KJHG
KJHG
KJHG
CHAPTER 1
Definitions and important
formulae used in sugar factories
The definitions presented in this section represent the most commonly used terms in the
South African sugar manufacturing industry. No attempt has been made to include
agricultural terms, as these would be beyond the scope of this document.
A number of important formulae have been included in this section. Where relevant,
references to the original author ’s work have been included to facilitate any further
referencing of the calculations/derivations.
AFFINATION
The removal of the layer of molasses from raw sugar crystals through the addition of a
syrup and then centrifuging – with or without wash water.
ASH
BAGACILLO
Very small particles of bagasse separated either from pre-clarification juices or from final
bagasse. Bagacillo is mainly used as a filter aid with rotary vacuum filters and thus
forms part of filter cake.
BAGASSE
The fibrous residue obtained after crushing cane in a mill is referred to as bagasse.
Depending on the number of the mill it is obtained from, the bagasse is referred to as
first mill bagasse, second mill bagasse, etc. The residue obtained after a diffuser is called
diffuser bagasse or megasse. The final residue obtained from a milling train or from the
dewatering mills of a diffusion plant is called final bagasse but is generally referred to
simply as bagasse.
BAGASSE EXTRACT
For the calculation of pol and Brix in bagasse, a sample of bagasse is blended with water
in a cold digester, filtered and analysed. The liquid fraction so obtained is referred to as
bagasse extract.
BOILING HOUSE
The boiling house refers to the section of the factory in which mixed juice is converted to
raw sugar. It is also referred to as the back-end or raw house.
Boiling house recovery (BHR) is the ratio of pol actually recovered in sugar to sucrose (or
pol) in mixed juice expressed as a percentage. If based on pol in mixed juice this value is
referred to as Boiling House Pol Recovery.
BROWN LIQUOR
BRIX
Brix is the percentage by mass of soluble solids in a pure sucrose solution. In all other
sugar-containing solutions Brix represents the apparent solids according to the Brix
scale. The term Brix is used as if it was a real material and is used in calculations as a
measure of substance, e.g. tons Brix.
Refractometer Brix is also referred to as refractometer solids or refractive dry solids (RDS).
BRIX FACTOR
BRIX-FREE WATER
Brix-free water is the sorption water associated with the fibre in cane and bagasse. In
some respects this water behaves in a manner similar to water of hydration and is not
available for dissolving sucrose. This water can be driven off at elevated temperatures but
the fibres will rehydrate when left exposed to atmospheric humidity. In general, the
amount of Brix-free water is assumed to be 25% on dry fibre.
BULK DENSITY
Bulk density is the mass of material per unit of volume occupied. Some useful values are:
The cane to sugar ratio refers to the tons cane required to produce one ton of tel quel
sugar.
CARBONATATION/CARBONATION
Carbonatation is the process of colour removal through the introduction of CO2 gas into a
juice or syrup. A crystalline calcium carbonate floc is formed which on precipitating
removes non -sugar (colour) bodies. The term carbonation is sometimes also used.
CLARIFICATION
Clarification is the process in which suspended matter and air are separated from mixed
juice, traditionally by liming, heating and flashing, to produce clear juice. The
combination of liming, heating and flashing is called defecation.
COBENZE’S DIAGRAM
This diagram is used in boiling schemes for the calculation of the relative quantities of
two products to give a mixture of the required purity according to:
A D
C
B E
C-B=D
A-C=E
CONSIGNMENT
A consignment of cane refers to the total batch of similar cane delivered by a single grower
at any one time. In the cane payment system, a consignment is assigned a single set of
analytical results.
The Corrected Reduced Boiling House Recovery (CRB) formula provides an indication of
the Boiling House Recovery (BHR) given a constant cane quality. This yields a recovery
index independent of cane quality, allowing for inter-factory comparisons. The formula
incorporates an SJM recovery calculated using a mixed juice purity of 85%, and a
molasses purity as per the TPD formula.
S × (J - M) 49.8 - TPD
CRB = BHR − 100 × ×
J × (S - M) 0.5493 - 0.008543 × TPD
Lionnet GRE and Koster KC (1986). A boiling house recovery formula independent of
juice quality. Proc S Afr Sug Technol Ass, 60: 30 - 32.
The Corrected Reduced Extraction (CRE) formula provides an indication of the Extraction
given a constant cane quality (13.0 pol % cane and 15.5 fibre % cane). It attempts to
provide an extraction index independent of cane quality, allowing for inter-factory
compa risons.
