Automation & Robotics Notes

1 | Page AUTOMATION & ROBOTICS
JAWAHARLAL NEHRU TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY ANANTAPUR

B.Tech. IV-I Sem (M.E)
(9A03702) AUTOMATION & ROBOTICS
UNIT – I
Introduction to Automation: Need , Types, Basic elements of an automated system, levels of automation,
hardware components for automation and process control, mechanical feeders, hoppers, orienters, high
speed automatic insertion devices.
UNIT – II
Automated flow lines: Part transfer methods and mechanisms, types of Flow lines, flow line with/without
buffer storage, qualitative analysis.
Assembly line balancing: Assembly process and systems assembly line, line balancing methods, ways of
improving line balance, flexible assembly lines.
UNIT – III
Introduction to Industrial Robots: Classification. Robot configurations, Functional line diagram, Degrees
of Freedom. Components, common types of arms, joints, grippers.
Robot actuators and Feed back components: Actuators: Pneumatic, Hydraulic actuators, electric &
stepper motors, comparison. Position sensors – potentiometers, resolvers, encoders – Velocity sensors,
Tactile sensors, Proximity sensors.
UNIT – IV
Manipulator Kinematics: Homogeneous transformations as applicable to rotation and translation - D-H
notation, Forward and inverse kinematics.
Manipulator Dynamics: Differential transformation, Jacobians . Lagrange – Euler and Newton – Euler
formations.
Trajectory Planning: Trajectory planning and avoidance of obstacles, path planning, Skew motion, joint
integrated motion – straight line motion .
UNIT – V
Robot programming-Types – features of languages and software packages.
Robot Application in Manufacturing: Material Transfer - Material handling, loading and unloading-
Processing - spot and continuous arc welding & spray painting - Assembly and Inspection.
TEXT BOOKS:
1. Automation , Production systems and CIM,M.P. Groover/Pearson Edu.
2. Industrial Robotics - M.P. Groover, TMH.
REFERENCES:
1. Robotics , Fu K S, McGraw Hill.
2. An Introduction to Robot Technology , P. Coiffet and M. Chaironze , Kogam Page Ltd. 1983 London.
3. Robotic Engineering , Richard D. Klafter, Prentice Hall
4. Robotics, Fundamental Concepts and analysis – Ashitave Ghosal,Oxford Press
5. Robotics and Control , Mittal R K & Nagrath I J , TMH.
6. Introduction to Robotics – John J. Craig,Pearson Edu
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UNIT – I: INTRODUCTION TO AUTOMATION
Automation or automatic control, is the use of various control systems for operating equipment such as
machinery, processes in factories, boilers and heat treating ovens, switching in telephone networks, steering
and stabilization of ships, aircraft and other applications with minimal or reduced human intervention. Some
processes have been completely automated.
The biggest benefit of automation is that it saves labor, however, it is also used to save energy and
materials and to improve quality, accuracy and precision.
The term automation, inspired by the earlier word automatic (coming from automaton), was not
widely used before 1947, when General Motors established the automation department. It was during this
time that industry was rapidly adopting feedback controllers, which were introduced in the 1930s.
Automation has been achieved by various means including mechanical, hydraulic, pneumatic,
electrical, and electronic and computers, usually in combination. Complicated systems, such as modern
factories, airplanes and ships typically use all these combined techniques.
The main advantages of automation are:
•Increased throughput or productivity.
•Improved quality or increased predictability of quality.
•Improved robustness (consistency), of processes or product.
•Increased consistency of output.
•Reduced direct human labor costs and expenses.
The following methods are often employed to improve productivity, quality, or robustness.
•Install automation in operations to reduce cycle time.
•Install automation where a high degree of accuracy is required.
•Replacing human operators in tasks that involve hard physical or monotonous work.[16]
•Replacing humans in tasks done in dangerous environments (i.e. fire, space, volcanoes, nuclear facilities,
underwater, etc.)
•Performing tasks that are beyond human capabilities of size, weight, speed, endurance, etc.
•Economic improvement: Automation may improve in economy of enterprises, society or most of humanity.
For example, when an enterprise invests in automation, technology recovers its investment; or when a state
or country increases its income due to automation like Germany or Japan in the 20th Century. •Reduces
operation time and work handling time significantly.
•Frees up workers to take on other roles.
•Provides higher level jobs in the development, deployment, maintenance and running of the automated
processes.
The main disadvantages of automation are:
•Causing unemployment and poverty by replacing human labor.
•Security Threats/Vulnerability: An automated system may have a limited level of intelligence, and is
therefore more susceptible to committing errors outside of its immediate scope of knowledge (e.g., it is
typically unable to apply the rules of simple logic to general propositions).
•Unpredictable/excessive development costs: The research and development cost of automating a process
may exceed the cost saved by the automation itself.
•High initial cost: The automation of a new product or plant typically requires a very large initial investment
in comparison with the unit cost of the product, although the cost of automation may be spread among many
products and over time.
In manufacturing, the purpose of automation has shifted to issues broader than productivity, cost, and time.
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Robotics is the branch of mechanical engineering, electrical engineering and computer science that deals
with the design, construction, operation, and application of robots,[1] as well as computer systems for their
control, sensory feedback, and information processing. These technologies deal with automated machines
that can take the place of humans in dangerous environments or manufacturing processes, or resemble
humans in appearance, behavior, and/or cognition. Many of today's robots are inspired by nature
contributing to the field of bio-inspired robotics.
The concept of creating machines that can operate autonomously dates back to classical times, but
research into the functionality and potential uses of robots did not grow substantially until the 20th century.
Throughout history, robotics has been often seen to mimic human behavior, and often manage tasks in a
similar fashion. Today, robotics is a rapidly growing field, as technological advances continue, research,
design, and building new robots serve various practical purposes, whether domestically, commercially, or
militarily. Many robots do jobs that are hazardous to people such as defusing bombs, mines and exploring
shipwrecks.
1.1 NEED:
Companies undertake projects in manufacturing automation and computer-integrated manufacturing for a
variety of good reasons. Some of the reasons used to justify automation are the following:
1. To increase labor productivity: Automating a manufacturing operation usually increases production rate
and labor productivity. This means greater output per hour of labor input.
2. To reduce labor cost: Ever-increasing labor cost has been and continues to be the trend in the world’s
industrialized societies. Consequently, higher investment in automation has become economically justifiable
to replace manual operations. Machines are increasingly being substituted for human labor to reduce unit
product cost.
3. To mitigate the effects of labor shortages: There is a general shortage of labor in many advanced nations,
and this has stimulated the development of automated operations as a substitute for labor.
4. To reduce or eliminate routine manual and clerical tasks: An argument can be put forth that there is
social value in automating operations that are routine, boring, fatiguing, and possibly irksome. Automating
such tasks serves a purpose of improving the general level of working conditions.
5. To improve worker safety: By automating a given operation and transferring the worker from active
participation in the process to a supervisory role, the work is made safer. The safety and physical well being
of the worker has become a national objective with the enactment of the Occupational Safety and Health
Act (OSHA) in 1970. This has provided an impetus for automation.
6. To improve product quality: Automation not only results in higher production rates than manual
operations; it also performs the manufacturing process with greater uniformity and conformity to quality
specifications. Reduction of fraction defect rate is one of the chief benefits of automation.
7. To reduce manufacturing lead time: Automation helps to reduce the elapsed time between customer order
and product delivery, providing a competitive advantage to the manufacturer for future orders. By reducing
manufacturing lead time, the manufacturer also reduces work-in-process inventory.
8. To accomplish processes that cannot be done manually: Certain operations cannot be accomplished
without the aid of a machine. These processes have requirements for precision, miniaturization, or
complexity of geometry that cannot be achieved manually. Examples include certain integrated circuit
fabrication operations, rapid prototyping processes based on computer graphics (CAD) models, and the
machining of complex, mathematically defined surfaces using computer numerical control. These processes
can only be realized by computer controlled systems.
9. To avoid the high cost of not automating: There is a significant competitive advantage gained in
automating a manufacturing plant. The advantage cannot easily be demonstrated on a company’s project
authorization form. The benefits of automation often show up in unexpected and intangible ways, such as in
improved quality, higher sales, better labor relations, and better company image. Companies that do not
automate are likely to find themselves at a competitive disadvantage with their customers, their employees,
and the general public.
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1.2 TYPES OF AUTOMATION IN THE INDUSTRY:

Automated manufacturing systems can be classified into three basic types (for our purposes in this
introduction; we explore the topic of automation in greater depth in Chapter 3): (1) fixed automation, (2)
programmable automation, and (3) flexible automation.
Fixed Automation: Fixed automation is a system in which the sequence of processing (or assembly)
operations is fixed by the equipment configuration. Each of the operations in the sequence is usually simple,
involving perhaps a plain linear or rotational motion or an uncomplicated combination of the two; for
example, the feeding of a rotating spindle. It is the integration and coordination of many such operations
into one piece of equipment that makes the system complex.Typical features of fixed automation are:
• high initial investment for custom-engineered equipment
• high production rates
• relatively inflexible in accommodating product variety
The economic justification for fixed automation is found in products that are produced in very large
quantities and at high production rates. The high initial cost of the equipment
can be spread over a very large number of units, thus making the unit cost attractive compared with
alternative methods of production. Examples of fixed automation include machining transfer lines and
automated assembly machines.
Programmable Automation: In programmable automation, the production equipment is designed with the
capability to change the sequence of operations to accommodate different product configurations.The
operation sequence is controlled by a program, which is a set of instructions coded so that they can be read
and interpreted by the system. New programs can be prepared and entered into the equipment to produce
new products. Some of the features that characterize programmable automation include:
• high investment in general purpose equipment
• lower production rates than fixed automation
• flexibility to deal with variations and changes in product configuration
• most suitable for batch production
Programmable automated production systems are used in low- and medium-volume production. The
parts or products are typically made in batches. To produce each new batch of a different product, the
system must be reprogrammed with the set of machine instructions that correspond to the new product. The
physical setup of the machine must also be changed: Tools must be loaded, fixtures must be attached to the
machine table, and the required machine settings must be entered. This changeover procedure takes time.
Consequently, the typical cycle for a given product includes a period during which the setup and
reprogramming takes place, followed by a period in which the batch is produced. Examples of
programmable automation include numerically controlled (NC) machine tools, industrial robots, and
programmable logic controllers.
Flexible Automation: Flexible automation is an extension of programmable automation. A flexible
automated system is capable of producing a variety of parts (or products) with virtually no time lost for
changeovers from one part style to the next. There is no lost production time while reprogramming the
system and altering the physical setup (tooling, fixtures, machine settings). Consequently, the system can
produce various combinations and schedules of parts or products instead of requiring that they be made in
batches. What makes flexible automation possible is that the differences between parts processed by the
system are not significant. It is a case of soft variety, so that the amount of changeover required between
styles is minimal. The features of flexible automation can be summarized as follows:
• high investment for a custom-engineered system
• continuous production of variable mixtures of products
• medium production rates
• flexibility to deal with product design variations
Examples of flexible automation are the flexible manufacturing systems for performing machining
operations that date back to the late 1960s. The relative positions of the three types of automation for
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different production volumes and product varieties are depicted in Figure 1.1. For low production quantities
and new product introductions, manual production is competitive with programmable automation.
1.3 BASIC ELEMENTS OF AN AUTOMATED SYSTEM:

An automated system consists of three basic elements: (1) power to accomplish the process and
operate the system. (2) a program of instructions to direct the process, and (3) a control system to actuate the
instructions. The relationship amongst these elements is illustrated in Figure 1.2. All systems that qualify as
being automated include these three basic elements in one form or another.
Power to Accomplish the Automated Process: An automated system is used to operate some
process, and power is required to drive the process as well as the controls. The principal source of power in
automated systems is electricity. Electric power has many advantages in automated as well as non-
automated processes.
•Electrical power is widely available at moderate cost. It is an important part of our industrial infrastructure
• Electrical power can be readily converted 10 alternative energy forms: mechanical, thermal, light, acoustic,
hydraulic, and pneumatic.
• Electrical power at low levels can be used to accomplish functions such as signal transmission,
information processing, and data storage and communication.
• Electrical energy can be stored in long-life batteries for use in locations where an external source of
electrical power is not conveniently available.
Alternative power sources include fossil fuels, solar energy, water, and wind. However, their exclusive use
is rare in automated systems. In many cases when alternative power sources are used to drive the process
itself, electrical power is used for the controls that automate the operation. For example, in casting or heat
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treatment, the furnace may be heated by fossil fuels, but the control system to regulate temperature and time
cycle is electrical. In other cases, the energy from these alternative sources is converted to electric power to
operate both the process and its automation. When solar energy is used as a power source for an automated
system, it is generally converted in this way.
Power for the Process: In production, the term process refers to the manufacturing operation
that is performed on a work unit. In Table 1.1, a list of common manufacturing processes is compiled along
with the form of power required and the resulting action on the work unit. Most of the power in
manufacturing plants is consumed by these kinds of operations. The "power form" indicated in the middle
column of the table refers to the energy that is applied directly to the process. As indicated above, the power
source for each operation is usually converted from electricity.
In addition to driving the manufacturing process itself, power is also required for the following
material handling functions:
• Loading and unloading the work unit: All of the processes listed in Table 1.1 are accomplished on
discrete parts. These parts must be moved into the proper position
and orientation for the process to be performed, and power is required for this transport and placement
function. At the conclusion of the process, the work unit must similarly be removed. If the process is
completely automated, then some form of mechanized power is used. If the process is manually operated or
semi-automated, then human power may be used to position and locate the work unit
• Material transport between operations: In addition 10 loading and unloading at a given operation, the
work units must be moved between operations. We consider the material handling technologies associated
with this transport function.
Power for Automation: Above and beyond the basic power requirements for the manufacturing
operation, additional power is required for automation. The additional power is used for the following
functions:
• Controller unit: Modern industrial controllers are based on digital computers, which require electrical
power to read the program of instructions, make the control calculations, and execute the instructions by
transmitting the proper commands to the actuating devices.
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• Power to actuate the control signals: The commands sent by the controller unit are carried out by means
of electromechanical devices, such as switches and motors, called actuators. The commands are generally
transmitted by means of low-voltage control signals. To accomplish the commands, the actuators require
more power, and so the control signals must he amplified to provide the proper power level for the actuating
device.
• Data acquisition and information processing: In most control systems, data must be collected from the
process and used as input to the control algorithms. In addition, a requirement of the process may include
keeping records of process performance or product quality. These data acquisition and record keeping
functions require power, although in modest amounts.
Control System: The control element of the automated system executes the program of instructions. The
control system causes the process to accomplish its defined function, which for our purpose is to carry out
some manufacturing operation. Let us provide a brief introduction to control systems here. The following
chapter describes this important industrial technology in more detail.
The controls in an automated system can be either closed loop or open loop. A closed loop control
system, also known as a feedback control system. is one in which the output variable is compared with an
input parameter, and any difference between the two is used to drive the output into agreement with the
input. As shown in Figure 3.3. a closed loop control system consists of six basic elements: (I) input
parameter, (2) process, (3) output variable, (4) feedback sensor. (5) controller, and (6) actuator. The input
parameter, often referred to as the set point, represents the desired value of the output. In a home
temperature control system, the set point is the desired thermostat setting. The process is the operation or
function being controlled. In particular, it is the output variable that is being controlled in the loop. In the
present discussion, the process of interest is usually a manufacturing operation, and the output variable is
some process variable, perhaps a critical performance measure in the process, such as temperature or force
or flow rate. A sensor is used to measure the output variable and close the loop between input and output.
Sensors perform the feedback function in a closed loop control system. The controller compares the output
with the input and makes the required adjustment in the process to reduce the difference between them. The
adjustment is accomplished using one or more actuators, which are the hardware devices that physically
carry out the control actions, such as an electric motor or a flow valve. It should be mentioned that OUT
model in Figure 1.3 shows only one loop. Most industrial processes require multiple loops, one for each
process variable that must be controlled.
In contrast to the closed loop control system, an open loop control system operates without the
feedback loop, as in Figure 3.4. In this case, the controls operate without measuring the output variable, so
no comparison is made between the actual value of the output and the desired input parameter. The
controller relies on an accurate model of the effect of its actuator on the process variable. With an open loop
system, there is always the risk that the actuator will not have the intended effect on the process, and that is
the disadvantage of an open loop system. Its advantage is that it is generally simpler and less expensive than
a closed loop system. Open loop systems are usually appropriate when the following conditions apply: (1)
The actions performed by the control system are simple, (2) the actuating function is very reliable, and (3)
any reaction forces opposing the actuation are small enough to have no effect on the actuation. If these
characteristics are not applicable, then a closed loop control system may be more appropriate.
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1.4 LEVELS OF AUTOMATION:

The concept of automated systems can be applied to various levels of factory operations. One normally
associates automation with the individual production machines. However, the production machine itself is
made up of subsystems that may themselves be automated. A modern numerical control (NC) machine tool
is an automated system. However, the NC machine itself is composed of multiple control systems. Any NC
machine has at least two axes of motion, and some machines have up to five axes. Each of these axes
operates as a positioning system, and is, in effect, itself an automated system. Similarly, a NC machine is
often part of a larger manufacturing system, and the larger system may itself be automated. For example,
two or three machine tools may be connected by an automated pact handling system operating under
computer control. The machine tools also receive instructions (e.g., part programs) from the computer. Thus
we have three levels of automation and control included here (the positioning system level, the machine tool
level, and the manufacturing system level). For our purposes in this text, we can identify five possible levels
of automation in a production plant. They are defined next, and their hierarchy is depicted in Figure 1.5.
1. Device level: This is the lowest level in our automation hierarchy. It includes the actuators, sensors, and
other hardware components that comprise the machine level. The devices are combined into the individual
control loops of the machine; for example, the feedback control loop for one axis of a CNC machine or one
joint of an industrial robot.
2. Machine level: Hardware at the device level is assembled into individual machines. Examples include
CNC machine tools and similar production equipment, industrial robots, powered conveyors, and automated
guided vehicles. Control functions at this level include performing the sequence of steps in the program of
instructions in the correct order and making sure that each step is properly executed.
3. Cell or system level: This is the manufacturing cell or system level, which operates under instructions
from the plant level. A manufacturing cell or system is a group of machines or workstations connected and
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supported by a material handling system, computer, and other equipment appropriate to the manufacturing
process. Production lines are included in this level, functions include part dispatching and machine loading.
Coordination among machines and material handling system, and collecting and evaluating inspection data.
4. Plant level: This is the factory or production systems level. It receives instructions from (he corporate
information system and translates them into operational plans for production. Likely functions include:
order processing, process planning, inventory control, purchasing, material requirements planning, shop
floor control, and quality control.
5. Enterprise level: This is the highest level, consisting of the corporate information system. It is concerned
with all of the functions necessary to manage the company: marketing and sales, accounting, design,
research, aggregate planning, and master production scheduling.
1.5 HARDWARE COMPONENTS FOR AUTOMATION AND PROCESS
CONTROL:
To implement process control, the computer must collect data from and transmit signals to the production
process. Process variables and parameters were classified as either continuous or discrete, with several
subcategories existing in the discrete class. The digital computer operates on digital (binary) data, whereas
at least some of the data from the process are continuous (analog).Accommodations for this difference must
be made in the computer-process interface. In this chapter, we examine the components required to
implement this interface. The components are:
1. Sensors for measuring continuous and discrete process variables
2. Actuators that drive continuous and discrete process parameters
3. Devices that convert continuous analog signals to digital data
4. Devices that convert digital data into analog signals
5. Input/output devices for discrete data.
Control System
A control system is a dynamic system that contains a controller as an integral part. The purpose of the
controller is to generate control signals that will drive the process to be controlled in the desired manner
Actuators
Actuators are needed to perform the control actions as well as drive the plant directly. Two types:
•Direct Type: Motors of a robot arm link

•Indirect: Opening a valve of a hydraulic system which does the actual work
Sensors and Transducers
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Sensors and transducers are necessary to measure output signals for feedback control, to measure process
variables for system monitoring, and for a variety of other purposes
AUTOMATED ASSEMBLY SYSTEMS:

Automated assembly refers to the use of mechanized and automated devices to perform the various
assembly tasks in an assembly line or cell. The vast majority of automated assembly systems are designed to
perform a fixed sequence of assembly steps on a specific product. Automated assembly is considered
appropriate if it meets the following conditions:
High product demand—for products made in millions of units, or close to this range
Stable product design—product design changes means changes in workstation tooling which can be
expensive
A limited number of components in the assembly—a maximum of a dozen parts. Product designed for
automated assembly
Although automated assembly systems are considered expensive to create and implement, the capital
investment required is not as great as for automated transfer lines, because work units produced on
automated assembly systems are usually smaller, which means that the large mechanical forces and power
requirements used for transfer line operations are not necessary. Automated assembly systems tend to be
physically smaller than transfer lines, which usually reduces the cost of the system.
System Configurations
Possible system configurations are outlined and described in Table 1.1
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Table 1.1: System configurations for Automated Assembly systems
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1.6 MECHANICAL FEEDERS, HOPPERS, ORIENTERS:

Parts Delivery at Workstations:
Parts delivery to workstations depends upon specific pieces of delivery equipment, particularly associated
with automatic assembly. These pieces of equipment are connected together to create the parts delivery
system. The following hardware for parts delivery consists of:
Hopper—a container into which components are loaded at the workstation, and which passes components
to the parts feeder
Parts feeder—a mechanism used for removing components from the hopper, and passing them to the feed
track; the parts feeder is often connected to the hopper to form one unit
Selector and/or orientor—devices found on the feedtrack that establish the proper orientation of the
components for the assembly workhead: a selector is a filter device that only-correctly oriented parts to
pass; while an orientor re-orients parts that are not properly oriented initially on the feed track
Feed track—the pathway along which the components pass from the hopper and parts feeder to the
assembly workhead, whilst maintaining proper orientation of the parts via selectors/orientors along the way;
it generally operates by gravity, though powered feed tracks (operated by vibratory action or air pressure)
may also be encountered
Escapement and placement devices —devices used to remove components from the feedtrack
(escapement), and to place them at the workstation for the assembly operation (placement); there are a
number of different device designs to accomplish this task.
Parts delivery at workstations is dependent on the following hardware components: the hopper; the
parts feeder; selector and/or orientor devices; the feed track; and escapement and placement devices. The
general arrangement of this hardware is shown in Figure 1.7.
Figure 1.7: Hardware elements used to delivery parts to workstations
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The hopper and parts feeder device are often combined, as shown schematically and pictorially in Figure 1.8
Figure 1.8: Hopper and parts feeder
The hopper and parts feeder device are often combined as one entity.
Typical selector and orientor devices are shown in Figure 1.9.
Figure 1.9: (a) Selector and (b) orientor devices used upon the feedtrack
Selector and orientor devices are small simple devices built onto the feed track to force the removal of
unacceptable components, or the re-orientation of misaligned ones.
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UNIT – II: AUTOMATED FLOW LINES

