International Conference

India and The Indian Ocean

Renewing the Maritime Trade & Civilizational Linkages
Bhubaneswar, Odisha , 20 – 22, March, 2015

BUDDHISM AND MARITIME

HERITAGE:
A Study on East and South-East Asia
Dr. Sunil Kumar Patnaik,
Secretary, OIMSEAS
Early Beginning………….
• Between c. 700 BCE, the date of advent of the NBPW in Gangetic valley and c. 300 CE the
point immediately preceding the Gupta age of maturity, India witnessed the growth of urban
centres in all her major geographical regions.
• The urbanisation of the Ganga valley in the first millennium BCE is often referred to as the
second urbanisation.
• This in turn produced the characteristics associated with urban culture –the building of
fortified cities, the introduction of a script (brahmi), the use of coinage (punch marked coins
for example), a wide range of intellectual and meta physical speculation (from Charaka to the
Ajivikas), some of which reflected the requirements and aspirations of the new urban groups –
the artisans and the merchants and traders.(Thapar R. 2013)
• The society as described in Buddhist scriptures (Pali texts) reflects the presence of a very
influential mercantile community organised in guilds. It is evidently a period of expanding
material culture, with far and wide trade relations and populous towns and cities exist in the
Ganga Valley (Rhys Davids,1903:11). In fact, Buddhism survived in India for so long and had
such a brilliant history is evident enough that it responded to the needs of a wide and
important section of the Indian population. Ancient Odisha or Kalinga region that extends at
times from the river Ganges to Godavari, was also no exception to that.
Study of Material Culture
• Many areas outside the Ganga valley, especially those in Deccan and South India, experienced the
emergence of the monarchical state and urban life. As the pattern of state and urban formations,
experienced in the Ganga valley (from 6th to 4th century BCE.), arose in various parts of the
subcontinent, the process of the emergence of secondary states and secondary urban centres can be
traced during five centuries (c.300 BCE. to. 300 CE).

• In Odishan context we have several references in the Pali text as well as the material remains of
the excavated sites at Sisupalgarh, Jaugarh, Radhanagar (Kankia), Langudi, Lalitgiri, Udayagiri,
Talapada, provides enough evidences that Odisha in her ancient days particularly from 4th -3rd
century BCE. on words had the urban centres. The cites such as Dantapura, Tosali, Samapa,
Kalinga Nagara, Pithunda, Simhapura, referred to in Pali literature, Asokan Edicts, Hatigumpha
inscription points to that the State of Kalinga had these cities / urban centres with all its urban
traits as that of Ganga Valley. Interestingly, most of the sites are Buddhist in nature and started
settlements from 4th-3rd BCE and some terminated at 4th-5th CE and some continued up to 12th-13th
CE.

• From Culla-Kalinga Jataka, we learn that the relationship between king Assaka of Potana and king
Kalinga of Dantapura were at first hostile, but afterwards the two kings lived amicably13 (Jat
III,pp.3-5). Assaka territory in 6th century BCE. is identified on the bank of Godavari and Potana
(modern Paithan or ancient Pratistahna) is the capital. The state of Kalinga raised its status to
great height of prosperity which could equally be comparable to the prosperous city centres of that
period like Kausambi, Champa, Mathura, Rajgriha, Pataliputra, Ujjain etc. Maritime super
power attracted the Magdhan king Asoka to invade Kalinga in 3rd century BCE. Alothough
Tamralipti served quite for a long time as Port
Study Area…………….