CRYSTAL CONTENT
The crystal content of a sample is the percentage by mass of crystalline sugar present in a
massecuite, magma or similar material.
The formula for the calculation of the crystal content of a massecuite is as follows:
Note that the molasses purity used in the formula is the nutsch purity, and not the
centrifugal molasses purity.
A measure of the efficiency of a factory (cane to sugar), taking into account cane quality
(including the type of non-sucrose in the incoming cane). It is calculated by dividing the
actual quantity of crystal produced as sugar, by the theoretical crystal that could have
been recovered from the cane.
T 100
XRE = 100 × x ×
Tc MERC % cane - (1 - a) × S
and
MERC % cane = S − b × N − c × F
Tc ≡ tons cane
S ≡ sucrose % cane
N ≡ non-pol % cane
F ≡ Fibre % cane
a ≡ ‘a’ parameter from the ERC formula
b ≡ adjusted ‘b’ parameter from the ERC formula;
accommodates the reducing sugars to ash ratio in molasses
c ≡ ‘c’ parameter from the ERC formula
CUSH-CUSH
DAC
DAC stands for the Direct Analysis of Cane. The direct analysis of cane comprises the
calculation of the percentages of pol, Brix and fibre in cane by direct analyses of the
moisture in cane, and the pol and Brix in DAC extract.
DAC EXTRACT
DAC extract is obtained by blending a cane sample with water in a 1:2 ratio in a cold
digester, digesting for a fixed period, and then decanting, filtering and analysing the
resulting mixture.
DAC FACTORS
Brix factor: the percentage ratio of the total Brix in mixed juice corrected for suspended
solids - and where applicable corrected for clarifier mud returns - plus the total Brix in
final bagasse to the total Brix in cane as determined by the direct analysis of cane (DAC).
Pol factor: the percentage ratio of the total pol in mixed juice corrected for suspended
solids - and where applicable corrected for clarifier mud returns - plus the total pol in
final bagasse to the total pol in cane as determined by the direct analysis of cane (DAC).
DEFECATION
Defecation is the traditional method of using liming, heating and flashing for the
clarification of mixed juice.
DEXTRAN
DEWATERING
The removal of a liquid (generally a low Brix juice) from bagasse. Commonly applied to
mill units after a diffuser (dewatering mills).
DRY SOLIDS
Dry solids is the material remaining after drying a product to constant mass, or for a
specified period. The mass of dry substance can also be found by deducting from the
mass of the product the mass of total moisture, as determined using vacuum oven drying
or the Karl Fischer method. This is known respectively as vacuum oven dry solids or Karl
Fischer dry solids.
ESCRIBED VOLUME
The volume escribed by a pair of mill rolls in a given time. It is equal to the roller length
(in metres) multiplied by the work opening (in metres) multiplied by the surface speed of
the rolls measured at the mean circumference (in metres per second) and is expressed in
m 3 /sec.
Estimated recoverable crystal (ERC) is an index indicating cane quality by calculating the
percentage of crystal recovery that is actually possible from the given sample of cane.
ERC % cane = a × S − b × N − c × F
Factors a, b and c differ slightly from one season to the next, and the values are
recalculated at the end of every season using weighted averages and assuming that ERC
is equal to the total crystal production of the industry.
van Hengel, A (1974). Proposal for the evaluation of cane and sugar in identical units at
standardised efficiency. Proc Int Soc Sug Cane Technol, 15: 1446 - 1455.
EXHAUSTION
Note that the molasses purity referred to here is the molasses obtained from the
centrifugals.
EXTRACTION
Extraction is the ratio of sucrose (or pol) in mixed juice to sucrose (or pol) in cane
expressed as percentage and is an indication of the theoretical efficiency of the extraction
process. If based on pol this value is referred to as pol extraction.
The Factory Performance Index (FPI) is an index used to rate the overall performance of a
factory, and is defined as the ratio of tons crystal in sugar produced to tons estimated
recoverable crystal in (ERC) cane expressed as a percentage.
and
tons raw sugar × crystal % raw sugar
tons crystal in sugar produced =
100
and
and
tons cane × ERC
tons estimatedrecoverable crystal in cane =
100
and
ERC % cane = a × S − b × N − c × F
van Hengel, A (1974). Proposal for the evaluation of cane and sugar in identical units at
standardised efficiency. Proc Int Soc Sug Cane Technol, 15: 1446 - 1455.
FIBRE
Fibre is the water-insoluble matter of cane and bagasse from which the Brix-free water
has been removed by drying.
Where associated with Brix-free water, fibre is often called natural fibre.