INTRODUCTION:
An automated flow line consists of several machines or workstations which are linked together by work
handling devices that transfer parts between the stations. The transfer of workparts occurs automatically and
the workstations carry out their specialized functions automatically. The flow line can be symbolized as
shown in Figure 2.1 using the symbols presented in Table1. A raw workpart enters one end of the line and
the processing steps are performed sequentially as the part moves from one station to the next. It is possible
to incorporate buffer storage zones into the flow line, either al a single location or between every
workstation. It is also possible to include inspection stations in the line to automatically perform
intermediate checks on the quality of the workparts. Manual stations might also be located along the flow
line to perform certain operations which are difficult or uneconomical to automate.
Figure 2 .2 symbols used in production systems diagrams
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The objectives of the use of flow line automation are, therefore:
• To reduce labor costs
• To increase production rates
• To reduce work-in-process
• To minimize distances moved between operations
• To achieve specialization of operations
• To achieve integration of operations
2.1 PART TRANSFER METHODS:
The transfer mechanism of the automated flow line must not only move the partially completed
workparts or assemblies between adjacent stations, it must also orient and locate the parts in the correct
position for processing at each station. The general methods of transporting workpieces on flow lines can be
classified into the following three categories:
1. Continuous transfer
2. Intermittent or synchronous transfer
3. Asynchronous or power-and-free transfer
The most appropriate type of transport system for a given application depends on such factors as:
The types of operation to be performed
The number of stations on the line
The weight and size of the work parts
Whether manual stations are included on the line
Production rate requirements
Balancing the various process times on the line
1) Continuous transfer:
With the continuous method of transfer, the workparts are moved continuously at Constant speed.
This requires the workheads to move during processing in order to maintain continuous registration with the
workpart. For some types of operations, this movement of the workheads during processing is not feasible.
It would be difficult, for example, to use this type of system on a machining transfer line because of inertia
problems due to the size and weight of the workheads. In other cases, continuous transfer would be very
practical. Examples of its use are in beverage bottling operations, packaging, manual assembly operations
where the human operator can move with the moving flow line, and relatively simple automatic assembly
tasks. In some bottling operations, for instance, the bottles are transported around a continuously rotating
drum. Beverage is discharged into the moving bottles by spouts located at the drum's periphery. The
advantage of this application is that the liquid beverage is kept moving at a steady speed and hence
there are no inertia problems. Continuous transfer systems are relatively easy to design and fabricate and
can achieve a high rate of production.
2) Intermittent transfer:
As the name suggests, in this method the workpieces are transported with an intermittent or
discontinuous motion. The workstations are fixed in position and the parts are moved between stations and
then registered at the proper locations for processing. All workparts are transported at the same time and, for
this reason, the term "synchronous transfer system" is also used to describe this method of workpart
transport.
3) Asynchronous transfer:
This system of transfer, also referred to as a "power-and-free system," allows each workpart to move
to the next station when processing at the current station has been completed. Each part moves
independently of other parts. Hence, some parts are being processed on the line at the same time that others
are being transported between stations.
Asynchronous transfer systems offer the opportunity for greater flexibility than do the other two
systems, and this flexibility can be a great advantage in certain circumstances. In-process storage of
workparts can be incorporated into the asynchronous systems with relative ease. Power-and-free systems
can also compensate for line balancing problems where there are significant differences in process times
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between stations. Parallel stations or several series stations can be used for the longer operations, and single
stations can be used for the shorter operations. Therefore, the average production rates can be approximately
equalized. Asynchronous lines are often used where there are one or more manually operated stations and
cycle-time variations would be a problem on either the continuous or synchronous transport systems. Larger
workparts can be handled on the asynchronous systems. A disadvantage of the power and free systems is
that the cycle rates are generally slower than for the other types.
2.2 TRANSFER MECHANISMS:
These mechanisms can be grouped into two types: those used to provide linear travel for in-line
machines, and those used to provide rotary motion for dial indexing machines.
Linear transfer mechanisms:
The operation of three of the typical mechanisms; the walking beam transfer bar system, the
powered roller conveyor system, and the chain-drive conveyor system. This is not a complete listing of all
types, but it is a representative sample.
Walking beam systems:
With the walking beam transfer mechanism, the work-parts are lifted up from their workstation
locations by a transfer bar and moved one position ahead, to the next station. The transfer bar then lowers
the pans into nests which position them more accurately for processing. This type of transfer device is
illustrated in Figure 2.3 and 2.4. For speed and accuracy, the motion of the beam is most often generated by
a rotating camshaft powered by an electric motor or a roller movement in a profile powered by hydraulic
cylinder. Figure 2.5 shows the working of the beam mechanism.
Figure 2.3 Almac Industrial Systems, the Ontario-based manufacturer of material

handling equipment- Walking Beam’.
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Figure 2.4 SIKAMA INTERNATIONAL has developed a Walking beam mechanism

for FALCON 1200 and 8500
Figure 2.5 walking beam transfer system, showing various stage during transfer stage
.
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Powered roller conveyor system:
This type of system is used in general stock handling systems as well as in automated flow lines. The
conveyor can be used to move pans or pallets possessing flat riding surfaces. The rollers can be powered by
either of two mechanisms. The first is a belt drive, in which a flat moving belt beneath the rollers provides
the rotation of the rollers by friction. A chain drive is the second common mechanism used to power the
rollers. Powered roller conveyors are versatile transfer systems because they can be used to divert work
pallets into workstations or alternate tracks.
(a) (b)
Figure 2.6 a, b and c Power Conveyor
Chain-drive conveyor system:

In chain-drive conveyor system either a chain or a flexible steel belt is used to transport the work
carriers. The chain is driven by pulleys in either an "over-andunder" configuration, in which the pulleys turn
about a horizontal axis, or an "around-the-corner" configuration, in which the pulleys rotate about a vertical
axis. Figure 2.7 shows the chain conveyor transfer system.
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Figure 2.7 Chain drive conveyor

This general type of transfer system can be used for continuous, intermittent, or nonsynchronous
movement of workparts. In the nonsynchronous motion, the workparts are pulled by friction or ride on an
oil film along a track with the chain or belt providing the movement. It is necessary to provide some sort of
final location for the workparts when they arrive at their respective stations.
Rotary transfer mechanisms:
There are several methods used to index a circular table or dial at various equal angular positions
corresponding to workstation locations.
Rack and pinion:
This mechanism is simple but is not considered especially suited to the high-speed operation often
associated with indexing machines. The device is pictured in Figure 2.8 and uses a piston to drive the rack,
which causes the pinion gear and attached indexing table to rotate, A clutch or other device is used to
provide rotation in the desired direction.
Figure 2.8 rack and pinion mechanisms

Ratchet and pawl:
A ratchet is a device that allows linear or rotary motion in only one direction, while preventing
motion in the opposite direction. Ratchets consist of a gearwheel and a pivoting spring loaded finger called a
pawl that engages the teeth. Either the teeth, or the pawl, are slanted at an angle, so that when the teeth are
moving in one direction, the pawl slides up and over each tooth in turn, with the spring forcing it back with
a 'click' into the depression before the next tooth. When the teeth are moving in the other direction, the angle
of the pawl causes it to catch against a tooth and stop further motion in that direction. This drive mechanism
is shown in Figure 2.9.
Geneva mechanism:
The two previous mechanisms convert a linear motion into a rotational motion. The Geneva mechanism
uses a continuously rotating driver to index the table, as pictured in Figure 2.10. If the driven member has
six slots for a six-station dial indexing machine, each turn of the driver will cause the table to advance one-
sixth of a turn. The driver only causes movement of the table through a portion of its rotation. For a six-
slotted driven member, 120° of a complete rotation of the driver is used to index the table. The other 240° is
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dwell. For a four-slotted driven member, the ratio would be 90° for index and 270° for dwell. The usual
number of indexings per revolution of the table is four, five, six, and eight.
Figure 2.9 Ratchet and pawl mechanism
Figure 2.10 Geneva mechanism

CAM Mechanisms:
Various forms of cam mechanism, an example of which is illustrated in Figure 2.10, provide
probably the most accurate and reliable method of indexing the dial. They are in widespread use in industry
despite the fact that the cost is relatively high compared to alternative mechanisms. The cam can be
designed to give a variety of velocity and dwell characteristics.
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(a)
Figure 2.11 CAM mechanisms
2.3 CONFIGURATIONS OF AUTOMATED FLOW LINE:

1) In-line type
The in-line configuration consists of a sequence of workstations in a more-or-less straight-line
arrangement as shown in figure 1. An example of an in-line transfer machine used for metal-cutting
operations is illustrated in Figure 2.12 and 2.13
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Figure 2.12 Example of 20 stations In-line
Figure 2.13 Example of 20 stations In-line configuration

2) Segmented In-Line Type:
The segmented in-line configuration consists of two or more straight-line arrangement which are
usually perpendicular to each other with L-Shaped or U-shaped or Rectangular shaped as shown in figure
2.14-2.16. The flow of work can take a few 90° turns, either for workpieces reorientation, factory layout
limitations, or other reasons, and still qualify as a straight-line configuration.
Figure 2.14 L-shaped configuration
Figure 2.15 U-shaped configuration
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Figure 2.16 Rectangular-shaped configuration

3) Rotary type:
In the rotary configuration, the workparts are indexed around a circular table or dial. The workstations are
stationary and usually located around the outside periphery of the dial. The parts ride on the rotating table
and arc registered or positioned, in turn, at each station for its processing or assembly operation. This type
of equipment is often referred to as an indexing machine or dial index machine and the configuration is
shown in Figure 2.17 and example of six station rotary shown in figure 2.18.
Figure 2.17 Rotary configuration
Figure 2.18 Example of 6 station rotary configuration

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2.4 FLOW LINE WITH/WITHOUT BUFFER STORAGE:

Automated flow lines are often equipped with additional features beyond the basic transfer
mechanisms and workstations. It is not uncommon for production flow lines to include storage zones for
collecting banks of workparts along the line. One example of the use of storage zones would be two
intermittent transfer systems, each without any storage capacity, linked together with a workpart inventory
area. It is possible to connect three, four, or even more lines in this manner. Another example of workpart
storage on flow lines is the asynchronous transfer line. With this system, it is possible to provide a bank of
workparts for every station on the line.
There are two principal reasons for the use of buffer storage zones. The first is to reduce the effect of
individual station breakdowns on the line operation. The continuous or intermittent transfer system acts as a
single integrated machine. When breakdowns occur at the individual stations or when preventive
maintenance is applied to the machine, production must be halted. In many cases, the proportion of time the
line spends out of operation can be significant, perhaps reaching 50% or more. Some of the common
reasons for line stoppages are:
a) Tool failures or tool adjustments at individual processing stations Scheduled tool changes
b) Defective workparts or components at assembly stations, which require that the Feed mechanism be
cleared
c) Feed hopper needs to be replenished at an assembly station
d) Limit switch or other electrical malfunction
e) Mechanical failure of transfer system or workstation
When a breakdown occurs on an automated flow line, the purpose of the buffer storage zone is to
allow a portion of the line to continue operating while the remaining portion is stopped and under repair. For
example, assume that a 20- station line is divided into two sections and connected by a parts storage zone
which automatically collects parts from the first section and feeds them to the second section. If a station
jam were to cause the first section of the line to stop, the second section could continue to operate as long as
the supply of parts in the buffer zone lasts. Similarly, if the second section were to shut down, the first
section could continue to operate as long as there is room in the buffer zone to store parts. Hopefully, the
average production rate on the first section would be about equal to that of the second section. By dividing
the line and using the storage area, the average production rate would be improved over the original 20-
station Mow line. Figure 2.19 shows the Storage buffer between two stages of a production line.
Reasons for using storage buffers:

– To reduce effect of station breakdowns
– To provide a bank of parts to supply the line
– To provide a place to put the output of the line
– To allow curing time or other required delay
– To smooth cycle time variations
– To store parts between stages with different production rates
The disadvantages of buffer storage on flow lines are increased factory floor space, higher in-process
inventory, more material handling equipment, and greater complexity of the overall flow line system. The
benefits of buffer storage are often great enough to more than compensate for these disadvantages.
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UNIT – III: ASSEMBLY LINE BALANCING

THE ASSEMBLY PROCESS:
Definition: assembly involves the joining together of two or more separate parts to form a new entity
(assembly or subassembly).
*The processes used to accomplish the assembly of the components can be divided into three major
categories.
1. Mechanical Fastening –Mechanical action to hold components together.
Threaded fasteners - screws, bolts, nuts etc.
Rivets, crimping and other methods
Press fits
Snap fits –temporary interface of the two parts C-ring.
Sewing and stitching –for soft, thin material.
2. Joining Methods –welding, brazing and soldering
3. Adhesive Bonding –thermoplastic, thermosetting (chemical reaction)
3.1 SYSTEMS ASSEMBLY LINE:
*There are various methods used in industry to accomplish the assembly processes. Major methods can be
classified:
1. Manual Single-Station Assembly
*Consist of a single workplace to accomplish the product or some major subassembly of the product.
*Generally used on a product that is complex and produced in small quantities, one or more workers
depending on the size of the product and the production rate.
*Such as machine tools, industrial equipment, aircraft, ships and complex consumer products (appliances,
car,...)
2. Manual Assembly Lines
*Consist of multiple workstations in which the assembly work is accomplished as the product
(subassembly) is passed from station to station along the line.
*At each workstation one or more human workers perform a portion of the total assembly work on the
product, by adding one or more components to the existing subassembly.
3. Automated Assembly System
*Use of automated methods at the workstations rather than human beings.
I. Manual Assembly Lines
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※Are used in high-production situations where the work to be performed can be divided into small tasks and
tasks assigned to the workstations on the line.
※Key advantage of using manual assembly line is specialization of labor –By giving each worker a limited
set of tasks to do repeatedly.
3.1 Manual Assembly Lines
Table 3.1: System configurations for Automated Assembly systems
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3.2 LINE BALANCING METHODS:

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*The line balancing problem is to arrange the individual processing and assembly tasks at the workstations
so that the total time required at each workstation is approximately the same.
*If the work elements can be grouped so that all the station times are exactly equal, we have perfect balance
on the line and we can expect the production to flow smoothly.
*In most practical situations it is very difficult to achieve perfect balance. When workstation times are
unequal, the slowest station determines the overall production rate of the line.
Terminology for Line Balancing
Minimum Rational Work Element
*Minimum rational work element is the smallest practical indivisible tasks into which the job can be
divided.
These work elements cannot be subdivided further
*Example: drilling a hole, screw and nut etc.
*Tej: where j is used to identify the element out of the ne elements that make up the total work.
Workstation Process Time
*Work is preformed either manually or by some automatic device. The work performed at station consists
of one or more of the individual work elements.
*Tsi: indicate the process time at station i of an n stations line.
Total Work Content

*Total work, Twc, content is the aggregate of all the work elements to be done on the line.
Cycle Time
*Cycle time, Tc, is the ideal or theoretical cycle time of the flow line, which is the time interval between
parts coming off the line.
*When consider efficiency, E, the ideal cycle time must be reduce.
Where Rp is production rate.

*At efficiencies less than 100% the ideal cycle time must be reduced (or ideal production rate must be
increased).
* The minimum possible value of Tc is established by the bottleneck station, the one with the largest value
of Ts.
Precedence Constraints
*Technological sequencing requirements, the order in which the work elements can be accomplished is
limited.
Precedence Diagram
*A graphical representation of the sequence of work elements as defined by the precedence constraints.
Balance Delay (Balancing Loss)
*Balance delay is a measure of the line inefficiency which results from idle time due to imperfect allocation
of work among station.
Example: Work Elements (Small electrical appliance)
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Precedence Diagram
III. Method of Line Balancing - (Manual)

*None of the methods guarantee an optimal solution, but they are likely to result in good solutions which
approach the true optimum.
1. Largest-Candidate Rule (LCR)
Procedure:
Step 1. List all elements in descending order of Te value, largest Te at the top of the list.
Step 2.To assign elements to the first workstation, start at the top of the list and work done, selecting the
first feasible element for placement at the station. A feasible element is one that satisfies the precedence
requirements and does not cause the sum of the Tej value at station to exceed the cycle time Tc.
Step 3. Repeat step 2.
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2. Kilbridge and Wester's Method (KWM)

*It is a heuristic procedure which selects work elements for assignment to stations according to their
position in the precedence diagram.
*This overcomes one of the difficulties with the largest candidate rule (LCR), with which elements at the
end of the precedence diagram might be the first candidates to be considered, simply because their values
are large.
Procedure:
Step 1. Construct the precedence diagram so those nodes representing work elements of identical
precedence
are arranged vertically in columns.
Step 2. List the elements in order of their columns, column I at the top of the list. If an element can be
located
in more than one column, list all columns by the element to show the transferability of the element.
Step 3. To assign elements to workstations, start with the column I elements. Continue the
assignment procedure in order of column number until the cycle time is reached (Tc).
Example for this method:
Step 1.
Step 2. Work elements arranged according to columns
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Step 3. Work elements assigned to stations
*Also, for stations that do have the same elements the sequence in which the elements are assigned is not
necessary identical.
*The balance delay is same as LCR d = 20%.
3. Ranked Positional Weights Method (RPW)
*Introduced by Helgeson and Birnie in 1961.
*Combined the LCR and K-W methods.
*The RPWtakes account of both the Te value of the element and its position in the precedence diagram.
Then, the elements are assigned to workstations in the general order of their RPWvalues.
Procedure:
Step 1. Calculate the RPWfor each element by summing the elements Te together with the Te values for all
the elements that follow it in the arrow chain of the precedence diagram.
Step 2 List the elements in the order of their RPW, largest RPW at the top of the list. For convenience,
include the Te value and immediate predecessors for each element.
Step 3. Assign elements to stations according to RPW, avoiding precedence constraint and time
cycle violations.
Example for this method:
Step 1. Sample calculation:
*For element 1, the elements that follow it in the arrow chain are 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, and 12.
*The RPW for element 1 would be the sum of the Te’s for all these elements, plus Te for element 1.
Step 2.
32 | Page Prepared by D.K. JAWAD, Assoc. Prof. Gates Institute of Technology

Step 3. Work element assigned to stations
*In the RPWline balance, the number of stations required is five, but the max. station process time is 0.92
minute, at number. According the line could be operated at a cycle time of Tc = 0.92 rather than 1.0 minute.
Benefit:
1. Increase the production rate
Rc = 1 / 0.92 = 1.075 units/min.
2. Balance delay
d = [5 (0.92) –4] / [5 (0.92)] = 0.13 = 13%
4. Compare LCR, K-W, and RPW
*The RPWsolution represents a more efficient assignment of work elements to station than either of the
two preceding solutions.
*However, this result is accordingly by the acceptance of cycle time Tc = 1 and make those
methods different.
*If the problem were reworked with Tc = 0.92 minute, it might be possible to duplicate the efficiency.
3.3 WAYS OF IMPROVING LINE BALANCE:
1. Dividing work elements
*A minimum rational work element was defined as the smallest practical indivisible task.
*For example:
Drilling of a deep hole at one station was to cause a bottleneck situation should be separated into two steps.
*Advantages- eliminates the bottleneck and increases the tool life.
2. Changing work lead speeds at automatic stations
*Through a process increasing the speed/feed combinations at the stations with long process time, and
reducing the speed/feed combinations at stations with idle time.
3. Method analysis
*The study of human work activity may result in better workplace layout, redesigned tooling and fixturing
or improved hand and body motions.
4. Pre-assembly of components
*Reduce the total amount of work done on the regular assembly line by another assembly cell or by
purchasing.
a. Required process may be difficult to implement on the regular assembly line.
b. Variations in process times (adjustments or fitting)
5. Inventory buffers between stations
6. Parallel stations.
*Disregard the stations must be arranged sequentially.
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*Illustrate:
a. Suppose that a five station line had station process times of 1 min at all but he fifth station is 2 minutes. b.
Then the production rate Rc = 30 units/hr, if two station were arranged in parallel at the fifth station, the
output could be increase Rc = 60 units/hr.
For example:
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UNIT – IV: INTRODUCTION TO INDUSTRIAL ROBOTS

An industrial robot is a programmable, multi-functional manipulator designed to move materials, parts,
tools, or special devices through variable programmed motions for the performance of a variety of tasks. An
industrial robot consists of a mechanical manipulator and a controller to move it and perform other related
functions
• The mechanical manipulator consists of joints and links to position and orient the end of the manipulator
relative to its base
• The controller operates the joints in a coordinated fashion to execute a programmed work cycle
• A robot joint is similar to a human body joint It provides relative movement between two parts of the body
• Typical industrial robots have five or six joints, Manipulator joints: classified as linear or rotating
4.1 ROBOT CLASSIFICATION:
Classification based on Physical configurations, four basic configurations are identified with most of the
commercially available industrial robots.
1. Cartesian configuration: consist of links connected by linear joints (L). (a) is designated as LLL, they are
also called rectilinear robots. Another robot that is similar to this configuration is a gantry robot.
2. Cylindrical configuration: robots have one rotate (R) joint at the base and linear (L) joints succeed to
connect to the links. (b) in this configuration can be designed as TLL.
3. Polar configuration: have a work space of spherical shape. Generally, the arm is connected to the base
with a twisting (T) joint and rotate ( R) and/or linear (L) joints follow. (c )for this configuration can be TRL
or TRR. TRR (also called articulated robot) robot more closely resembles the human arm.
4. Jointed-arm configuration: is combination of cylindrical and articulated configurations. The arm of robot
is connected to the base with a twisting joint. (d) Rotate joints connect the links in the arm. The most
popular robot, which is very close to this configuration, is SCARA (selective compliance assembly robot
arm). In the SCARA robot rotations take place in horizontal planes, thus reducing the possibility of large
deformations in the links.
Classification Based on Control Systems

