Photoelectric effect:-

The photoelectric effect is the emission of electrons or other free carriers when
light shines on a material. Electrons emitted in this manner can be called photo
electrons. This phenomenon is commonly studied in electronic physics, as well as
in fields of chemistry, such as quantum chemistry or electrochemistry.

According to classical electromagnetic theory, this effect can be attributed to the

transfer of energy from the light to an electron. From this perspective, an
alteration in the
intensity of light
would induce
changes in the
kinetic energy of
the electrons
emitted from the
metal.
Furthermore,
according to this
theory, a
sufficiently dim
light would be
expected to show a
time lag between the initial shining of its light and the subsequent emission of an
electron. However, the experimental results did not correlate with either of the
two predictions made by classical theory.

Instead, electrons are dislodged only by the impingement of photons when those
photons reach or exceed a threshold frequency (energy). Below that threshold, no
electrons are emitted from the material regardless of the light intensity or the
length of time of exposure to the light. (Rarely, an electron will escape by
absorbing two or more quanta. However, this is extremely rare because by the
time it absorbs enough quanta to escape, the electron will probably have emitted
the rest of the quanta.) To make sense of the fact that light can eject electrons
even if its intensity is low, Albert Einstein proposed that a beam of light is not a
wave propagating through space, but rather a collection of discrete wave packets

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(photons), each with energy hν. This shed light on Max Planck's previous
discovery of the Planck relation (E = hν) linking energy (E) and frequency (ν) as
arising from quantization of energy. The factor h is known as the Planck constant.

In 1887, Heinrich Hertz discovered that electrodes illuminated with ultraviolet

light create electric sparks more easily. In 1900, while studying black-body
radiation, the German physicist Max Planck suggested that the energy carried by
electromagnetic waves could only be released in "packets" of energy. In 1905,
Albert Einstein published a paper advancing the hypothesis that light energy is
carried in discrete quantized packets to explain experimental data from the
photoelectric effect. This model contributed to the development of quantum
mechanics. In 1914, Millikan's Experiment supported Einstein's model of the
photoelectric effect. Einstein was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1921 for "his
discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect",and Robert Millikan was awarded
the Nobel Prize in 1923 for "his work on the elementary charge of electricity and
on the photoelectric effect".

The photoelectric effect requires photons with energies approaching zero (in the
case of negative electron affinity) to over 1 MeV for core electrons in elements
with a high atomic number. Emission of conduction electrons from typical metals
usually requires a few electron-volts, corresponding to short-wavelength visible or
ultraviolet light. Study of the photoelectric effect led to important steps in
understanding the quantum nature of light and electrons and influenced the
formation of the concept of wave-particle duality. Other phenomena where light
affects the movement of electric charges include the photoconductive effect (also
known as photoconductivity or photoresistivity), the photovoltaic effect, and the
photoelectrochemical effect.

Photoemission can occur from any material, but it is most easily observable from
metals or other conductors because the process produces a charge imbalance,
and if this charge imbalance is not neutralized by current flow (enabled by
conductivity), the potential barrier to emission increases until the emission
current ceases. It is also usual to have the emitting surface in a vacuum, since
gases impede the flow of photoelectrons and make them difficult to observe.
Additionally, the energy barrier to photoemission is usually increased by thin
oxide layers on metal surfaces if the metal has been exposed to oxygen, so most
practical experiments and devices based on the photoelectric effect use clean
metal surfaces in a vacuum.

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Emission mechanism:-
The photons of a light beam have a characteristic energy proportional to the
frequency of the light. In the photoemission process, if an electron within some
material absorbs the energy of one photon and acquires more energy than the
work function (the electron binding energy) of the material, it is ejected. If the
photon energy is too low, the electron is unable to escape the material. Since an
increase in the intensity of low-frequency light will only increase the number of
low-energy photons sent over a given interval of time, this change in intensity will
not create any single photon with enough energy to dislodge an electron. Thus,
the energy of the emitted electrons does not depend on the intensity of the
incoming light, but only on the energy (equivalent frequency) of the individual
photons. It is an interaction between the incident photon and the outermost
electrons.

