Maritime Trade and Maritime Gods

A co-relational study of the development of maritime commerce and maritime

mythology in Ancient & Medieval India and neighboring countries
URMI CHANDA-VAZ
MA II, AIC, St. Xavier's College, Mumbai

Abstract
Development of maritime trade through the ages is amply reflected not just in the archaeological
remains of material culture but also mythology. Although the Indian religious traditions have largely
been studied from a spiritual and cultural point of view, a lot remains to be said about its relation to
commercial growth. In this paper, we take a look at some of the riverine and marine gods and
goddesses that were venerated in ancient and medieval India and neighboring nations. Man's relation
to water bodies has been both, sacral and tinged with fear. It is especially true of India, which is
blessed with a long coastline, plentiful rivers and abundant maritime activity. From Varua to Gang,
from Matsya Avatra to Manimekhal, from Avalokiteshwara to Mazu, we study the evolution of these
deities and cults and co-relate them to the corresponding growth in maritime activity in certain
regions. When seafaring merchants invoked certain gods and patronised certain temples and cults, it
led to the creation of Maritime Heritage.

Introduction
Economics is undeniably the biggest cog in society's wheel. Though not always obvious, its influences
are constant and multifarious. The interplay of cultural forces and economic activity propel society in a
certain direction. It is so today as it was in the olden times. As civilizations grew, the exchange of
people, goods and ideas increased. Thriving urban centres along land and water routes became cultural
hotspots. Bigger and grander temples were built to thank the gods for their benevolence and seek
sustained protection. Like epigraphical and numismatic evidence, the history of religious activity
around a region also serves as excellent proof of past economic conditions. Temples, gods and their
mythological stories, then, are more than religious landmarks.
This paper aims to study the co-relation between religious and commercial activity in India and some
neighbouring nations from the ancient through the medieval periods. The idea is to co-relate the growth
curve of maritime trade with the evolution of certain maritime deities. One finally wishes to investigate
and understand the creation of Maritime Heritage through the lens of mythology.
Back to the beginning
It is common knowledge that maritime trade was known and practiced in the Indus Valley civilization.
Seals, amulets, and terracotta potsherds from Mohenjo Daro featuring boats 1 have long been offered as
proof of our ancestors having sailed the seas, having trade relations with distant lands as Mesopotamia.
Similar naval motifs are noticed in the carvings at Bharhut and Sanchi 2 at a later period. There are
evident bas-relief carvings of boats at the stupas in both the locations.
We also know of some religious practices of the IVC people, thanks to numerous Mother Goddess
statues and other famous artifacts like the Pashupati seal and the bust of the Priest-King. However, one
cannot be sure if any of these 'gods' or practices were specific to maritime activity. The picture begins
to get clearer with the onset of the Vedic Age around 1500 BCE.

1 Arunachalam, B. (2005), Maritime Heritage of India: Sources and Evidences, (pp 3-5), Indica, 42(1)
2 Cunningham Alexander (1879), The Stpa of Bharhut: A Buddhist Monument Ornamented with Numerous Sculptures
Illustrative of Buddhist Legend and History in the Third Century B.C., (p 124), W H Allen

VEDIC GODS
For the primarily pastoral Vedic society, which was just beginning to embrace agriculture, the forces of
nature were especially important. That the Vedic poets and seers were familiar with the oceans can be
deduced from references to the four samudras in the Rig Veda3. With a distinct Indo-Aryan flavour, the
Vedic people first introduced gods like Varuna that could be linked to seafaring.
Varua , Agni and Indra
Varua is one of the principal gods of the Vedic pantheon and we are introduced to him in the Rig Veda.
Hymn no. 25 which is sung in his praise expresses both the author's fear and awe of this mighty God.
Parts of the hymn are translated below:
Whatever law of thine, O God, O Varua, as we are men,
Day after day we violate.
Give us not as a prey to death, to be destroyed by thee in wrath,
To thy fierce anger when displeased....
...He knows the path of birds that fly through heaven, and, Sovereign of the sea,
He knows the ships that are thereon.
True to his holy law, he knows the twelve moons with their progeny:
He knows the moon of later birth.
He knows the pathway of the wind, the spreading, high, and mighty wind:
He knows the Gods who dwell above.
Rig Veda, Hymn 25
Even discounting the exaggeration, the hymn is clearly suggestive of some maritime knowledge
prevalent in the Vedic Age (roughly 1500 BCE 500 BCE). They knew not only about seas, but also of
ships, the path of winds and marine fauna. The poet acknowledges the mighty powers and knowledge
of Varua and is obviously fearful of him. Varua, often invoked with his counterpart, Mitra, is deemed
3 Sanyal Sanjeev, (2013), Land of the Seven Rivers: A Brief History of India's Geography, (p 46), Penguin India