1. Point-to-point (PTP) control robot: is capable of moving from one point to another point. The locations
are recorded in the control memory. PTP robots do not control the path to get from one point to the next
point. Common applications include component insertion, spot welding, hole drilling, machine loading and
unloading, and crude assembly operations.
2. Continuous-path (CP) control robot: with CP control, the robot can stop at any specified point along the
controlled path. All the points along the path must be stored explicitly in the robot’s control memory.
Typical applications include spray painting, finishing, gluing, and arc welding operations.
3. Controlled-path robot: the control equipment can generate paths of different geometry such as straight
lines, circles, and interpolated curves with a high degree of accuracy. All controlled-path robots have a
servo capability to correct their path.
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Classification of Robots
There are a number of factors that help decide the type of robot required for a specific task. The main factor
is the type of movement needed to achieve the desired robotic motion. Some applications only require a
robot to move a product along a desired axis, while other robotic arms need to manoeuvre about an object
through a number of different axes at once. The arrangement of joints in different ways fulfils different
coordinate systems.
Coordinate Systems/Frames
Coordinate system types determine position of a point with measurements of distance or angle or
combination of them. A point in space requires three measurements in each of these coordinate types. It
must be noted that the same point can be found in any system. Different coordinate systems are merely to
cater for a different situation. Three major coordinate systems used in the study of robotics are:
• Cartesian
• Cylindrical
• Spherical
Cartesian coordinate frame:
The most used and familiar coordinate system is the Cartesian coordinate system. Most will be familiar with
this as the X, Y; axis is at 90° to each other. A point can be located on a plane by locating the distance of a
point from its origin (0, 0) along each axis. This is a 2 dimensional representation, hence the two axis X &
Y. To find a point in space it is necessary to add a third axis (Z).This third axis will form a 3 dimensional
grid that matches a set of coordinates to a single point in space.
To find a point in space it is necessary to add a third axis (Z).This third axis will form a 3 dimensional grid
that matches a set of coordinates to a single point in space.
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The axes of machines are always defined by what is known as the right-hand rule. If we take the thumb as
pointing in the direction of the positive X-Axis then the second finger is pointing towards the positive Y-
Axis and the middle finger towards the positive Z-Axis.
Cartesian Robots:
Cartesian robots are used for pick and place work, application of sealant, assembly operations, handling
machine tools and arc welding. It’s a robot whose arm has three prismatic joints, whose axes are
coincidental with the Cartesian coordinators.
Application of Cartesian Robot
Applying Adhesive
This robot is being used to apply adhesive to a pane of glass. This robot is capable of handling
large sized work pieces. Most laser cutters and CNC machines work on the principle similar to this robot
Pallet transfer
This orientation of a Cartesian robot transfers Integrated Circuits (ICs) from a pallet and transfers the part to
a specific place.
Product inspection
Companies need to monitor their products to ensure that they are of a high quality. Cameras mounted on the
Cartesian robot above monitor the passing components for inaccuracy. Due to its construction the robot can
move along with the moving conveyor and focus on a product at once.
Transfer and stacking
Owing to its linear movement the Cartesian robot is ideal for the transfer and stacking of sheet metal or
timber sheets. It can feed sheets into processing machines or draw them away as finished products.
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Cylindrical coordinate frame:

A three dimensional point “A” in a cylindrical co-ordinate frame is considered to be located on a cylinder of
a radius “R” with a height “Z”. The third piece of information required to define the point comes from an
angle θ on the XY plane.
Cylindrical robots:
Cylinder robots are used in assembly operations, handling of machine tools, spot welding and handling at
die cast machines. They also have many uses in medical testing. The example below has two prismatic
joints and one rotary joint. A Cylindrical robot is able to rotate along its main axes forming a cylindrical
shape.
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Application of the Cylindrical Robot:
Medical Robot
The medical robot is used in numerous medical applications, for DNA screening, forensic science, drug
development and toxicology. These robots are suitable in medical research where hundreds of samples must
be tested and the same repetitive tasks performed many times. The robot eliminates human error providing
more repeatable yields and consistent results
A typical example of its duties would be to pull out a drawer to access a test plates, lift out a sample plate,
close the drawer and finally take the sample to another instrument to be tested.
Spherical / Polar coordinate frame:
A three dimensional point A in a spherical coordinate system can be found on a sphere of radius “R”. The
point lies on a particular cross section of the sphere; like in the cylindrical frame the cross section makes an
angle “θ” from the ZX plane. Once the plane is found the last point can be found by joining the point A to
the origin, the angle (φ) this creates with the Z axis defines the point.
To simplify let’s look at how a position on the earth’s surface is located. As with the spherical coordinate
system the surface of the earth becomes “R”. Maps use lines of longitude (θ) and latitude (φ) to define a
particular position on earth’s surface. We now have three pieces of information that allow us to know our
position.
Spherical or Polar Robots:

Spherical or Polar Robots combine rotational movements with single linear movements of the arm. The
polar robot is sometimes referred to as the gun turret configuration. They are generally used in many
welding applications mainly spot, gas and arc. Polar robots are extremely suitable for reaching into
horizontal or inclined tunnels.
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Applications of a Polar/ Spherical Robot:
Polar robot welding
The main application for these types of robots is welding. They can be quite large and weigh over a 1000kg.
Polar Robots are used widely in the car manufacturing industry.
The Scara Robot:

This configuration was developed to meet the needs of modern assembly work where fast movement with
light payloads is required. The rapid placement of electronic components on PCB’s is an obvious
application. The Scara robot is a combination of two horizontal rotational axes and one linear that moves
vertically.
The Scara robot is testing a newly made calculator to ensure it is operational prior to packaging. The camera
observes the screen to see if the operation performed by the robot is achieving the desired result.
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The Scara design can quickly remove components from an assembly line and accurately stack them.
Part assembly
The Scara robot is excellent for precision positioning and makes it very suitable for the assembly of
components. The picture above shows the robot taking parts from the supply unit and assembling them. The
robot can pivot around to the left and change its gripping hand to a screw or drilling head. These different
heads for the robot are known as end effectors.
Multi function
Here the Scara can be seen transferring the component from the assembly stage to the testing stage. Once
the component has passed the quality check the robot arm will place it on the conveyor belt to be transferred
to the next stage.
Revolute Robot:
The Revolute Robot
The revolute robot or Puma as it is also known most resembles the human arm with three main rotational
degrees of freedom. The manipulator rotates on the base much like the human waist. The other two
rotational axes resemble the shoulder and the elbow. The additional wrist action adds two more degrees of
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freedom, movement up and down (pitch) and rotation (roll). A final movement is Yaw which is the
movement of the wrist from side to side; this is not in the example above.
Applications of a Revolute robot:

This kind of robot is ideal for spray painting where it can be taught the human movements required to paint
an object.
Revolute Spraying Robot
Due to their manufacture based on the human hand the Revolute robot is suitable for numerous application.
These include welding, pick and place operations, component assembly and electrical soldering.
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4.2 ROBOT CONFIGURATIONS:

Industrial robots come in a variety of shapes and sizes. They are capable of various arm manipulations and
they possess different motion systems.
Classification based on Physical configurations
Four basic configurations are identified with most of the commercially available industrial robots
1. Cartesian configuration: A robot which is constructed around this configuration consists of three
orthogonal slides, as shown in fig. the three slides are parallel to the x, y, and z axes of the Cartesian
coordinate system. By appropriate movements of these slides, the robot is capable of moving its arm at any
point within its three dimensional rectangularly spaced work space.
2. Cylindrical configuration: in this configuration, the robot body is a vertical column that swivels about a
vertical axis. The arm consists of several orthogonal slides which allow the arm to be moved up or down
and in and out with respect to the body. This is illustrated schematically in figure.
3. Polar configuration: this configuration also goes by the name “spherical coordinate” because the
workspace within which it can move its arm is a partial sphere as shown in figure. The robot has a rotary
base and a pivot that can be used to raise and lower a telescoping arm.
4. Jointed-arm configuration: is combination of cylindrical and articulated configurations.
This is similar in appearance to the human arm, as shown in fig. the arm consists of several straight
members connected by joints which are analogous to the human shoulder, elbow, and wrist. The robot arm
is mounted to a base which can be rotated to provide the robot with the capacity to work within a quasi-
spherical space.
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4.3 FUNCTIONAL LINE DIAGRAM:

Industrial robots are made up of six basic constituent elements, they are: the dynamic system, the end-of-
arm tool, the computerized digital controller, the actuators, the feedback devices and the sensor.
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(a) Dynamic system
Dynamic system is needed for movement in the working area. The most important of which is the robotic
arm. According to the designs of the robots, the main axis will move linearly or rotationally. The number of
axes represents the number of directions that a robot can move individually. It can be called ‘the degree of
freedom’. As shown in Fig. 3, if the volumes of robots are the same, the robot with 3 rotating axes or the
highest degree of freedom has the larger working area. A robot usually has 2 to 10 axes, most of the robots
have 5 to 6 degrees of freedom.
Usually, there are 3 types of drive systems, they are: electrical, hydraulic and pneumatic. Electrical system
uses the dynamo to drive the robots. Simple electrical source is needed to provide energy, unlike hydraulic
or pneumatic driving system that needs a lot of accessories. The advantages of an electrical system is that it
is simple, clean and silent, but it cannot lift or move heavy object. It is commonly used in middle sized or
small sized robots.
A hydraulic driving system uses the dynamo to pump oil in the storage unit, then compresses the piston to
produce a driving force. The storage unit can produce an output driving force shortly with high pressure. So
it can produce a larger driving force and can be controlled more easily. However, a hydraulic driving system
is expensive and complex in structures. Leakage of oil is easy to occur in between the pipes and the
components.
A pneumatic driving system has similar advantages to that of the hydraulic driving system. Pneumatic can
produce a rapid movement with a smaller power. Most automatic chemical factories use pneumatic
apparatus as the cost is low. However, since air is easier to compress, the accuracy of the movements of
robots and the preciseness of moment control are lower. So, pneumatic driving systems usually need some
assisting components or special design to determine their positions. (b) End-of-arm tools
The arms of the robots can be used to install tools like clamps, welding guns, electromagnets, suction pads,
hooks or paws, etc., in order to operate any specific procedure. A clamp is a multifunctional robotic arm
tool. There are different designs. The clamp can be used to hold tight, keep and transmit components or
tools, and make them to direct in a suitable position (Fig. 4). For instance, a clamp with 3 axes can perform
complex actions like tilting forward and backward, swirl and swinging from left to right. (c) Computerized
digital controller
The computerized control system in robots controls each part to operate properly. It can input and store
different programs where working sequence, linkage and relationships can be determined. In a process
system, the computer in the robots may need to control or connect to other machines like the belt, the
process machines, etc. Different computers in the robots may use different languages,
like VAL, RAPID, etc. Many robots also use an apparatus called the trainer which is connected to the
controller. The trainer can control some of the motions of a robot, for instance, to direct the welding gun in
the robotic arm to each welding tip. Robots also record information and store it in the computer, so that the
information can be used repeatedly when the robots run. This can save time in programming. (d) Actuators
Actuators control each of the axes and maintain the direction of moving. Since robots need to handle
weights from various components, it has a larger change in motion. Therefore, the motion of
actuators is very important. Commands about the direction of movement are sent from the computer of the
robots and feedbacks are checked at the same time to ensure the moving parts follow the correct path. This
process requires a high-speed computer to send out commands, and reading the machine’s motion at
reasonable speed.
(e) Feedback system
Feedback devices of a robot measure the position of each axis, moving velocity and its acceleration. Each
axis can set any point as zero as the reference point, then relative linear movement can be performed.
However, the clamp usually uses absolute measurement values. It is because when the robot begins to
operate, the position of the clamp must be ensured.
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(f) Sensors
Robots use sensors to identify and evaluate the change in position, difference in patterns and the hinders or
failure of external systems. Table 1 lists some commonly used sensors.
4.4 DEGREES OF FREEDOM:
A degree of freedom is typically one joint movement. So a simple robot with 3 degrees of freedom can
move three ways: up and down, left and right, forward and back. This simple pan and tilt robot has 2
degrees of freedom, powered by two servo motors. It can rotate left to right and lift up and down.
Many robots today can be designed to move with 7 degrees of freedom.
Degrees of Freedom:
The following will demonstrate the degrees of freedom using the human arm.
First Degree: Shoulder Pitch
Point your entire arm straight out in front of you. Move your shoulder up and down. The up and down
movement of the shoulder is called the shoulder pitch.
Second Degree: Arm Yaw
Point your entire arm straight out in front of you. Move your entire arm from side to side. This side to side
movement is called the arm yaw.
Third Degree: Shoulder roll
Point your entire arm straight out in front of you. Now, roll your entire arm from the shoulder, as if you
were screwing in a light bulb. This rotating movement is called a shoulder roll.
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Fourth Degree: Elbow Pitch
Point your entire arm straight out in front of you. Hold your arm still, then bend only your elbow. Your
elbow can move up and down. This up and down movement of the shoulder is called the shoulder pitch.
Fifth Degree: Wrist Pitch
Point your entire arm straight out in front of you. Without moving your shoulder or elbow, flex your wrist
up and down. This up and down movement of the wrist is called the wrist pitch.
Sixth Degree: Wrist Yaw
Point your entire arm straight out in front of you. Without moving your shoulder or elbow, flex your wrist
from side to side. The side to side movement is called the wrist yaw.
Seventh Degree: Wrist Roll
Point your entire arm straight out in front of you. Without moving your shoulder or elbow, rotate your wrist,
as if you were turning a doorknob. The rotation of the wrist is called the wrist roll.
The Crust Crawler Robot has 5 degrees of freedom and is a Revolute Robot.
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4.5 BASIC COMPONENTS:

The basic components of an industrial robot are the
• Manipulator
• The end effector (which is the part of the manipulator).
• The power suplly
• And the controller.
The manipulator, which is the robot’s arm, consists of segments jointed together with axes capable of
motion in various directions allowing the robot to perform work.
The end effector which is a gripper tool, a special device, or fixture attached to the robot’s arm, actually
performs the work.
Power supply provides and regulates the energy that is converted to motion by the robot actuator, and it may
be either electric, pneumatic, or hydraulic.
The controller initiates, terminates, and coordinates the motion of sequences of a robot. Also it accepts the
necessary inputs to the robot and provides the outputs to interface with the outside world.
MANIPULATOR
Is a mechanical unit that provides motion similar to that of a human arm.
Its primary function is to provide the specific motions that will enable the tooling at the end of the arm to do
the required work.
A robot movement can be divided into two general categories: arm and body (shoulder and elbow) motions
and wrist motions.
The individual joint motions associated with these categories are referred to as degree of freedom.
Each axis is equal to one degree of freedom. Typically an industrail robots are equipped with 4- 6 degrees
of freedom.
The wrist can reach a point in space with specific orientation by any of three motions: a pitch, or up-and-
down-motion; a yaw, 0r side-to-side motion; and a roll, or rotating motion.
The joint labeled pitch, yaw, and roll are called orientation axes. The points that manipulator bends, slides,
or rotates are called joints or position axes.
Manipulation is carried out using mechanical devices, such as linkages, gears, actautors, and feedback
devices.
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Position axes are called as world coordinates, is identified as being fixed location within the manipulator
that serves as absolute frame of reference.
The x-axis travel moves the manipulator in an in-and-out motion.
The y-axis motion causes the manipulator to move side-to-side.
The z axis motion causes the manipulator to move in and up and- down motion.
The mechanical design of a robot manipulator relates directly to its work envelope and motion
characteristics.
END EFFECTOR
Is the device that is mechanically opened and closed?
Act as the tool- mounting plate depending on the type of operation, conventional end effectors are equipped
with various devices and tool attachments, as follows:
• Grippers, hooks, scoops, electromagnets, vacuum cups, and adhesive fingers for material handling.
• Spray gun for painting.
• Attachments for spot and arc welding and arc cutting.
• Power tools such as drills, nut drivers, and burrs.
• Special devices and fixtures for machining and assembly.
• Measuring instruments, such as dial indicators, depth gauges, and the like.
Fig. Illustrates various devices and tools attached to the end effector to perform a variety of operations The
origin of the coordinate system or the point of action of the tool attached o the robot arm is called as tool
center point (tcp).
End effectors generally custom-made to meet special handling requirements. Mechanical grippers are most
commonly used and are equipped with two or more fingers.
The selection of an appropriate end effector for a specific application depends upon factors such as payload,
environment, reliability, and cost.
POWER SUPPLY
The function of the power supply is to provide and regulate energy that is required for a robot to be
operated.
There are three basic types o power supplies:
• Electric
• Hydraulic
• Pneumatic
Electricity is the most common source of power and is used extensively with industrial robots.
The second most common us pneumatic, and the least common is hydraulic power.
The power suply has a direcct relation to the payload rating.
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CONTROLLER
The controller is a communication an information processing device that initiates, terminates and
coordinates the motions and sequences of a robot.
It accepts necessary inputs to the robot and provides the output drive signals to a controlling motor or
actuator to correspond with the robot movements and outside world. Block diagram illustrates the many
different parts of robot controller.
The heart of the controller is the computer and its solid-state memory.
The input and output section of a control system must provide
A communication interface between the robot controller computer and following parts:
 • Feed back sensors
• Production sensors
• Production machine tools
• Teaching device
• Program storage devices, hard copy devices.
The computer controls the motion of the robot arm by means of drive signals that pass through the drive
Interface to the actuators on the arm.
Robots are often classified under the three major categories, according to the type of control system used:
 • Non-servo – open loop system
• servo – closed loop system
• servo-controlled – closed loop systems with continuously controlled path.
4.6 COMMON TYPES OF ARMS, JOINTS:
The most common robot used in industry today is the robot arm. These arms are used to weld, package,
paint, position and assemble a host of products that we use daily. Basically a robot arm is a series of
linkages that are connected in such a way that a servo motor can be used to control each joint. The
controlling computer, the brain of the robot, is programmed to control the various motors on the robot in a
way that allows it to perform specific tasks.
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The robot arm can be designed in a number of different ways, the size and shape of this arm is critical to the
robotic architecture of the robot. The arm is the part of the robot that positions the final grabber arm or spray
head to do their pre-programmed business. If the design of the arm is too large or small this positioning may
not be possible. Many arms resemble the human arm, containing shoulders, elbows wrists and hands. The
design of the human arm is exceptional and allows for precise and complicated movement.
THE ROBOTIC JOINTS:

A robot joint is a mechanism that permits relative movement between parts of a robot arm. The basic
movements required for the desired motion of most industrial robots are:
Rotational movement: this enables the robot to place its arm in any direction on a horizontal plane.
Radial movement: this enables the robot to move its end-effector radically to reach distant points.
Vertical movement: this enables the robot to take its end-effector to different heights.
ROBOT ANATOMY
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Translational motion
Linear joint (type L)
Orthogonal joint (type O)
Rotary motion
Rotational joint (type R)
Twisting joint (type T)
Revolving joint (type V)
4.7 GRIPPERS:
Grippers: are generally used to grasp and hold an object and place it at a desired location. Grippers can be
classified as
Mechanical grippers
Vacuum or suction cups
Magnetic grippers
Adhesive grippers
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Hooks,
Scoops, and so forth.
Tools: a robot is required to manipulate a tool to perform an operation on a work part. Here the tool acts as
end-effectors. Spot-welding tools, arc-welding tools, spray painting nozzles, and rotating spindles for
drilling and grinding are typical examples of tools used as end-effectors.
End Effectors
In the robotic world it is generally understood that the end of the wrist is the end of the robot. The robot has
the capability of moving to various positions within the limits of its work envelope. The robot is not yet
prepared for the operation that it has to carry out; it does not have the correct “Hand”. The end effector is
the correct name for the attachment that can be mounted to a bolting plate fitted to the wrist. These
attachments can be for grasping, lifting, welding, painting and many more. This means that the standard
robot can be carry out a vast range of different applications depending on the end effector that is fitted to it.
There are two types of end effectors- grippers and tools. Tools are used where an operations such as
welding, painting or drilling need to be performed. Their shapes and types are numerous and varied. There
are three basic categories of grippers- mechanical, magnetic and pneumatic.
Mechanical Gripper
The most common type of gripper is the two finger type as seen in the picture previously. There are
multiple finger types capable of more complex tasks available also.
Multiple fingered gripper
The mechanics of a gripper is that the gripper fingers close against the object with sufficient mechanical
force to hold the object firmly against gravity and movement forces. The force should not however be too
severe and cause damage to the component. The grippers may be powered by servos, pneumatic or
hydraulic power Mechanical grippers may not always be suitable for handling some components due to their
size or delicacy. Magnetic or pneumatic grippers offer alternative solutions to managing components.
Magnetic Gripper
These grippers are use to handle ferrous material. The grippers will be electromagnetic or permanent
magnets. The electromagnetic can pick and release it component by switching on and off the magnet. Using
a permanent means that the component cannot be simply dropped from the magnet, it must be slid off using
a pneumatic piston. This may seem pointless when an electromagnet can be used. There is reduced risk of
sparking because no electrical power is used, makes these types more suited in certain hazardous
environments.
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Multiple fingered gripper Magnetic Gripper
Pneumatic or Vacuum Grippers

Circular vacuum or suction cups made from plastic or rubber form pneumatic grippers. The cups press
against the material to be lifted and the air drawn out by means of a pump, creating a plunger effect. This
suction force allows the component to be lifted. The weight and centre of gravity of the components
determines the number of suction cups used. To allow for an effective suction the object to be lifted must
have a relatively smooth flat and clean surface. Releasing of the part once it reaches its destination simply
means neutralising the vacuum and allowing air into the suction pads.
Grippers grasp and manipulate objects during the work cycle. Typically the objects grasped are workparts
that need to be loaded or unloaded from one station to another. Grippers may be custom-designed to suit the
physical specifications of the workparts they have to grasp. As end effectors, grippers are described in
further detail in Table
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Table: End-Effectors: Grippers
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UNIT VII: ROBOT ACTUATORS AND FEED BACK