FILTER CAKE
Filter cake is the bulk residue removed by the filter station and includes mud and any
filter aid such as bagacillo.
FINE LIQUOR
A low colour refinery liquor prior to concentration in an evaporator set. This liquor is
usually obtained after a secondary decolourisation process in the refinery.
FLASHING
Flashing is the process in which the juice is heated in a closed system to just above its
boiling point and flashed by sudden release of the built up pressure in order to remove
unwanted dissolved air. Flashing forms part of the clarification process.
FRUCTOSE
GAS CHROMATOGRAPHY
GLUCOSE
GUMS
IMBIBITION
Imbibition is the process in which water or juice is put on bagasse to mix with and dilute
the juice present in the bagasse. The water so used is termed imbibition water. General
terms in use are: single imbibition, double imbibition, compound imbibition, depending
on the manner in which the water and/or juice is added.
IMPURITIES
Impurities generally refer to any substances present other than the main specified
substance.
INTERMIXED CANE
Intermixed cane refers to that portion of cane on a cane carrier originating from the
overlapping of different consignments. Its composition is unlikely to be representative of
any one consignment and it is therefore excluded from consignment sampling.
INSOLUBLE SOLIDS
The mass of solids that does not dissolve in water at elevated temperatures expressed as
percentage on sample (in case of sugars) or percentage on Brix (in case of juices/syrups).
Insoluble solids are also sometimes refe rred to as suspended solids.
INJECTION WATER
INVERT SUGAR
A 1:1 mixture of glucose and fructose obtained by the hydrolysis or inversion of sucrose.
JAVA RATIO
Note: In calculating an average pol % first expressed juice, the weighting given to the
individual analyses is on the basis of the tons cane from which the respective first
expressed juice samples were taken.
JETS
A jet is the mother liquor separated from a refined massecuite by mechanical means
(centrifugation). It is distinguished by the same prefixes as the massecuites from which it
is separated (1st, 2nd, 3rd or 4th). The final jet returned to the raw house in a back-end
(annexed) refinery is termed return syrup. In some industries, jets are known as run-offs
(1st run-off, 2nd run-off, etc) or greens. In the South African industry, the term jet is
preferred.
JUICE
Absolute juice: a hypothetical juice, the mass of which is equal to the mass of cane minus
the mass of fibre. It comprises all the dissolved solids in the cane plus the total water in
cane.
Clarified juice: the juice obtained as a result of the clarification process.
Diffuser juice, also called draught juice: the juice that is withdrawn from a cane or
bagasse diffuser.
First expressed juice: the juice expressed by the first two rollers of a tandem.
First mill juice: the juice expressed by the first mill of a tandem.
Last expressed juice: the juice expre ssed by the last two rollers of a tandem.
Last mill juice: the juice expressed by the last mill of a tandem.
Primary juice: all the juice expressed before dilution begins.
Residual juice: the juice left in intermediate or final bagasse.
Secondary juice: the diluted juice which, together with the primary juice, forms the mixed
juice.
Mixed juice: the mixture of primary and secondary juices from the extraction plant
delivered into the juice scales.
Press water: the juice expressed in dewatering diffuser bagasse.
Undiluted juice: all the juice existing as such in the cane; its mass is equal to the mass of
cane minus the combined mass of fibre and Brix-free water.
LIMING
MACERATION
In the South African sugar industry the term is synonymous with imbibition. Imbibition is
the preferred terminology.
MAGMA
Magma is a mixture of crystals and sugar liquor produced by mechanical means. Magma
is often used as a seed or footing in the vacuum pans.
MASSECUITE
Massecuite is the mixture of crystals and mother liquor discharged from a vacuum pan.
Massecuites are classified in order of descending purity as A, B, C in raw factories, or
first, second, third, fourth in refineries.
MEGASSE
The bagasse obtained from the discharge of a diffuser before it is dewatered in the
dewatering mills.
MELT
Melt generally refers to dissolved raw sugar prior to the decolourisation steps in a
refinery.
MELTING
The dissolving of sugar crystals – either raw or refined – using hot water (usually
condensate). Steam (low grade vapours) is also often added into the vessel – the remelter
- where the melting is done. Melting is a misnomer, as the intention is to dissolve the
sugar, and not melt it in the true sense of the word (i.e. convert the crystal to the liquid
phase).
MILLING HOUSE
The milling house is that portion of the factory where the extraction equipment is
situated. In the extraction plant sugar cane is separated into juice and bagasse.
