the importance of examining multiple schedule that can enable an employee to meet success-
sources of social support for cultivating WLB and the fully both his or her work and nonwork responsibilities
implications for facilitating psychological availability and (Hammer et al., 2009). This can be exerted by supervi-
engendering positive energy at work. sors who allow a more flexible work system for their
subordinates as well as by organizational members who
offer their help to an employee who is in need for assis-
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Perceived workplace support tance. Second, workplace social support can nurture opti-
Perceived workplace support reflects the employees’ per- mal psychological and environmental conditions for
ception of how much their organization signal a sense employees who may feel safer and more capable to
appreciation for their contribution and care for their invest in activities that promote greater WLB. In sup-
well-being (Eisenberger, Huntington, Hutchison, & portive organizations, employees feel freer to devote
Sowa, 1986). Notably, prior studies within the area of time, energy and other personal resources to the accom-
work–life have demonstrated that the perception of plishment of both work and nonwork activities, which
receiving social support at work is more important than enhance their perception to experience WLB. Further-
the formal presence of family–friendly policies to pro- more, in supportive organizations, employees also feel
mote positive work–life outcomes (Allen, 2001; Ayman encouraged to look for advices and concrete aid among
& Antani, 2008; Thompson & Prottas, 2006). Social sup- coworkers and supervisors on how to manage personal
port may be broadly defined as ‘the availability of help- issues, resulting in an enhanced capacity to experience
ing relationships and the quality of those relationships’ role balance. Thus,
(Leavy, 1983, p. 5). In work organizations, employees
form such social relationships with other organizational Hypothesis 1a: Perceived workplace social support will
members as well as their direct supervisors. Thus, we be positively related to WLB.
conceptualize workplace support as a composite concept
that captures support from both the organization and its Perceived family support
members in general and direct supervisors.
Implementing family-friendly programs has been Perceived family support refers to people’s perceptions
shown to be a necessary but not sufficient condition to of how family members feel concerned and committed
promoting positive work–life outcomes (Allen, 2001; to the family unit and support each other (King,
Lapierre & Allen, 2006). This because if an organization Mattimore, King, & Adams, 1995). Similar to workplace
is not perceived as supportive, employees will not be social support, family can offer both instrumental and
inclined to use family-friendly programs to avoid the emotional support. Instrumental family social support
negative repercussions, such as the slowing down of the refers to the various tangible forms of help that family
career, which are very often linked to the use of such members may provide each other to favor their daily
benefits (Kossek et al., 2011; Lobel & Kossek, 1996). tasks, whereas emotional family support refers to the
Scholars have demonstrated that work social support can things that family members do to make the others feel
derive from different sources, including co-workers, cared (Adams, King, & King, 1996). The importance of
supervisors and/or the whole organization, and is com- family social support in experiencing positive work and
posed of different dimensions, such as instrumental sup- nonwork outcomes has been demonstrated in several
port, emotional support, role modeling, and creative studies, particularly in its relation to work–family facil-
work–family management (Cohen & Wills, 1985; itation (Aryee et al., 2005), work–family conflict
Hammer et al., 2009; House, 1981). We rely on CORs (Griggs, Casper, & Eby, 2013; Wallace, 2005), effective
theory (Hobfoll, 1989) to build our rationale linking coping with life stressors (Grzywacz & Marks, 2000)
work social support to greater WLB. COR theorizes that and improved performance in all areas of life (ten
individuals struggle to acquire, maintain and protect the Brummelhuis, Haar, & Roche, 2014). To our knowledge,
 4 M. Russo et al.