• As every body know Buddhism was very strong in Odishan region since the days of Buddha
as well as Maritime Activities.
• These two are continuing all along particularly in Eastern Indian context right from Tamluk
(Tamralipti) to Nagrjunakonda.
• In between these Geographical Orbit now comes Kalinga,Utkala,Kongoda,Udra –the
historical Odisha.The majority early historical sites and settlements of this area explored
and excavated so far are Buddhist in Nature.
• I along with the scholars of our Institute like Dr.Balram Tripathy,G C Pradhan ,A.Behera
have explored extensively the above mentioned coastal area and documented around 130
sites during the year (2010-15) and 120 sites are Buddhist of course period differs.
• Interestingly Buddhist monastic establishments, early historical urban centers ,Sea /River
Port sites are just complementary each other
• Now the question is how the early Buddhist sites such as Lalitgiri, Udayagiri,Langudi,
Radhanagr (Kankia),Kayama, Kalingapatnam ,Salihundam and early medieval Buddhist
sites like Ratnagiri,Solampur,Kaupur,Kupari, B aneswarnasi, Brahmavan , Aragarh etc have
developed as major settlements but who were the patrons ?.
• It is only he monks and merchant mariners have substantially gifted and contributed for
the growth of Monasteries.
• Scholars like N K Sahu ,T E Donaldson, H P Ray, G.Verardi, B N Mukharjee,D Chkravarti, R
Chkravarti,G C Chauley, B Bandopadhya,D Pradhan, S K Patnaik, J K Patnaik, H C Prusty, U
Mishra, M Chauley have studied and focused various aspects of Buddhist Sites and
settlement but our recent study revealed interesting evidences relating to Maritime
Activities and spread of Buddhism.
EARLY HISTORICAL SITES OF KALINGA
BUDDHIST SITES OF KALINGA (Odisha)
 Explored and Excavated Buddhist Sites along the
coast
1.Tamralipti (Tamluk)
2.Mughalmari
3.Jayarampur
4.Kaupur
5.Kupari
6.Banta
7.Solampur
8.Radhanagr (Kankia)-Kayama-Tarapur-Vajragiri-Langudi Cluster
9.Lalitgiri,
10.Udayagiri,
11.Ratnagiri.
12.Brahmavana : on Mahnadi----Naraj, Baneswarnasi,Pargalpur,Boudh, up
to Siripur
Sisupalgarh : Urban settlement
13.Dhauli
14.Kuruma
15.Aragarh,
Talapada : Settlement
16.Achutrajpur---Palur-Jaugarh---Lathi---Kalingapatnam, Salihundam and
present so called Dantapura
Tamralipti (Tamluk)
Mughalmari, Dantun, West Midnapur, West Bengal
Jayarampur, Bhograi, Balasore, Odisha
Kupari, Balasore & Kaupur, Bhadrak, Odisha

Kupari

Kaupur
Solampur, Dhamnagar, Bhadrak, Odisha
Radhanagr (Kankia) Kayama-Tarapur-Vajragiri-Langudi
 KAYAMA

DEULI VAJRAGIRI

KANKIA ( RADHANAGAR)

LANGUDI
TARAPUR
KANTIGADIA & NEULPUR
Kankia/Radhanagar

General View of the Excavated Mauryan

Structure KANKIA(Radhanagar),
Jajpur, Odisha near Langudi Hill Buddhist site

General View of the Excavated Mauryan Structure

KANKIA(Radhanagar),
Jajpur, Odisha near Langudi Hill Buddhist site

Buddhist Heritage of Odisha

Kankia/Radhanagar

Kankia/Radhanagar, Terracotta Buddha, Elephant, Triratna Symbol

Kankia/Radhanagar

Other notable findings of Kankia/Radhanagar

terracotta lion, rouletted Ware & Roman Bullae
Kankia/Radhanagar

Inscriptions, Radhanagar
Kayama, Jajpur, Odisha

Rock-cut Elephant s Kayama, Shell character Inscription 3rd-4th C. A.D

Jajpur, Odisha (3rd-2nd Century BC). Kayama
Tarapur, Jajpur, Odisha

Remains of Stupa Base excavated in the year 2004 by OIMSEAS &

Restored Stupa , Tarapur, Odisha, India (3rd – 2nd Century BC.)
Vajragiri, Jajpur, Odisha

Excavated Monastic Remains, Vajragiri, Jajpur, Odisha, India

Langudi, Jajpur, Odisha,

Excavated Stupa : 2nd -1st Century BC,

Langudi, Odisha, India
Findings: Plain Railing Pillar & Cross
Bar(suchi), Miniature Terracotta Buddha
images &Parasol (Chhatravali) etc

Rock-cut Votive Stupa, Langudi (2nd

Century A.D.}
Other Findings: Terracotta Buddha
images, votive Stupa & Parasol
(Chhatravali)
Langudi, Jajpur, Odisha,

