The Following Notes Are References According To Figures and Tables in Gartner and Hiatt (2 Edition, 2001)

Integument
The following notes are references according to Figures

and Tables in Gartner and Hiatt (2nd edition, 2001)
• On a macroscopic level, skin is divisible into an epidermis,

dermis and hypodermis, from outside in (Fig. 14-1). Gross
anatomists refer to the hypodermis as the superficial fascia.
• Epidermis. This is the part of the skin contacting the external

environment (Fig. 14-1). It is epithelium of the stratified
squamous type, and it is keratinized. The main cellular type is
the keratinocyte which allows the identification of the following
layers or strata (Table 14-1:
• Stratum basale (stratum germinativum). A single layer of
columnar cells resting on the basal laminae. These cells are
highly mitiotic and give rise to the cells seen in the stratum
spinosum.
• Stratum spinosum. Layer of variable thickness consisting of
more flattened cells, but always the thickest of the epidermal
layers. Mitotic figures are still common. Cell contacts are
desmosomal and quite prominent. They form a part of the
important Barrier function of skin.
• Stratum granulosum. Composed of from 1 to 5 layers of
flattened cells. They contain keratohyaline granules.
Desmosomal contacts present.
• Stratum lucidum. A thin layer of clear cells found only in
thick skin. Desmosomal contacts still present. Found only in
thick skin (see also below).
• Stratum corneum. Flat cornified cells without nuclei.
Cytoplasm is replaced by keratin. Desmosomal contacts still
seen in the deeper part of this layer.
• Thick and Thin skin (Pages 326-327). Whether skin is
thick or thin depends upon the thickness and prominence of
the epidermal layers. Thus, compared with thin skin, thick
skin has a stratum corneum that is quite thick, a stratum
granulosum that consists of 3-5 cell layers, and the presence
of a stratum lucidum. Photomicrographs of thick skin are
seen in Figures 14-2 & 14-3.
• Functions of Epidermis.
• Forms a protective shield on the surface of the body. Soft keratin.
This constitutes the cells of the stratum corneum. Soft keratin is
formed from the chemical reaction occurring in granulosum cells
between keratohyaline granules and tonofilaments/tonofibrils.
• Helps regulate heat levels in the body
• The body’s largest sense organ. Contains a number of sensory
nerve endings and receptors (see below)
• Storage area for fatty tissue in the hypodermis
• Barrier function. This is provided by the prominent desmosomal
system between keratinocytes and the laminae bodies secreted by
the granulosum cells.
• Cellular types of Epidermis.

• Keratinocytes. The main cellular type of epidermis. They undergo
a cytomorphosis (see above description and page 326 of Gartner
and Hiatt).
• Melanocytes . Of neural crest origin. These are found scattered in
the strata basale and spinosum. A few are located in the papillary
dermis with their processes (dendritic processes) extending into the
epidermis. Melanocytes produce melanin in a chemical reaction in
which tyrosinase catalyses the conversion of tyrosine - dopa -
melanin. The melanin is contained in melanosomes, which are
transferred to adjacent keratinocytes by cytocrine secretion. The
number of melanocytes/mm if skin is about the same in lighter and
darker skinned individuals; skin color is due to the density of
melanin granules in keratinocytes and the presence of pigments in
the dermis. Figure 14-6 illustrates the effect of sunlight on activity
in melanocytes.
• Langerhans’ cells. These are located principally in the stratum
spinosum. These are part of the Mononuclear Phagocytic System
and of bone marrow origin. They migrate as monocytes into the
epidermis from the blood; they then migrate from the papillary
dermis into the strata basale and spinosum of the epidermis.
Langerhans’ cells, like macrophages, process antigen which they
present to helper T-lymphocytes in a form capable of producing an
immune response.
• Merkel cells function as sensory receptors, which are associated
with unmyelinated sensory nerve fibers. They most probably
function as mechanoreceptors. A Merkel cell is shown in Figure
14-5.
• Dermis.
• Anchoring of epidermis to dermis. This is accomplished by
inward projections of the epidermis as epidermal ridges
interdigitating with outward projections of the dermis called
dermal papillae (Fig. 14-2).
• The dermis is divisible into a superficial papillary layer and a