only a handful of studies that has examined the link individuals because those who achieve such balance tend
between family social support and work–family balance to develop a sense of harmony and fullness in life that
(Ferguson et al., 2012). Ferguson et al. (2012) have derive from reaching consistency between the actual and
found that perceiving social support from the partner can desired life situation (Clark, 2000; Greenhaus & Allen,
increase employees’ capacity to experience role balance 2011; Greenhaus et al., 2003; Marks & MacDermid,
as the partner provides an invaluable aid to the focal 1996). This has positive implications for their energy
actor to accomplish work and family goals. since those who live harmonic life are likely to experi-
Following previous studies (Griggs et al., 2013), we ence optimal mental, physical and environmental condi-
assume that receiving social support from the partner can tions to flourish and increase their sense of vitality.
provide to the focal actor with important instrumental Second, we suggest that people who find harmony in
and emotional resources that make it easier for him/her their life tend to ponder less on negative and consuming
the attainment of meaningful life goals and aspirations. thoughts related, for example, to their (in)capacity to
For example, a partner can keep the moral up in the fam- cope with multiple role demands and live a life that does
ily domain when the focal actor is experiencing bad not align well with their values and aspirations; thoughts
mood or illness and/or provide him or her encourage- that have been demonstrated to deplete people’s physical
ment and concrete aid in cultivating his/her personal life and mental energy (Rothbard, 2001). Conversely, people
interests and passions. For illustrative purposes, consider who live an unbalanced life are more likely to devote a
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the case of a partner who decide to take on himself or significant amount of mental and physical resources to
herself the majority of household tasks in one or more deal with work–life tensions; these efforts often make
days of the week to let the focal actor train for an impor- them feel depleted and worn out (Quinn, 2007). Thus,
tant sport competition or who supports him or her in the
decision to enroll in college for updating his or her Hypothesis 2: WLB will be positively related to employ-
human capital and obtain a bachelor’s degree. In con- ees’ positive energy.
trast, a person who does not receive family support from
his or her partner is likely to experience psychological Social support, WLB, and psychological availability
distress, bad moods and a depletion of physical and psy-
chological resources when seeking to accomplish both We theorize, however, that the linkage between multiple
work and nonwork life goals and aspirations, resulting in foci of social support, WLB and employee positive
a lower capacity to accomplish WLB. In sum, family energy is more complex. Specifically, we suggest that
social support allows an actor to build on his or her part- psychological availability, which is defined as a ‘sense
ner to develop more positive experiences in multiple of having the physical, emotional, or psychological
roles. Thus, resources to personally engage at a particular moment’
(Kahn, 1990, p. 714), plays a mediating role such that
Hypothesis 1b: Perceived family social support will be work and nonwork social support helps engendering
positively related to WLB. employee energy through WLB and psychological avail-
ability. Psychological availability captures the individ-
uals’ readiness to engage in a specific role despite the
WLB and employee positive energy distractions caused by the participation in other roles
Energy is ‘the feeling that one is eager to act and cap- (Binyamin & Carmeli, 2010). We argue that WLB
able of acting’ (Quinn & Dutton, 2005, p. 36). Energy is enables employees to feel more psychologically available
a key motivational force that bears positive implications for two reasons: First, we believe that people who live a
for both individuals and organizations (Cole et al., 2012; harmonic life experience optimal psycho-physiological
Dutton, 2003). Energy can either be a temporary emo- conditions that make them more psychologically avail-
tional state that results from particular life events or a able to engage in multiple roles. This is because people
longer-lasting mood that is not specifically related to any who live harmonic life may develop perceptions of hav-
event (Quinn & Dutton, 2005). Energy allows for a posi- ing more resources at their disposal, including social
tive process of personal growth and helps individuals to support from both work and family, to meet the specific
realize their potential (Clawson & Haskins, 2000) and situation demands associated with the activities per-
enhance their level of engagement in life. With some formed in multiple roles (Kahn, 1990; May, Gilson, &
notable exceptions (Sanz-Vergel et al., 2010), current Harter, 2004). Second, people who live harmonic life
work–life research has directed limited attention to the tend experience a higher degree of internal consistency
study of the effects of WLB on energy. because they believe to live life that aligns with their
In this study, we theorize that WLB is likely to system of values and their aspirations (Greenhaus &
engender positive energy at work. First, experiencing Allen, 2011), thus making them more resourceful to
WLB is likely to increase the level of energy among engage in particular roles. In particular, psychological
 The Journal of Positive Psychology 5

availability is linked to one’s self-image (Kahn, 1990) in Study 2, we surveyed employees in the industrial
and thus experiencing this alignment is likely to enhance sector; and in Study 3, we surveyed physicians. The nat-
their self-image and drive feelings of being psychologi- ure of work and the different characteristics of each
cally available to more fully engage in work behaviors. group increase the generalizability of the research.
Conversely, when there is a misalignment between their
current self-image and the desired one, individuals
become distracted which diminish their capacity to Sample and procedure
engage in particular roles. Thus, In Study 1, we asked 250 students to participate in a
study which was described as aimed at examined their
Hypothesis 3: WLB will mediate the relationships experiences at work and in life. Respondents were stu-
between perceived work and family support and psycho- dents who worked in organizations and, at the same
logical availability.
time, were also attending the last year of their degree at
an institution of higher education in Israel. We asked
WLB, psychological availability, and positive energy them to fill in a structured survey at two different points
in time during the academic year. No incentive was
Finally, we suggest that psychological availability
given to students. The first survey was administered at
mediates the relationship between WLB and positive
the beginning of the first semester administered 18 weeks
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energy at work. We reason that WLB fosters greater

later, early in the second semester, to allow enough time
psychological availability, which in turn increases indi-
between the two waves. This time-lagged data collection
viduals’ level energy. We argue that greater WLB fos-
using the same survey enabled us to test for stability,
ters higher levels of psychological availability as WLB
consistency and validity of the findings over time. We
contributes to increasing people’s arsenal of resources
received usable surveys from 216 students (a response
and increasing their capacity to engage successfully in
rate of 86.4%) in the first wave. We then asked the 216
multiple roles. We believe that this in turn enhances
students, using a personal code to preserve participants’
their energy because the participation in multiple roles
anonymity, to complete the second survey and received
may help reducing the self-focused attention – that is
88 usable surveys that could be matched with those of
typical of people who are highly focused only on one
Time 1. This corresponded to a response rate of 41%.
region of their life – and which has been shown to
The surveys were distributed on the same day of the
deplete people’s energy (Rothbard, 2001). When indi-
week to reduce potential instrumentation bias. Fifty-four
viduals are centered exclusively on one region of their
percent of students were female; the average age of the
life, they tend to ponder longer on all the role-related
students and their tenure in their organizations were 30
issues, may feel unease about other people’s judgments
(s.d. 6.19) and 5.4 years (s.d. 4.86), respectively. This
and feel worn out (Nolen-Hoeksema, 2000). Instead,
group reported on an average of 8.81 h of work per day
people who live a more harmonic life and who are
(s.d. 1.72).
more psychologically available to invest in multiple
In Study 2, we accessed five industrial organizations
roles can develop an outward focus that makes them
and asked the Director of Human Resources Manage-
more inclined to engage fully in life and appreciate
ment for permission to survey their employees. Follow-
what work and nonwork (family, sport, or community)
ing a presentation to the HR Director and other
roles can offer. This is likely to engender positive
executives in which we explained the research goals and
energy as the outward focus may counteracts the self-
assured anonymity and confidentiality, we obtained per-
focused attention that is responsible for low energy
mission to conduct the survey. We received a list of
(Clayton, Thomas, Singh, & Winkel, 2014; Rothbard,
employees from each organization and administered and
2001). Thus,
collected the surveys on site. Overall, we obtained 238
Hypothesis 4: Psychological availability will mediate the usable surveys, for a response rate of 90%. 58% of
relationships between WLB and employees’ positive employees were female; the average age of the partici-
energy. pants and their tenure in the organization were 39 (s.d.
8.87) and 13 years (s.d. 8.26), respectively. These
employees reported on an average of 8.99 h of work per
Method day (s.d. 1.14).
We recruited participants in different settings, who have In Study 3, we asked physicians from two public
different life and career situations and can be a better hospitals to complete the survey. This occupational
presentation of the population, and thus provide a more group of employees reports a high level of workload
robust examination of our model of WLB across the which entails difficulties in allocating time and effort
three studies. Specifically, we sampled three groups of between work and family. After obtaining permission
populations. In Study 1, we surveyed part-time students; from the Directors of Human Resources Management of
 6 M. Russo et al.