COMPONENTS
Actuators:
Motors are the most common way to control the movements of robots and are known as actuators. They can
be connected to gears and wheels and are a perfect way of adding mobility. There are a number of different
types of motors that can be used, dc, stepper and servo motors.
7.1 ACTUATORS: PNEUMATIC, HYDRAULIC ACTUATORS:
Actuation systems
Actuation systems are the elements of control systems which are responsible for transforming the output of
a microcontrollers or microprocessor or control system into a controlling action on machine or device eg.
Pneumatic, hydraulic, mechanical, and electrical actuation systems.
Pneumatic & hydraulic actuation systems

• Pneumatic deals with air pressure
• Hydraulic deals with fluid motion and pressure
Typical Hydraulic Power System
• The pressure relief valve is to release the pressure if it rises above a safe level,
• The accumulator is to smooth out any short term fluctuations in the output oil pressure
•The pump pumps oil from a sump through a non return valve and an accumulator to the system, from
which it return to the sump. With a hydraulic system, pressurized oil (fluid) is provided
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• The Accumulator Work
• Accumulator is a container in which the oil is held under pressure against an externalforce, which involves
gas within a bladder in the chamber containing the hydraulic fluid
• If the oil pressure rises then the bladder contracts increase the volume the oil can occupy and so reduces
the pressure.
• If the oil pressure falls the bladder expands to reduce the volume occupied by the oil and so increases its
pressure.
Typical Pneumatic Power System
• Pneumatic and hydraulic systems use directional control valves to direct the flow of fluid through a
system; its ON/OFF devices either completely open or closed
• They might be activated to switch the fluid flow direction by means of mechanical, electrical or fluid
pressure signal.
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7.2 ELECTRIC & STEPPER MOTORS:

DC MOTORS
These are the most common motors available, connected to a power supply by two wires. The direction of a
DC motor can be changed by reversing the polarity of the motor supply voltage. DC motors draw a large
amount of current and as a result cannot be wired straight from a control system such as PIC. DC motors do
not offer accurate, controlled rotation.
Figure illustrates the construction of a DC servomotor, consisting of a stator, a rotor, and a commutation
mechanism. The stator consists of permanent magnets, creating a magnetic field in the air gap between the
rotor and the stator. The rotor has several windings arranged symmetrically around the motor shaft. An
electric current applied to the motor is delivered to individual windings through the brush-commutation
mechanism, as shown in the figure. As the rotor rotates the polarity of the current flowing to the individual
windings is altered. This allows the rotor to rotate continually.
Let τm be the torque created at the air gap, and i the current flowing to the rotor windings. The torque is in
general proportional to the current, and is given by
where the proportionality constant K t is called the torque constant, one of the key parameters describing the
characteristics of a DC motor. The torque constant is determined by the strength of the magnetic field, the
number of turns of the windings, the effective area of the air gap, the radius of the rotor, and other
parameters associated with materials properties.
In an attempt to derive other characteristics of a DC motor, let us first consider an idealized energy
transducer having no power loss in converting electric power into mechanical power. Let E be the voltage
applied to the idealized transducer. The electric power is then given by E⋅i, which must be equivalent to the
mechanical power:
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where ωm is the angular velocity of the motor rotor. Substituting eq.(1) into eq.(2) and dividing both sides by
i yield the second fundamental relationship of a DC motor:
The above expression dictates that the voltage across the idealized power transducer is proportional to the
angular velocity and that the proportionality constant is the same as the torque constant given by eq.(1). This
voltage E is called the back emf (electro-motive force) generated at the air gap, and the proportionality
constant is often called the back emf constant.
STEPPER MOTORS
A stepper motor is an electro mechanical device, which converts electrical pulses into discrete mechanical
movements. The shaft or spindle of a stepper motor rotates in discrete step increments when electrical
command pulses are applied to it in the proper sequence. The sequence of the applied pulses is directly
related to the direction of motor shafts rotation. The speed of the motor shafts rotation is directly related to
the frequency of the input pulses and the length of rotation of input pulses applied.
1. Stepper Motor Advantages and
Disadvantages Advantages
1. The rotation angle of the motor is proportional to the input pulse.
2. The motor has full torque at stand still (if the winding are energized)
3. Precise positioning and repeatability of movement since good stepper motor s have an accuracy of 3 –5%
of a step and this error is non cumulative from one step to the next.
4. Excellent response to starting stopping reversing.
5. Very reliable since there are no contact brushes in the motor. Therefore the life to the motor is simply
dependant on the life of the bearing.
6. The motors response to digital input pulses provides open-loop control, making the motor simpler and
less costly to control.
7. It is possible to achieve very low speed synchronous rotation with a load that is directly coupled to the
shaft.
8. A wide range of rotational speed is proportional to the frequency of the input pulses.
Disadvantages
1. Resonance can occur if not properly controlled.
2. Not easy to operate at extremely high speeds.
2. Open Loop Operation
One of the most significant advantages of a stepper motor is its ability to be accurately controlled in an open
loop system. Open loop control means no feedback information about position is needed. This type of
control eliminates the need for expensive sensing and feedback devices such as optical encoders. Your
position is known simply bykeeping track of the input step pulses.
3. Stepper Motor Types
There are three basic stepper motor types. They are:
• Variable-reluctance
• Permanent-magnet
• Hybrid
Basic function principles of a stepper motor
Like most electric motors, a stepper motor consists of a stator (fixed external winding) and a rotor (rotating
shaft with magnets). The rotation of the motor shaft (rotor) is generated by rapid energizing the
electromagnetic field of the stator, causing the shaft to turn by the step angle a. In a minimum control
configuration, the stepper motor is moved from pole to pole, or from step to step. A full turn of the motor
shaft is therefore made up of individual steps. Energizing of the motor windings results in a magnetic field
in the motor from north to south (or south to north if the power supply has negative polarity and the winding
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is arranged accordingly). The movable stator with its permanent magnets aligns itself according to the
direction of the external magnetic field of the stator.
Variable Reluctance stepper motor (Fig. 1, left)
The rotor consists of a magnetically soft material with different tooth pitch compared with the pole pitch of
the stator. When a phase element is excited the rotor assumes a position in which the magnetic resistance
(reluctance) for the excited magnetic circuit is at a minimum. Movement of the rotor causes a torque that
returns the rotor to its original position. The stator requires at least two phase windings in order to achieve a
change in the direction of rotation. Due to the different tooth pitch of the pole and the rotor, the direction of
the rotating field is opposite to the direction of rotation of the rotor. In de-energised state the motor has no
holding torque.
Permanent magnet stepper motor/claw-pole stepper motor (Fig. 1, centre)

A permanent magnet stepper motor consists of a stator with individually controllable windings and a rotor
with a permanent magnet. The rotor may be configured as a cylindrical ferrite rod with multi-pole
magnetisation along its circumference. The permanent-magnetic rotor always aligns itself with the right
polarity relative to the stator winding. Permanent magnet stepper motors have a holding torque to which a
non-energised motor can be subjected without causing a continuous rotation.
Hybrid stepper motor (Fig. 1, right)
Combination of VR (small step angles) and PM (high torque, holding torque). The rotor consists of a
permanent magnet arranged in axial direction and positioned between two magnetically soft toothed discs.
The toothed discs are offset by half a tooth pitch. Due to the arrangement of the permanent magnets in the
rotor one of the toothed discs forms the north pole, the other the south pole of the rotor. The rotor teeth align
themselves with the stator teeth, depending on which stator phase is current-carrying.
7.3 POSITION SENSORS – POTENTIOMETERS, RESOLVERS,
ENCODER:
Most common way of classifying the wide spectrum of sensors is based on the specific application of the
sensor. Sensor used for measuring humidity is termed as humidity sensor, the one used for measurement of
pressure is called pressure sensor, sensor used for measurement of liquid level is called level sensor and so
on though all of them may be using the same sensing principle. In a similar fashion, the sensor used for
measurement of position is called a position sensor.
Position sensors are basically sensors for measuring the distance travelled by the body starting from its
reference position. How far the body has moved from its reference or initial position is sensed by the
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position sensors and often the output is given as a fed back to the control system which takes the appropriate
action. Motion of the body can be rectilinear or curvilinear; accordingly, position sensors are called linear
position sensors or angular position sensors.
POSITION SENSORS:
One method of determining a position, is to use either “distance”, which could be the distance between two
points such as the distance travelled or moved away from some fixed point, or by “rotation” (angular
movement). For example, the rotation of a robots wheel to determine its distance travelled along the ground.
Either way, Position Sensors can detect the movement of an object in a straight line using Linear Sensors
or by its angular movement using Rotational Sensors.
THE POTENTIOMETER:
The most commonly used of all the “Position Sensors”, is the potentiometer because it is an inexpensive and
easy to use position sensor. It has a wiper contact linked to a mechanical shaft that can be either angular
(rotational) or linear (slider type) in its movement, and which causes the resistance value between the
wiper/slider and the two end connections to change giving an electrical signal output that has a proportional
relationship between the actual wiper position on the resistive track and its resistance value. In other words,
resistance is proportional to position.
Potentiometers come in a wide range of designs and sizes such as the commonly available round rotational
type or the longer and flat linear slider types. When used as a positional sensor the moveable object is
connected directly to the rotational shaft or slider of the potentiometer.
A DC reference voltage is applied across the two outer fixed connections forming the resistive element. The
output voltage signal is taken from the wiper terminal of the sliding contact as shown below.
This configuration produces a potential or voltage divider type circuit output which is proportional to the
shaft position. Then for example, if you apply a voltage of say 10v across the resistive element of the
potentiometer the maximum output voltage would be equal to the supply voltage at 10 volts, with the
minimum output voltage equal to 0 volts. Then the potentiometer wiper will vary the output signal from 0 to
10 volts, with 5 volts indicating that the wiper or slider is at its half-way or centre position.
Potentiometer Construction
The output signal (Vout) from the potentiometer is taken from the centre wiper connection as it moves along
the resistive track, and is proportional to the angular position of the shaft.
Example of a simple Positional Sensing Circuit
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While resistive potentiometer position sensors have many advantages: low cost, low tech, easy to use etc, as
a position sensor they also have many disadvantages: wear due to moving parts, low accuracy, low
repeatability, and limited frequency response.
But there is one main disadvantage of using the potentiometer as a positional sensor. The range of
movement of its wiper or slider (and hence the output signal obtained) is limited to the physical size of the
potentiometer being used.
For example a single turn rotational potentiometer generally only has a fixed mechanical rotation of
between 0o and about 240 to 330o maximum. However, multi-turn pots of up to 3600o (10 x 360o) of
mechanical rotation are also available.
Most types of potentiometers use carbon film for their resistive track, but these types are electrically noisy
(the crackle on a radio volume control), and also have a short mechanical life.
Wire-wound pots also known as rheostats, in the form of either a straight wire or wound coil resistive wire
can also be used, but wire wound pots suffer from resolution problems as their wiper jumps from one wire
segment to the next producing a logarithmic (LOG) output resulting in errors in the output signal. These too
suffer from electrical noise.
For high precision low noise applications conductive plastic resistance element type polymer film or cermet
type potentiometers are now available. These pots have a smooth low friction electrically linear (LIN)
resistive track giving them a low noise, long life and excellent resolution and are available as both multi-
turn and single turn devices. Typical applications for this type of high accuracy position sensor is in
computer game joysticks, steering wheels, industrial and robot applications.
RESOLVER :
The most common type of resolver is the brushless transmitter resolver (other types are described at the
end). On the outside, this type of resolver may look like a small electrical motor having a stator and rotor.
On the inside, the configuration of the wire windings makes it different. The stator portion of the resolver
houses three windings: an exciter winding and two two-phase windings (usually labeled "x" and "y") (case
of a brushless resolver). The exciter winding is located on the top; it is in fact a coil of a turning (rotary)
transformer. This transformer induces current in the rotor without a direct electrical connection, thus there
are no wires to the rotor limiting its rotation and no need for brushes. The two other windings are on the
bottom, wound on a lamination. They are configured at 90 degrees from each other. The rotor houses a coil,
which is the secondary winding of the turning transformer, and a separate primary winding in a lamination,
exciting the two two-phase windings on the stator.
The primary winding of the transformer, fixed to the stator, is excited by a sinusoidal electric current, which
by electromagnetic induction induces current in the rotor. As these windings are arranged on the axis of the
resolver, the same current is induced no matter what its position. This current then flows through the other
winding on the rotor, in turn inducing current in its secondary windings, the two-phase windings back on the
stator. The two two-phase windings, fixed at right (90°) angles to each other on the stator, produce a sine
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and cosine feedback current. The relative magnitudes of the two-phase voltages are measured and used to
determine the angle of the rotor relative to the stator. Upon one full revolution, the feedback signals repeat
their waveforms. This device may also appear in non-brushless type, i.e., only consisting in two lamination
stacks, rotor and stator.
Resolvers can perform very accurate analog conversion from polar to rectangular coordinates. Shaft angle is
the polar angle, and excitation voltage is the magnitude. The outputs are the [x] and [y] components.
Resolvers with four-lead rotors can rotate [x] and [y] coordinates, with the shaft position giving the desired
rotation angle.
Resolvers with four output leads are general sine/cosine computational devices. When used with electronic
driver amplifiers and feedback windings tightly coupled to the input windings, their accuracy is enhanced,
and they can be cascaded ("resolver chains") to compute functions with several terms, perhaps of several
angles, such as gun (position) orders corrected for ship's roll and pitch.
For the position evaluation, Resolver-to-Digital Converters are commonly used. They convert sine and
cosine signal to binary signal (10 to 16 bit wide) that can more easily be used by the controller.
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7.4 VELOCITY SENSORS, TACTILE SENSORS, PROXIMITY