Terracotta Buddha Image & Stupa, Langudi, Buddhist site ( 1st Century BC.)
Rock-cut Votive Stupa, Langudi hill Buddhist site ( 2nd Century AD)
Lalitgiri, Mahanga, Cuttack, Odisha

MahaStupa of Lalitgiri was excavated during (1985-1986) Odisha, India

(2nd Century BC)
 In the year (1985-1986) in course of Excavation of Stupa Mound at Lalitgiri4 as
many as three set of caskets designed in the form of Stupa has been found. This is
believed to be the relic of Lord of Buddha.
Apsidal Chaitya, Lalitgiri, Odisha, India ( 2nd – 3rd Century AD.
 Chaitya Remains, Udayagiri – II / Simhaprastha Mahavihara
Excavated during 1997-2000, Odisha, India (8th – 9th Century AD.)
Ratnagiri , Jajpur, Odisha

Mahavihar, Ratnagiri excavated during 1958 - 1961, Odisha, ( 5th – 13th Century AD
Brahmavana : on Mahnadi-Naraj, Baneswarnasi, Pargalpur, Boudh, up to Siripur
Brahmavana : on Mahnadi-Naraj, Baneswarnasi, Pargalpur, Boudh, up to Siripur

Brahmavana Naraj

Baneswarnasi

Boudh
Pargalpur, Siripur
Sisupalgarh, Bhubaneswar, Odisha
Fore part of Elephant & Major Rock Edicts of Emperor Asoka (BC. 273-236)
Dhauli, Bhubanswar, Odisha.
KURUMA, Konark, Puri
ARAGARH, Delanga, Puri
Talapada Urban Settlement, Nirakarpur, Khurdha, Odisha
Achutrajpur---Palur - Jaugarh---Lathi

Palur

Bronzes from Achutrajpur, Odisha

Jaugarh- Lathi
Kalingapatnam, Salihundam and present so called Dantapura

Kalingapatnam

Dantapura
Trade Network-Buddhist Sites
 Some Discussions …..

• Kalinga (ancient Odisha) of 3rd BCE, was a well defined geographical entity. Scholars
Like R Thapar, D Chkravarti, B P Sahu, S Seneviratne and others have discussed and
inferred that by 3rd century BCE, an intimate relationship between monastic
communities, trading networks and urban centers had developed in South Asia.

• These networks connected the Gangetic area, where Buddha had dwelled and preached
,to regions in central, south eastern and south India…

• The early Buddhist sites were mostly located near urban centers along the trade routes
which is more precise and prominent in Odishan context like Tamralipti-Mughalmari,
Jayarampur, Ayodhya, Kupari, Kaupur, Radhanagar–Langudi-Udayagiri, Lalitgiri,
Ratnagiri, Sisupalgarh—Dhauli, Bhubaneswar-Aragrah, Talapada-Achutrajpur, Kanasa,
Lathi-Jaugada-Buddhakhola, Kaima, Dantapura (Present in AP) - Kalingapattinam,
Salihundam, Bhavikonda
• The Astadhyayi of Panini (5th century BCE.) mentions Kalinga as an important
Janapada with a monarchical government7.

• Buddhist texts particularly Lalitavistara refers that during sixth century BCE., Odissa
–known then as Kalinga and Utkala was famous for its enterprising merchants. It states
that Tapassu and Bhallika, two merchants of Utkala (Ukkala) had chance to meet
Buddha at Uruvela forest while travelling to Madhyadesa with five hundred carts of
merchandise and said to have received hair relic (Kesa Asti)8.

• The Mahaparinibbana Suttanta of Digha Nikaya enlists Kalinga among other states
received the tooth relic of Buddha and enshrined in the capital city Dantapura9.

• The Buddhist literature abounds in references to Kalinga – rattha and assigns to this
country, the city of Dantapura where king Brahmadatta is said to have erected a stupa
over a tooth relic of Buddha10.

• The ancient Jain text Bhgavati Sutra mentions the name of Kalinga Janapada in the 6th
century BCE. However, the Buddhist Pali text Anguttara Nikaya doesn’t mention about
Kalinga Janapada.

