Retail - Wikipedia

8/11/2019 Retail - Wikipedia
Retail
Retail is the process of selling consumer goods or services to customers
through multiple channels of distribution to earn a profit. Retailers satisfy
demand identified through a supply chain. The term "retailer" is typically
applied where a service provider fills the small orders of a large number of
individuals, who are end-users, rather than large orders of a small number of
wholesale, corporate or government clientele. Shopping generally refers to the
act of buying products. Sometimes this is done to obtain final goods, including
necessities such as food and clothing; sometimes it takes place as a recreational
activity. Recreational shopping often involves window shopping and browsing:
it does not always result in a purchase.
Retail markets and shops have a very ancient history, dating back to antiquity.
Some of the earliest retailers were itinerant peddlers. Over the centuries, retail
shops were transformed from little more than "rude booths" to the sophisticated
shopping malls of the modern era.
A cheese retail store.
Most modern retailers typically make a variety of strategic level decisions
including the type of store, the market to be served, the optimal product
assortment, customer service, supporting services and the store's overall market positioning. Once the strategic retail
plan is in place, retailers devise the retail mix which includes product, price, place, promotion, personnel and
presentation. In the digital age, an increasing number of retailers are seeking to reach broader markets by selling
through multiple channels, including both bricks and mortar and online retailing. Digital technologies are also changing
the way that consumers pay for goods and services. Retailing support services may also include the provision of credit,
delivery services, advisory services, stylist services and a range of other supporting services.
Retail shops occur in a diverse range of types and in many different contexts – from strip shopping centres in residential
streets through to large, indoor shopping malls. Shopping streets may restrict traffic to pedestrians only. Sometimes a
shopping street has a partial or full roof to create a more comfortable shopping environment – protecting customers
from various types of weather conditions such as extreme temperatures, winds or precipitation. Forms of non-shop
retailing include online retailing (a type of electronic-commerce used for business-to-consumer (B2C)
transactions) and mail order.
Contents
Etymology
Definition and explanation
History
Retailing in antiquity
Retailing in Medieval Europe
Retailing in the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries
Retailing in the modern era
Retail strategy
The retail marketing mix
Product
Product assortment
Customer service and supporting services
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retail 1/50
Types of customer service

Place
Location
Macro factors
Micro factors
Channels
Pricing strategy and tactics
Pricing tactics
Personnel and staffing
Selling and sales techniques
Promotion
Presentation
Designing retail spaces
Shopper profiles
Retail format: types of retail outlet
Retail type by product
Retail types by marketing strategy
Other retail types
Challenges
Global top ten retailers
Competition
Mergers and acquisitions
Statistics for national retail sales
United States
Central Europe
World
Consolidation
Gallery
See also
References
Further reading
External links
Etymology
Retail comes from the Old French word tailler, which means "to cut off, clip, pare, divide" in terms of tailoring (1365). It
was first recorded as a noun with the meaning of a "sale in small quantities" in 1433 (from the Middle French retail,
"piece cut off, shred, scrap, paring").[1] As in the French, the word, retail, in both Dutch and German, also refers to the
sale of small quantities of items.
Definition and explanation

Retail refers to the activity of selling goods or services directly to consumers or end-users.[2] Some retailers may sell to
business customers, and such sales are termed non-retail activity. In some jurisdictions or regions, legal definitions of
retail specify that at least 80 percent of sales activity must be to end-users.[3]
Retailing often occurs in retail stores or service establishments, but may also occur through direct selling such as
through vending machines, door-to-door sales or electronic channels.[4] Although the idea of retail is often associated
with the purchase of goods, the term may be applied to service-providers that sell to consumers. Retail service providers
include retail banking, tourism, insurance, private healthcare, private education, private security firms, legal firms,
publishers, public transport and others. For example, a tourism provider might have a retail division that books travel
and accommodation for consumers plus a wholesale division that purchases blocks of accommodation, hospitality,
transport and sightseeing which are subsequently packaged into a holiday tour for sale to retail travel agents.
Some retailers badge their stores as "wholesale outlets" offering "wholesale prices." While this practice may encourage
consumers to imagine that they have access to lower prices, while being prepared to trade-off reduced prices for
cramped in-store environments, in a strictly legal sense, a store that sells the majority of its merchandise direct to
consumers, is defined as a retailer rather than a wholesaler. Different jurisdictions set parameters for the ratio of
consumer to business sales that define a retail business.
History
See also: History of merchants; History of the market place ; History of marketing
Retailing in antiquity
Retail markets have existed since ancient times. Archaeological evidence for
trade, probably involving barter systems, dates back more than 10,000
years. As civilizations grew, barter was replaced with retail trade involving
coinage. Selling and buying are thought to have emerged in Asia Minor
(modern Turkey) in around the 7th millennium BCE.[5] Gharipour points to
evidence of primitive shops and trade centres in Sialk Hills in Kashan (6000
BCE), Catalk Huyuk in modern-day Turkey (7,500–5,700 BCE), Jericho
(2600 BCE) and Susa (4000 BCE).[6] Open air, public markets were known
in ancient Babylonia, Assyria, Phoenicia and Egypt. These markets typically Marketplace at Trajan's Forum, the
occupied a place in the town's centre. Surrounding the market, skilled earliest known example of
artisans, such as metal-workers and leather workers, occupied permanent permanent retail shopfronts
premises in alleys that led to the open market-place. These artisans may
have sold wares directly from their premises, but also prepared goods for
sale on market days.[7] In ancient Greece markets operated within the agora, an open space where, on market days,
goods were displayed on mats or temporary stalls.[8] In ancient Rome, trade took place in the forum.[9] Rome had two
forums; the Forum Romanum and Trajan's Forum. The latter was a vast expanse, comprising multiple buildings with
shops on four levels.[10] The Roman forum was arguably the earliest example of a permanent retail shop-front.[11] In
antiquity, exchange involved direct selling via merchants or peddlers and bartering systems were commonplace.[12]
The Phoenicians, noted for their seafaring skills, plied their ships across the Mediterranean, becoming a major trading
power by the 9th century BCE. The Phoenicians imported and exported wood, textiles, glass and produce such as wine,
oil, dried fruit and nuts. Their trading skills necessitated a network of colonies along the Mediterranean coast, stretching
from modern-day Crete through to Tangiers and onto Sardinia[13] The Phoenicians not only traded in tangible goods,
but were also instrumental in transporting culture. The Phoenician's extensive trade networks necessitated considerable
book-keeping and correspondence. In around 1500 BCE, the Phoenicians developed a consonantal alphabet which was
much easier to learn that the complex scripts used in ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia. Phoenician traders and
merchants were largely responsible for spreading their alphabet around the region.[14] Phoenician inscriptions have
been found in archaeological sites at a number of former Phoenician cities and colonies around the Mediterranean, such
as Byblos (in present-day Lebanon) and Carthage in North Africa.[15]
In the Graeco-Roman world, the market primarily served the local peasantry. Local producers, who were generally poor,
would sell small surpluses from their individual farming activities, purchase minor farm equipment and also buy a few
luxuries for their homes. Major producers such as the great estates were sufficiently attractive for merchants to call
directly at their farm-gates, obviating the producers' need to attend local markets. The very wealthy landowners
managed their own distribution, which may have involved exporting and importing. The nature of export markets in
antiquity is well documented in ancient sources and archaeological case

studies.[16] The Romans preferred to purchase goods from specific places:
oysters from Londinium, cinnamon from a specific mountain in Arabia, and
these place-based preferences stimulated trade throughout Europe and the
Middle East.[17] Markets were also important centres of social life.[18]
The rise of retailing and marketing in England and Europe has been
extensively studied, but less is known about developments elsewhere.[19]
Grand Bazaar, Istanbul (interior). Nevertheless, recent research suggests that China exhibited a rich history of
Established in 1455, it is thought to early retail systems.[20] From as early as 200 BCE, Chinese packaging and
be the oldest continuously operating branding were used to signal family, place names and product quality, and
covered market
the use of government-imposed product branding was used between 600
and 900 CE.[21] Eckhart and Bengtsson have argued that during the Song
Dynasty (960–1127), Chinese society developed a consumerist culture, where a high level of consumption was attainable
for a wide variety of ordinary consumers rather than just the elite.[22] The rise of a consumer culture led to the
commercial investment in carefully managed company image, retail signage, symbolic brands, trademark protection
and sophisticated brand concepts.[23]
Retailing in Medieval Europe

In Medieval England and Europe, relatively few permanent shops were to be
found; instead, customers walked into the tradesman's workshops where
they discussed purchasing options directly with tradesmen. In 13th-century
London, mercers and haberdashers were known to exist and grocers sold
"miscellaneous small wares as well as spices and medicines" but fish and
other perishables were sold through markets, costermongers, hucksters,
peddlers or other types of itinerant vendor.[24]
In the more populous cities, a small number of shops were beginning to

The Row, Chester, Cheshire,
emerge by the 13th century. In Chester, a medieval covered shopping arcade
England, c. 1895; a unique medieval
represented a major innovation that attracted shoppers from many miles shopping arcade
around. Known as "The Rows" this medieval shopping arcade is believed to
be the first of its kind in Europe.[25] Fragments of Chester's Medieval Row,
which is believed to date to the mid-13th century, can still be found in Cheshire.[26] In the 13th or 14th century, another
arcade with several shops was recorded at Drapery Row in Winchester.[27] The emergence of street names such as
Drapery Row, Mercer's Lane and Ironmonger Lane in the medieval period suggests that permanent shops were
becoming more commonplace.
Medieval shops had little in common with their modern equivalent. As late
as the 16th century, London's shops were described as little more than "rude
booths" and their owners "bawled as loudly as the itinerants."[28] Shopfronts
typically had a front door with two wider openings on either side, each
covered with shutters. The shutters were designed to open so that the top
portion formed a canopy while the bottom was fitted with legs so that it
could serve as a shopboard.[29] Cox and Dannehl suggest that the Medieval
shopper's experience was very different. The lack of glazed windows, which
were rare during the medieval period, and did not become commonplace
A typical 17th-century shop, with until the eighteenth century, meant that shop interiors were dark places.
customers being served through an Outside the markets, goods were rarely out on display and the service
opening onto the street
counter was unknown. Shoppers had relatively few opportunities to inspect the merchandise prior to consumption.
Many stores had openings onto the street from which they served customers.[30]
Outside the major cities, most consumable purchases were made through markets or fairs. Markets were held daily in
the more populous towns and cities or weekly in the more sparsely populated rural districts. Markets sold fresh
produce; fruit, vegetables, baked goods, meat, poultry, fish and some ready to eat foodstuffs; while fairs operated on a
periodic cycle and were almost always associated with a religious festival.[31] Fairs sold non-perishables such as farm
tools, homewares, furniture (https://www.retailfurnishing.com/furniture.html), rugs (https://www.retailfurnishing.co
m/accessories/rugs.html) and ceramics. Market towns dotted the medieval European landscape while itinerant vendors
supplied less populated areas or hard-to-reach districts. Peddlers and other itinerant vendors operated alongside other
types of retail for centuries. The political philosopher, John Stuart Mill compared the convenience of markets/fairs to
that of the itinerant peddlers:
"The contrivance of fairs and markets was early had recourse to, where consumers and
producers might periodically meet, without any intermediate agency; and this plan answers
tolerably well for many articles, especially agricultural produce … but were inconvenient to
buyers who have other occupations, and do not live in the immediate vicinity … and the wants
of the consumers must either be provided for so long beforehand, or must remain so long
unsupplied, that even before the resources of society admitted of the establishment of shops,
the supply of these wants fell universally into the hands of itinerant dealers: the pedlar, who
might appear once a month, being preferred to the fair, which only returned once or twice a
year."[32]
Blintiff has investigated the early Medieval networks of market towns across
Europe and suggests that by the 12th century there was an upsurge in the
number of market towns and the emergence of merchant circuits as traders
bulked up surpluses from smaller regional, different day markets and resold
them at the larger centralised market towns.[33] Market-places appear to
have emerged independently outside Europe. The Grand Bazaar in Istanbul
is often cited as the world's oldest continuously-operating market; its
construction began in 1455. The Spanish conquistadors wrote glowingly of
markets in the Americas. In the 15th century, the Mexica (Aztec) market of
Tlatelolco was the largest in all the Americas.[34]
Fruit and Vegetable Market, Painting
by Arnout de Muyser. c. 1590
English market towns were regulated from a relatively early period. The
English monarchs awarded a charter to local Lords to create markets and
fairs for a town or village. This charter would grant the lords the right to take tolls and also afford some protection from
rival markets. For example, once a chartered market was granted for specific market days, a nearby rival market could
not open on the same days.[35] Across the boroughs of England, a network of chartered markets sprang up between the
12th and 16th centuries, giving consumers reasonable choice in the markets they preferred to patronise.[36] A study on
the purchasing habits of the monks and other individuals in medieval England, suggests that consumers of the period
were relatively discerning. Purchase decisions were based on purchase criteria such as consumers' perceptions of the
range, quality, and price of goods. This informed decisions about where to make their purchases and which markets
were superior.[37]
Braudel and Reynold have made a systematic study of these European market towns between the thirteenth and
fifteenth century. Their investigation shows that in regional districts markets were held once or twice a week while daily
markets were common in larger cities. Gradually over time, permanent shops with regular trading days began to
supplant the periodic markets, while peddlers filled in the gaps in distribution. The physical market was characterised
by transactional exchange and the economy was characterised by local trading. Braudel reports that, in 1600, goods
travelled relatively short distances – grain 5–10 miles; cattle 40–70 miles; wool and woollen cloth 20–40 miles.
Following the European age of discovery, goods were imported from afar – calico cloth from India, porcelain, silk and
tea from China, spices from India and South-East Asia and tobacco, sugar, rum and coffee from the New World.[38]
English essayist, Joseph Addison, writing in 1711, described the exotic origin of produce available to English society in
the following terms:
"Our Ships are laden with the Harvest of every Climate: Our Tables are stored with Spices,
and Oils, and Wines: Our Rooms are filled with Pyramids of China, and adorned with the
Workmanship of Japan: Our Morning's Draught comes to us from the remotest Corners of the
Earth: We repair our Bodies by the Drugs of America, and repose ourselves under Indian
Canopies. My Friend Sir ANDREW calls the Vineyards of France our Gardens; the Spice-
Islands our Hot-beds; the Persians our Silk-Weavers, and the Chinese our Potters. Nature
indeed furnishes us with the bare Necessaries of Life, but Traffick gives us greater Variety of
what is Useful, and at the same time supplies us with every thing that is Convenient and
Ornamental."[39]
Luca Clerici has made a detailed study of Vicenza’s food market during the sixteenth century. He found that there were
many different types of reseller operating out of the markets. For example, in the dairy trade, cheese and butter were
sold by the members of two craft guilds (i.e., cheesemongers who were shopkeepers) and that of the so-called ‘resellers’
(hucksters selling a wide range of foodstuffs), and by other sellers who were not enrolled in any guild. Cheesemongers’
shops were situated in the town hall and were very lucrative. Resellers and direct sellers increased the number of sellers,
thus increasing competition, to the benefit of consumers. Direct sellers, who brought produce from the surrounding
countryside, sold their wares through the central market place and priced their goods at considerably lower rates than
cheesemongers.[40]
Retailing in the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries

By the 17th century, permanent shops with more regular trading hours were
beginning to supplant markets and fairs as the main retail outlet. Provincial
shopkeepers were active in almost every English market town. These
shopkeepers sold general merchandise, much like a contemporary
convenience store or a general store. For example, William Allen, a mercer in
Tamworth who died in 1604, sold spices alongside furs and fabrics.[41]
William Stout of Lancaster retailed sugar, tobacco, nails and prunes at both
his shop and at the central markets. His autobiography reveals that he spent
The retail service counter was an most of his time preparing products for sale at the central market, which
innovation of the eighteenth century brought an influx of customers into town.[42]
As the number of shops grew, they underwent a transformation. The

trappings of a modern shop, which had been entirely absent from the sixteenth- and early seventeenth-century store,
gradually made way for store interiors and shopfronts that are more familiar to modern shoppers. Prior to the
eighteenth century, the typical retail store had no counter, display cases, chairs, mirrors, changing-rooms, etc. However,
the opportunity for the customer to browse merchandise, touch and feel products began to be available, with retail
innovations from the late 17th and early 18th centuries.[43] Glazing was widely used from the early 18th century. English
commentators pointed to the speed at which glazing was installed, Daniel Defoe, writing in 1726, noted that "Never was
there such painting and guildings, such sashings and looking-glasses as the shopkeepers as there is now."[44]
Outside the major metropolitan cities, few stores could afford to serve one type of clientele exclusively. However,
gradually retail shops introduced innovations that would allow them to separate wealthier customers from the "riff raff."
One technique was to have a window opening out onto the street from which customers could be served. This allowed
the sale of goods to the common people, without encouraging them to come inside. Another solution, that came into
vogue from the late sixteenth century was to invite favoured customers into a back-room of the store, where goods were
permanently on display. Yet another technique that emerged around the same time was to hold a showcase of goods in
the shopkeeper's private home for the benefit of wealthier clients. Samuel Pepys, for example, writing in 1660, describes
being invited to the home of a retailer to view a wooden jack.[45] The

eighteenth-century English entrepreneurs, Josiah Wedgewood and Matthew
Boulton, both staged expansive showcases of their wares in their private
residences or in rented halls.[46]
Savitt has argued that by the eighteenth century, American merchants, who
had been operating as importers and exporters, began to specialise in either
wholesale or retail roles. They tended not to specialise in particular types of
merchandise, often trading as general merchants, selling a diverse range of
product types. These merchants were concentrated in the larger cities. They Josiah Wedgewood was one of the
English entrepreneurs who held
often provided high levels of credit financing for retail transactions.[47]
expansive displays in his private
By the late eighteenth century, home or in rented premises
grand shopping arcades began to

emerge across Europe and in the
Antipodes. A shopping arcade refers to a multiple-vendor space, operating
under a covered roof. Typically, the roof was constructed of glass to allow for
natural light and to reduce the need for candles or electric lighting. Some of
the earliest examples of shopping arcade appeared in Paris, due to its lack of
Galeries de bois at au Palais-Royal, pavement for pedestrians. Retailers, eager to attract window shoppers by
one of the earliest shopping arcades providing a shopping environment away from the filthy streets, began to
in Europe
construct rudimentary arcades. Opening in 1771, the Coliseé, situated on the
Champs Elysee, consisted of three arcades, each with ten shops, all running
off a central ballroom. For Parisians, the location was seen as too remote and the arcade closed within two years of
opening.[29] Inspired by the souks of Arabia, the Galerie de Bois, a series of wooden shops linked the ends of the Palais
Royal, opened in 1786 and became a central part of Parisian social life.[48]
The architect, Bertrand Lemoine, described the period, 1786 to 1935, as l’Ère des passages couverts (the Arcade
Era).[49] In the European capitals, shopping arcades spread across the continent, reaching their heyday in the early 19th
century: the Palais Royal in Paris (opened in 1784); Passage de Feydeau in Paris (opened in 1791) and Passage du Claire
in 1799.[29] London's Piccadilly Arcade (opened in 1810); Paris's Passage Colbert (1826) and Milan's Galleria Vittorio
Emanuele (1878).[50] Designed to attract the genteel middle class, arcade retailers sold luxury goods at relatively high
prices. However, prices were never a deterrent, as these new arcades came to be the place to shop and to be seen.
Arcades offered shoppers the promise of an enclosed space away from the chaos that characterised the noisy, dirty
streets; a warm, dry space away from the elements, and a safe-haven where people could socialise and spend their
leisure time. As thousands of glass covered arcades spread across Europe, they became grander and more ornately
decorated. By the mid-nineteenth century, they had become prominent centres of fashion and social life. Promenading
in these arcades became a popular nineteenth-century pass-time for the emerging middle classes. The Illustrated Guide
to Paris of 1852 summarized the appeal of arcades in the following description:
"In speaking of the inner boulevards, we have made mention again and again of the arcades
which open onto them. These arcades, a recent invention of industrial luxury, are glass-
roofed, marble-paneled corridors extending through whole blocks of buildings, whose owners
have joined together for such enterprises. Lining both sides of these corridors, which get their
light from above, are the most elegant shops, so that the arcade is a city, a world in miniature,
in which customers will find everything they need."[51]
The Palais-Royal, which opened to Parisians in 1784 and became one of the most important marketplaces in Paris, is
generally regarded as the earliest example in the grand shopping arcades.[52] The Palais-Royal was a complex of
gardens, shops and entertainment venues situated on the external perimeter of the grounds, under the original
colonnades. The area boasted some 145 boutiques, cafés, salons, hair salons, bookshops, museums, and numerous
refreshment kiosks as well as two theatres. The retail outlets specialised in luxury goods such as fine jewellery, furs,
paintings and furniture designed to appeal to the wealthy elite. Retailers

operating out of the Palais complex were among the first in Europe to
abandon the system of bartering, and adopt fixed-prices thereby sparing
their clientele the hassle of bartering. Stores were fitted with long glass
exterior windows which allowed the emerging middle-classes to window
shop and indulge in fantasies, even when they may not have been able to
afford the high retail prices. Thus, the Palais-Royal became one of the first
examples of a new style of shopping arcade, frequented by both the
aristocracy and the middle classes. It developed a reputation as being a site The Piccadilly entrance to the
of sophisticated conversation, revolving around the salons, cafés, and Burlington Arcade in 1827–28,
bookshops, but also became a place frequented by off-duty soldiers and was shortly after its opening
a favourite haunt of prostitutes, many of whom rented apartments in the

building.[53] London's Burlington Arcade, which opened in 1819, positioned
itself as an elegant and exclusive venue from the outset.[54] Other notable nineteenth-century grand arcades include the
Galeries Royales Saint-Hubert in Brussels which was inaugurated in 1847, Istanbul's Çiçek Pasajı opened in 1870 and
Milan's Galleria Vittorio Emanuele II first opened in 1877. Shopping arcades were the precursor to the modern shopping
mall.
While the arcades were the province of the bourgeoisie, a new type of retail
venture emerged to serve the needs of the working poor. John Stuart Mill
wrote about the rise of the co-operative retail store, which he witnessed first-
hand in the mid-nineteenth century. Stuart Mill locates these co-operative
stores within a broader co-operative movement which was prominent in the
industrial city of Manchester and in the counties of Yorkshire and
Lancashire. He documents one of the early co-operative retail stores in
Rochdale in Manchester, England, "In 1853, the Store purchased for £745, a
warehouse (freehold) on the opposite side of the street, where they keep and
The original Toad Lane Store,
retail their stores of flour, butcher's meat, potatoes, and kindred articles."
Rochdale, Manchester; one of
Britain's earliest co-operative stores Stuart Mill also quoted a contemporary commentator who wrote of the
benefits of the co-operative store:
Buyer and seller meet as friends; there is no overreaching on one side, and no suspicion on the other...
These crowds of humble working men, who never knew before when they put good food in their mouths,
whose every dinner was adulterated, whose shoes let in the water a month too soon, whose waistcoats
shone with devil's dust, and whose wives wore calico that would not wash, now buy in the markets like
millionaires, and as far as pureness of food goes, live like lords.[55]
Retailing in the modern era

The modern era of retailing is defined as the period from the industrial
revolution to the 21st century.[56] In major cities, the department store
emerged in the mid- to late 19th century, and permanently reshaped
shopping habits, and redefined concepts of service and luxury. The term,
"department store" originated in America. In 19th-century England, these
stores were known as emporia or warehouse shops.[57] In London, the first
department stores appeared in Oxford Street and Regent Street, where they
formed part of a distinctly modern shopping precinct.[58] When London Department stores, such as Le Bon
draper, William Whiteley attempted to transform his Bayswater drapery Marché of France, appeared from
store into a department store by adding a meat and vegetable department the mid nineteenth century
and an Oriental Department in around 1875, he met with extreme resistance
from other shop-keepers, who resented that he was encroaching on their territory and poaching their customers.[59]
Before long, however, major department stores began to open across the US, Britain and Europe from the mid-
nineteenth century, including Harrod's of London in 1834; Kendall's in Manchester in 1836; Selfridges of London in
1909; Macy's of New York in 1858; Bloomingdale's in 1861; Sak's in 1867; J.C. Penney in 1902; Le Bon Marché of France
in 1852 and Galeries Lafayette of France in 1905.[60] Other twentieth-century innovations in retailing included chain
stores, mail-order, multi-level marketing (pyramid selling or network marketing, c. 1920s), party plans (c. 1930s) and
B2C e-commerce.[61]
Many of the early department stores were more than just a retail emporium; rather they were venues where shoppers
could spend their leisure time and be entertained. Some department stores offered reading rooms, art galleries and
concerts. Most department stores had tea-rooms or dining rooms and offered treatment areas where ladies could
indulge in a manicure. The fashion show, which originated in the US in around 1907, became a staple feature event for
many department stores and celebrity appearances were also used to great effect. Themed events featured wares from
foreign shores, exposing shoppers to the exotic cultures of the Orient and Middle-East.[62]
During this period, retailers worked to develop modern retail marketing

