Ancient Indian History - Vedic Civilization

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 Vedic literature is the most significant source of information about the Vedic civilization.
 The Vedic literature consists of three successive classes of literary creations, namely −
o Vedas
o Brahmanas
o Aranyakas and Upanishads

Vedas
 Veda means "knowledge". The Vedas formed the earliest segment of Vedic literature.
 The Vedic literature had been evolved in the course of many centuries and was handed
down from generation to generation by the word of mouth.
 The Vedas are the collection of hymns, prayers, charms, litanies, and sacrificial formulae.
 Vedas are four in number, namely −
o Rig Veda − It is the oldest Veda. It is a collection of hymns.
o Samveda − it is a collection of songs, which are mostly taken from Rig Veda.
o Yajurveda − It is a collection of sacrificial formulae.
o Atharvanaveda − it is a collection of spells and charms.

Brahmanas
 The Brahmanas are prose texts. It describes about the meaning of Vedic hymns, their
applications, and stories of their origins in details. Besides, it also explains the details about
rituals and philosophies.

Aranyakas and Upanishads

 Aranyakas and Upanishads exemplify philosophical meditations of the hermits and ascetics
on soul, god, world, etc. These are partly included in the Brahmanas or attached, and partly
exist as separate works.
 They, the Brahmanas, the Aranyakas, and the Upanishads are attached to one or the other
of the four Vedas.
 Compositions of the hymns are credited to Hindu Rishis (monks) of divine origin.
  The Vedas are called ‘apaurusheya’ (not created by man) and ‘nitya’ (existing in all
eternity) while the Rishis are known as inspired seers who received the mantras from the
Supreme deity.

Age of RigVeda
 The origin of the earth goes back to about 4,600 million years and the origin of humans
themselves goes back to about 4.2 million years (ago).
 Max Muller gives arbitrarily the date of composition of Rig Veda to be around 1,200 to 1,000
B.C.
 W. D. Whitney negated and criticized Muller for using totally arbitrary, unscientific, and un-
academic method in assigning the dates.
 On the analogy of the language of Avesta, some scholars opined that the date of Rig Veda
may be 1,000 B.C.
 Some of the Vedic gods namely Indra, Varuna, Mitra, and the two Nasatyas were mentioned
in Boghaz-Koi (Asia Minor) inscription of 1,400 B.C., which proves that Rig Veda must have
come into existence much before the date described by some of the foreigner scholars.
 The Boghaz-Koi inscription records a treaty between the Hittite and the Mitanni Kings and
the gods (mentioned in the above point) were cited as witnesses to this treaty. Even today,
exactly in the same way, the oath is taken in the courts and on an assumption of a public
office (in the name of god).
 Bal Gangadhar Tilak, on astronomical grounds, dated Rig Veda to 6,000 B.C.
 Harmon Jacobi held that Vedic civilization flourished between 4,500 B.C. and 2,500 B.C.
and the Samhitas were composed in the latter half of the period.
 Famous Sanskritist, Winternitz felt that the Rig Veda was probably composed in the third
millennium B.C.
 R. K. Mukerjee suggested that "on a modest computation, we should come to 2,500 B.C. as
the time of Rig Veda".
 G. C. Pande also favors a date of 3,000 B.C. or even earlier.

Rig Vedic Geography

 Rig Vedic people called themselves ‘Aryans’. They had detailed knowledge of the
geographical area in which they lived. Name and location and pattern of geographical
features such as rivers and mountains mentioned in Rig-Veda suggest location of the
regions of the geographical area of their habitat.
 The Nadi-sukta hymn of the Rig Veda mentions 21 rivers, which include the Ganga in the
east and the Kubha (Kabul) in the west.
 The pattern of rivers is given in a definite order from the east to west i.e. from the Ganga in
the east to the Kubul in the west. The rivers like Yamuna, Saraswati, Sutlej, Ravi,
Jhelum, and Indus are situated between Ganga and Kabul.
 The mountain namely the Himalayas and the Mujavant (as mentioned in the Veda) are
located in the north.
  The Ocean i.e. ‘Samudra’ is mentioned in connection with rivers Sindhu and the
river Saraswati had been falling into the ocean. Ocean has been also mentioned in the
context of foreign trade.
 The geography of Rig Vedic period covers present-day western Uttar Pradesh, Haryana,
Punjab, Rajasthan, Gujarat, the whole of Pakistan, and the south of Afghanistan.
 The battle of ten kings, mentioned in the Rig Veda, gives names of ten kings who
participated in a war against Sudas who was Bharata king of Tritsus family. It illustrates that
the territory known to Vedic people was divided into a number of states-republics and
monarchical (kingdoms).
 The battle was fought on the bank of Parushani (Ravi) river and Sudas emerged as
victorious.
 ‘Bharatvarsha’ was the name used for the whole country. It was given by the most important
people of the Rig Veda. They were ‘Bharatas’ who were settled in the region between the
rivers Saraswati and Yamuna.
 The Rig Veda also gives the location of other people, such as Purus in the region
of Kurukshetra; the Tritsus east of Ravi; the Alinas, the Pakhtas, the Bhalanas and the Sibis
west of Indus (up to Kabul river) and so on.