Table 1a. Study 1 (part-time students).

Mean SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
(1) Gender – – –
(2) Age 29.58 6.19 0.03 –
(3) Education 3.00 – – – –
(4) Tenure 5.42 4.85 −0.01 0.66*** – –
(5) Perceived workplace support 4.78 1.27 −0.11 0.05* – 0.07 –
(6) Perceived family support 6.13 0.81 0.00 −0.10 – −0.15* 0.27*** –
(7) Work–life balance 3.31 0.84 −0.13* −0.11 – −0.10 0.26*** 0.18** –
(8) Psychological availability 4.31 0.56 −0.03 −0.07 – −0.06 0.18** 0.16** 0.31*** –
(9) Employee energy 3.10 0.93 −0.00 0.18** – 0.15* 0.68*** 0.11* 0.27*** 0.23*** –
Notes: Correlations, means, and standard deviations. N = 88.
***p < 0.001; **p < 0.01; *p < 0.05.

Table 1b. Study 2 (industrial workers).

Mean SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
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(1) Gender – – –
(2) Age 38.62 8.87 0.02** –
(3) Education 3.20 0.85 0.10 0.23*** –
(4) Tenure 13.31 8.25 0.16* 0.74*** 0.08 –
(5) Perceived workplace support 4.63 1.10 −0.15* −0.05 −0.17* −0.04 –
(6) Perceived family support 6.02 0.80 −0.06 −0.26*** −0.11 −0.19** 0.38*** –
(7) Work–life balance 3.61 0.79 −0.18** 0.14* −0.08 0.08 0.32*** 0.21*** –
(8) Psychological availability 4.35 0.48 −0.02 0.07 −0.10 0.05 0.30*** 0.33*** 0.27*** –
(9) Employee energy 3.26 0.86 −0.04 0.08 −0.00 0.13* 0.51*** 0.25*** 0.33*** 0.30*** –
Notes: Correlations, means, and standard deviations. N = 238.
***p < 0.001; **p < 0.01; *p < 0.05.

Table 1c. Study 3 (physicians).

Mean SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
(1) Gender – – –
(2) Age 45.12 10.24 −.14 –
(3) Education 6.07 0.59 −0.10 0.11 –
(4) Tenure 13.31 9.45 −0.05 0.80*** 0.03 –
(5) Perceived workplace support 4.49 1.28 −0.12 0.15 0.13 0.03 –
(6) Perceived family support 6.40 0.70 −0.00 −0.04 −0.02 −0.03 0.18* –
(7) Work–life balance 2.64 0.87 0.12 0.28*** −0.11 0.21* 0.41*** 0.22** –
(8) Psychological availability 4.35 0.49 −0.07 0.24** 0.03 0.10 0.32*** 0.27** 0.38*** –
(9) Employee energy 3.30 0.84 −0.02 0.35*** 0.09 0.21* 0.43*** 0.19* 0.40*** 0.40*** –
Notes: Correlations, means, and standard deviations. N = 142.
***p < 0.001; **p < 0.01; *p < 0.05.

the two hospitals, we administered and collected the sur- English to ensure that the content was accurately repre-
veys during several visits to the hospitals. We collected sented in the Hebrew items. The items were all anchored
144 usable surveys, for a response rate of 33%. 43% of on a 5-point scale ranging from 1 = not at all to 5 = to a
physician were female; the average age of the partici- very large extent. We first conducted a pilot study among
pants and their tenure in the organization were 45 (s.d. 134 undergraduate and graduate students in an academic
10.25) and 13 years (s.d. 9.45), respectively. The physi- institution in Israel to evaluate the construct validity of
cians reported an average of 10.06 h of work per day the measures. We asked them to provide comments on
(s.d. 1.99). the clarity of each item and to indicate the extent to
which each item reflected the definition of the construct
we intend to assess. We received minor comments and
Measures thus made only minor revisions as regards phrasing
Consistent with Brislin’s (1980) guidelines, we translated specific items to provide better clarity. We also
the items into Hebrew and then back-translated them into asked them to fill out the entire survey and tested the
 The Journal of Positive Psychology 7