MIL L SETTINGS
Set opening: the distance between the circumferences escribed by the mean diameters of
the top roller and feed or discharge roller with the mill running empty. This definition
applies pari passu for the openings between underfeed and top roller and between
pressure feeder rollers.
The mean diameter of a grooved roller is equal to the diameter of the equivalent (same
volume and length) solid roller. In practice the arithmetic mean of the diameters over the
tips of the teeth and at the roots of the grooves (neglecting any Messchaert grooves)
affords a sufficiently close approximation.
Work opening: the work opening is equal to the set opening plus the increase in distance
between the rollers resulting from the lift during milling operations.
MILLING LOSS
Milling loss is the ratio of pol in bagasse to fibre in bagasse expressed as percentage.
MOLASSES
Final molasses: The mother liquor separated from the final massecuite by mechanical
means. Final Molasses can be used as a cattle feed supplement or as a feedstock in
ethanol plants.
MOTHER LIQUOR
MUD
Mud is the material removed from the bottom part of the clarifiers and contains the
settled insoluble solids that are separated from mixed juice during clarification.
NON-POL
Non-pol is that part of the Brix which is not pol. It is often referred to as if it were a real
substance.
NON-POL RATIO
The ratio of non-pol in sugar plus non-pol in final molasses to non-pol in mixed juice.
NON-SUCROSE
Non-sucrose is that part of the dry substance which is not sucrose. It is often referred to
as if it were a real substance.
NORMAL MASS
That mass of pure dry sucrose which, when dissolved in water to a total volume of 100.0
cm 3 at 20.0°C and read at the same temperature in a 200 mm tube at 546 nm, gives a
reading of 100.00°Z on a saccharimeter scale. According to the International Sugar Scale
the normal mass of sucrose is 26.000 g in air under normal conditions (26.0160 g in
vacuo).
NUTSCH SAMPLE
A nutsch sample is any sample of molasses that is separated from a massecuite at any
time prior to curing of the massecuite in the factory centrifugals, and is obtained for the
purpose of analysis. In the South African sugar industry, the device used in the
separation of the molasses and crystal is termed a nutsch filter.
OLIGOSACCHARIDES
Oligosaccharides are polymers of low molecular mass in which the units are mainly
pentoses and/or hexoses.
OVERALL RECOVERY
The Overall Recovery is the ratio of pol actually recovered in sugar to sucrose (or pol) in
cane expressed as a percentage. If based on pol in cane this value is referred to as Overall
Pol Re covery.
PITH
Pith is that portion of fibre that consists of the finer particles of bagasse, particularly
between 120 and 850 microns.
POL
The apparent sucrose content of any substance determined by a polarisation method and
expressed as a percentage by mass or in degrees Z (°Z). The term is used as if it were a
real substance.
POL FACTOR
POLYSACCHARIDES
Polysaccharides are polymers of medium to high molecular mass in which the units are
mainly pentoses and/or hexoses.
PREPARATION INDEX
The Preparation Index (PI) is the ratio of Brix in the ruptured cells to total Brix in cane
expressed as a percentage. PI is an empirical method and uses the ratio of the Brixes
obtained using two different cane preparation methods.
PURITY
The percentage ratio of sucrose (or pol) to the total soluble solids (or Brix) in a sugar
product. The following terms are in general use:
Pol
Apparent purity = × 100
Brix
Sucrose
Gravity purity = × 100
Brix
Sucrose
True purity = × 100
Total solids
In order to specify purity without ambiguity it is necessary to indicate the methods used
to determine both the numerator and denominator in obtaining the result.
Target purity (TP) is a reference purity of final molasses which takes the effect of non -
sucrose on exhaustion into account.
Target purity difference (TPD) is the difference between the true purity as determined by
chromatographic (GC or HPLC) sucrose and Karl Fischer dry solids, and the target purity.
RAW HOUSE
The raw house refers to the section of the factory in which mixed juice is converted to raw
sugar. It is also referred to as the back-end or boiling house
RV forms the basis of the cane payment system in South Africa. It represents the total
value of the cane that may be recovered in the factory. The value of the molasses
produced, as well as the sugar, is incorporated into the formula.
RV % cane = S − d × N − c × F
The formula is similar to the ERC format; note that the ‘a’ factor has been dropped on the
principle that the grower does not have control over filter cake and undetermined losses.
The ‘d’ factor is recalculated monthly, as the values (prices) of sugar and molasses are
not constant. The ‘c’ factor is recalculated at the start of each season. The mass of
recoverable value is calculated in terms of the procedures c ontained in the Official Methods
(Chapter 6, Section 1).