Electrons can absorb energy from photons when irradiated, but they usually
follow an "all or nothing" principle. All of the energy from one photon must be
absorbed and used to liberate one electron from atomic binding, or else the
energy is re-emitted. If the photon energy is absorbed, some of the energy
liberates the electron from the atom, and the rest contributes to the electron's
kinetic energy as a free particle.

Experimental observations of
photoelectric emission:-
The theory of the photoelectric effect must explain the experimental observations
of the emission of electrons from an illuminated metal surface.

For a given metal surface, there exists a certain minimum frequency of incident
radiation below which no photoelectrons are emitted. This frequency is called the
threshold frequency. Increasing the frequency of the incident beam, keeping the
number of incident photons fixed (this would result in a proportionate increase in
energy) increases the maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons emitted.
Thus the stopping voltage increases (see the experimental setup in the figure).
The number of electrons also changes because of the probability that each

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photon results in an emitted electron are a function of photon energy. If the
intensity of the incident radiation of a given frequency is increased, there is no
effect on the kinetic energy of each photoelectron.

Above the threshold frequency, the maximum kinetic energy of the emitted
photoelectron depends on the frequency of the incident light, but is independent
of the intensity of the incident light so long as the latter is not too high.

For a given metal and frequency of incident radiation, the rate at which
photoelectrons are ejected is directly proportional to the intensity of the incident
light. An increase in the intensity of the incident beam (keeping the frequency
fixed) increases the magnitude of the photoelectric current, although the
stopping voltage remains the same.

The time lag between the incidence of radiation and the emission of a
photoelectron is very small, less than 10−9 second.

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The direction of distribution of emitted electrons peaks in the direction of
polarization (the direction of the electric field) of the incident light, if it is linearly
polarized.

Mathematical description:-
In 1905, Einstein proposed an explanation of the photoelectric effect using a
concept first put forward by Max Planck that light waves consist of tiny bundles or
packets of energy known as photons or quanta.
The maximum Kinetic energy Kmax of an ejected electron is given by
Kmax=hf-W,
where
h is the Plancks constant,
f is the frequency of the incident photon,

W is the work function which gives the

minimum energy required to remove a
delocalised electron from the surface of
the metal. The work function satisfies
Diagram of the maximum kinetic energy as a function
of the frequency of light on zinc
W=hf0,

Kinetic energy is positive, so we must have f>f0 for the photoelectric effect to
occur.

Stopping potential:-
The relation between current and applied voltage illustrates the nature of the
photoelectric effect. For discussion, a light source illuminates a plate P, and
another plate electrode Q collects any emitted electrons. We vary the potential
between P and Q and measure the current flowing in the external circuit between
the two plates.
If the frequency and the intensity of the incident radiation are fixed, the
photoelectric current increases gradually with an increase in the positive potential
on the collector electrode until all the photoelectrons emitted are collected. The

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photoelectric current attains a saturation value and does not increase further for
any increase in the positive potential. The saturation current increases with the
increase of the light intensity. It also increases with greater frequencies due to a
greater probability of electron emission when collisions happen with higher
energy photons.
If we apply a negative potential to the collector plate Q with respect to the plate P
and gradually increase it, the photoelectric current decreases, becoming zero at a
certain negative potential. The negative potential on the collector at which the
photoelectric current becomes zero is called the stopping potential or cut
off potential
i. For a given frequency of incident radiation, the stopping potential is
independent of its intensity.
ii. For a given frequency of incident radiation, the stopping potential is
determined by the maximum kinetic energy Kmax of the photoelectrons that are
emitted. If qe is the charge on the electron and is the stopping potential, then the
work done by the retarding potential in stopping the electron is qeV0 so we have
qeV0=Kmax
Recalling
Kmax=h(f - f0),
we see that the stopping voltage varies linearly with frequency of light, but
depends on the type of material. For any particular material, there is a threshold
frequency that must be exceeded, independent of light intensity, to observe any
electron emission.

Three-step model:-
In the X-ray regime, the photoelectric effect in crystalline material is often
decomposed into three steps:

1. Inner photoelectric effect (see photodiode below). The hole left behind can
give rise to Auger effect, which is visible even when the electron does not
leave the material. In molecular solids phonons are excited in this step and
may be visible as lines in the final electron energy. The inner photoeffect
has to be dipole allowed. The transition rules for atoms translate via

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 the tight-binding model onto the crystal. They are similar in geometry
to plasma oscillations in that they have to be transversal.
2. Ballistic transport of half of the electrons to the surface. Some electrons are
scattered.
3. Electrons escape from the material at the surface.
In the three-step model, an electron can take multiple paths through these three
steps. All paths can interfere in the sense of the path integral formulation.
For surface states and molecules the three-step model does still make some sense
as even most atoms have multiple electrons which can scatter the one electron
leaving.