reliabilities of each measure. The Cronbach’s alphas for Perceived family support
the following measures were obtained as follows: WLB We adapted 4 items from Eisenberger et al. (1986) to
(0.87), employee energy at work (0.88), perceived family assess family social support. We asked them to assess
support (0.86) and perceived workplace support (0.92). the social support received by their family in general.
Sample items are as follows: ‘My family fails to appreci-
Employee energy at work ate any extra effort from me (reverse-scored item),’ and
We used Atwater and Carmeli’s (2009) 8-item scale to ‘My family cares about my general satisfaction at work’
assess employee energy at work. A sample item is as fol- (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.86).
lows: ‘When I get to work in the morning I have energy We performed CFA to determine whether it was
for the new day’; (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.85). feasible to combine both work support and family social
support. The results indicated poor fit with the data (chi-
square (318, N = 596) = 2997, p = 0.00; CFI = 0.76;
Psychological availability NNFI = 0.73, SRMR = 0.09; RMSER = 0.12). We finally
Following Kahn’s (1990) conceptualization, we assessed performed CFA with all items specified on one factor,
psychological availability using May et al.’s (2004) and the results indicated a poor fit with the data (chi-
5-item scale. A sample item is as follows: ‘I am square (324, N = 596) = 8089, p = 0.00; CFI = 0.30;
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confident that I can handle the psychical demand at NNFI = 0.24; SRMR = 0.154; RMSEA = 0.20).
work’ (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.85).

Control variables
Work–life balance
In all analyses, we controlled for gender (0 = female and
The measure was assessed using the 5-item scale 1 = male), age, and tenure in the organization and
employed by Greenhaus et al. (2012) to measure WLB. education.
A sample item is ‘I am able to balance the demands of
my work and demands of my life’ (Cronbach’s
Data analysis
alpha = 0.90).
We first tested for the structure and stability of the mea-
sures by assessing the invariance of the measurement
Perceived workplace support model. This was done using CFA. Next, we performed
We assessed both workplace and family social support multi-group path analysis using MPLUS to compare the
that can influence satisfaction with the WLB. We used fit of one model to the entire population. To further test
the scale developed by Eisenberger et al. (1986) to the hypotheses, we used linear regression for all the
assess workplace social support encompassing both groups (with dependency and without dependency among
organizational and supervisory supportive relationships. subjects from the same organization) and ran Bootstrap
We used two sets of 4 items: one specifying organiza- analysis using MPLUS to examine indirect effects.
tional support (i.e., ‘This organization really cares about
my well-being,’ ‘This organization cares about my gen-
eral satisfaction at work,’ ‘This organization would Results
ignore any complaint from me’ (reverse-scored item), Correlations, means and standard deviations for the three
‘This organization shows very little concern for me’ studies are indicated in Tables 1a–1c. In Study 1, follow-
(reverse-scored item)) and the second specifying supervi- ing factor analysis (Kaiser’s measure of sampling ade-
sory support by replacing the words ‘This organization’ quacy – KMO and MSA(i) – values at Time 1 and Time
by ‘My supervisor’ (e.g., ‘My supervisor really cares 2 for WLB – 0.89 and 0.87, and 0.89 and 0.85, for en-
about my well-being’). Consistent with our conceptual- ergy – 0.88 and 0.84, and 0.88 and 0.89, family support
ization of workplace social support as encompassing – 0.74 and 0.68, and 0.74 and 0.68 for workplace
both social relationships with other organizational mem- support – 0.82 and 0.76, and 0.83 and 0.76, and psycho-
bers as well as their direct supervisors, as well confirma- logical availability – 0.81 and 0.73, and 0.80 and 0.74,
tory factor analysis results (A CFA with this second- respectively), we performed an invariant test of the mea-
order latent variable and results indicated an acceptable surement model using structural equation model. In
fit with the data [chi-square (312, N = 596) = 1009, Model 1, all parameters were free of equal structural
p = 0.00, CFI = 0.937, NNFI = 0.929, SRMSR = 0.049; constraints between the times. Model 2 was performed
RMSEA = 0.061]; All standardized loadings were above using equal factor loadings, Model 3 was run with equal
0.55 and the intercorrelations were 0.30 or less), we cre- indicator intercepts, and Model 4 was assessed with
ated a composite index that captures perceived work- equal indicator error variances (Chan, 1998). To summa-
place support (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.92). rize, the results for each one of the research variables
 8 M. Russo et al.

indicated that no statistically change was observed and difference across groups was significant (F (2, 593)
that the fit of the model was preserved after constraints = 61.20, p < 0.01). A pairwise comparison indicates that
were accounted for; namely invariance stability was the difference between (a) the physician group and stu-
obtained in Time 1 and Time 2. dent group was (t = 7.51, p < 0.01); (b) the physician
Using the mixed procedure in SAS, we then tested group and industrial workers (t = 11.02, p < 0.01); and
the differences in factor scores across time. A compar- (c) the student group and industrial workers (t = −3.80,
ison of factor scores was done for each factor and the p < 0.01). The results for energy indicated no significant
significance level of differences across time was exam- differences (F (2, 593) = 2.79). Similar results were
ined. If the difference across time is not significant, we obtained for work social support (F (2, 593) = 2.57).
can conclude that it is safe to use measurement of either Significant differences were obtained for family social
Time 1 or Time 2. The p values for WLB, energy, per- support in the total sample (F (2, 593) = 10.71,
ceived workplace support, perceived family support and p < 0.01). A pairwise comparison indicated a mean
psychological availability were 0.03, 0.65, 0.79, 0.72, difference between the physician group and part-time
0.38, and 0.19, respectively. Except for WLB, the differ- student group (t = −3.20, p < 0.01), and between the
ences were not significant. But, further examining the physician group and industrial worker group (t = −4.61,
difference size for WLB revealed that it was negligible p < 0.01). The results for psychological availability indi-
as regards the range of 1 to 5. Combining the conclu- cated no significant differences (F (2, 593) = 0.51).
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sions from the invariance test and differences in factor