practices. Pioneering merchants who contributed to modern retail marketing
and management methods include: A. T. Stewart, Potter Palmer, John
Wanamaker, Montgomery Ward, Marshall Field, Richard Warren Sears,
Rowland Macy, J.C. Penney, Fred Lazarus, brothers Edward and William
Filene and Sam Walton.[63]
Retail, using mail order, came of age during the mid-19th century. Although
catalogue sales had been used since the 15th century, this method of retailing
In 1963, Carrefour opened the first was confined to a few industries such as the sale of books and seeds.
hypermarket in St Genevieve-de- However, improvements in transport and postal services led several
Bois, near Paris,
entrepreneurs on either side of the Atlantic to experiment with catalogue
sales. In 1861, Welsh draper Pryce Pryce-Jones sent catalogues to clients
who could place orders for flannel clothing which was then despatched by post. This enabled Pryce-Jones to extend his
client base across Europe.[64] A decade later, the US retailer, Montgomery Ward also devised a catalogue sales and mail-
order system. His first catalogue which was issued in August 1872 consisted of an 8 in × 12 in (20 cm × 30 cm) single-
sheet price list, listing 163 items for sale with ordering instructions for which Ward had written the copy. He also
devised the catch-phrase "satisfaction guaranteed or your money back" which was implemented in 1875.[65] By the
1890s, Sears and Roebuck were also using mail order with great success.
Edward Filene, a proponent of the scientific approach to retail management, developed the concept of the automatic
bargain Basement. Although Filene's basement was not the first ‘bargain basement’ in the U.S., the principles of
‘automatic mark-downs’ generated excitement and proved very profitable. Under Filene's plan, merchandise had to be
sold within 30 days or it was marked down; after a further 12 days, the merchandise was further reduced by 25% and if
still unsold after another 18 days, a further markdown of 25% was applied. If the merchandise remained unsold after
two months, it was given to charity.[66] Filene was a pioneer in employee relations. He instituted a profit sharing
program, a minimum wage for women, a 40-hour work week, health clinics and paid vacations. He also played an
important role in encouraging the Filene Cooperative Association, "perhaps the earliest American company union".
Through this channel he engaged constructively with his employees in collective bargaining and arbitration
processes.[67]
In the post-war period, an American architect, Victor Gruen developed a concept for a shopping mall; a planned, self-
contained shopping complex complete with an indoor plaza, statues, planting schemes, piped music, and car-parking.
Gruen's vision was to create a shopping atmosphere where people felt so comfortable, they would spend more time in
the environment, thereby enhancing opportunities for purchasing. The first of these malls opened at Northland Mall
near Detroit in 1954. He went on to design some 50 such malls. Due to the success of the mall concept, Gruen was
described as "the most influential architect of the twentieth century by a journalist in the New Yorker."[68]
Throughout the twentieth century, a trend towards larger store footprints

became discernible. The average size of a U.S. supermarket grew from
31,000 square feet (2,900 m2) square feet in 1991 to 44,000 square feet
(4,100 m2) square feet in 2000. In 1963, Carrefour opened the first
hypermarket in St Genevieve-de-Bois, near Paris, France.[69] By the end of
the twentieth century, stores were using labels such as "mega-stores" and
"warehouse" stores to reflect their growing size. In Australia, for example,
the popular hardware chain, Bunnings has shifted from smaller "home
centres" (retail floor space under 5,000 square metres (54,000 sq ft)) to
"warehouse" stores (retail floor space between 5,000 square metres
(54,000 sq ft) and 21,000 square metres (230,000 sq ft)) in order to
accommodate a wider range of goods and in response to population growth
and changing consumer preferences.[70] The upward trend of increasing
retail space was not consistent across nations and led in the early 21st
century to a 2-fold difference in square footage per capita between the
Shopping mall in Warsaw, Poland
United States and Europe.[71]
As the 21st century takes shape, some indications suggest that large retail
stores have come under increasing pressure from online sales models and that reductions in store size are evident.[72]
Under such competition and other issues such as business debt,[73] there has been a noted business disruption called
the retail apocalypse in recent years which several retail businesses, especially in North America, are sharply reducing
their number of stores, or going out of business entirely.
Retail strategy
The distinction between "strategic" and "managerial" decision-making is
commonly used to distinguish "two phases having different goals and based
on different conceptual tools. Strategic planning concerns the choice of
policies aiming at improving the competitive position of the firm, taking
account of challenges and opportunities proposed by the competitive
environment. On the other hand, managerial decision-making is focused on
the implementation of specific targets."[74]
In retailing, the strategic plan is designed to set out the vision and provide
Retailers make many strategic guidance for retail decision-makers and provide an outline of how the
decisions – store type, market product and service mix will optimize customer satisfaction. As part of the
served, product assortment and
strategic planning process, it is customary for strategic planners to carry out
customer services
a detailed environmental scan which seeks to identify trends and
opportunities in the competitive environment, market environment,
economic environment and statutory-political environment. The retail strategy is normally devised or reviewed every 3–
5 years by the chief executive officer.
The strategic retail analysis typically includes following elements:[75]
* Market analysis
Market size, stage of market, market competitiveness, market attractiveness, market

trends
* Customer analysis
Market segmentation, demographic, geographic and psychographic profile, values and

attitudes, shopping habits, brand preferences, analysis of needs and wants, media
habits
* Internal analysis
Other capabilities e.g. human resource capability,

technological capability, financial capability, ability to
generate scale economies or economies of scope,
trade relations, reputation, positioning, past
performance
* Competition analysis The retailer also considers the

overall strategic position and retail
Availability of substitutes, competitor's strengths and image
weaknesses, perceptual mapping, competitive
trends
* Review of product mix
Sales per square foot, stock-turnover rates, profitability per product line
* Review of distribution channels
Lead-times between placing order and delivery, cost of distribution, cost efficiency of
intermediaries
* Evaluation of the economics of the strategy
Cost-benefit analysis of planned activities
At the conclusion of the retail analysis, the retail marketers should have a clear idea of which groups of customers are to
be the target of marketing activities. Retail research studies suggest that there is a strong relationship between a store's
positioning and the socio-economic status of customers.[76] In addition, the retail strategy, including service quality, has
a significant and positive association with customer loyalty.[77] A marketing strategy effectively outlines all key aspects
of firms' targeted audience, demographics, preferences. In a highly competitive market, the retail strategy sets up long-
term sustainability. It focuses on customer relationships, stressing the importance of added value, customer satisfaction
and highlights how the store's market positioning appeals to targeted groups of customers.[78]
The retail marketing mix

See also product management; promotion mix; marketing mix; price; servicescapes and retail design
Once the strategic plan is in place, retail managers turn to the more
managerial aspects of planning. A retail mix is devised for the purpose of
coordinating day-to-day tactical decisions. The retail marketing mix typically
consists of six broad decision layers including product decisions, place
decisions, promotion, price, personnel and presentation (also known as
physical evidence). The retail mix is loosely based on the marketing mix, but
has been expanded and modified in line with the unique needs of the retail
context. A number of scholars have argued for an expanded marketing, mix
with the inclusion of two new Ps, namely, Personnel and Presentation since
these contribute to the customer's unique retail experience and are the The retail marketing mix or the 6 Ps
principal basis for retail differentiation. Yet other scholars argue that the of retailing
Retail Format (i.e. retail formula) should be included.[79] The modified retail
marketing mix that is most commonly cited in textbooks is often called the 6
Ps of retailing (see diagram at right).[80][81]
Product
See Product management
The primary product-related decisions facing the retailer are the product assortment (what product lines, how many
lines and which brands to carry); the type of customer service (high contact through to self-service) and the availability
of support services (e.g. credit terms, delivery services, after sales care). These decisions depend on careful analysis of
the market, demand, competition as well as the retailer's skills and expertise.
Product assortment
The term product assortment
refers to the combination of
both product breadth and
depth. The main characteristics
of a company's product
assortment are:[82]
(1) the length or number

A typical supermarket carries an of products lines
assortment of between 30,000 and the number of different Assorted books
60,000 different products products carried by a
store
(2) the breadth
refers to the variety of product lines that a store offers. It is also known as product assortment
width, merchandise breadth, and product line width.:
(3) depth or number of product varieties within a product line
the number of each item or particular styles carried by a store
(4) consistency
how products relate to each other in a retail environment.
For a retailer, finding the right balance between breadth and depth can be a key to success. An average supermarket
might carry 30,000–60,000 different product lines (product length or assortment), but might carry up to 100 different
types of toothpaste (product depth).[83] Speciality retailers typically carry fewer product lines, perhaps as few as 20
lines, but will normally stock greater depth. Costco, for example, carries 5,000 different lines while Aldi carries just
1,400 lines per store.[84]
Large assortments offer consumers many benefits, notably increased choice

and the possibility that the consumer will be able to locate the ideal product.
However, for the retailer, larger assortments incur costs in terms of record-
keeping, managing inventory, pricing and risks associated with wastage due
to spoiled, shopworn or unsold stock. Carrying more stock also exposes the
retailer to higher risks in terms of slow-moving stock and lower sales per
square foot of store space. On the other hand, reducing the number of
product lines can generate cost savings through increased stock turnover by
eliminating slow-moving lines, fewer stockouts, increased bargaining power Discount grocery retailer, Aldi, has
successfully trimmed the number of
with suppliers, reduced costs associated with wastage and carrying
product lines it carries to about
inventory, and higher sales per square foot which means more efficient space
1,400
utilisation.
When determining the number of product lines to carry, the retailer must
consider the store type, store's physical storage capacity, the perishability of items, expected turnover rates for each line
and the customer's needs and expectations.
Customer service and supporting services

Customer service is the "sum of acts and elements that allow consumers to
receive what they need or desire from [the] retail establishment." Retailers
must decide whether to provide a full service outlet or minimal service
outlet, such as no-service in the case of vending machines; self-service with
only basic sales assistance or a full service operation as in many boutiques
and speciality stores. In addition, the retailer needs to make decisions about
sales support such as customer delivery and after sales customer care.
Self-service is a more cost efficient Retailing services may also include the provision of credit, delivery services,
way to deliver goods
advisory services, exchange/ return services, product demonstration, special
orders, customer loyalty programs, limited-scale trial, advisory services and
a range of other supporting services. Retail stores often seek to differentiate along customer service lines. For example,
some department stores offer the services of a stylist; a fashion advisor, to assist customers selecting a fashionable
wardrobe for the forthcoming season, while smaller boutiques may allow regular customers to take goods home on
approval, enabling the customer to try out goods before making the final purchase. The variety of supporting services
offered is known as the service type. At one end of the spectrum, self-service operators offer few basic support services.
At the other end of the spectrum, full-service operators offer a broad range of highly personalised customer services to
augment the retail experience.[85]
When making decisions about customer service, the retailer must balance the customer's desire for full-service against
the customer's willingness to pay for the cost of delivering supporting services. Self-service is a very cost efficient way of
delivering services since the retailer harnesses the customers labour power to carry out many of the retail tasks.
However, many customers appreciate full service and are willing to pay a premium for the benefits of full-service.[86]
A sales assistant's role typically includes greeting customers, providing product and service-related information,
providing advice about products available from current stock, answering customer questions, finalising customer
transactions and if necessary, providing follow-up service necessary to ensure customer satisfaction.[87] For retail store
owners, it is extremely important to train personnel with the requisite skills necessary to deliver excellent customer
service. Such skills may include product knowledge, inventory management, handling cash and credit transactions,
handling product exchange and returns, dealing with difficult customers and of course, a detailed knowledge of store
policies. The provision of excellent customer service creates more opportunities to build enduring customer
relationships with the potential to turn customers into sources of referral or retail advocates. In the long term, excellent
customer service provides businesses with an ongoing reputation and may lead to a competitive advantage. Customer
service is essential for several reasons.[88] Firstly, customer service contributes to the customer's overall retail
experience. Secondly, evidence suggests that a retail organization which trains its employees in appropriate customer
service benefits more than those who do not. Customer service training entails instructing personnel in the methods of
servicing the customer that will benefit corporations and businesses. It is important to establish a bond amongst
customers-employees known as Customer relationship management.[89]
Types of customer service

There are several ways the retailer can deliver services to consumers:
Counter service, where goods are out of reach of buyers and must be obtained from the seller. This type of retail is
common for small expensive items (e.g. jewellery) and controlled items like medicine and liquor.
Click and Commute, where products are ordered online and are picked up via a drive through.
Ship to Store, where products are ordered online and can be picked up at the retailer's main store
Delivery, where goods are shipped directly to consumer's homes or workplaces.
Mail order from a printed catalogue was invented in 1744 and was common in the late 19th and early 20th
centuries. Ordering by telephone was common in the 20th century, either from a catalog, newspaper, television
advertisement or a local restaurant menu, for immediate service (especially for pizza delivery), remaining in
common use for food orders. Internet shopping – a form of delivery – has eclipsed phone-ordering, and, in several
sectors – such as books and music – all other forms of buying. There is increasing competitor pressure to deliver
consumer goods – especially those offered online – in a more timely
fashion. Large online retailers such as Amazon.com are continually
innovating and as of 2015 offer one-hour delivery in certain areas. They
are also working with drone technology to provide consumers with more
efficient delivery options. Direct marketing, including telemarketing and
television shopping channels, are also used to generate telephone
orders. started gaining significant market share in developed countries
in the 2000s.
Door-to-door sales, where the salesperson sometimes travels with the
goods for sale.
Self-service, where goods may be handled and examined prior to
purchase.
Digital delivery or Download, where intangible goods, such as music,
film, and electronic books and subscriptions to magazines, are delivered
directly to the consumer in the form of information transmitted either
over wires or air-waves, and is reconstituted by a device which the
consumer controls (such as an MP3 player; see digital rights
management). The digital sale of models for 3D printing also fits here,
as do the media leasing types of services, such as streaming.
Place
Counter service is associated with
Place decisions are primarily concerned with consumer access and may full service retail outlets and allows
involve location, space utilisation and operating hours. the salesperson to provide expert
advice
Location
Also see Site selection
Perspective of large retail enterprises of supply chain relationship marketing