Lenard's Experimental Results

(Intensity Dependence):-

High light intensity increase photocurrent (number of collected photoelectrons)

In 1902, Hertz's student, Philipp Lenard, studied how the energy of the emitted
photoelectrons varied with the intensity of the light. He used a carbon arc
light and could increase the intensity a thousand-fold. The ejected electrons hit

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 Low light intensity has reduced photocurrent. However, the
kinetic energy of the ejected electrons is independent of incident
light intensity.

another metal plate, the collector, which was connected to the cathode by a wire
with a sensitive ammeter, to measure the current produced by the illumination
.To measure the energy of the ejected electrons, Lenard charged the collector
plate negatively, to repel the electrons coming towards it. Thus, only electrons
ejected with enough kinetic energy to get up this potential hill would contribute
to

Lenard discovered that there was a well defined minimum voltage that stopped
any electrons getting through (Vstop). To Lenard's surprise, he found that Vstop did
not depend at all on the intensity of the light! Doubling the

light intensity doubled the number of electrons emitted, but did not affect
the kinetic energies of the emitted electrons. The more powerful oscillating field
ejected more electrons, but the maximum individual energy of the ejected
electrons was the same as for the weaker field.

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Millikan's Experimental Results
(Wavelength Dependence)
The American experimental physicist Robert Millikan followed up on Lenard's
experiments and using a powerful arc lamp, he was able to generate sufficient
light intensity to separate out the colors and check the photoelectric effect using
light of different colors. He found that the maximum energy of the ejected
electrons did depend on the color - the shorter wavelength, higher frequency light
caused electrons to be ejected with more energy

High-energy blue light. The battery represents the potential Lenard

used to charge the collector plate negatively, which would actually
be a variable voltage source. Since the electrons ejected by the blue
light are getting to the collector plate, the potential supplied by the
battery is less than Vstop, for blue light.

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 Low-energy red light. Since the electrons ejected by the blue
light are not getting to the collector plate, the potential
supplied by the battery exceeds Vstop for red light

As shown in Figure ,just the opposite behavior from classical is observed

from Lenard's and Millikan's experiments. The intensity affects the
number of electrons, and the frequency affects the kinetic energy of the
emitted electrons. From these sketches, we see that

 the kinetic energy of the electrons is linearly proportional to the

frequency of the incident radiation above a threshold value of ν0 (no
current is observed below ν0), and the kinetic energy is independent
of the intensity of the radiation, and
 the number of electrons (i.e. the electric current) is proportional to
the intensity and independent of the frequency of the incident
radiation above the threshold value of ν0 (i.e., no current is
observed below ν0).

Page 10
Page 11
Schematic drawings showing the characteristics of the photoelectric effect from
Lenard's and Millikan's experiments. (A) The kinetic energy of any single emitted
electron increases linearly with frequency above some threshold value (B) The
electron kinetic energy is independent of the light intensity. (C) The number of
electrons emitted per second (i.e. the electric current) is independent of
frequency. (D) The number of electrons increases linearly with the light intensity

Uses and effects:-

1. Photomultipliers:-
These are extremely light-sensitive vacuum tubes with
a photocathode coated onto part (an end or side) of the inside of the
envelope. The photocathode contains combinations of materials such as
cesium, rubidium, and antimony specially selected to provide a low work
function, so when illuminated even by very low levels of light, the
photocathode readily releases electrons. By means of a series of electrodes
(dynodes) at ever-higher potentials, these electrons are accelerated and
substantially increased in number through secondary emission to provide a
readily detectable output current. Photomultipliers are still commonly used
wherever low levels of light must be detected.
1. Image sensors:-
Video camera tubes in the early days of television used the photoelectric
effect, for example, Philo Farnsworth's "Image dissector" used a screen

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 charged by the photoelectric effect to transform an optical image into a
scanned electronic signal.
2. Gold-leaf electroscope:-