ociety
 Occupation of individuals was the basis of classification of a society in the Rig Vedic period.
 It was divided into four varnas, namely
o Brahmanas (teacher and priests);
o Kshatriya (rulers and administrators);
o Vaisya (farmers, merchants, and bankers); and
o Sudra (artisan and laborers).
 There was complete freedom and mobility for the adoption of a profession.
 Trades and occupations did not assume a hereditary character in the society (till now).

Salient Features of Vedic Society

 The family was the smallest unit of a society. It was primarily monogamous and Patriarchal.
 Child marriage was not in fashion.
 There was freedom of choice in marriage.
 A widow could marry the younger brother of her deceased husband.
 The wife was a partner of the husband in all religious and social ceremonies.
 The father's property was inherited by son.
 The daughter could inherit it only if she was the only child of her parents.
 Right to property was known in moveable things like cattle, horse, gold, and ornament and
so also in immoveable property like land and house.
Education
 The teacher was given great respect.
 The school was in the home of the teacher where he taught the particular sacred texts.
 The texts were in the first instance learnt by pupils repeating the words taught by their
teacher.
 A great importance was attached to enunciation and pronunciation.
 Oral learning was the method of training.
 Students were given intense training and learning to memorize and preserve the huge mass
of Vedic literature.

Food and Drinks

 The important part of the diet was milk and its products like curd, butter, and ghee. Grains
were cooked with milk (kshira-pakamodanam).
 Chappati (bread) of wheat and barley was eaten mixed with ghee.
 People used to eat the meat of birds, wild animals (like boar, antelopes, and buffalo), and
fish.
 The meat of animals such as sheep, goat, and buffalo etc., which were sacrificed on
ceremonial occasions, was also eaten.
 The cow was mentioned as aghnya i.e. not to be killed. The Vedas prescribe a penalty of
death or expulsion from the kingdom to those who kill or injure cows.
 Sura and Soma i.e. alcoholic drinks were also consumed, though their consumption had
been condemned.

Economic Life
 Agriculture, cattle rearing, and trade and commerce were the main economic activity of the
Rig Vedic people.
 People had domestic animals like cows, sheep, goats, asses, dogs, buffalos etc.
 Oxen were used for ploughing and drawing carts and horses for drawing the chariots.
 The plough was drawn by the oxen at times in a team of six, eight, or even twelve.
 The grains were harvested with sickles.
 Manure was used for high yield; irrigation was also practiced.
 Excess of rains and drought is mentioned as damaging the crops.

 The grains are collecPolitics of Vedic India was well structured and organized.

Political Structure
  The political structure of Rig Vedic India can be studied in the following ascending order −
o The Family (Kula), the smallest unit.
o The Village (Grama)
o The Clan (Vis)
o The People (Jana)
o The Country (Rashtra)
 Kula (family) included all the people living under the same roof (griha).
 A collection of several families constitutes the grama (village) and its headman was
called gramini.
 The collection of several grama (village) was called as the Vis and its head was
called Vispati.
 Several Vis constituted a Jana as it is mentioned as Panchajanah, Yadva-
janaha, and Bharata-janaha.
 The aggregation of all Jana constitutes Rashtra (country).

Administration
 The hereditary kings were the popular form of Government.
 The provision of a democratically elected king by the assembly of people Jana was also
known.
 The Rashtra was small states ruled by a raja (king).
 The bigger kingdoms were ruled by ‘samrat’ that reflects that they enjoyed a position of
greater authority and dignity.
 The Raja administered justice with the assistance of Purohita and other officials.
 The Raja was offered bali, which was voluntary gift or tribute for his services. The bali was
offered by his own people and also from defeated people.
 The crimes were strongly dealt with by the administration. Major crimes were theft, burglary,
robbery, and cattle lifting.
 The important royal officials were −
o Purohita (chief priest and minister)
o Senani (army chief)
o Gramini (head of a village)
o Dutas (envoys)
o Spies (spy)
 Sabha and Samiti were two important assemblies mentioned in the Rig Veda. These
assemblies were forms the essential feature of the government.
 The Samiti was mainly dealt with the policy decisions and political business, included
common people.
  The Sabha was a selected body of the Elders or Nobles and less political in character.
 tively called ‘Yava’ and ‘Dhanya.’
 Some other occupations were pottery-making, weaving, carpentry, metal working, leather-
working, etc.