scores demonstrate those times were equivalent.
Hypothesis test
We performed two tests: (1) a test of the entire model
Model structure without any differences between the research populations
A CFA was performed using MPLUS at the individual (nested) and (2) a test that takes distinctions across the
level and fit-of-indices was obtained with the Yuan, sample populations into account. Specifically, using
Chan, and Bentler’s (2000) approach for multi-level multi-group path analysis with MPLUS, we examined
models. We first examined a full factor model, and the the difference between a constrained model and an
results indicated an acceptable fit with the data (chi- unconstrained model (with group distribution). The fol-
square (309, N = 596) = 990, p = 0.00; CFI = 0.938; lowing chi-square value (48, N = 596) = 227.33 was
NNFI = 0.93; SRMSR = 0.047; RMSEA = 0.061). All obtained, which is significantly poorer than the model
standardized loadings were above 0.55, and the inter- with a distinction across the groups. This stipulated the
correlations were 0.30 or less (Hu & Bentler, 1998). test of the model in each sample independently.
Using MPLUS, we calculated factor scores for the We ran the regressions after verifying the internal
full CFA (with the second-order latent variable) followed correlation among subjects and after controlling that the
by a comparison of the scores to the grand average of explanatory variable was zero or not significant. The
the latent variable. A high correlation was observed both regressions were performed for each population group
ways. We chose to use averages because the result pre- separately. In each regression, the control variables were
serves the original range of the items (1 to 5 for WLB, included in the first step, while the mediating and inde-
energy and psychological availability, and 1 to 7 for the pendent variables in the second and third steps, respec-
support foci). In addition, we sought to establish a differ- tively. To test mediation, we followed guidelines
ent model for each research population or study, such outlined by MacKinnon, Fairchild, and Fritz (2007). We
that we could trace the differences across the groups. report the results for each population group below.
The results indicate that a single, general model with no
distinction between the research groups had a poor fit
with the data, compared to each model separately. Study 1 (part-time student group): results
Hence, we further tested the sample such that data for The results in Table 2 support Hypotheses 1a, which pos-
each population (working students, industrial workers, ited positive relationships between perceived workplace
and physicians) were examined separately. Because of support and WLB (β = 0.16, p < 0.01). However, the rela-
the sample size in each study, we used path analysis to tionship between perceived family support and WLB was
estimate the hypothesized mediation model. not significant (β = 0.11, p > 0.05) and thus does not sup-
port Hypothesis 1b. Hypothesis 2, which posited a posi-
tive relationship between WLB and employee positive
Descriptive statistics across groups energy, was supported (β = 0.15, p < 0.01). The results
We tested for mean differences between the total also indicate that WLB mediates the relationship between
research population and each of the three groups. The perceived workplace support and psychological availabil-
mean for WLB in the general group was 3.28, and the ity. Finally, the results indicate that there is a direct and an
 The Journal of Positive Psychology 9

Table 2. Study 1 (part-time students).

Psychological
Work–life balance availability Energy Energy
β (t) β (t) β (t) β (t)
Constanta 2.57 4.58*** 3.23 8.27*** −0.09 −0.19 −0.68 −1.22
Age −0.01 −0.88 0.00 −0.38 0.02 2.18** 0.02 2.25*
Tenure −0.01 −0.67 0.00 −0.06 0.00 0.28 0.00 0.30
Education 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Gender (1 = Female) −0.19 −1.69 0.02 0.26 0.15 1.68 0.15 1.66
Perceived workplace support 0.16 3.48*** 0.04 1.32 0.49 12.66*** 0.48 12.52***
Perceived family support 0.11 1.47 0.06 1.20 −0.09 −1.46 −0.10 −1.64
Work–life balance 0.18 3.92*** 0.15 2.68** 0.12 2.05*
Psychological availability 0.18 2.12*
R2 0.11 0.12 0.51 0.52
Adjusted R2 0.09 0.09 0.50 0.50
Standard error (Root MSE) 0.81 0.54 0.66 0.66
F 5.39*** 4.63*** 36.26*** 32.24***
ΔR2 0.08 0.07 0.02 0.01
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F for ΔR2 9.41*** 15.36*** 7.18** 4.4944*

Notes: The relationships between perceived workplace support, perceived family support, work–life balance, psychological availability and energy at
work. n = 88.
a
β = Unstandardized coefficient.
***p < 0.001; **p < 0.01; *p < 0.05.