is based on the theory of supply chain management in large retail enterprises
of supply chain in the application of relationship marketing, it emphasizes
that the suppliers, large-scale retail enterprises, customers form a chain of
large retail enterprises and suppliers to form cooperative marketing,
establish mutually beneficial long term good relationship with customers.
Relationship marketing of huge retail enterprises from the perspective of Sellers of souvenirs are typically
supply chain mainly includes two relationship markets, supplier relationship located in high traffic areas such as
and customer relationship market. Because the two stakeholders that have this London souvenir stand situated
near a railway station on a busy
the greatest influence on the profits of retail enterprises are suppliers and
street corner
customers. First, as the supplier of commodities to retail enterprises, it
directly determines the procurement cost of commodities to retail
enterprises, which is mainly reflected in the purchase price of commodities themselves, the cost incurred in the
procurement process, and the loss cost caused by unstable supply of commodities. In addition, the good relationship
with supplier interaction, large retail enterprises can also promote the suppliers timely grasp the market information,
improved or innovative products according to customer demand, which contributed to the retail enterprises improve the
market competitiveness of the goods are sold, so the retail enterprise's relationship with supplier directly affects the
retail enterprises in the commodity market competitive. Second, due to the transfer of advantages between buyers and
sellers, the retail industry has turned to the buyer's market, and consumers have become the key resources for major
retailers to compete with each other.[90] Therefore, it is very important to establish a good relationship with clients and
improve customer loyalty. The relationship marketing of customer relationship market regards the transaction with
clients as a long term activity. Retail enterprises should pursue long-term mutual benefit maximization rather than a
single transaction sales profit maximization. This requires large retail enterprises to establish a customer-oriented
trading relationship with the customer relationship market. Retail stores are typically located where market
opportunities are optimal – high traffic areas, central business districts. Selecting the right site can be a major success
factor. When evaluating potential sites, retailers often carry out a trade area analysis; a detailed analysis designed to
approximate the potential patronage area. Techniques used in trade area analysis include: Radial (ring) studies; Gravity
models and Drive time analyses.
In addition, retailers may consider a range of both qualitative and quantitative factors to evaluate to potential sites
under consideration:
Macro factors
Macro factors include market characteristics (demographic, economic and socio-

cultural), demand, competition and infrastructure (e.g. the availability of power, roads,
public transport systems)
Micro factors
Micro factors include the size of the site (e.g. availability of parking), access for delivery
vehicles
Channels
A major retail trend has been the shift to multi-channel retailing. To counter the disruption caused by online retail,
many bricks and mortar retailers have entered the online retail space, by setting up online catalogue sales and e-
commerce websites. However, many retailers have noticed that consumers behave differently when shopping online.
For instance, in terms of choice of online platform, shoppers tend to choose the online site of their preferred retailer
initially, but as they gain more experience in online shopping, they become less loyal and more likely to switch to other
retail sites.[91] Online stores are usually available 24 hours a day, and many consumers in Western countries have
Internet access both at work and at home.
Pricing strategy and tactics

See also Pricing Strategies
The broad pricing strategy is normally established in the company's overall

strategic plan. In the case of chain stores, the pricing strategy would be set
by head office. Broadly, there are six approaches to pricing strategy
mentioned in the marketing literature:
Operations-oriented pricing: where the objective is to

optimise productive capacity, to achieve operational
efficiencies or to match supply and demand through
varying prices. In some cases, prices might be set to
demarket.[92]
Revenue-oriented pricing: (also known as profit-oriented

pricing or cost-based pricing) – where the marketer seeks
to maximise the profits (i.e., the surplus income over
costs) or simply to cover costs and break even.[92]
A price tag is a highly visual and
Customer-oriented pricing: where the objective is to objective guide to value
maximise the number of customers; encourage cross-
selling opportunities or to recognise different levels in the
customer's ability to pay.[92]
Value-based pricing: (also known as image-based pricing) occurs where the company uses
prices to signal market value or associates price with the desired value position in the mind of
the buyer. The aim of value-based pricing is to reinforce the overall positioning strategy e.g.
premium pricing posture to pursue or maintain a luxury image.[93][94]
Relationship-oriented pricing: where the marketer sets prices in order to build or maintain
relationships with existing or potential customers.[95]
Socially-oriented pricing: Where the objective is to encourage or discourage specific social

attitudes and behaviours. e.g. high tariffs on tobacco to discourage smoking.[96]
Pricing tactics
When decision-makers have determined the broad approach to pricing (i.e.,
the pricing strategy), they turn their attention to pricing tactics. Tactical
pricing decisions are shorter term prices, designed to accomplish specific
short-term goals. The tactical approach to pricing may vary from time to
time, depending on a range of internal considerations (e.g. the need to clear
surplus inventory) or external factors (e.g. a response to competitive pricing
tactics). Accordingly, a number of different pricing tactics may be employed
in the course of a single planning period or across a single year. Typically
Retailers must also plan for mode of store managers have the necessary latitude to vary prices on individual lines
payment provided that they operate within the parameters of the overall strategic
approach.
Retailers must also plan for customer preferred payment modes – e.g. cash, credit, lay-by, Electronic Funds Transfer at
Point-of-Sale (EFTPOS). All payment options require some type of handling and attract costs. If credit is to be offered,
then credit terms will need to be determined. If lay-by is offered, then the retailer will need to take into account the
storage and handling requirements. If cash is the dominant mode of payment, the retailer will need to consider small
change requirements, the number of cash floats required, wages costs associated with handling large volumes of cash
and the provision of secure storage for change floats. Large retailers, handling significant volumes of cash, may need to
hire security service firms to carry the day's takings and deliver supplies of small change. A small, but increasing
number of retailers are beginning to accept newer modes of payment including PayPal and Bitcoin.[97] For example,
Subway (US) recently announced that it would accept Bitcoin payments.[98]
Contrary to common misconception, price is not the most important factor for consumers, when deciding to buy a
product.[99]
Pricing tactics that are commonly used in retail include:
Discount pricing
Discount pricing is where the marketer or retailer offers a reduced price.

Discounts in a variety of forms – e.g. quantity discounts, loyalty rebates,
seasonal discounts, periodic or random discounts etc.[100]
Everyday low prices (EDLP)

A discount is any form of reduction
Everyday low prices refers to the practice of maintaining a regular low price- in price
low price – in which consumers are not forced to wait for discounting or
specials. This method is extensively used by supermarkets.[101]
High-low pricing
High-low pricing refers to the practice of offering goods at a high price for a
period of time, followed by offering the same goods at a low price for a
predetermined time. This practice is widely used by chain stores selling
homewares. The main disadvantage of the high-low tactic is that consumers
tend to become aware of the price cycles and time their purchases to coincide
with a low-price cycle.[101][102]
Loss leader
Everyday Low Prices" are widely A loss leader is a product that has a price set below the operating margin.
used in supermarkets Loss leadering is widely used in supermarkets and budget-priced retail
outlets where it is intended to generate store traffic. The low price is widely
promoted and the store is prepared to take a small loss on an individual
item, with an expectation that it will recoup that loss when customers purchase other higher priced-higher margin
items. In service industries, loss leadering may refer to the practice of charging a reduced price on the first order as an
inducement and with anticipation of charging higher prices on subsequent orders.
Price bundling
Price bundling (also known as product bundling) occurs where two or more
products or services are priced as a package with a single price. There are
several types of bundles: pure bundles where the goods can only be
purchased as package or mixed bundles where the goods can be purchased
individually or as a package. The prices of the bundle is typically less than
when the two items are purchased separately.[103] Price bundling is
extensively used in the personal care sector to prices cosmetics and skincare.
Xbox price bundle price
Price lining
Price lining is the use of a limited number of prices for all product offered by a business. Price lining is a tradition
started in the old five and dime stores in which everything cost either 5 or 10 cents. In price lining, the price remains
constant but quality or extent of product or service adjusted to reflect changes in cost. The underlying rationale of this
tactic is that these amounts are seen as suitable price points for a whole range of products by prospective customers. It
has the advantage of ease of administering, but the disadvantage of inflexibility, particularly in times of inflation or
unstable prices. Price lining continues to be widely used in department stores where customers often note racks of
garments or accessories priced at predetermined price points e.g. separate racks of men's ties, where each rack is priced
at $10, $20 and $40.
Promotional pricing
Promotional pricing is a temporary measure that involves setting prices at levels lower than normally charged for a good
or service. Promotional pricing is sometimes a reaction to unforeseen circumstances, as when a downturn in demand
leaves a company with excess stocks; or when competitive activity is making inroads into market share or profits.[104]
Psychological pricing
Psychological pricing is a range of tactics designed to have a positive psychological impact. Price tags using the terminal
digit "9", ($9.99, $19.99 or $199.99) can be used to signal price points and bring an item in at just under the consumer's
reservation price. Psychological pricing is widely used in a variety of retail settings.[105]
Personnel and staffing
Because patronage at a retail outlet varies, flexibility in scheduling is

desirable. Employee scheduling software is sold, which, using known
patterns of customer patronage, more or less reliably predicts the need for
staffing for various functions at times of the year, day of the month or week,
and time of day. Usually needs vary widely. Conforming staff utilization to
staffing needs requires a flexible workforce which is available when needed
but does not have to be paid when they are not, part-time workers; as of
2012 70% of retail workers in the United States were part-time. This may
result in financial problems for the workers, who while they are required to
be available at all times if their work hours are to be maximized, may not
have sufficient income to meet their family and other obligations.[106]
Selling and sales techniques

Also see Personal selling
Extensive use of the terminal digit
'nine' suggests that psychological Retailers can employ different
pricing is at play techniques to enhance sales
volume and to improve the
customer experience:
Add-on, Upsell or Cross-sell.

Upselling and cross selling are sometimes known as
suggestive selling. When the consumer has selected their
main purchase, sales assistants can try to sell the One of the most well-known cross-
customer on a premium brand or higher quality item (upselling sales scripts comes from
selling) or can suggest complementary purchases (cross- McDonald's. "Would you like fries
selling). For instance, if a customer purchases a non-stick with that?"
frypan, the sales assistant might suggest plastic slicers
that do not damage the non-stick surface.
Selling on value
Skilled sales assistants find ways to focus on value rather than price. Selling on value often
involves identifying a product’s unique features. Adding value to goods or services such as a
free gift or buy 1 get 1 free adds value to customers where as the store is gaining sales[107]
Know when to close the sale
Sales staff must learn to recognise when the customer is ready to make a purchase. If the
sales person feels that the customer is ready, then they may seek to gain commitment and
close the sale. Experienced sales staff soon learn to recognise specific verbal and non-verbal
cues that signal the client's readiness to buy. For instance, if a customer begins to handle the
merchandise, this may indicate a state of buyer interest. Clients also tend to employ different
types of questions throughout the sales process. General questions such as, "Does it come in
any other colours (or styles)?" indicate only a moderate level of interest. However, when
clients begin to ask specific questions, such as "Do you have this model in black?" then this
often indicates that the prospect is approaching readiness to buy.[108] When the sales person
believes that the prospective buyer is ready to make the purchase, a trial close might be used
to test the waters. A trial close is simply any attempt to confirm the buyer's interest in finalising
the sale. An example of a trial close, is "Would you be requiring our team to install the unit for
you?" or "Would you be available to take delivery next Thursday?" If the sales person is
unsure about the prospect's readiness to buy, they might consider using a 'trial close.' The
salesperson can use several different techniques to close the sale; including the ‘alternative
close’, the ‘assumptive close’, the ‘summary close’, or the ‘special-offer close’, among others.
Promotion
In the 1980s, the customary sales concept in the retail industry began to show many disadvantages. Many transactions
cost too much, and the industry was unable to retain customers as it only paid attention to the process of a single
transaction rather than to marketing for customer development and maintenance. The traditional marketing theory
holds that transactions are one-time value exchange processes and the means of exchanging goods needed by both
parties. Accordingly, when the transaction is completed, the relationship between the two parties will also end, so the
theory is called "transactional marketing". Transactional marketing aims to find target consumers, then negotiate, trade,
and finally end relationships to complete the transaction. In this one-time transaction process, both parties aim to
maximize their own interests. As a result, transactional marketing raises follow-up problems such as poor after-sales
service quality and a lack of feedback channels for both parties. In addition, because retail enterprises needed to
redevelop client relationships for each transaction, marketing costs were high and customer retention was low. All these
downsides to transactional marketing gradually pushed the retail industry towards establishing long-term cooperative
relationships with customers. Through this lens, enterprises began to focus on the process from transaction to
relationship.[109] While expanding the sales market and attracting new customers is very important for the retail
industry, it is also important to establish and maintain long term good relationships with previous customers, hence the
name of the underlying concept, "relational marketing". Under this concept, retail enterprises value and attempt to
improve relationships with customers, as customer relationships are conducive to maintaining stability in the current
competitive retail market, and are also the future of retail enterprises.
One of the unique aspects of retail promotions is that two brands are often involved; the store brand and the brands that
make up the retailer's product range. Retail promotions that focus on the store tend to be ‘image’ oriented, raising
awareness of the store and creating a positive attitude towards the store and its services. Retail promotions that focus on
the product range, are designed to cultivate a positive attitude to the brands stocked by the store, in order to indirectly
encourage favourable attitudes towards the store itself.[110] Some retail advertising and promotion is partially or wholly
funded by brands and this is known as co-operative (or co-op) advertising.[111]
Retailers make extensive use of advertising via newspapers, television and radio to encourage store preference. In order
to up-sell or cross-sell, retailers also use a variety of in-store sales promotional techniques such as product
demonstrations, samples, point-of-purchase displays, free trial, events, promotional packaging and promotional pricing.
In grocery retail, shelf wobblers, trolley advertisements, taste tests and recipe cards are also used. Many retailers also
use loyalty programs to encourage repeat patronage.
Presentation
See Merchandising; Servicescapes; Retail design
Presentation refers to the physical evidence that signals the retail image. Physical evidence may include a diverse range
of elements – the store itself including premises, offices, exterior facade and interior layout, websites, delivery vans,
warehouses, staff uniforms.
Designing retail spaces