• In the recent Excavations at Sisupalgarh and Radhanagr (Kankia) the earliest

stratigraphy has been dated to 6th- 5th /4th -3rd century BCE11 which otherwise point to
existence of a Janapada.
Continue….
• However, Kalinga had became a province and later even the centre of great empires under two most
important rulers of India i.e Asoka –the great Mauryan emperor (3rd century BCE) and Kharavela of
Mahameghvahan dynasty in first century BCE which all are referred to in their inscriptions.

• Thus from 6th century B.C to 1st century BCE, we have the Kalinga Janapada and four most important
city centres i.e Dantapura, Tosali and Kalinganagara with a port city Pithunda are very much referred
together with Buddhist centres whose stratigraphy also belong to same period which are noticed at
Lalitgiri, Langudi and Udayagiri.

• The Relic Caskets from an early Stupa and the Chaitya Graha discovered at Lalitgiri of the earliest
phase belonging to 3rd -2nd century BCE31 points the farm footing of Buddhism. So also the discovery of
pendant (seal) with inscription Sadabhu Tissa (2nd-1st century BCE) from Kankia-Radhanagr again
upholds the theory of expansion of Buddhism and its popularity32.

• Expansion of Mauryan rule towards Eastern India indirectly broke down the economic barriers and
political isolation of Odisha from the rest of India and as such stimulated both oceanic and inland trade.
The artisans and merchant families in the villages contributed to the emergence of Janapadas like
Dantapura and Kalinganagara and port towns like Pithunda being encouraged by royal patronage.

• Of course, the towns were no other than cluster of Villages. In Indian context some villages are described
in textual sources as specializing in professions, such as blacksmithing, pottery, carpentry, cloth weaving
and basket weaving and so on. These were the villages close to the right type of clay for instance, would
attract potters to a particular area ,carpenters would flock to where timber was available. Specialized
artisans tend to congregate because this facilitated access to resource and distribution of crafted items.
Such a concentration could evolve in to a town and towns in turn expanded their production and their
markets to become commercial centres. It is certain that Buddhism has witnessed its growth in this part
of India as that of Ganga Valley. One of the major factor for growth Buddhism is the maritime trade and
cultural expansion.
Foreign influence objects found from Radhanagar
Knobbed ware from Radhanagar also found from Buddhist sites Eastern India & SE Asia
Spread of Theravada Buddhism to Sri Lanka
& to Other Countries from Sri Lanka

TAMRALIPTI
Sri Lanka, Hatadage
Spread of Mahayana Buddhism
• Pyu inscriptions on urns and fifth-sixth century Pali epigraphs, which
provided data on the early introduction of Buddhism in that country (ASIAR
1911-12: 19-20).

• By contrast, evidence for early seafaring from Southeast Asia is strong. A

knowledge of open-water sailing is demonstrated by the evidence of human
activities in the islands of the Indo-Malaysian archipelago. Starting as early as
the sixth millennium BCE) plank-built raft are attested in the marine
archaeological record of the Malay peninsula from the third-fifth century CE.)

• The thriving exchange in durable goods such as bronze seemed to have

accompanied a trade in perishables including spices; cloves, for example,
appear to have been traded within Southeast Asia long before contacts with
either south or east Asia.30)

• The sustained contact between groups is confirmed by the presence of similar

pottery complexes, such as the Sa-Huynh and Bau-Malay, in both mainland
and island Southeast Asia by the end of the first millennium BCE.) In
Southeast Asia and the subcontinent was likely to have been initiated by
individuals sailing from Southeast Asia.
• "Rouletted Ware," which has been found in abundance at sites of the Early Historic period along the
eastern coast of India. This ware has been found in Southeast Asian sites as well, but always in
relatively small quantities: three vessels from Java, 78 shreds from Sembiran in Bali, one shred from
Pacung, and one sherd from Tra Kieu in central Vietnam.

• The wide dating range assigned to Rouletted Ware, and the possibility of it being traded much later
than the date of manufacture, again cautions against seeing these items as definitive proof of large-
scale exchange in the early centuries C.E. Items that can be directly dated are rare. There are no
more than a handful of items bearing inscriptions (e.g. seal-impressions and stones) that can be dated
to the early first millennium C.E. from controlled excavations in Southeast Asia.36)These items are
usually dated paleographically. with the attendant risk that an archaizing later script is given an early
date.