 Initially, copper was the only metal that was used and the general term 'ayas' had been used
for this. In a later period, terms like ‘lohit ayas’ and ‘syam ayas’ were used for copper and
iron respectively.
 The trade and traders (vanik) were also known in the Rig Vedic era.
 The practices of exchange of goods (Barter Economy) were in trend. It has been found that
ten cows were quoted as the price for an image of Indra.
 The use of money can be traced in the mention of a gift of 100 nishkas.
 Money-lending was also popular. It is mentioned that an eighth or a sixteenth part of one
being paid either as an interest or part of the principle.
 The sea is mentioned in the context of trade and ocean wealth, like pearls, and shells.
 ome gods had also been worshipped during the Rig Vedic period, which were the
personified powers of nature.

Categories of Gods
 The Vedic Gods were classified into three categories as −
o Terrestrial (Prithivisthana) e.g. Prithivi, Agni, Soma, Brihaspati, and Rivers.
o Aerial or intermediate (Antarikshasthana), Indra, Apam-napat, Rudra, Vayu-Vata,
Prujanya, and Apah (water).
o Celestial (Dyusthana) e.g. Dyaus, Varuna, Mitra, Surya, Savitri, Pushan, Vishnu, the
Adityas, Ushas, and the Asvins.
 Indra and Varuna (the supreme cosmic and moral ruler) stand out in that order, pre-eminent
above the rest.
 Agni and Soma were also popular deities. Agni was valued as the messenger between the
earth and the heaven. Agni is the only God who is regarded as present among all the
categories of Gods.
 Gods are described as born yet they are immortal. In appearance, they are humans, though
sometimes they are conceived as animals, e.g. Dyaus as a bull and Sun as a swift horse.
 In the sacrifice to the God, ordinary food of men such as milk, grain, flesh, etc. were offered
and it becomes the food of Gods.
 The gods normally used to be kind; but some of them also had unkind traits,
like Rudra and Maruta.
 Splendor, strength, knowledge, possession, and truth are common attributes of all the
deities.
 Gayatri Mantra is recited daily by the pious Hindus even today.
 The multiplicity of gods is due to the different designations that have been given to God.
 The ultimate unity of the universe is asserted as the creation of one God to whom different
designations applied.
 The creation is deemed as the outcome of the sacrifice made by the Viratpurusha or of
evolution from nonbeing manifested in the form of water.
 It is mentioned that Hiranyagarbha arose from the great waters, pervading the universe,
and thus created the waves out of eternally pre-existing matter.
  The hymn devoted to Visvakarman tells us that the waters contained the floating world egg
from which Visvakarman arises; the first born in the universe, the creator, and maker of the
world. It is now confirmed by science that life first developed in water.
 Similarities between Sanskrit and European languages (especially with Latin and Greek)
was first noticed by a merchant Filippo Sassetti, who lived in Goa between 1583 and 1588
A.D.
 Sir William Jones and many other scholars who were in the service of East India Company
elaborated the language similarities (between European and Indian languages).
 On the basis of the similarities, some scholars postulated that the ancestors of Indians and
Europeans, must at one time, had lived in the same region and spoken the same language.
 The scholars called this Indo-European language and their common homeland as the Indo-
European homeland. This created a great divergence of opinion about the problem of
identifying the original homeland of the Aryans, which was still a matter of debate.
 A number of homelands (of Aryans) have been propounded, such as Steppe of central Asia,
southern Russia, southern Europe, Germany, Chinese Turkistan, or even Mediterranean
area like Palestine and Israel. Almost everywhere, the Vedic language and its literature were
found (except India).
 The Rig Veda is the oldest surviving records of the Aryans. It does not give any evidence
(even a suspicion) of any migration of Aryans from any other area.
 Max Muller assigned period between 1,200 or 1,000 B.C. for this event. Max Muller as a true
Christian believed in Bible and according to Bible, the world was created on 23rd October
4,004 B.C. and thus Max Muller had the challenge to accommodate the entire human history
within the 6,000 years.
 The Aryans were originally inhabitants of India and did not come from outside as there is no
archaeological or biological evidence, which could establish the arrival of any new people
from outside between 5,000 B.C. and 800 B.C.
Source:https://www.tutoriouralspoint.com/ancient_indian_history/ancient_indian_history_the_aryan_i
nvasion.htm