the god of the waters, the lord of the laws of nature and the upholder of physical and moral order (rta) 4.
Varua's lordship over the seas is also underlined in the Rmyaa when Rma prays to him to part the
waters of the ocean so he may reach Lanka.
Though the importance of Varua declined in the subsequent times, ancient shore temples dedicated to
him stand testimony to his power even today. The Varua Dev temple at Manora near Karachi in
present day Pakistan is one example and it is believed to be at least a few centuries old 5. The other
famous temple dedicated to this atmospheric deity is the Dwarkadhish temple in Gujarat, India. It is
also known as the Varua Deva temple and is believed to date back to 3000 BC 6. The Mitra-Varua duo
in their Brahmanical and Zoroastrian forms were acknowledged right down to early centuries CE,
during the reign of the Kushana kings in the form of coins7.
Indra and Agni, the two other prime Vedic gods were also possibly venerated by the merchant
community, owing to their general greatness. The Atharva Veda ascribes a hymn to these two gods
through a merchant seeking protection8. However, they are better associated with agriculture,
domestication and industry.
Vishnu, in his Matsya and Kurma forms also forms a significant part of the maritime myths in the
Puranic Hinduism. However, there is little connection of these myths with the aspect of trade.
RIVER GODDESSES
Nadipathas or river routes, along with Varipathas or sea routes, were the backbone of ancient Indian
maritime trade. Rivers have always held an important place in India's psyche. They are as important for
agricultural reasons as they are for spiritual ones. Added to that was their usefulness in inland trade,
which made rivers a subject of endless veneration. This started giving rise to rich river mythology from
the Vedic times and it continues to grow even today.
4 Macdonell, A. (2000). The Vedic Gods. In Vedic Mythology (pp. 22-29). New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Pvt. Ltd.
5 Malik M. (2012, March 1). Shri Varun Dev Mandir. The Express Tribune. Retrieved July 13, 2015, from
http://tribune.com.pk/story/343998/shri-varun-dev-mandir-darshan/
6 Sridharan, K. (2003). India's Maritime Heritage (First ed., p. 19). New Delhi: CBS Publisher.
7 Sagar Krishna Chandra, (1992), Foreign Influence on Ancient India, (p 188), Northern Book Centre
8 Sanyal, Op. Cit. (p 46)

In fact, scriptures like the Rig Veda mentioned upto 90 navigable rivers9 for trade. They were:
(i) The Ganges-Mahodadhi (Bay of Bengal) route
(ii) The Brahmaputra-Mahodadhi route
(iii) The Mahanadi-Mahodadhi route
(iv) The Godavari-Mahodadhi route
(v) The Krishna-Mahodadhi route
(vi) The Kaveri-Mahodadhi route
(vii) The Indus-Ratnakar (Arabian Sea) route
(viii) The Narmada-Ratnakar route
(ix) The Euphrates-Persian Gulf river route
(x) The Nile-Mediterranean river route
(xi) The Huang Ho-Pacific Ocean route
We shall briefly explore the myths and maritime importance of some of these rivers in this section.
Saraswati
Geological and archaeological research over the past few decades have proven that the Saraswati is
more than a mythical river. It is identified by some scholars with the Ghaggar-Hakra river in presentday Pakistan10. This mighty river was once the life source of the ancient India, and numerous cities and
settlements have been excavated along its now dry shores. A sprinkling of Harappan sites in the arid
regions of Jammu, Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Gujarat, and the North Western parts of Pakistan 11
prove beyond doubt that a mighty river once flowed there. In fact, archaeologists suggest that the
Saraswati's role was central to irrigation and trade and thus prosperity of the region. It is, therefore,
fitting that Indus Valley Civilization is now known by many as the Indus-Saraswati Civilization.
The Saraswati's importance was clearly undiminished even in the Vedic times, for we find many a
eulogy in her name in the Vedas. The Vedic Saraswati is clearly the river, which was so instrumental to

9 Prasad Prakash Charan (2014), Foreign Trade and Commerce in Ancient India, (p 134) Abinav Publications
10 Singh Upinder, (2008), A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century (pp 137138), Pearson Education India
11 Ibid.