• One noted example is the Sanskrit inscription from Vo-Canh in Vietnam, which had been dated to
the third century C.E. on paleographic grounds; new analysis of the text of the inscription indicates
that it dates to the fifth century or later.37 Again, most of the inscribed items for which an early date
is claimed are surface finds or from unknown stratigraphic contexts, and may have been deposited
in Southeast Asia much later than their date of manufacture. There are two other categories of items
that are usually cited as indicating a high volume of trade between the subcontinent and Southeast
Asia: iron and beads. Closer scrutiny of these items of "Indian" origin in Southeast Asia prior to the
fourth century C.E. reveals that a large proportion could actually be the result of local Southeast
Asian manufacture.
Rouletted ware, Radhanagar-Kankia
• The history of the Sung dynasty in China refers to the arrival of envoys from He-luo-
dan ( a locality perhaps situated in Sumatra).Among other things that the envoys
brought with them were Indian textiles. This is the first reference to the export of Indian
textiles from India to Southeast Asia.(Sarkar ,Cultural Relations,p.250.)
•
• Textiles were the binding factors in the cultural history of these two regions from
ancient times. One of the early civilizations in Java was Taruma Nagara (fith century
CE.).Taruma means indigo and nagara comes from Sanskrit word nagara ,meaning city
state. Indigo was the dominant colour in the dyed and printed trade cloth of India.(H
Devare, in Kulke etal. Ed,.Nagipattinam to Suvarna dipa,p.180).The two coastal regions
of the Bay of Bengal, particularly Kalinga, were an important source of cotton textiles to
Southeast Asia at an early date. Because of this dominance, Kilng was widely used in the
Indonesian archipelago as a common term for South Asians and kling cloths for textiles
.This was because Java had settlers from Kalinga.
•
• Coromandal fabrics had a special relationship with Thailand .Finely painted textiles
,known as kling cloths were most popular with the Thai royality .The Crown ordered his
own designs through agents who used to go to India and ship cloths from the
Coromonadal coast.(Ibid.p.187)
•
• Traders constituted an important social support base of Buddhism
.Given the ideological underpinnings provided by Buddhism towards
trade, traders especially oceanic traders ,engaged in dynamic interaction
with the religion.

• Buddhism, as found first in Kanheri ,developed Avalokitesvara

Padmapani as saviour deity (Ray 1994: 121-160). He is a saviour deity,
protects the seas going traders from the perils of sea voyage .From 6th
century onwords, the Buddhist goddess Tara replaced him as saviour
deity (U Mishra :2005 : 152).the Astamahavaya.

• Tara image found from Ratnagiri depicts Jalarnava-bhaya in which the

deity rescues a striking ship. Tara’s association with seas going traders of
Odisha is attested from the oral tradition as well. The oral tradition
associated with the origin of Kaktpur Mangala refers to how Mangal was
worshipped as Tara in Simhala divipa from where a trader brought the
image to Kakatpur on the seas coast and installed here as Tara
ASTAMAHABHAYA TARA, RATNAGIRI
• According to the Chola records, the conquest of Kalinga and the whole of eastern coast
up to the mouth of the Ganges was completed before the over-sea expedition was sent.
Prof S K Aiyangar concludes from a study all the relevant records that actual starting –
point of the over-sea expedition was in the coast-region of Kalinga (Jour. of Ind. Hist,
vol-2, p.345) .Prof Aiyangar infers from this fact that the conquest of Kalinga was
undertaken by Rajendra Chola as it ― was particularly necessary in view of the overseas
expedition that must have particularly necessary for some reason or other.He holds
further ―that the Kalingas were possibly rivals in the over-seas empire in connection
with which the overseas expedition was actually undertaken‖.
• Scholars agree that the conquest of Kalinga and the whole coastal region furnished
the Chola emperor with ample resources for his over-sea expedition .The mastery
over ports of Kalinga and Bengal gave him well-equipped ships and sailors
accustomed to voyage in every regions which he wanted to conquer. The navel
resources of the whole of eastern coast of India were thus concentrated in the
hands of Rajendra Chola, and it was enough to tempt a man to get possession of the
territory which served as the meeting ground of the trade and commerce between
India and the western countries on the one hand and the countries of the Far-East
on the other.