REDUCING SUGARS
Reducing sugars (RS) refer to saccharides that reduce Tollens’ or Fehlings’ reagents.
While all monosaccharides and most disaccharides are reducing sugars, the term as it is
used in sugar milling mainly refer to glucose and fructose, as apposed to sucrose which is
a non-reducing sugar.
The reducing sugar to ash ratio refers to the ratio of reducing sugars to conductivity ash in
a sample.
The reducing sugar to pol ratio refers to the ratio of reducing sugars to pol expressed as
percentage and is often referred to as the reducing sugar ratio.
REFINERY
The refinery is where raw sugar is converted into refined sugar. If a refinery is attached to
a cane sugar mill, it is referred to as a back-end (or annexed) refinery.
REMELT
Remelt consists of a solution of dissolved sugars. This term is generally applied to B- and
C-sugars returned to syrup for further processing.
RETURN SYRUP
The final jet in a back-end (annexed) refinery that is returned to the raw house.
RUN OFF
SAFETY FACTOR
The safety factor is a number designed to indicate the probable keeping quality of a fresh
raw sugar that has a pol of less than 99.0°Z. It is calculated using the formula below.
moisture % sugar
Safety factor =
(100 − pol % sugar )
For satisfactory keeping quality the safety factor should have a value less than 0.23.
SATURATED SOLUTION
A saturated solution is a solution which would not visibly dissolve or crystallise solute in
the presence of undissolved solute.
SCREENING
Juice collected from the mills contains particles of bagasse/bagacillo that require removal
prior to juice clarification. Removal of these particles to be collected as cush-cush by
means of a screen is referred to as screening.
SJM RECOVERY
The theoretical recovery of sucrose from a given juice or syrup. Note that undetermined
loss is not accommodated in the calculation.
S × (J - M)
SJM Recovery = × 100
J × (S − M)
Soil refers to the sand that enters a factory together with the cane. While there is no
method to determine the amount of soil, an indirect method is use to estimate the soil in
cane or bagasse by comparing the ash content of a sample to the ash content of a ‘clean’
sample. If the ash content of a clean sample is not available, then a value of 0,5% is
assumed.
SOLUBILITY
The solubility coefficient of sucrose is the ratio of the solubility of sucrose in a sample to
the solubility of sucrose in pure water at the same temperature (both expressed as gram
sucrose per gram water).
SUCROSE
In the South African Sugar Industry sucrose is determined by gas chromatography (GC)
and high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC).
SUGAR
Sugar is the main product of a sugar factory consisting of crystals of sucrose as removed
from a massecuite and containing a number of impurities, depending on the type of
sugar.
SUGAR CANE
Sugar cane is botanically a tall grass of the type Saccharum and agriculturally the crop
produced from hybrids that are the descendants of a number of Saccharum species
commonly referred to as sugar cane and is the raw material accepted at the cane sugar
mill for processing.
Clean cane stalk: cane which has been cut above the highest subterranean roots, has
been topped below the level of the growing point, has no leaves or adhering foreign matter
and has not died or dried out.
Cane tops: the portion of the stalk above the natural breaking point, plus all green leaves
and sheaths attached to that part of the stalk.
Extraneous matter: any solid material delivered with clean cane stalk, including dead and
dried out stalks.
Trash: leaves and sheaths delivered with the clean cane stalk.
The ratio of the concentration of sucrose in the sample to the solubility of sucrose in the
sample at the same temperature (both expressed as gram sucrose per gram water).
SYRUP
Concentrated clear juice leaving the evaporator station and generally having a Brix of
between 60° and 70°Bx is referred to as syrup.
TARGET PURITY
The theoretical true purity of final molasses that can be obtained, taking into account the
reducing sugar and ash content of the molasses.
Smith, IA (1995). Exhaustibility of molasses with very low reducing sugar levels. Proc S
Afr Sug Technol Ass, 69: 163 - 165.
The difference between the actual true purity of final molasses obtained in the factory
and the theoretical target purity.
THICK LIQUOR
A refi nery liquor concentrated up in an evaporator set, prior to being boiled in a pan.
An overall factory performance indicator, compensating for cane quality, and using
Recoverable Value (RV) as a base.
A Derived Value (DV) is calculated which represents the recovered value of both the sugar
and molasses produced. The Derived Value divided of Recoverable Value produces the
Value Recovery (VR)
DV
VR = × 100
RV
and
DV = X + (Pm /Pc) ) × M + (1 − a) × S
WASH
Wash is the diluted liquor thrown off by the centrifugals during washing and/or steaming
of massecuites, or the total liquor separated from a magma.