the economic upkeep of society. It is only in the Brhmaas that she is associated with speech in the
form of Vc Dev12, and is deemed a goddess of culture and learning in later Hinduism.
It stands to reason that Saraswati found lesser and lesser representation in Indian scriptures as a river as
she kept drying up. The Mhbhrata mentions this geological phenomenon13. However, as settlements
along her banks were laid to waste, her cultural import did not decrease. An ever-important entity, she
slowly took the form of a white-clad, four-armed, swan-riding, Veea-playing Saraswati.
First, as a river and then as a goddess of speech and learning, Saraswati has always represented the
sublime. Therefore, there are very few tangible memorials of this goddess. The only known ancient
temple of Saraswati is the famous rad Pha of Kashmir. Without iconographic representation,
Saraswati was never quite worshipped the way India's other great rivers like Gang are.
Gang
What Saraswati was to the Harappans, Gang was to the Indo-Aryans. The Indo-Gangetic plain was
and continues to be extremely fertile. It has sustained centuries of civilizations and helped foster the
flower of culture. The Gang is rightly called the life-giving mother and she plays a central role in the
economic, religious, and spiritual life of Indians. With important trading ports like Tmralipti,
Paliputra, Vraasi and Prayg situated along its banks, ancient India saw a spurt of commercial
activity in the Indo-Gangetic plain. As trade and commerce thrived, these cities also became religious
hotspots, attracting religious sects of all kinds. To this day, the cities of Vrasi and Prayg are
extremely important centres of pilgrimage to Hindus, with several hundred temples.
Among the many gods and goddesses worshipped, the goddess Gang is of great importance and an
object of intense devotion. Many popular myths like the 'Descent of Gang', 'The Salvation of Sgara's
sons', 'Marriage to King ntanu' and her association with Shiva have much popular appeal. These have
been immortalised not just in the epics and Puras, but also stone carvings and sculptures in temples
and caves of ancient India. The bas-relief sculpture of Gang avatara at Mhbalipuram (8th cent. CE)
12 Ludvk Catherine, (2007), Sarasvat, Riverine Goddess of Knowledge: From the Manuscript-carrying V-player to the
Weapon-wielding Defender of the Dharma, (p 116), BRILL
13 Kapoor Subodh, (2002), Encyclopaedia of Ancient Indian Geography, Volume 2, (p 590), Genesis Publishing Pvt Ltd

is one famous example.

Gang worship started thousands of years ago and she is still a living goddess. She is worshipped in
both forms an idol and a river. In her anthropomorphic form, she is a beautiful bejeweled damsel who
stands atop a makara's (crocodile) back. She holds an overflowing pot of water in one hand, and
sometimes, a plateful of food on the other 14, symbolising plenitude and nourishment. Statues of Gang
and Yamun flanking temple doors were very popular with the Gupta rulers 15 and other contemporary
Hindu kings. Such statues can be seen all over Central India like at the Udaygiri caves (5 th cent. CE),
the Davatara temple at Deogarh (7th cent. CE), and Trimurti temple at Badoli (10th-11th cent. CE)16.
While she was and continues to be worshipped as an idol, she is more popular in her river form a
river that Hindus believe has the power to wash off all their sins. Ritual purification through the use of
the holy waters of the Gang, a dip in the river, or the immersing of the ashes as a funerary rite are all
deeply entrenched in Hindu culture. In Diana Eck's words, the Gang is more of an 'organic symbol'
rather than a narrative and hence she is as relevant today as she was centuries ago.
Yamun
The Yamun is the third of the holy trinity of Indian rivers Gang and Saraswati being the other two.
The confluence of these three rivers at Prayag or Allahabad is one of the holiest spots in India. Like the
Gang, the Yamun also enjoys a fairly important position in both, maritime and mythological spheres.
Sometimes called the Jumn or Jamun, the river is the largest tributary of the Gang and drains a large
portion of the Gang basin. Ancient and modern cities like Kauambi, Mathur, Delhi and Agra which
are situated along its banks have thrived, thanks to the river's usefulness in trade and agriculture.
Mathur was especially important and finds mention in many Puras and notably, the epic
Mahbhrata. It was known to the ancient Greek traders travelling to India as Methora, as an important
trading post on the Uttaravha17.
14 Kinsley David (1986) Hindu Goddesses: Vision of the Divine Feminine in the Hindu Religious Tradition (p 195, 1st
Indian edition, 2005 reprint), Motilal Banarsidass Publishers
15 Wangu Madhu Bazaz (2003), Images of Indian Goddesses: Myths, Meanings, and Models, (p 90) Abhinav Publishers
16 Darian Steven G (2001), 'The Image of Ganga in Indian Art' in The Ganges in Myth and History, (p 125), Motilal
Banarsidass Publishers
17 Prasad, Op. Cit. (p 74)