The environment in which the retail service encounter occurs is sometimes known as the retail servicescape.[112] The
store environment consists of many elements such as smells, the physical environment (furnishings, layout and
functionality), ambient conditions (lighting, temperature, noise) as well as signs, symbols and artifacts (e.g. sales
promotions, shelf space, sample stations, visual communications). Collectively, these elements contribute to the
perceived retail servicescape or the overall atmosphere and can influence both the customer's cognitions, emotions and
their behaviour within the retail space.
Relationship between market Large retail enterprises of relationship marketing refers to a large retail enterprise with
suppliers, customers, internal organization, channel distributors, market impact, and other competitors such as the
interests of the enterprise marketing process related everything to establish and maintain good relations, thus
maximizing the interests of the large retail enterprise in the long-term marketing activities, it was based on the
relationship marketing concept

as the core of innovation.
Different from traditional
marketing concepts, relationship
marketing focuses on
maintaining long-term good
relations with relevant parties on
marketing activities. The
Simplified servicescapes model ultimate goal of relationship
marketing is tantamount to
maximize the long term interests
of enterprises. The marketing activities of large retail enterprises mainly
have six relationship markets, which are supplier relationship market,
customer relationship market, enterprise internal relationship market,
intermediary relationship market at all levels, enterprise marketing activities
The way that products are displayed
influence relationship market and industry competitor relationship market.
is part of the store's presentation
Among these six relational markets, supply relational market and customer
relational market are the two markets that have the greatest influence on the
relationship marketing of large retail enterprises. Substantial retail enterprises usually have two sources of profit. The
principal source of profit is to reduce the purchase price from suppliers. The other is to develop new customers and keep
old clients, so as to expand the market sales of goods. In addition, the extra four related markets have an indirect impact
on the marketing activities of large retail enterprises.[113] The internal relationship market of an enterprise can be
divided into several different types of relationships according to distinct objects, such as employee relationship market,
department relationship market, shareholder relationship market and the mutual relations among the relationship
markets. The purpose of carrying out relationship marketing is to promote the cohesion and innovation ability of
enterprises and maximize the long term interests of enterprises. Another relationship of relationship marketing
middlemen is the relationship between market and intermediary in the process of corporate marketing is playing the
intermediary role between suppliers and customers, in the current increasingly fierce market competition, more
important distribution channels for enterprises, but for retail enterprises, too much sales levels will increase the cost of
sales of the enterprise. Therefore, large retail enterprises should realize the simplification of sales channel level by
reasonably selecting suppliers. Large-scale retail enterprises purchasing goods to suppliers with procurement scale
advantage, can directly contact with the product manufacturing, with strong bargaining power, therefore, direct contact
with the manufacturer is a large retail enterprise to take the main purchasing mode, it is a terminal to the starting point
of zero level channel purchasing mode, therefore, the elimination of middlemen, so as to make the large retail enterprise
in the marketing activity, the dealer relationship market is not so important. Then there is the enterprise influence
relationship market, which is a relational marketing influence in the enterprise supply chain. It mainly guides and
standardizes the advance direction of enterprises through formulating systems at the macro level. The relationship
market mainly includes the relationship between the relevant government departments at all levels where the enterprise
is located, the relationship with the industry association to which the enterprise belongs, and the relationship with all
kinds of public organizations, etc., and the enterprise influence itself cannot directly affect the marketing activities of the
enterprise. The final relational market is the industry's competitors, potential competitors, alternative competitors and
so on. How to correctly deal with the relationship between competitors and the market has become a problem that large
retail enterprises need to solve.
Retail designers pay close attention to the front of the store, which is known as the decompression zone.This is usually
an open space in the entrance of the store to allow customers to adjust to their new environment. An open-plan floor
design is effective in retail as it allows customers to see everything. In terms of the store's exterior, the side of the road
cars normally travel, determines the way stores direct customers. New Zealand retail stores, for instance, would direct
customers to the left.
In order to maximise the number of selling opportunities, retailers generally want customers to spend more time in a
retail store. However, this must be balanced against customer expectations surrounding convenience, access and
realistic waiting times. The overall aim of designing a retail environment is to have customers enter the store, and
explore the totality of the physical environment engaging in a variety of retail experiences – from browsing through to
sampling and ultimately to purchasing. The retail service environment plays an important role in affecting the
customer's perceptions of the retail experience.[114]
The retail environment not only affects quality perceptions, but can also
impact on the way that customers navigate their way through the retail space
during the retail service encounter. Layout, directional signage, the
placement of furniture, shelves and display space along with the store's
ambient conditions all affect patron's passage through the retail service
system. Layout refers to how equipment, shelves and other furnishings are
placed and the relationship between them. In a retail setting, accessibility is
an important aspect of layout. For example, the grid layout used by
supermarkets with long aisles and gondolas at the end displaying premium
merchandise or promotional items, minimises the time customers spend in
the environment and makes productive use of available space.[115] The
The retail servicescape includes the
gondola, so favoured by supermarkets, is an example of a retail design appearance, equipment, display
feature known as a merchandise outpost and which refers to special space, retail counters, signage,
displays, typically at or near the end of an aisle, whose purpose is to layout and functionality of a retail
stimulate impulse purchasing or to complement other products in the outlet. Pictured:Harrods food court
vicinity. For example, the meat cabinet at the supermarket might use a
merchandise outpost to suggest a range of marinades or spice rubs to
complement particular cuts of meat. As a generalisation, merchandise outposts are updated regularly so that they
maintain a sense of novelty.[116]
According to Ziethaml et al., layout affects how easy or difficult it is to navigate through a system. Signs and symbols
provide cues for directional navigation and also inform about appropriate behaviour within a store. Functionality refers
to extent to which the equipment and layout meet the goals of the customer.[117] For instance, in the case of
supermarkets, the customer's goal may be to minimise the amount of time spent finding items and waiting at the check-
out, while a customer in a retail mall may wish to spend more time exploring the range of stores and merchandise. With
respect to functionality of layout, retail designers consider three key issues; circulation – design for traffic-flow and that
encourages customers to traverse the entire store; coordination – design that combines goods and spaces in order to
suggest customer needs and convenience – design that arranges items to create a degree of comfort and access for both
customers and employees.[118]
The way that brands are displayed is also part of the overall retail design. Where a product is placed on the shelves has
implications for purchase likelihood as a result of visibility and access. Products placed too high or too low on the
shelves may not turn over as quickly as those placed at eye level.[119] With respect to access, store designers are
increasingly giving consideration to access for disabled and elderly customers.
Through sensory stimulation retailers can engage maximum emotional impact between a brand and its consumers by
relating to both profiles; the goal and experience. Purchasing behaviour can be influenced through the physical evidence
detected by the senses of touch, smell, sight, taste and sound.[120] Supermarkets offer taste testers to heighten the
sensory experience of brands. Coffee shops allow the aroma of coffee to waft into streets so that passers-by can
appreciate the smell and perhaps be lured inside. Clothing garments are placed at arms' reach, allowing customers to
feel the different textures of clothing.[120] Retailers understand that when customers interact with products or handle
the merchandise, they are more likely to make a purchase.
Within the retail environment, different spaces may be designed for different
purposes. Hard floors, such as wooden floors, used in public areas, contrast
with carpeted fitting rooms, which are designed to create a sense of
homeliness when trying on garments. Peter Alexander, retailer of sleep ware,
is renowned for using scented candles in retail stores.
Ambient conditions, such as lighting, temperature and music, are also part
of the overall retail environment.[120] It is common for a retail store to play
music that relates to their target market. Studies have found that "positively
valenced music will stimulate more thoughts and feeling than negatively
valenced music", hence, positively valenced music will make the waiting time
feel longer to the customer than negatively valenced music.[121] In a retail
store, for example, changing the background music to a quicker tempo may
influence the consumer to move through the space at a quicker pace, thereby
improving traffic flow.[122] Evidence also suggests that playing music
Navigational floor signs are reduces the negative effects of waiting since it serves as a distraction.[121]
commonly used in complex Jewellery stores like Michael Hill have dim lighting with a view to fostering a
environments such as shopping sense of intimacy.
malls and department stores
The design of a retail store is critical when appealing to the intended market,
as this is where first impressions are made. The overall servicescape can
influence a consumer's perception of the quality of the store, communicating value in visual and symbolic ways. Certain
techniques are used to create a consumer brand experience, which in the long run drives store loyalty.[123]
Shopper profiles
Two different strands of research have investigated shopper behaviour. One strand is primarily concerned with shopper
motivations. Another stream of research seeks to segment shoppers according to common, shared characteristics. To
some extent, these streams of research are inter-related, but each stream offers different types of insights into shopper
behaviour.
Babin et al. carried out some of the earliest investigations into shopper motivations and identified two broad motives:
utilitarian and hedonic. Utilitarian motivations are task-related and rational. For the shopper with utilitarian motives,
purchasing is a work-related task that is to be accomplished in the most efficient and expedient manner. On the other
hand, hedonic motives refer to pleasure. The shopper with hedonic motivations views shopping as a form of escapism
where they are free to indulge fantasy and freedom. Hedonic shoppers are more involved in the shopping
experience.[124]
Many different shopper profiles can be identified. Retailers develop customised segmentation analyses for each unique
outlet. However, it is possible to identify a number of broad shopper profiles. One of the most well-known and widely
cited shopper typologies is that developed by Sproles and Kendal in the mid-1980s.[125][126][127] Sproles and Kendall's
consumer typology has been shown to be relatively consistent across time and across cultures.[128][129] Their typology is
based on the consumer's approach to making purchase decisions.[130]
Quality conscious/Perfectionist: Quality-consciousness is characterised by a consumer's search for the very best
quality in products; quality conscious consumers tend to shop systematically making more comparisons and
shopping around.
Brand-conscious: Brand-consciousness is characterised by a tendency to buy expensive, well-known brands or
designer labels. Those who score high on brand-consciousness tend to believe that the higher prices are an
indicator of quality and exhibit a preference for department stores or top-tier retail outlets.
Recreation-conscious/Hedonistic: Recreational shopping is characterised by the consumer's engagement in the
purchase process. Those who score high on recreation-consciousness regard shopping itself as a form of
enjoyment.
Price-conscious: A consumer who exhibits price-and-value

consciousness. Price-conscious shoppers carefully shop around
seeking lower prices, sales or discounts and are motivated by obtaining
the best value for money
Novelty/fashion-conscious: characterised by a consumer's tendency
to seek out new products or new experiences for the sake of
excitement; who gain excitement from seeking new things; they like to
keep up-to-date with fashions and trends, variety-seeking is associated
with this dimension.
Impulsive: Impulsive consumers are somewhat careless in making
purchase decisions, buy on the spur of the moment and are not overly
concerned with expenditure levels or obtaining value. Those who score
high on impulsive dimensions tend not to be engaged with the object at
either a cognitive or emotional level.
Confused (by over-choice): characterised by a consumer's confusion
caused by too many product choices, too many stores or an overload of
product information; tend to experience information overload.
Habitual/brand loyal: characterised by a consumer's tendency to follow
a routine purchase pattern on each purchase occasion; consumers have
favourite brands or stores and have formed habits in choosing; the
purchase decision does not involve much evaluation or shopping
around.
Some researchers have adapted Sproles and Kendall's methodology for use
in specific countries or cultural groups.[131] Consumer decision styles are
important for retailers and marketers because they describe behaviours that
are relatively stable over time and for this reason, they are useful for market People who shop for pleasure are
segmentation. known as recreational shoppers.
The recreational shopper has its
origins in the grand European
Retail format: types of retail outlet shopping arcades. Pictured: The
gentry in a Dutch lace shop in the
The retail format (also known as the retail formula) influences the
17th century
consumer's store choice and addresses the consumer's expectations. At its
most basic level, a retail format is a simple marketplace, that is; a location
where goods and services are exchanged. In some parts of the world, the retail sector is still dominated by small family-
run stores, but large retail chains are increasingly dominating the sector, because they can exert considerable buying
power and pass on the savings in the form of lower prices. Many of these large retail chains also produce their own
private labels which compete alongside manufacturer brands. Considerable consolidation of retail stores has changed
the retail landscape, transferring power away from wholesalers and into the hands of the large retail chains.[132]
In Britain and Europe, the retail sale of goods is designated as a service activity. The European Service Directive applies
to all retail trade including periodic markets, street traders and peddlers.
Retail type by product