indirect relationship between WLB and employees’ support and WLB (β = 0.26, p < 0.01). The results also
energy at work, through psychological availability, since indicated a significant positive relationship between per-
the coefficient related to the effect of WLB on employee ceived family support and WLB (β = 0.20, p < 0.01), in
energy (β = 0.12, p < 0.05) remained statistically signifi- support of Hypothesis 1b. Hypothesis 2, which posited a
cant after the introduction of psychological availability positive relationship between WLB and employee posi-
and this supports a partial mediation (Hypothesis 4). The tive energy, was supported (β = 0.18, p < 0.01). The
results are shown in Figure 2. results also indicated that the relationship between per-
ceived work support with psychological availability was
fully mediated by WLB. However, the relationship
Study 2 (industrial worker group): results between perceived family support and psychological
The results in Table 3 support Hypotheses 1, which pos- availability was partially mediated by WLB. Therefore,
ited positive relationships between perceived workplace this supports Hypothesis 3 only for perceived workplace
support and WLB (β = 0.17, p < 0.01). The results also support → WLB → psychological availability. Finally,
indicated a significant positive relationship between per- the results indicated both a direct and an indirect rela-
ceived family support and WLB (β = 0.18, p < 0.01), tionship between WLB and employee energy, through
consistent with Hypothesis 1b. Hypothesis 2, which pos- psychological availability, thus supporting a partial rather
ited a positive relationship between WLB and employee than full mediation (Hypothesis 4). The results are
positive energy, was supported (β = 0.19, p < 0.01). The shown in Figure 4.
results showed that the relationship between perceived
workplace support and perceived family support with
psychological availability is both direct and indirect, Assessing indirect effect using bootstrap tests
through WLB, which does not support Hypothesis 3. The mediation relationships in the hypothesized model
Finally, the results indicated that there is direct and indi- were found to be partial. To provide a more robust and
rect relationship between WLB and employee energy, complete test, we calculated the indirect and significant
through psychological availability, thus supporting only a effect of these relationships. A more stringent approach
partial mediation (Hypothesis 4). The results are illus- is to ‘bootstrap the sampling distribution of ab and
trated in Figure 3. derive a confidence interval with the empirically derived
bootstrapped sampling distribution’ (Preacher & Hayes,
2004, p. 721). We performed a bootstrap analysis using
Study 3 (physician group): results 10,000 iterations with a 95% confidence interval (CI)
The results in Table 4 support Hypotheses 1, which pos- (the bias-corrected CI excludes zero) for each sample
ited positive relationships between perceived workplace group with work social support and family social support
 10 M. Russo et al.

Perceived Workplace
(organization and
supervisor) Support
.15**/.12*
.16** .49**/.48**
.04

Work-Life 0.18** Psychological .18**

Employee Energy
Balance Availability

.06 -.10, n.s.

.11

Perceived Family
Support
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**p< .01 *p< .05

Figure 2. Results of the Study 1 (part-time students).

Table 3. Study 2 (industrial workers).

Psychological
Work–life balance availability Energy Energy
β (t) β (t) β (t) β (t)
Constant a
1.50 2.88** 2.50 7.76*** 0.02 0.04 −0.52 −0.88
Age 0.03 3.29*** 0.01 1.68 −0.01 −0.81 −0.01 −1.03
Tenure −0.01 −0.75 0.00 −0.17 0.02 2.37* 0.02 2.41*
Education −0.07 −1.22 −0.04 −1.16 0.10 1.76 0.11 1.92
Gender (1 = Female) −0.29 −2.95** 0.02 0.29 0.06 0.61 0.06 0.58
Perceived workplace support 0.17 3.52*** 0.06 2.13* 0.35 7.36*** 0.34 7.06***
Perceived family support 0.18 2.68** 0.17 4.18*** 0.08 1.20 0.04 0.64
Work–life balance 0.09 2.22* 0.19 2.96** 0.18 2.66**
Psychological availability 0.21 2.00*
R2 0.19 0.20 0.33 0.34
Adjusted R2 0.17 0.17 0.31 0.32
Standard error (Root MSE) 0.72 0.44 0.72 0.71
F 9.18*** 8.06*** 16.14*** 14.80***
ΔR2 0.11 0.02 0.03 0.01
F for ΔR2 15.75*** 4.93* 8.76** 4.00*
Notes: The relationships between perceived workplace support, perceived family support, work–life balance, psychological availability and energy at
work. n = 238.
a
β = Unstandardized coefficient.
***p < 0.001; **p < 0.01; *p < 0.05.

as predictors, respectively. In the part-time student pop- and psychological availability as serial mediators was
ulation, the results of a bootstrap indicated that the indi- significant [95% CI = 0.091 (lower), 0.017 (upper);
rect effect through WLB and psychological availability p < 0.05; Estimate/SE = 2.492], thus supporting a media-
as serial mediators was significant [95% CI = 0.009 tion model (MacKinnon et al., 2007; Shrout & Bolger,
(lower), 0.066 (upper); p < 0.05; Estimate/SE = 2.184], 2002).
thus supporting a mediation model (MacKinnon et al., Finally, in the physician population, the results of a
2007; Shrout & Bolger, 2002). bootstrap indicated that the indirect effect through WLB
In the industrial worker population, the results of a and psychological availability as serial mediators was
bootstrap indicated that the indirect effect through WLB significant [95% CI = 0.022 (lower), 0.121 (upper);
 The Journal of Positive Psychology 11
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Figure 3. Results of the Study 2 (industrial workers).

Table 4. Study 3 (physicians).

Psychological
Work–Life Balance Availability Energy Energy
β (t) β (t) β (t) β (t)
Constanta 0.18 0.19 2.32 4.06*** −0.49 −0.54 −1.23 −1.28
Age 0.03 2.44* 0.02 2.37** 0.03 2.72** 0.02 2.24*
Tenure 0.00 −0.18 −0.01 −1.60 −0.01 −0.88 −0.01 −0.57
Education −0.27 −2.51** 0.01 0.13 0.07 0.67 0.07 0.65
Gender (1 = Female) 0.35 2.73** −0.05 −0.63 0.05 0.41 0.07 0.54
Perceived workplace support 0.26 5.15*** 0.05 1.59 0.19 3.48*** 0.17 3.18**
Perceived family support 0.20 2.24** 0.14 2.54** 0.13 1.47 0.09 0.96
Work–life balance 0.14 2.66** 0.18 2.18* 0.14 1.64
Psychological availability 0.35***
R2 0.32 0.25 0.32 0.31
Adjusted R2 0.29 0.21 0.29 0.70
Standard error (Root MSE) 0.73 0.44 0.71 9.00***
F 10.82*** 6.44*** 9.22*** 0.03
ΔR2 0.18 0.04 0.02 5.34*
F for ΔR2 18.91*** 7.08** 4.75* 0.35
Notes: The relationships between perceived workplace support, perceived family support, work–life balance, psychological availability and energy at
work. n = 142.
a
β = Unstandardized coefficient.
***p < 0.001; **p < 0.01; *p < 0.05.