In mythology, Yamun is considered the daughter of the sun and the sister of Yama, the god of death.
Dark like her brother, she is also called Klindi and sometimes, Yami. She is associated with Vishnu in
his Krishna or rikanha form and is therefore of special significance to the Vaishnava sect. Her waters
are dark, and so is her iconographic representation. Alongside Gang, she is also found carved in stone
on the doorjambs of ancient Indian temples. A dark but beautifully ornamented woman, she holds an
overflowing pot of water in her hands and stands atop a tortoise18.
Though deified and worshipped in a few temples in India, Yamun is more important in her geological
form. Thoroughly polluted herself, she remains a 'purifier' in the minds of believing Hindus.
Narmad
One of the important rivers along the Dakshinapatha, the Narmad is a defining river of the Deccan.
The ancient port of Bhrigukaccha/Barygaza (present day Bharuch) on the Narmad's banks was known
to international traders more than 2000 years ago 19. This port had the monopoly of maritime trade in the
Narmad valley, importing goods like wine, copper, tin, coral, cloth, gold and silver; and exporting
ivory, onyx, myrrh, silk, pepper and diamonds in return 20. Around 500 CE, Bharuch enjoyed
prominence as the entry point for Arab traders before Surat took over as the preferred port 21.
Archaeological evidence of ancient habitations in other ancient towns like Hoshangbad, Tripuri and
Mahimati22 along the Narmad are enough to prove the importance this river had in ancient Deccan.
This central role of the river was amply reflected in its mythology. The port town of Bhrigukaccha is
called so because it was apparently home to the venerable Vedic seer, Bhrigu 23. The river herself is said
to be born of the perspiration of Siva for the benefit of mankind. The word Narmada means pleasure
(narma) giving (da-) and she is among the seven sacred rivers of India. She is also known by many
other names such as Rev, Somodbhva and Mekalakanyak, and the mythological stories associated
18 Haberman David L (2006), River of Love in an Age of Pollution: The Yamuna River of Northern India, (p 54), University
of California Press
19 Fisher William F (1995), 'Myth and History' in Working Toward Sustainable Development: Narmada Dam Project, (p
61), M E Sharpe Publishers
20 Ibid.
21 Ibid.
22 Ibid.
23 Lal S K (2007), Rivers in Hindu Mythology and Ritual, (pp 91-94), Bharatiya Kala Prakashan

with her are as numerous.

The river Narmad is also extremely important to Hindus for religious reasons. Unlike the Gang or
Yamun, which are sacred in certain spots, the Narmad is considered holy all along her length. A
circumambulation of the whole river Narmada Parikram is recommended and performed by some
believers! There are 481 tirthas along its way, the most famous being the point of the river's origin at
Amarkanaka24. The river is also known for the famous ba lingas smooth, rounded river-polished
stones that are worshipped as Siva. The virgin river goddess herself is worshipped in a crude,
somewhat aniconic form in many temples like the one at Amarkanaka25. In popular calendar art, she is
depicted as a beautiful four-armed goddess sitting atop a lotus and/or crocodile. In three of her hands
she holds a trident, a kalaa, and a iva linga and her fourth hand is in the varada mudr.
Kveri
What Narmada is to the Deccan, Kveri/ Cauvery is to peninsular India. There are literary references to
this ancient river in texts like Rmyaa, Kalikpura, Vayupura and Yoginitantra among others.
The river Kveri was of special significance to the kingdoms of the South. She enjoyed the epithet
'beloved of the Pallavas'26, but was more associated with the Cola kings. The Cola capital, Urugapura/
Uraiyur was situated on its southern bank and the river formed a natural barrier from many enemies.
The ancient port of Kaveripattim aka Pumpoohar or Puhr situated on its northern banks was the
lifeline of southern maritime trade. The port and its trade practices were very well known and find
mention in the Jtakas and the epic, ilappaddikram27. The river was famous for her pearls28.
In the mythological realm too, the Kveri gathered much adulation. She is often referred to as the
Gang of the South or Dakina Gang and is understandably considered extremely sacred. She is
considered the wife of sage Agastya and daughter of the mythical king, Kvera29. She is venerated as