Retail stores may be classified by the type of product carried:
Food retailers
Retailers carrying highly perishable foodstuffs such as meat, dairy and fresh produce typically require cold storage
facilities. Consumers purchase food products on a very regular purchase cycle – e.g. daily, weekly or monthly.
Softline retailers[133][134]
Softline retailers sell goods that are consumed after a single use, or have a limited life (typically under three years) in
they are normally consumed. Soft goods include clothing, other fabrics, footwear, toiletries, cosmetics, medicines and
stationery.
Grocery and convenience retail
Grocery stores, including supermarkets and hypermarkets, along with convenience stores carry a mix of food products
and consumable household items such as detergents, cleansers, personal hygiene products. Consumer consumables are
collectively known as fast-moving-consumer goods (FMCG) and represent the lines most often carried by supermarkets,
grocers and convenience stores. For consumers, these are regular purchases and for the retailer, these products
represent high turnover product lines. Grocery stores and convenience stores carry similar lines, but a convenience store
(staffed or automated) is often open at times that suit its clientele and may be located for ease of access.
Hardline retailers
Retailers selling consumer durables are sometimes known as hardline retailers[135] – automobiles, appliances,
electronics, furniture, sporting goods, lumber, etc., and parts for them. Goods that do not quickly wear out and provide
utility over time. For the consumer, these items often represent major purchase decisions. Consumers purchase
durables over longer purchase decision cycles. For instance, the typical consumer might replace their family car every 5
years, and their home computer every 4 years.
Specialist retailers
Specialist retailers operate in many industries such as the arts e.g. green grocers, contemporary art galleries, bookstores,
handicrafts, musical instruments, gift shops.
Types of retail outlet by product type
Furniture and Food retailer – A Fruit Food retail includes Kaaswereld, a specialist
homewares retailers are shop in Naggar, charcuteries, butcheries, cheese store in the
said to be hardline Himachal Pradesh, India delicatessens, green Netherlands
retailers. Pictured groceries, provedores
Furniture retailer in etc.
Hong Kong
Stores that sell Stores that sell a mix of A store that retails a mix An art gallery is a
consumables are known perishable and of household needs and specialist retailer
as softline retailers consumable goods to is open long hours is a
cater for household convenience store
needs are known as
grocery stores
Bookstore is another
example of specialist
retailer
Retail types by marketing strategy

Types of retail outlets (retail shops, retail stores) by marketing strategy include:
Arcade
A shopping arcade refers to a group of retail outlets operating under a covered walkway. Arcades are similar to shopping
malls, although they typically comprise a smaller number of outlets. Shopping arcades were the evolutionary precursor
to the shopping mall, and were very fashionable in the late 19th century. Stylish men and women would promenade
around the arcade, stopping to window shop, making purchases and also taking light refreshments in one of the arcade's
tea-rooms. Arcades offered fashionable men and women opportunities to 'be seen' and to socialise in a relatively safe
environment. Arcades continue to exist as a distinct type of retail outlet. Historic 19th-century arcades have become
popular tourist attractions in cities around the world. Amusement arcades, also known as penny arcades in the US, are
more modern incarnation of the eighteenth and nineteenth century shopping arcade.
Anchor store
An anchor store (also known as draw tenant or anchor tenant) is a larger store with a good reputation used by shopping
mall management to attract a certain volume of shoppers to a precinct.[136]
Bazaar
The term, 'bazaar' can have multiple meanings. It may refer to a Middle-Eastern market place while a 'penny bazaar'
refers to a retail outlet that specialises in inexpensive or discounted merchandise. In the United States a bazaar can
mean a "rummage sale" which describes a charity fundraising event held by a church or other community organization
and in which either donated used goods are made available for sale.
Boutique
A Boutique is a small store offering a select range of fashionable goods or accessories. The term, 'boutique', in retail and
services, appears to be taking on a broader meaning with popular references to retail goods and retail services such as
boutique hotels, boutique beers (i.e. craft beers), boutique investments etc.[137]
Category killer
By supplying a wide assortment in a single category for lower prices a

category killer retailer can "kill" that category for other retailers.[138] A
category killer is a specialist store that dominates a given category. Toys "R"
Us, established in 1957, is thought to be the first category killer, dominating
the children's toys and games market.[139] For a few categories, such as
electronics, home hardware, office supplies and children's toys, the products
are displayed at the centre of the store and a sales person will be available to Australia's Officeworks is a category
address customer queries and give suggestions when required. Rival retail killer, retailing everything for the
stores are forced to reduce their prices if a category killer enters the market home office or small commercial
office; stationery, furniture,
in a given geographic area. Examples of category killers include Toys "R" Us
electronics, communications
and Australia's Bunnings (hardware, DIY and outdoor supplies) and
devices, copying, printing and
Officeworks (stationery and supplies for the home office and small office). photography services, coffee, tea
Some category killers redefine the category. For example, Australia's and light snacks
Bunnings began as a hardware outlet, but now supplies a broad range of
goods for the home handyman or small tradesman, including kitchen
cabinetry, craft supplies, gardening needs and outdoor furniture. Similarly Officeworks straddles the boundary between
stationery supplies, office furniture and digital communications devices in its quest to provide for all the needs of the
retail consumer and the small, home office.
Chain store
Chain store is one of a series of stores owned by the same company and selling the same or similar merchandise.[140]
Chain stores aim to benefit from volume buying discounts (economies of scale) and achieve cost savings through
economies of scope (e.g. centralised warehousing, marketing, promotion and administration) and pass on the cost
savings in the form of lower prices.
Concept store
Concept stores are similar to speciality stores in that they are very small in
size, and only stock a limited range of brands or a single brand. They are
typically operated by the brand that controls them. Example: L'OCCITANE
en Provence. The limited size and offering of L'OCCITANE's stores is too
small to be considered a speciality store. However, a concept store goes
beyond merely selling products, and instead offers an immersive customer
experience built around the way that a brand fits with the customer's
lifestyle.[141] Examples include Apple's concept stores, Kit Kat's concept store
in Japan.
Apple's concept stores include video
walls, wi-fi and desks to provide an
Co-operative store
immersive customer experience
A co-operative store; also known as a co-op or coop, is a venture owned and
operated by consumers to meet their social, economic and cultural
needs.[142]
Convenience store
A convenience store provides limited amount of merchandise at above average prices with a speedy checkout. This store
is ideal for emergency and immediate purchase consumables as it often operates with extended hours, stocking every
day.[143]
Department store
Department stores are very large stores offering an extensive assortment of both "soft" and "hard" goods which often
bear a resemblance to a collection of specialty stores. A retailer of such store carries a variety of categories and has a
broad assortment of goods at moderate prices. They offer considerable customer service.[144]
Destination store
A destination store is one that customers will initiate a trip specifically to visit, sometimes over a large area. These stores
are often used to "anchor" a shopping mall or plaza, generating foot traffic, which is capitalized upon by smaller
retailers.[145]
Demographic
Retailers that aim at one particular segment (e.g. high-end/ luxury retailers focusing on wealthy individuals or niche
market).
Discount store
Discount stores tend to offer a wide array of products and services, but they compete mainly on price. They offer
extensive assortments of merchandise at prices lower than other retailers and are designed to be affordable for the
market served. In the past, retailers sold less fashion-oriented brands. However, in more recent years companies such as
TJX Companies (Own T.J. Maxx and Marshalls) and Ross Stores are discount store operations increasingly offering
fashion-oriented brands on a larger scale.[146]
E-tailer
The customer can shop and order through the internet and the merchandise is dropped at the customer's doorstep or an
e-tailer. In some cases, e-retailers use drop shipping technique. They accept the payment for the product but the
customer receives the product directly from the manufacturer or a wholesaler. This format is ideal for customers who do
not want to travel to retail stores and are interested in home shopping.[147]
General merchandise retailer

A general merchandise retailer stocks a variety of products in considerable

depth. The types of product offerings vary across this category. Department
stores, convenience stores, hypermarkets and warehouse clubs are all
examples of general merchandise retailers.[148]
General store
A general store is a store that supplies the main needs of the local
community and is often located in outback or rural areas with low
population densities. In areas of very low population density, a general store A general store in Scarsdale,
may be the only retail outlet within hundreds of miles. The general store Victoria, Australia operates as a
carries a very broad product assortment; from foodstuffs and post-office, newsagent, petrol
pharmaceuticals through to hardware and fuel. In addition, a general store station, video hire, grocer and take-
away food retailer
may provide essential services such as postal services, banking services,
news agency services and may also act as an agent for farm equipment and
stock-food suppliers.[149]
Give-away shop
As the name implies, a give-away shop provides goods for free. There are several different models of give-away shop in
popular use. One is where goods are free to any shopper; an alternative is that shoppers must provide a product before
they can take a product and a third variation is where consumers have the option of taking goods for free or paying any
amount that they can afford. For example, Australia's restaurant group Lentil as Anything operates on a pay whatever
you feel is right model.[150]
Hawkers
Hawkers also known as a peddlers, costermongers or street vendors; refer to a vendor of merchandise that is readily
portable. Hawkers typically operate in public places such as streets, squares, public parks or gardens or near the
entrances of high traffic venues such as zoos, music and entertainment venues, but may also call on homes for door-to-
door seling.[151] Hawkers are a relatively common sight across Asia.
High Street store
A high street store is a term used widely in the United Kingdom where more than 5,000 High Streets where a variety of
stores congregate along a main road.[152] Stores situated in the High Street provide for the needs of a local community,
and often give a locality a unique identity.
Hypermarkets
A hypermarket (also known as hypermart) provides variety and huge volumes of exclusive merchandise at low margins.
The operating cost is comparatively less than other retail formats; may be defined as "a combined supermarket and
discount store, at least 200,000 square feet (19,000 m2) or larger, that sells a wide variety of food and general
merchandise at a low price."[153]
Mall
A mall has a range of retail shops at a single building or outlet, arranged on a single level or multiple levels. A shopping
mall typically includes one or more anchor stores.[154] The retail mix in a mall may include outlets such as food and
entertainment, grocery, electronics, furniture, gifts and fashion. Malls provide 7% of retail revenue in India, 10% in
Vietnam, 25% in China, 28% in Indonesia, 39% in the Philippines, and 45% in Thailand.[155] Malls are typically
managed by a central management/ marketing authority which ensures that the mall attracts the right type of retailer
and an appropriate retail mix.
Mom-and-pop store
A small retail outlet owned and operated by an individual or family. Focuses on a relatively limited and selective set of
products.
Pop-up retail store
A Pop-up retail store is a temporary retail space that opens for a short period
of time, possibly opening to sell a specific run of merchandise or for a special
occasion or holiday period. The key to the success of a pop-up is novelty in
the merchandise.[156]
Retail marketplace
UNIQLO Pop-Up store at Union
A Marketplace is defined as venue for the retail sales of all products, packed
Square station
and unpacked where the sale is to end users.[157] In practice, retail markets
are most often associated with the sale of fresh produce, including fruit,
vegetables, meat, fish and poultry, but may also sell small consumable household goods such as cleaning agents.
Globally, different terms may be used to refer to a retail market. For instance, in the Middle East, a market place may be
known as a bazaar or souq/souk
Market square
A market square is a city square where traders set up temporary stalls and buyers browse for purchases. In England,
such markets operate on specific days of the week. This kind of market is very ancient, and countless such markets are
still in operation around the world.
Speciality store
A speciality (AE: specialty) store has a narrow marketing focus – either specializing on specific merchandise, such as
toys, footwear, or clothing, or on a target audience, such as children, tourists, or plus-size women.[158] Size of store
varies – some speciality stores might be retail giants such as Toys "R" Us, Foot Locker, and The Body Shop, while others
might be small, individual shops such as Nutters of Savile Row.[158] Such stores, regardless of size, tend to have a
greater depth of the specialist stock than general stores, and generally offer specialist product knowledge valued by the
consumer. Pricing is usually not the priority when consumers are deciding upon a speciality store; factors such as
branding image, selection choice, and purchasing assistance are seen as important.[158] They differ from department
stores and supermarkets which carry a wide range of merchandise.[159]
Supermarket
A supermarket is a self-service store consisting mainly of grocery and limited products on non-food items.[160] They
may adopt a Hi-Lo or an EDLP strategy for pricing. The supermarkets can be anywhere between 20,000 square feet
(1,900 m2) and 40,000 square feet (3,700 m2). Example: SPAR supermarket.
Variety store
Variety stores offer extremely low-cost goods, with a vast array of selection. The downfall to this is that the items are not
very high quality.[161]
Vending machine
A vending machine is an automated piece of equipment wherein customers can drop the money in the machine which
dispenses the customer's selection. The vending machine is a pure self-service option. Machines may carry a phone
number which customers can call in the event of a fault.[162]
Some stores take a no frills approach, while others are "mid-range" or "high end",
depending on what income level they target.
Warehouse club
Warehouse clubs are membership-based retailers that usually sell a wide variety of
merchandise, in which customers may buy large, wholesale quantities of the store's
products, which makes these clubs attractive to both bargain hunters and small business
owners. The clubs are able to keep prices low due to the no-frills format of the stores. In
addition, customers may be required to pay annual membership fees in order to shop.[163]
Warehouse store
Warehouse stores are retailers housed in warehouses, and offer low-cost, often high-
quantity goods with minimal services, e.g. goods are piled on pallets or steel shelves.
shopping aisles are narrow and cramped, added-value services such as home delivery are
non-existent.[164] Vending machines
can be used to sell
goods such as food
Other retail types and beverages as well
Other types of retail store include: as services such as
tickets to events or
Automated retail stores – self-service, robotic kiosks located in airports, malls and public transport.
grocery stores. The stores accept credit cards and are usually open 24/7. Examples Pictured a beer
include ZoomShops and Redbox. vending machine
Big-box stores – encompass larger department, discount, general merchandise, and
warehouse stores.
Second-hand retail
Some shops sell second-hand goods. In the case of a nonprofit shop, the public donates
goods to the shop to be sold. In give-away shops goods can be taken free.
Pawnbrokers Another form is the pawnshop, in which goods are sold that were used as
collateral for loans. There are also "consignment" shops, which are where a person can place
an item in a store and if it sells, the person gives the shop owner a percentage of the sale
price. The advantage of selling an item this way is that the established shop gives the item
exposure to more potential buyers. E-tailers like OLX and Quikr also offer second-hand
goods.
Retailers can opt for a format as each provides different retail mix to its customers based on their customer
demographics, lifestyle and purchase behaviour. An effective format will dtermine how products are display products, as
well as how target customers are attracted.
Challenges
To achieve and maintain a foothold in an existing market, a prospective retail establishment must overcome the
following hurdles:
Regulatory barriers including
Restrictions on real estate purchases, especially as imposed by local governments and against "big-box" chain
retailers;
Restrictions on foreign investment in retailers, in terms of both absolute amount of financing provided and
percentage share of voting stock (e.g. common stock) purchased;
Unfavourable taxation structures, especially those designed to penalize or keep out "big box" retailers (see
"Regulatory" above);
Absence of developed supply chain and integrated IT management;
High competitiveness among existing market participants and resulting low profit margins, caused in part by
Constant advances in product design resulting in constant threat of product obsolescence and price declines for
existing inventory; and
Lack of properly educated and/or trained work force, often including management, caused in part by loss in
Business.
Lack of educational infrastructure enabling prospective market entrants to respond to the above challenges.
Global top ten retailers