deep reticular layer (Fig. 14-1). The papillary layer is composed
of loose connective tissue with type III collagen fibers
interwoven with elastic fibers. The same basic histology is
shared by the dermis surrounding hair follicles and their
sebaceous glands. The papillary dermis contains fibroblasts and
mast cells. The papillary layer is a significant blood supply
with abundant capillaries that control body temperature and
nourish they cells of the avascular epidermis. This layer of
dermis also contains the conspicuous Meissner corpuscle, as
concentrated in areas within papillary papillae; these corpuscles
measure fine touch and are particularly abundant of the palms,
soles, margins of the lips, and nipples.
The reticular layer is composed of dense irregular connective
tissue, particularly type I collagen fibers. These fibers are
mixed with thick elastic fibers; and together, the collagen and
elastic fibers form bundles oriented predominantly parallel to
the surface of the skin. Cells are not as dense in the reticular
layer compared with the papillary layer, but include the
expected cell types customarily found under epithelia.
• Sensory Receptors in Skin.

• Epidermis:
Free nerve endings: as far outward as stratum
granulosum; pain and temperature.
Merkel cells: stratum basale; mechanoreceptors.
• Dermis:
Meissner corpuscles: dermal papillae; touch.
Krause corpuscles, probably mechanoreceptors.
Free nerve endings around hair follicles.
• Dermis/hypodermis:
Ruffini corpuscles, stretching of skin.
Pacianian corpuscles, pressure and vibration.
• Appendages of the Skin.

• Sweat glands.
Eccrine (pp. 334-335; Fig. 14-7): These are found essentially
on all skin surfaces. They help regulate body heat. Eccrine
glands are simple coiled glands. Their secretory epithelium is
usually simple cuboidal or columnar with two cell types being
recognized. They are supplied by postganglionic sympathetic
nerve fibers that are cholinergic.
The two cellular types of these glands are: Dark cells and
clear cells that represent secretory cells, together with
myoepithelial cells (Fig. 14-8). Briefly, dark cells produce a
mucous-like secretion, whereas clear cells manufacture an
aqueous secretion. Myoepithelial cells surround the secretory
unit; their contraction helps move the formed sweat into the
ducts.
The ducts of the eccrine glands are composed of a bilayer of

cuboidal epithelium, and these open onto the skin surface
(pores). In coursing through the epidermis, the sweat ducts lack
walls of their own: their walls are the keratinocytes themselves.
• Apocrine (pp. 335-336): These are located in the axilla, perianal

region, external genitalia, and areola of the nipples. Their
secretory units are composed of a simple cuboidal or columnar
epithelium and only one cellular type is present. Their secretion
is more viscous than that of eccrine glands. The ducts of
apocrine cells are like those of the eccrine glands, but open into
hair follicles instead of the skin surface. Aprocine glands are
innervated by postganglionic sympathetic nerve fibers that are
nor-adrenergic. They are under the control of sex hormones and
mature at puberty.
• Hair follicles. These are found in “hairy skin” which

occupies most of the body surface; hairy skin is always
thin skin. The cells of the hair matrix produce the
medulla, cortex and cuticle of the hair. Each follicle has
an associated sebaceous gland and arrector pili muscle
(Fig. 14-8). Hairs represent hard keratin.
• Sebaceous glands (Fig. 14-8 and 14-9). Sebaceous

glands feature the holocrine type of secretion in which
the entire cell is secreted onto the skin surface via their
follicular canal. Their secretion is referred to as sebum.
Sebaceous glands are under the influence of sex
hormones. There are sebaceous glands located at the
margins of the lips and in the areola of the nipple that
open directly on the skin surface.
• Nails (Fig. Fig. 14-15). Like hairs, nails are composed of

hard keratin. They form from cells of the nail matrix.

The Following Notes Are References According To Figures and Tables in Gartner and Hiatt (2 Edition, 2001)

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The Following Notes Are References According To Figures and Tables in Gartner and Hiatt (2 Edition, 2001)

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Integument

The following notes are references according to Figures

• On a macroscopic level, skin is divisible into an epidermis,

• Epidermis. This is the part of the skin contacting the external

• Cellular types of Epidermis.

• The dermis is divisible into a superficial papillary layer and a

• Sensory Receptors in Skin.

• Appendages of the Skin.

The ducts of the eccrine glands are composed of a bilayer of

• Apocrine (pp. 335-336): These are located in the axilla, perianal

• Hair follicles. These are found in “hairy skin” which

• Sebaceous glands (Fig. 14-8 and 14-9). Sebaceous

• Nails (Fig. Fig. 14-15). Like hairs, nails are composed of

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