24
25
26
27
28
29

Eck Diana L. (2012), India: A Sacred Geography, (pp 170-175), Harmony Books
Ibid.
Kapoor S., Op. Cit. (p 370)
Chandra Moti (1977), Trade and Trade Routes in Ancient India (p 154), Abhinav Publications
Ibid. (p 157)
Lal S K, Op. Cit. (pp 65-67)

Kveri amma (Mother Kveri) in the form of a two-armed maiden carrying a water pot in her hands 30,
like Gang and Yamun. The important festival of Tala Kveri is celebrated even today in Coorg.
The rivers mentioned in some detail in this paper have been chosen on the basis of their relation to
ancient Indian maritime trade. However, other important rivers like Godvari, Mhnadi, Krishn,
Tungabhadr, Brahmaputra, etc. too have their respective mythologies and warrant separate study.
MARITIME GODS IN BUDDHISM
In the Buddhist scheme of things, there are many Jtakas belonging to the Vedic Age that have
references to sea voyages31. This body of literature belonging to the Pali Canon has many stories about
the previous lives of the Buddha. It is common knowledge among historians how these stories describe
the long-distance journey of merchants over sea into lands like Suvaradvpa (South East Asia),
Ratnadvpa (Sri Lanka) and Baveru (possibly Babylon)32. They elaborate upon the perils of such
journeys and even shipwrecks.
Manimekhala
As actively engaged in maritime trade, the threat of the seas was an everyday reality for Buddhist
merchants. It, therefore, made sense that they would seek the protection of divine agencies. The ancient
Buddhist goddess of the seas and patron deity to the sailors was Manimekhal. This very important
goddess appears first in the Mahjanaka Jtaka and the ankha Jtaka.
She also makes an appearance in the Tamil epic, Maimekalai, other Burmese and Sinhala texts and in
several Southeast Asian versions of the Ramayana.33 She rescues travelers in rough seas, guards against
shipwrecks and pirates and ensures fruitful commercial voyages. There were ancient temples dedicated
to her in Puhr and Knchi and she was a popular goddess in the early centuries CE, especially during
30 Rao S K R (2003), Encyclopaedia of Indian Iconography: Hinduism - Buddhism - Jainism, Volume 1, (p 319), Sri
Satguru Publications.
31 Banerjee Pronab K., (2005), Oceanography for Beginners (p 6), Allied Publishers
32 Singh Upinder, Op. Cit. (p 408)
33 Monius Anne E (2001), Imagining a Place for Buddhism : Literary Culture and Religious Community in Tamil-Speaking
South India, (pp 111-112), Oxford University Press

10

the Pallava period34.

According to Chandra35, Their (the Pallavas) wealth depended, they believed, on the goddess
Manimekhal, whom Indra had placed in charge of the sea, the same goddess who had earlier destroyed
the Cola port of Pukr.
Thus, this Buddhist goddess was adopted by the Hindu kings, and as their dominion spread over South
East Asia, Manimekal travelled far, spawning mythologies along the way. Other Hindu gods like
Vishnu and Brahma also became popular in South East Asia thanks to the Hindu dynasties of Srivijaya
and Mjpahit. Ancient maritime trade relations between India and these nations ensured not just
commercial but also cultural exchange.
Avalokiteshvara/ Guanyin
In Mahayana Buddhism, the deity Avalokiteshvara is very popular. He embodies the compassion of all
Buddhas and is among the highly revered Bodhisattvas. In China, he is worshipped in his female form,
who is called Guanyin. Although Avalokiteshvara does not have any maritime associations, the goddess
Guanyin is known to be the patron deity of seafaring merchants. She is also, like her male alter ego, the
goddess of compassion. In Japan, she is known as Kannon36.
Her connection with the sea can be deduced from her iconography, where she is depicted as a beautiful
woman in white robes, holding a jar of water in her hands. Sometimes, she is depicted as riding a
dolphin, has a fish basket by her side and is accompanied by creatures like the ocean snail37.
Mazu
Another popular Chinese goddess of the seas is called Mazu. She came into prominence during the
Song dynasty, which had mixed influences of Buddhism and Confucianism. Mazu is a much later

34
35
36
37

Chandra, Op. Cit., (p 62)

Ibid.
Leeming David (2005), The Oxford Companion to World Mythology, (p 166), Oxford University Press
Monaghan Patricia (2011), Goddesses in World Culture, (p 132), ABC-CLIO