China is currently the largest retail market in the world.[165]
Worldwide top ten retailers[166]

Number
2017 of
Country revenue countries
Rank Company Dominant format 2015
of origin ($US of
billion)[167] operation
2015
1 Walmart United $500.34 Hypermarket/Supercenter/Superstore 30

States
2 Amazon United $177.86 Online Store 14

States
Walgreens
3 Boots United $131.5 Drug Store/Pharmacy 10
Alliance States
4 Costco United $129.0 Cash & Carry/Warehouse Club 10

States
5 Kroger United $122.66 Supermarket 1

States
Schwarz
6 Gruppe $110.05 Discount Store 26
Germany
(Lidl)
The Home
7 United $100.9 Home Improvement 4
Depot
States
8 Carrefour $89.63 Hypermarket/Supercenter/Superstore 35

France
9 Tesco United $72.96 Hypermarket/Supercenter/Superstore 10

Kingdom
10 Aldi $69.18[168] Discount Store 17

Germany
Competition
Retail stores may or may not have competitors close enough to affect their pricing, product availability, and other
operations. A 2006 survey found that only 38% of retail stores in India believed they faced more than slight
competition.[169] Competition also affected less than half of retail stores in Kazakhstan, Bulgaria, and Azerbaijan. In all
countries the main competition was domestic, not foreign.[170]
Country % of retail stores facing competition[170]

India 38%
Kazakhstan 44%
Bulgaria 46%
Azerbaijan 48%
Uzbekistan 58%
Armenia 58%
Georgia 59%
Kyrgyzstan 59%
Russia 62%
Belarus 64%
Croatia 68%
Romania 68%
Ukraine 72%
Turkey 73%
Serbia 74%
Tajikistan 74%
Slovenia 77%
Latvia 78%
Bosnia and Herzegovina 79%
Moldova 79%
Czech Republic 80%
Slovakia 80%
Poland 83%
Hungary 87%
Estonia 88%
Lithuania 88%
Macedonia 88%
Albania 89%
Retail trade provides 9% of all jobs in India and 14% of GDP.[169]
Mergers and acquisitions

Between 1985 and 2018 there have been 46,755 mergers or acquisitions conducted globally in the retail sector (either
acquirer or target from the retail industry). These deals cumulate to an overall known value of around US$2,561 billion.
The three major Retail M&A waves took place in 2000, 2007 and lately in 2017. However the all-time high in terms of
number of deals was in 2016 with more than 2,700 deals. In terms of added value 2007 set the record with US$225
billion.[171]
Here is a list of the top ten largest deals (ranked by volume) in the Retail Industry:
Acquiror Value of
Date Acquiror Acquiror Target Target Mid Target
Mid Transaction
Announced Name Nation Name Industry Nation
Industry ($mil)
Healthcare
Other United Caremark Providers & United
11/01/2006 CVS Corp 26,293.58
Retailing States Rx Inc Services States
(HMOs)
AB
Other United Alliance Other United
03/09/2007 Acquisitions 19,604.19
Financials Kingdom Boots PLC Retailing Kingdom
Ltd
Granada Food &
Other United United
12/18/2000 Shareholders Compass- Beverage 17,914.68
Financials Kingdom Kingdom
Hospitality Retailing
AB Food &
Other United Albertsons United
01/20/2006 Acquisition Beverage 17,543.85
Financials States Inc States
LLC Retailing
Home Home
Home Depot United Home United
02/26/2013 Improvement Improvement 17,000.00
Inc States Depot Inc States
Retailing Retailing
Discount and
Federated May
Department United Non United
02/28/2005 Department Department 16,465.87
Store States Residential States
Stores Stores Co
Retailing
Food & Food &
08/30/1999 Carrefour SA Beverage France Promodes Beverage France 15,837.48
Retailing Retailing
Alliance
Other United Other
06/19/2012 Walgreen Co Boots Switzerland 15,292.48
Retailing States Retailing
GmbH
Food & Food &
Wesfarmers Coles
07/02/2007 Beverage Australia Beverage Australia 15,287.79
Ltd Group Ltd
Retailing Retailing
Discount and Discount and
Wal-Mart Department United Wal-Mart Department United
06/03/2011 14,288.00
Stores Inc Store States Stores Inc Store States
Retailing Retailing
Statistics for national retail sales
United States
STORES Magazine annually ranks the nation's top retailers according to sales.[172][173]
Top 100 Chart (https://stores.org/stores-top-retailers-2018/)
Since 1951, the U.S. Census Bureau has published the Retail Sales report every month. It is a measure of consumer
spending, an important indicator of the US GDP. Retail firms provide data on the dollar value of their retail sales and
inventories. A sample of 12,000 firms is included in the final survey and 5,000 in the advanced one. The advanced
estimated data is based on a subsample from the US CB complete retail & food services sample.[174]
Central Europe
In 2011, the grocery market in six countries of Central Europe was worth nearly €107bn, 2.8% more than the previous
year when expressed in local currencies. The increase was generated foremost by the discount stores and supermarket
segments, and was driven by the skyrocketing prices of foodstuffs. This information is based on the latest PMR report
entitled Grocery retail in Central Europe 2012[175]
World
National accounts show a combined total of retail and wholesale trade, with
hotels and restaurants. in 2012 the sector provides over a fifth of GDP in
tourist-oriented island economies, as well as in other major countries such
as Brazil, Pakistan, Russia, and Spain. In all four of the latter countries, this
fraction is an increase over 1970, but there are other countries where the
U.S. Monthly Retail Sales, 1992–
sector has declined since 1970, sometimes in absolute terms, where other
2010
sectors have replaced its role in the economy. In the United States the sector
has declined from 19% of GDP to 14%, though it has risen in absolute terms
from $4,500 to $7,400 per capita per year. In China the sector has grown
from 7.3% to 11.5%, and in India even more, from 8.4% to 18.7%. Emarketer
predicts China will have the largest retail market in the world in 2016.[176]
In 2016, China became the largest retail market in the world.[165]
The two largest supermarkets

chains in Switzerland, Migros and
Coop, are cooperatives.
Retail trade, wholesale, hotels and restaurants (data from the United Nations)[177]
As % of As % of 1970 value per capita 2012 value per
Economy
GDP, 1970 GDP, 2012 (2012 prices) capita
Afghanistan 13.1 8.4 $140 $58
Albania 11.5 22.5 $188 $858
Algeria 17.3 11.9 $572 $639
Andorra 40.5 26.5 $17,532 $10,915
Angola 12.6 15.0 $513 $839
Anguilla 33.9 27.8 $2,166 $5,577
Antigua and Barbuda 26.4 26.8 $1,081 $3,540
Argentina 15.4 15.7 $1,041 $1,825
Armenia 15.2 $510
Aruba 26.9 19.1 $1,140 $4,757
Australia 11.4 11.7 $3,736 $7,960
Austria 17.4 18.8 $3,281 $8,782
Azerbaijan 9.0 $668
Bahamas 28.0 24.5 $5,335 $5,299
Bahrain 12.5 6.4 $3,046 $1,478
Bangladesh 15.9 15.1 $61 $124
Barbados 26.1 24.3 $2,879 $3,890
Belarus 16.8 $1,127
Belgium 12.9 14.2 $2,606 $6,189
Belize 17.0 20.3 $297 $972
Benin 17.7 17.4 $89 $131
Bermuda 17.6 11.2 $8,907 $9,648
Bhutan 8.2 8.2 $30 $205
Bolivia 9.1 11.1 $168 $286
Bosnia and Herzegovina 17.9 $807
Botswana 9.2 16.8 $60 $1,206
Brazil 16.4 21.3 $756 $2,413
British Virgin Islands 19.7 27.2 $2,178 $8,821
Brunei Darussalam 1.0 3.7 $495 $1,536
Bulgaria 14.6 13.8 $272 $966
Burkina Faso 14.9 14.2 $46 $92
Burundi 8.1 18.9 $16 $43
Cambodia 16.6 14.5 $86 $137
Cameroon 27.0 20.4 $270 $245
Canada 13.6 13.0 $3,586 $6,788
Cape Verde 24.5 18.7 $269 $718
Cayman Islands 12.0 12.2 $3,544 $7,175
Central African Republic 14.0 13.5 $100 $65

Economy
Chad 20.5 12.6 $122 $103
Chile 14.9 11.7 $780 $1,801
China 7.3 11.5 $20 $700
China: Hong Kong SAR 19.1 29.3 $1,197 $10,772
China: Macao SAR 8.0 14.9 $592 $11,629
Colombia 13.0 12.4 $439 $959
Comoros 26.2 14.5 $232 $125
Congo 13.2 5.4 $256 $185
Cook Islands 13.7 39.6 $1,069 $5,912
Costa Rica 19.9 16.3 $805 $1,531
Croatia 15.4 $2,012
Cuba 18.4 15.2 $432 $959
Cyprus 13.6 18.8 $958 $4,975
Czech Republic 13.2 $2,429
Czechoslovakia (Former) 8.0 $127
Democratic Republic of
11.7 18.3 $231 $107
North Korea
Democratic Republic of the
Congo
Denmark 20.5 15.5 $6,169 $8,708
Djibouti 45.0 18.6 $1,470 $294
Dominica 9.6 15.0 $163 $1,046
Dominican Republic 17.2 18.7 $270 $1,073
Ecuador 8.3 12.6 $195 $713
Egypt 11.0 14.4 $75 $454
El Salvador 22.6 21.2 $534 $804
Equatorial Guinea 6.4 0.9 $56 $185
Eritrea 19.4 $98
Estonia 14.0 $2,432
Ethiopia 18.6 $84
Ethiopia (Former) 8.4
Fiji 8.3 18.6 $216 $848
Finland 12.3 13.3 $2,268 $6,103
France 14.8 15.0 $2,969 $5,933
French Polynesia 14.7 16.1 $2,142 $4,212
Gabon 28.1 12.1 $2,918 $1,787
Gambia 27.1 28.8 $143 $147
Georgia 18.9 $685
Germany 12.2 11.4 $2,273 $4,736
Ghana 5.3 10.9 $58 $175

Economy
Greece 19.6 20.2 $2,469 $4,527
Greenland 14.0 10.5 $2,219 $4,326
Grenada 18.2 12.3 $294 $913
Guatemala 17.5 21.6 $385 $720
Guinea 34.0 16.2 $132 $86
Guinea-Bissau 20.7 19.4 $124 $99
Guyana 18.9 15.1 $388 $543
Haiti 17.4 18.4 $168 $130
Honduras 17.2 17.1 $247 $399
Hungary 9.8 14.1 $531 $1,760
Iceland 11.3 11.0 $1,873 $4,585
India 8.4 18.7 $31 $283
Indonesia 17.7 13.9 $120 $494
Iran (Islamic Republic of) 10.6 11.6 $473 $834
Iraq 8.2 6.4 $215 $290
Ireland 17.6 18.0 $2,293 $8,295
Israel 9.8 10.0 $1,346 $3,145
Italy 16.0 15.0 $2,755 $4,963
Ivory Coast 21.7 14.7 $353 $181
Jamaica 19.4 22.4 $1,056 $1,197
Japan 15.6 13.9 $3,004 $6,525
Jordan 17.9 10.1 $478 $445
Kazakhstan 16.8 $2,086
Kenya 6.8 13.2 $49 $125
Kiribati 12.4 8.6 $439 $150
Kosovo 18.1 $508
Kuwait 8.3 3.2 $13,693 $1,797
Kyrgyzstan 19.7 $233
Laos People's DR 14.2 20.3 $44 $278
Latvia 17.9 $2,467
Lebanon 31.4 27.6 $2,829 $2,522
Lesotho 13.0 9.0 $46 $108
Liberia 11.1 5.0 $106 $18
Libya 2.8 4.9 $543 $763
Liechtenstein 19.9 17.8 $12,763 $28,361
Lithuania 19.9 $2,782
Luxembourg 13.8 13.4 $5,010 $14,141
Madagascar 8.7 11.0 $70 $49
Malawi 3.7 19.8 $10 $70