• Kalinga freed itself from the yoke of the Cholas around 1078 A.D with death of
Virarajendra who was defeated by the Chalukyas. But again Kulatuunga
Chola(1070-1119) the grand son (daughters son) of Rajendra Chola conquered
Kalinga and established peace and prosperity over his extensive dominions during
a long reign of 49 years.(R C Mujumdar , ―The Struggle between Sailendras and
the Cholas‖ in Jour. of Greater India Society Ed. K Chong-
Gun,p.127.Monhar,2013)
 IMPORTANT BUDDHIST PILGRIMS VISITING ODISHA

1. Fahien 4th CAD

2. Huen Tsang 639 AD
3. It sing 7th CAD

Huen Tsang travelled through land and found Buddhism in a flourishing

stage in Wu-tu (Odra) with more than one hundred monasteries and a
large number of monks.

He has made special mention of Pu-sie-P’o-K’i-Li or Pushpagiri

Mahavihara which has been identified by many with Langudi.
• The portion of Central Asia that stretches from the north-western boundaries of China to the
northern territories of ancient India (including modern Afghanistan) was considered as the life-
line of international trade and cultural exchange. It was known as the silk-route through which
silk, spice and other commodities were offered for commercial exchange with countries in the
West.
• The earliest historical record written in Chinese indicates that as early as the second century BC
textile and bamboo products manufactured in China were sold in the market of Bactriana in the
Oxus Valley. This was personally seen by Chang Ch’ien, the envoy sent by Emperor Wu-ti of the
Han Dynasty in 129 BC to negotiate with the Yueh Chi rulers in Bactriana in order to form a
military alliance. Further he was reported to have said that these commodities were brought to
Bactriana via India.
• This presupposes the existence of this international route between China and Central Asian
countries including India. Therefore it appears to be very natural that most of the Indian and
Central Asian Buddhist teachers who proceeded to China followed the trail of this caravan route
through Central Asia or modern Chinese Turkestan.
• This particular route served a useful purpose for over 1,000 years from the beginning of the third
or the second century BC. In addition to the missionary zeal shown by the Indian teachers, the
Chinese Buddhist pilgrims like Fa-hien and Huen-tsang took the same route to go to India. It is
from the records of these travelers we get the impression that the land route via Central Asia was
chiefly responsible for the spread of Buddhism to China.
• Of course, we cannot deny the importance of this route. We wish, however, to add that the sea
route, too, played an equally important role in the international commercial and cultural
interchange. As this fact is not widely known, it may not be out of place here to bring to the notice
to those who are interested in the development of Buddhism in China, and the introduction of the
Buddhist teaching to some of the South-East Asian countries. Naturally, this would mean the
important events concerning the various Buddhist missionary activities in these regions.
FOREIGN ORIGIN ANTIQUITIES UNEARTHED FROM EXCAVATION, ODISHA
FOREIGN ORIGIN ANTIQUITIES UNEARTHED FROM EXCAVATION, ODISHA
FOREIGN ORIGIN ANTIQUITIES UNEARTHED FROM EXCAVATION, ODISHA
ROCK ART DEPICTING MARITIME HERITAGE OF ODISHA, NARAJ
 Medieval Buddhism
• Bhaumakaras: Mahyana ,Vajryana Buddhism
• Movement of Monks
• Subhakar Simha
• Ratangiri Monastery
• China connection
• Spread of Vajryana Buddhism Mandalas
• Udaygiri Mandala :Ratnagiri Vajrayana,Java
and Borbodur..
ANCHOR, BALASORE MUSEUM
ANCHOR, ODISHA STATE MUSEUM, Collected from Balasore Area
ANCHOR, ODISHA STATE MUSEUM
 ODISHA STATE MUSEUM,
Transportation of Elephant by
Boat
Foreign Objects unearthed from Excavations
Thanks
Dr. Sunil Kumar Patnaik
Secretary
ODISHAN INSTITUTE OF MARITIME
& SOUTH-EAST ASIAN STUDIES,
KALPANA SQUARE,
BHUBANESWAR, ODISHA, INDIA
Email: patnaiksunil5@gmail.com
oimseas2010@gmail.com