11

goddess, having been born as a human woman named Lin-Mo in the 10th century CE38. She is deified as
a young woman in a red dress who roams the seas and helps guide the sailors home.
Conclusion
Through this co-relational study of maritime trade practices in ancient India and some maritime gods
and goddesses, it is plain to see how each influences the other. India, which has abundant rivers and a
long coastline has been engaged in maritime activity both internal and external since the ancient
period. Its land was fertile for economic prosperity and religious development. As agricultural and trade
practices started growing from the Vedic age onwards, the dependence on water bodies and thereby the
need for 'water' deities started growing.
As can be seen in the paper, a proliferation of maritime myths and gods have dominated popular
imagination from the early centuries of the common era. Buddhism and the Vedic religion contributed
to this body of beliefs with a variety of gods and goddesses. The biggest share, however, is taken by the
river goddesses of India. The seven sacred rivers of the nation were important not just from a religious
point of view but also from a trade perspective. Saraswati, Gang, Yamun, Narmad and Kveri are
among the most significant rivers. Manu's restriction on sea voyages did not allow for the development
of too many oceanic deities among Hindus, but the prolific Buddhist merchants filled that gap with
gods such as Manimekhal and Avalokiteshvara.
There are many other local gods and goddesses associated with maritime activities like Gujarat's
Harsiddhi Mt. They continue to highlight the undeniable link between maritime trade and maritime
myths. And in the coming together of both, we observe the creation of precious maritime heritage.

38 Yuan Haiwang (2006), The Magic Lotus Lantern and Other Tales from the Han Chinese, (pp 123-126), Libraries
Unlimited

12

BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Arunachalam, B. (2005), Maritime Heritage of India: Sources and Evidences, Indica, 42(1)
2. Banerjee Pronab K., (2005), Oceanography for Beginners, Allied Publishers
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4. Cunningham Alexander (1879), The Stpa of Bharhut: A Buddhist Monument Ornamented with
Numerous Sculptures Illustrative of Buddhist Legend and History in the Third Century BC, WH
Allen
5. Darian Steven G (2001), The Ganges in Myth and History, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers
6. Eck Diana L. (2012), India: A Sacred Geography, Harmony Books
7. Fisher William F (1995), Working Toward Sustainable Development: Narmada Dam Project, M
E Sharpe Publishers
8. Haberman David L (2006), River of Love in an Age of Pollution: The Yamuna River of Northern
India, University of California Press
9. Kapoor Subodh, (2002), Encyclopaedia of Ancient Indian Geography, Volume 2, Genesis
Publishing Pvt. Ltd.
10. Kinsley David (1986) Hindu Goddesses: Vision of the Divine Feminine in the Hindu Religious
Tradition (1st Indian edition, 2005 reprint), Motilal Banarsidass Publishers
11. Lal S K (2007), Rivers in Hindu Mythology and Ritual, Bharatiya Kala Prakashan
12. Leeming David (2005), The Oxford Companion to World Mythology, Oxford University Press
13. Ludvk Catherine, (2007), Sarasvat, Riverine Goddess of Knowledge: From the Manuscriptcarrying V-player to the Weapon-wielding Defender of the Dharma, BRILL
14. Macdonell A (2000), The Vedic Gods. In Vedic Mythology, Munshiram Manoharlal Pvt. Ltd.
15. Monaghan Patricia (2011), Goddesses in World Culture, ABC-CLIO
16. Monius Anne E (2001), Imagining a Place for Buddhism : Literary Culture and Religious
Community in Tamil-Speaking South India, Oxford University Press
17. Prasad Prakash Charan (2014), Foreign Trade and Commerce in Ancient India, Abinav
Publications
18. Rao S K R (2003), Encyclopaedia of Indian Iconography: Hinduism - Buddhism - Jainism,
Volume 1, Sri Satguru Publications

13

19. Sagar Krishna Chandra, (1992), Foreign Influence on Ancient India, Northern Book Centre
20. Sanyal Sanjeev, (2013), Land of the Seven Rivers: A Brief History of India's Geography,
Penguin India
21. Singh Upinder, (2008), A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to
the 12th Century, Pearson Education India
22. Sridharan, K. (2003). India's Maritime Heritage (First ed.,), CBS Publisher
23. Wangu Madhu Bazaz (2003), Images of Indian Goddesses: Myths, Meanings, and Models,
Abhinav Publishers
24. Yuan Haiwang (2006), The Magic Lotus Lantern and Other Tales from the Han Chinese,
Libraries Unlimited

14