Economy
Malaysia 12.4 16.5 $229 $1,716
Maldives 29.8 30.8 $252 $2,373
Mali 7.3 16.2 $23 $112
Malta 28.7 15.8 $1,104 $3,238
Marshall Islands 24.5 16.1 $531 $607
Mauritania 2.1 7.1 $20 $72
Mauritius 10.0 19.3 $167 $1,782
Mexico 19.3 17.8 $1,063 $1,739
Micronesia 13.1 15.1 $219 $477
Monaco 39.1 30.3 $34,091 $46,027
Mongolia 21.4 11.9 $237 $439
Montenegro 22.6 $1,475
Montserrat 19.4 7.6 $1,051 $974
Morocco 22.5 12.4 $253 $365
Mozambique 12.7 17.6 $31 $102
Myanmar 25.9 20.1 $48 $226
Namibia 8.0 14.7 $326 $832
Nauru 14.8 16.8 $7,812 $2,014
Nepal 4.7 15.4 $14 $101
Netherlands 16.4 15.8 $3,702 $7,283
Netherlands Antilles 16.4 18.2 $1,417 $3,349
New Caledonia 34.7 13.3 $9,624 $5,169
New Zealand 15.5 12.2 $3,607 $4,689
Nicaragua 15.3 16.5 $352 $289
Niger 10.6 14.1 $71 $56
Nigeria 14.6 15.9 $148 $247
Norway 16.7 8.5 $6,109 $8,521
Oman 1.7 7.7 $111 $1,822
Pakistan 18.8 20.6 $99 $248
Palau 16.3 31.2 $1,565 $3,200
Panama 16.8 19.6 $497 $1,864
Papua New Guinea 13.9 9.3 $243 $204
Paraguay 18.3 19.9 $304 $771
Peru 14.2 18.6 $583 $1,271
Philippines 10.7 19.4 $153 $501
Poland 9.2 20.2 $398 $2,590
Portugal 13.7 19.6 $1,119 $3,926
Puerto Rico 16.7 9.4 $2,024 $2,635
Qatar 5.0 5.6 $5,647 $5,208

Economy
Korea, South 17.1 11.8 $345 $2,712
Moldova 17.8 $367
Romania 3.1 7.1 $73 $557
Russian Federation 20.7 $2,934
Rwanda 9.9 15.7 $35 $97
Saint Kitts and Nevis 8.4 12.6 $256 $1,800
Saint Lucia 20.6 23.4 $527 $1,707
Samoa 14.8 23.6 $312 $851
San Marino 15.8 12.9 $5,282 $7,643
Sao Tome and Principe 25.5 26.2 $273 $363
Saudi Arabia 4.6 8.2 $799 $2,067
Senegal 22.7 20.4 $218 $207
Serbia 11.0 $582
Seychelles 32.7 29.4 $1,039 $3,285
Sierra Leone 12.9 7.6 $93 $55
Singapore 27.8 19.5 $2,008 $10,179
Slovakia 26.6 $4,470
Slovenia 14.4 $3,155
Solomon Islands 10.2 10.5 $121 $193
Somalia 9.3 10.6 $21 $14
South Africa 14.4 16.0 $847 $1,171
South Sudan 15.4 $143
Spain 15.1 21.4 $1,956 $6,060
Sri Lanka 14.5 20.8 $94 $586
St. Vincent and the
12.6 16.5 $231 $1,045
Grenadines
State of Palestine 16.7 18.4 $136 $448
Sudan 16.8 $232
Sudan (Former) 16.8 $0
Suriname 18.3 23.3 $915 $2,183
Swaziland 15.5 9.8 $197 $306
Sweden 12.1 12.8 $3,315 $7,056
Switzerland 19.9 17.8 $10,641 $14,080
Syrian Arab Republic 20.4 22.7 $184 $482
Tajikistan 20.3 $193
Macedonia 16.5 $749
Thailand 24.3 18.0 $239 $1,039
Timor-Leste 4.0 $195
Togo 23.5 8.2 $195 $49

Economy
Tonga 12.7 14.6 $214 $646
Trinidad and Tobago 18.9 17.1 $1,323 $2,966
Tunisia 11.7 13.5 $147 $558
Turkey 11.1 16.5 $437 $1,757
Turkmenistan 4.2 $274
Turks and Caicos Islands 38.2 38.0 $1,557 $8,520
Tuvalu 9.5 11.2 $182 $451
Tanzania: Mainland, see
15.0 15.8 $51 $96
also Zanzibar
Uganda 11.8 22.3 $50 $133
Ukraine 17.5 $679
United Arab Emirates 15.4 12.1 $24,122 $5,024
United Kingdom 15.3 16.5 $2,662 $6,490
United States 19.0 14.5 $4,488 $7,436
Uruguay 12.9 16.5 $810 $2,419
USSR (Former) 8.1
Uzbekistan 9.9 $178
Vanuatu 18.2 21.4 $266 $651
Venezuela 9.5 16.4 $1,152 $2,099
Vietnam 12.9 16.8 $39 $289
Yemen 16.3 $224
Yemen Arab Republic
13.7
(Former)
Yemen Democratic
21.2
(Former)
Yugoslavia (Former) 10.4
Zambia 12.6 15.0 $244 $229
Zanzibar 18.2 $119
Zimbabwe 14.9 10.7 $125 $77
Consolidation
Among retailers and retails chains a lot of consolidation has appeared over the last couple of decades. Between 1988 and
2010, worldwide 40,788 mergers & acquisitions with a total known value of US$2.255 trillion have been announced.[178]
The largest transactions with involvement of retailers in/from the United States have been: the acquisition of
Albertson's Inc. for 17 bil. USD in 2006,[179] the merger between Federated Department Stores Inc with May
Department Stores valued at 16.5 bil. USD in 2005[180] – now Macy's, and the merger between Kmart Holding Corp and
Sears Roebuck & Co with a value of 10.9 bil. USD in 2004.[181]
Gallery
Macy's Herald Square, New York City A French itinerant vendor depicted
selling medicine from a stage
Goods displayed in the souq of

Marrakech
See also
Business-to-business
B2C
B2G
Consumer behaviour
Department store
Final goods
Grey pound
Hanseatic League
High Street
History of marketing
List of department stores by country
Point of sales
Retail concentration
Retail design
Retail software
Retailtainment
Shopping
Store manager
Visual merchandising
Licensed victualler
L'Enseigne de Gersaint
Wardrobing
Window shopping
Types of sales person:
Arabber
Costermonger
Hawker (trade)
Huckster
Merchant
Peddler
Street vendor
Types of store or shop:
Anchor store
Arcade
State store
Bazaar
Big-box store
Boutique
Cash and carry (wholesale)
Category killer
Chain store
Confectionery store
Convenience store
Co-operative
Consumers' co-operative
Department store
Discount store
Drive-through store
General store
Grocery store
Hardware store
Health food store
Hobby store
Hypermarket
Liquor store
Market (place)
Mom and Pop
Newsagent
Online shopping
Outlet store
Pet store
Pop-up retail
Shopping mall
Souk or souq
Specialist store
Stand-alone store
Specialty store
Store-within-a-store
Supermarket
Surplus store
Survival store
Toy store
Variety store
Warehouse club
Warehouse store
Influential thinkers in sales and retail:[182]
Dale Carnegie: author and lecturer; proponent of salesmanship, public speaking and self-improvement
E. St. Elmo Lewis: salesmen for NCR and developer of the AIDA model of selling
William Thomas Rawleigh: founder of Rawleigh's company with one of the largest travelling sales teams in the
United States
Harry Gordon Selfridge: founder of UK Selfridges; redefined shopping away from essential errand to a pleasurable
activity; was noted for introducing a touch of theatre and celebrity appearances to department stores; also wrote the
book, The Romance of Commerce published in 1918.
Walter Dill Scott: psychologist and author; wrote a number of books on the psychology of selling in the early
twentieth century
Thomas J. Watson: salesman at NCR and CEO of IBM; often described as the "greatest American salesman"
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Further reading
Adburgham, A., Shopping in Style: London from the Restoration to Edwardian Elegance, London, Thames and
Hudson, 1979
Alexander, A., "The Study of British Retail History: Progress and Agenda", in The Routledge Companion to
Marketing History, D.G. Brian Jones and Mark Tadajewski (eds.), Oxon, Routledge, 2016, pp. 155–72
Feinberg, R.A. and Meoli, J., [Online: http://acrwebsite.org/volumes/7196/volumes/v18/NA-18%7C"A Brief History
of the Mall"], in Advances in Consumer Research, Volume 18, Rebecca H. Holman and Michael R. Solomon (eds.),
Provo, UT: Association for Consumer Research, 1991, pp. 426–27
Hollander, S.C., "Who and What are Important in Retailing and Marketing History: A Basis for Discussion", in S.C.
Hollander and R. Savitt (eds.) First North American Workshop on Historical Research in Marketing, Lansing, MI:
Michigan State University, 1983, pp. 35–40.
Jones, F., "Retail Stores in the United States, 1800–1860", Journal of Marketing, October 1936, pp. 135–40
Krafft, Manfred; Mantrala, Murali K., eds. (2006). Retailing in the 21st Century: Current and Future Trends. New
York: Springer Verlag. ISBN 978-3-540-28399-7.
Kowinski, W.S., The Malling of America: An Inside Look at the Great Consumer Paradise, New York, William
Morrow, 1985
Furnee, J.H., and Lesger, C. (eds), The Landscape of Consumption: Shopping Streets and Cultures in Western
Europe, 1600–1900, Springer, 2014
MacKeith, M., The History and Conservation of Shopping Arcades, Mansell Publishing, 1986
Nystrom, P.H., "Retailing in Retrospect and Prospect", in H.G. Wales (ed.) Changing Perspectives in Marketing,
Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 19951, pp. 117–38.
Stobard, J., Sugar and Spice: Grocers and Groceries in Provincial England, 1650–1830, Oxford University Press,
2016
External links
ECRoPEDIA – Free Global Collection of Retail/FMCG Best practices by ECR Community (http://ecr-all.org/)
Investopedia.The Industry Handbook: The Retailing Industry (http://www.investopedia.com/features/industryhandbo
ok/retail.asp)
National Retail Federation (http://www.nrf.com/National-Retail-Federation) (U.S.-based trade association)
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Retail&oldid=924821752"
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Types of customer service

Definition and explanation

antiquity is well documented in ancient sources and archaeological case

Retailing in Medieval Europe

In the more populous cities, a small number of shops were beginning to

Retailing in the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries

As the number of shops grew, they underwent a transformation. The

being invited to the home of a retailer to view a wooden jack.[45] The

grand shopping arcades began to

paintings and furniture designed to appeal to the wealthy elite. Retailers

a favourite haunt of prostitutes, many of whom rented apartments in the

Retailing in the modern era

During this period, retailers worked to develop modern retail marketing

Throughout the twentieth century, a trend towards larger store footprints

The strategic retail analysis typically includes following elements:[75]

Market size, stage of market, market competitiveness, market attractiveness, market

Market segmentation, demographic, geographic and psychographic profile, values and

Other capabilities e.g. human resource capability,

* Competition analysis The retailer also considers the

* Review of product mix

* Review of distribution channels

* Evaluation of the economics of the strategy

Cost-benefit analysis of planned activities

The retail marketing mix

(1) the length or number

Large assortments offer consumers many benefits, notably increased choice

Customer service and supporting services

Types of customer service

Perspective of large retail enterprises of supply chain relationship marketing

Macro factors include market characteristics (demographic, economic and socio-

Pricing strategy and tactics

The broad pricing strategy is normally established in the company's overall

Operations-oriented pricing: where the objective is to

Revenue-oriented pricing: (also known as profit-oriented

Socially-oriented pricing: Where the objective is to encourage or discourage specific social

Pricing tactics that are commonly used in retail include:

Discount pricing is where the marketer or retailer offers a reduced price.

Everyday low prices (EDLP)

Personnel and staffing

Because patronage at a retail outlet varies, flexibility in scheduling is

Selling and sales techniques

Add-on, Upsell or Cross-sell.

Designing retail spaces

relationship marketing concept

Price-conscious: A consumer who exhibits price-and-value

Retail type by product

Grocery and convenience retail

Types of retail outlet by product type

Retail types by marketing strategy

By supplying a wide assortment in a single category for lower prices a

General merchandise retailer

A general merchandise retailer stocks a variety of products in considerable

High Street store

Pop-up retail store

Regulatory barriers including

Global top ten retailers

Worldwide top ten retailers[166]

1 Walmart United $500.34 Hypermarket/Supercenter/Superstore 30