The gold leaf electroscope

Gold-leaf electroscopes are designed to detect static electricity. Charge
placed on the metal cap spreads to the stem and the gold leaf of the
electroscope. Because they then have the same charge, the stem and leaf
repel each other. This will cause the leaf to bend away from the stem.
An electroscope is an important tool in illustrating the photoelectric effect.
For example, if the electroscope is negatively charged throughout, there is
an excess of electrons and the leaf is separated from the stem. If high-
frequency light shines on the cap, the electroscope discharges, and the leaf
will fall limp. This is because the frequency of the light shining on the cap is
above the cap's threshold frequency. The photons in the light have enough
energy to liberate electrons from the cap, reducing its negative charge. This
will discharge a negatively charged electroscope and further charge a
positive electroscope. However, if the electromagnetic radiation hitting the
metal cap does not have a high enough frequency (its frequency is below
the threshold value for the cap), then the leaf will never discharge, no
matter how long one shines the low-frequency light at the cap.

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3. Photoelectron spectroscopy:-
Since the energy of the photoelectrons emitted is exactly the energy of the
incident photon minus the material's work function or binding energy, the
work function of a sample can be determined by bombarding it with
a monochromatic X-ray source or UV source, and measuring the kinetic
energy distribution of the electrons emitted.
Photoelectron spectroscopy is usually done in a high-vacuum environment,
since the electrons would be scattered by gas molecules if they were
present. However, some companies are now selling products that allow
photoemission in air. The light source can be a laser, a discharge tube, or
a synchrotron radiation source.
The concentric hemispherical analyzer is a typical electron energy analyzer
and uses an electric field to change the directions of incident electrons,
depending on their kinetic energies. For every element and core (atomic
orbital) there will be a different binding energy. The many electrons
created from each of these combinations will show up as spikes in the
analyzer output, and these can be used to determine the elemental
composition of the sample.
4. Spacecraft:-
The photoelectric effect will cause spacecraft exposed to sunlight to
develop a positive charge. This can be a major problem, as other parts of
the spacecraft are in shadow which will result in the spacecraft developing
a negative charge from nearby plasmas. The imbalance can discharge
through delicate electrical components. The static charge created by the
photoelectric effect is self-limiting, because a higher charged object doesn't
give up its electrons as easily as a lower charged object does.
5. Moon dust:-
Light from the sun hitting lunar dust causes it to become charged with the
photoelectric effect. The charged dust then repels itself and lifts off the
surface of the Moon by electrostatic levitation. This manifests itself almost
like an "atmosphere of dust", visible as a thin haze and blurring of distant

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 features, and visible as a dim glow after the sun has set. This was first
photographed by the Surveyor program probes in the 1960s. It is thought
that the smallest particles are repelled kilometers from the surface and that
the particles move in "fountains" as they charge and discharge.
6. Night vision devices:-
Photons hitting a thin film of alkali metal or semiconductor material such as
gallium arsenide in an image intensifier tube cause the ejection of
photoelectrons due to the photoelectric effect. These are accelerated by
an electrostatic field where they strike a phosphor coated screen,
converting the electrons back into photons. Intensification of the signal is
achieved either through acceleration of the electrons or by increasing the
number of electrons through secondary emissions, such as with a micro-
channel plate. Sometimes a combination of both methods is used.
Additional kinetic energy is required to move an electron out of the
conduction band and into the vacuum level. This is known as the electron
affinity of the photocathode and is another barrier to photoemission other
than the forbidden band, explained by the band gap model. Some materials
such as Gallium Arsenide have an effective electron affinity that is below
the level of the conduction band. In these materials, electrons that move to
the conduction band are all of the sufficient energy to be emitted from the
material and as such, the film that absorbs photons can be quite thick.
These materials are known as negative electron affinity materials.

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Bibliography:-
Parts of this project have been referred from foreign sources and have
been included in this project after editing.

The reference of sources is as follows:-

Books:-
a) Physics NCERT Book class 12th
b) Comprehensive lab manual
c) New Simplified Physics : A Reference Book for Class 12 by
S.L.Arora
Internet Sources:-
a) www.google.com
b) www.icbse.com
c) www.wekipedia.com
Journal:-

a. Physics Today
b. Science Reporter

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