p < 0.05; Estimate/SE = 2.554], thus supporting a media- which in turn increases psychological availability, a
tion model (MacKinnon et al., 2007; Shrout & Bolger, psychological condition that can engender positive
2002), and supporting Hypothesis 4. energy at work. The findings from the three different
studies indicate that multiple foci of social support have
a positive effect on employees’ WLB, with the exception
General discussion of family support for part-time students who presumably
This study documented the process through which multi- do not perceive this form of support to be highly salient
ple support sources (work support and family social sup- at the moment because many of them are still not
port) can help individuals to experience greater WLB, engaged in stable cohabitating relationships with a
 12 M. Russo et al.
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Figure 4. Results of the Study 3 (physicians).

partner. Further, they indicate that WLB mediates the experience high levels of energy and vitality at work
relationship between perceptions of social support and (Clawson & Haskins, 2000).
energy and that psychological availability mediates the In addition, our study contributes to a better under-
relationship between WLB and energy. In so doing, our standing of psychological conditions conducive for ener-
research sheds light on the ways in which social support gizing employees in the workplace. Kahn’s (1990) work
can facilitate WLB and positive energy at work in pointed out that an individual who is psychologically
multiple life circumstances (e.g. part-time students and available is more likely to engage in a work task. We
full-time working adults) and organizational context extended theorizing about WLB as a mechanism that is
(manufacturing industries and public hospitals). conducive to psychological availability to flourish and
From a theoretical perspective, this study contributes the implications for nurturing positive energy among
to a better understanding of the socio-psychological pro- employees. This is vital because recent research points to
cess that emerges in the link between social support, the need to deepen our knowledge about the factors that
WLB, psychological availability, and positive energy, drive psychological availability which in turn helps to
which is essential for ensuring people’s productivity and unleash energies essential to realize employee potential
development (Schwartz & McCarthy, 2007). Notably, (Binyamin & Carmeli, 2010). As such, this research
this work extends prior work–life research by addressing unravels the generative process through which WLB is
recent calls to focus more on WLB rather than on work– facilitated and creates positive energy in the workplace.
family balance to include a broader array of individuals This study also extends previous research on the
and life interests (Hall et al., 2013). We also explore the potential implications of multiple sources of social sup-
positive link between WLB and understudied individual port on work and family outcomes (Ferguson et al.,
outcomes in WLB research, such as psychological avail- 2012; Kossek et al., 2011). The findings of our studies
ability and positive energy. Furthermore, this study con- indicate that work and family social support are key
tributes to elucidating the mechanisms behind such resources that can promote greater role balance, higher
positive effects. We provide an attempt to elaborate on readiness to engage in multiple roles and unleash posi-
how research may further illuminate this complex phe- tive energy. A possible explanation for this result is that
nomenon by pointing to the importance of WLB for social support represents a key contextual resource for
engendering optimal psychological conditions to experi- individuals that facilitates the individual’s management
ence positive energy at work. This is important given of the work–life interface (ten Brummelhuis & Bakker,
that people spend the greater part of their life struggling 2012). On the one hand, work social support provides
between competing work and nonwork commitments and employees with psychological safety, trust, as well as
are rarely able to fully realize their potential and instrumental and emotional aid to better manage work
 The Journal of Positive Psychology 13

and nonwork roles (Greenhaus et al., 2012; Kossek Future studies should further test our theorizing in differ-
et al., 2011). On the other hand, family social support ent societal and cultural settings.
can help individuals to effectively cope with stressful life Using structured questionnaires may create response
situations, manage peaks of workload, reduce role ten- bias because of the reliance on cross-sectional data.
sions, provide aid and encouragement to being dedicat- However, our focus was on participants’ perceptions and
ing to personal hobbies and leisure activities, and their psychological experiences which can be more pre-
improve performance in all areas of life (Ferguson et al., cisely evaluated using subjective assessments. Addition-
2012; Greenhaus et al., 2012). Therefore, our results ally, despite increased research attention on WLB, many
demonstrate the importance of multiple foci of social aspects related to the impact of personal and organiza-
support to enhance people’s capacity to live a more har- tional variables on the work–life interface remain in rela-
monic life. In two of the three studies we presented here, tively early stages of development. Our research paves
the results imply that people, who live harmonic life, the way for future research to explore additional ways in
develop a generative psychological state that augments which WLB may be cultivated. For example, future stud-
their capability to successfully meet demands of multiple ies could expand our model to further understand the
life domains and this helps them feel more energized. effects of personal and environmental factors on the
This is important because depleted energy can be a nega- study’s variables. Since data for this study were gathered
tive force undermining desired behaviors and outcomes in the midst of the global economic crisis, we also
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(Dutton, 2003), including a sense of depression, apathy recommend that future studies examine the proposed
and disengagement that may easily spill over into every model in calmer economic times and compare the results
domain of the individual’s life (Evink, 2000). to those obtained in this study. In the present research,
we examined how factors within and outside the
organization shape individuals’ perception of the WLB
Practical implications and energy level at work. The focus on family support
Our results indicate that organizations should seek to as a nonwork antecedent of WLB was motivated by
develop a supportive work environment (Allen, 2001; prior research indicating that the family is one of the
Hammer, Kossek, Anger, Bodner, & Zimmerman, 2011) main sources of social support for individuals and gener-
as this can help to foster greater WLB in the workforce ates enormous benefits for individuals that go beyond
with positive repercussion on their energy levels and the family domain (Ferguson et al., 2012; Greenhaus
capacity to accommodate successfully multiple role et al., 2003). However, it is possible that other forms of
demands. This requires a shift in the organizational cul- social support might be crucial for people in contempo-
ture from an old but persistent mindset, which considers rary society such as those received by friends, members
work and the personal life as mutually incompatible of extended families and members of the social commu-
(Friedman, Christensen, & Degroot, 1998), to a more nity where people are involved. These factors were not
tolerant and supportive culture that acknowledges the examined in this study, and their inclusion could help
benefit for employees of experiencing a sense of balance highlight additional determinants of WLB.
in life and investing, if this aligns with personal desires Notably, in the present study, we focused on global
and aspirations, in multiple life roles rather than just the measures of workplace and family social support that
work one. This will also help creating an environment in capture people’s perception of how their organization
which employees feel appreciated and valued for who and their family care about their global well-being.
they are as whole person and for how they perform, Future research should test whether other forms of social
regardless of their higher or lower involvement in support, more directly related to the management of the
nonwork activities. work–life interface, like the recently introduced concept
of family supportive supervisor behaviors (Hammer
et al., 2009), have a similar or differential positive
Limitation and directions for future research impact on the study’s variables. This path will allow
Important questions about social support, WLB and scholars to distinguish between instrumental and emo-
energy remained unresolved and need to be addressed in tional support, both from the family and at home, and
future research. First, caution should be exercised as examine their relative influence on individual’s work–
regards the time when a study on WLB is carried out, family interface, as well as his or her capacity to cope
because economic conditions such as unemployment and adapt to frictions in the interface between work and
uncertainty can lead people to pay more attention to family. Finally, the findings of this research focused on
maintaining their jobs, which can diminish the capacity the optimal mode of organization and emphasized the
to balance the work and life domains. We chose to importance of strategically positive dynamics that leads
involve participants from a set of three populations to to human strength, a sense of positive energy, prosperity,
achieve more robust findings across the three studies. and growth. Although the study examined some aspects
 14 M. Russo et al.

of new energy in the context of work, this line of Binyamin, G., & Carmeli, A. (2010). Does structuring of
research is still in its embryonic stage and further human resource management processes enhance employee
creativity? The mediating role of psychological availability.
research is needed to better explore work- and nonwork-
Human Resource Management, 49, 999–1024. doi:10.1002/
related factors that can influence energy levels at work. hrm
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and written material. In H. C. Triandis & J. W. Berry (Eds.),
Conclusion Handbook of cross-cultural psychology (pp. 398–444).
Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
In an era of increased job insecurity and greater social
Carlson, D. S., Kacmar, K. M., Grzywacz, J. G., Tepper, B., &
pressure to cultivate and invest in all domains of peo- Whitten, D. (2013). Work–family balance and supervisor
ple’s life, we believe that the capacity of individuals to appraised citizenship behavior: The link of positive affect.
balance the spheres of work and nonwork roles is crucial Journal of Behavioral & Applied Management, 14, 87–106.
for unleashing positive energy. We showed that multiple Chan, D. (1998). The conceptualization and analysis of change
over time: An integrative approach incorporating longitudi-
foci of social support – work and family – can help indi-
nal mean and covariance structures analysis (LMACS) and
viduals to expand their capacity for WLB, which in turn multiple indicator latent growth modeling (MLGM).
cultivates psychological availability for engendering Organizational Research Methods, 1, 421–483. doi:10.1177/
positive energy at work. In so doing, we shed further 109442819814004
light on the socio-psychological process that underpins Clark, S. C. (2000). Work/family border theory: A new theory
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of work/family balance. Human Relations, 53, 747–770.

WLB and its influence on positive psychological condi-
doi:10.1177/0018726700536001
tions and experiences at work. Clawson, J. G., & Haskins, M. E. (2000). Beating the career
blues. Academy of Management Perspectives, 14, 91–102.
doi:10.5465/AME.2000.4468069
Acknowledgements Clayton, R. W., Thomas, C. H., Singh, B., & Winkel, D. E.
We wish to thank associate editor and two reviewers for their (2014). Exercise as a means of reducing perceptions of
helpful comments and suggestions. We also thank Etti Doveh work–family conflict: A test of the roles of self-efficacy
for her assistance with the data analysis, as well as Esther and psychological strain. Human Resource Management.
Singer for her editorial comments. The first two authors have doi:10.1002/hrm.21611
contributed equally to this study. This study was part of a Cohen, S., & Wills, T. A. (1985). Stress, social support, and
research project conducted while the second author was at the buffering hypothesis. Psychological Bulletin, 98,
Bar-Ilan University. 310–357.
Cole, M. S., Bruch, H., & Vogel, B. (2012). Energy at work: A
measurement validation and linkage to unit effectiveness.
Journal of Organizational Behavior, 33, 445–467.
Disclosure statement Dutton, J. E. (2003). Energize your workplace: How to create
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s). and sustain high quality relationships at work. San
Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
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