SENSORS:
Definition: Velocity Sensor - A sensor that generates a voltage that is proportional to the velocity between
its two main elements, i.e., a wire coil and a magnetic field.
Velocity Transducer
Use the principle of electromagnetic induction: linear and angular velocity transducer
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TACTILE SENSORS:
Tactile sensors’ implementation
In spite of the variety of technical solutions currently used to implement tactile sensors, we mention here
just those that are more common or, according to us, more promising. Further information on tactile sensors,
namely on its implementation.
i. Resistive based sensors. The basic principle of this type of sensor is the change of electrical resistance
with pressure of a material placed between two electrodes or in touch with two electrodes placed at one side
of the material. One solution to implement this pressure sensitive resistor is using a conductive elastomer or
foam or elastomer cords laid in a grid pattern, with the resistance measurements being taken at the points of
intersection. Resistive taxels can also be made using conductive polymers and thin semi-conductive coating
(ink). In the first case, the polymer is made piezoresistive by screen printing it with a film of conductive and
non-conductive micron particles.
ii. The conditioning circuits of resistive-based tactile sensors are fairly simple, which is one of their
advantages. Figure 1 shows a 3x3 array of resistive taxels and the circuitry that can be used to implement a
tactile transducer.
iii. Capacitive based sensors: A capacitive taxel is a capacitor whose capacitance changes with the applied
force. The force can produce either the change in the distance between capacitor plates or its area. Generally
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speaking, if the capacitor plates area to distance ratio is smaller than 1, the change of plates area is better,
which recommends a coaxial cylindrical capacitor (Fig. 2 (a)). Nevertheless, parallel plate capacitors are
easier to fabricate than cylindrical ones, which justify their popularity even nowadays. To measure the
change in capacitance, several conditioning circuits can be used depending also on the type of the desired
output signal. The circuit of Fig. 2 (b) yields an ac voltage, vd whose value depends on the capacitance of
each taxel, Cij. Fig. 2 – (a) Capacitive taxel based on a cylindrical capacitor; (b) voltage-based conditioning
circuit and its equivalent electric circuit: Cij – taxel (i,j) capacitance; Rd and Cd – equivalent resistance and
capacitance of the circuit yielding vd
iv. Optical Sensors: The operating principles of optical-based sensors include modulation by the applied
force of the transmitted light intensity, phase, or polarization and interaction of the applied force with the
light external to the primary light path. Figure 3 shows obstruction-type optical taxels.
Fig. 3 – Optical obstruction-type taxels Micro and nano-technologies are particularly attractive to tactile
sensing implementation because they can produce not only high density arrays of sensors but also devices
incorporating both the sensors, the required conditioning electronic circuits and even the hardware for signal
acquisition, digital signal processing and transmission.
PROXIMITY SENSORS:
As ambient light sensors play an increasingly important role in our lives, proximity sensing becomes a
simple and inexpensive companion that enables a wide range of the applications to make our daily life
easier.
Proximity sensing based upon infrared signal detection requires two parts: infrared LED and infrared sensor.
The infrared LED emits infrared signal to the sensing object, a portion of that signal bounces back from the
surface of sensing object, these reflected infrared signal was then captured by the infrared sensor. The
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intensity of captured infrared signal changes accordingly when an sensing object is getting closer or moving,
the captured infrared signal is processed in real time through light to digital conversion to reveal the
distance or even the motion of sensing object.
There are many design considerations to deal with the implementation complexities of infrared signal based
proximity sensing solution. These involve mechanical design that includes component selections,
component placement dimensions, glass cover characteristics, optical design and overall system design to
achieve an optimal proximity sensing solution.
This application notes mainly cover mechanical design that is a critical component of the overall proximity
sensing system solution, it involves LED selections, isolation techniques between sensor and LED,
component placement dimensions and glass cover characteristics etc. The proximity sensing readout
comparison based upon different design variations and trade-offs is used to decide optimal
choice for different application and system requirement.
Proximity Sensing and Ambient Light Sensing Function
Most light source emissions are composed of both visible and infrared spectrum content. Different light
sources can have similar visible light intensity in terms of lux but very different infrared spectrum response.
The difference in the spectrum characterization and the spectral sensitivity of the photo detector has to be
taken into account when measuring light intensity. A standard photo detector implemented on a typical
CMOS process that detects mostly infrared radiation (peak sensitivity at 880nm) can cause false readings
about the real ambient visible conditions. For infrared-rich light sources like light bulbs, the photo detector
signals are much higher than the amount seen by the human eye. Lighting solutions controlled by such
sensors will not resemble the optimum brightness as felt by human eyes. To establish a more suitable
dimming or lighting control as part of a system solution, it is essential to find a sensor which emulates
human eyes as closely as possible.
Intersil’s integrated digital ambient light and proximity sensor equips with programmable infrared LED
driver, 16-bit analog to digital converter, interrupt functional control unit and I2C/SMBus digital interface.
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The device provides not only ambient light sensing to allow conventional backlight and display brightness
adjustment but also proximity sensing for distance and motion detection.
For ambient light sensing, it functions like other ambient light sensor product. Figure 2 shows the
architecture of charge integration ADC continuously counts up to 16-bit. The photo current stimulates
charge which accumulates onto the integration capacitor depending on the number of clock cycles (up to
216), then the op-amp and comparator helps to convert the analog photo current signal into digital output.
For infrared proximity sensing, the internal IR LED driver turns on and delivers from 12.5mA to 100mA to
drive the external IR LED. Figure 3 shows the entire proximity detection cycle requires three different
sequential phases: ambient light sensing, infrared sensing and proximity sensing.
When the integrated digital ambient light and proximity sensor is programmed in proximity sensing mode,
the external IR LED is turned on by the built-in IR LED driver to sink 12.5mA, 25mA, 50mA or 100mA
current based on user programmed choice. When the infrared sensing signal from the LED reaches the
sensing object and gets reflected back, the reflected infrared signal is captured by the infrared sensor and
converted into photo current, then further converts into 16-bit digital data stream. The eventual proximity
readout is linearly proportional to the reflected infrared signal intensity but inversely proportional to the
square of the distance between proximity sensor and the sensing object. When under significant background
infrared noise like direct sunlight, both infrared sensing phase and proximity sensing phase are needed for
background noise cancellation.
Figure 4A illustrates when there is no sensing object in proximity detection path, no reflected infrared signal
is bounced back to the proximity sensor, the proximity readout returns to default baseline counts. When the
sensing object is within 10cm distance from the center point between the IR LED and the light sensor as
shown in Figure 4B, the reflected infrared signal is captured by the sensor, the proximity readout is linearly
proportional to the captured infrared light signal intensity and inverse proportional to the square of the
distance.
Inductive Proximity Sensors detect the presence of metal objects which come within range of their
oscillating field and provide target detection to “zero speed”. Internally, an oscillator creates a high
frequency electromagnetic field (RF) which is radiated from the coil and out from the sensor face (See
Figure 1). When a metal object enters this field, eddy currents are induced into the object.
As the metal moves closer to the sensor, these eddy currents increase and result in an absorption of energy
from the coil which dampens the oscillator amplitude until it finally stops.
Inductive proximity sensors enable the detection, without contact, of metal objects at distances of up to 60
mm. Their range of applications is very extensive and includes: the monitoring of machine parts (cams,
mechanical stops, etc.), monitoring the flow of metal parts, counting, etc.
Advantages of inductive detection
No physical contact with the object to be detected, thus avoiding wear and enabling fragile or freshly
painted objects to be detected.
High operating rates.
Fast response.
Excellent resistance to industrial environments (robust products, fully encapsulated in resin).
Solid state technology : no moving parts, therefore service life of sensorindependent of the number of
operating cycles
Principle of operation
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Inductive proximity sensors are solely for the detection of metal objects. They basically comprise
an oscillator whose windings constitute the sensing face.
An alternating magnetic field is generated in front of these windings Composition of an inductive
proximity sensor
1 Oscillator
2 Output driver
3 Output stage
When a metal object is placed within the magnetic field generated by the sensor, the resulting currents
induced form an additional load and the oscillation ceases.
This causes the output driver to operate and, depending on the sensor type, a NO, NC or NO + NC
(complementary) output signal is produced.
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UNIT VIII ROBOT APPLICATION IN MANUFACTURING

Robotic Applications in the Industry
Work environment is one of the several characteristics that should be considered when selecting a
robot application. The hazardous characteristics of industrial work tend to promote the substitution
of robots for human labour. Hence, robots are being used in a wide field of applications in industry.
Currently, robots are mostly used in the field of manufacturing. The applications can usually be
classified into following characteristics :
(i) Material handling
(ii) Processing operations
(iii)Assembly and inspection
Application of the robots in the industry must be technically and economically viable for the
industry. Material Handling Applications
Material handling applications are those in which the robot moves the materials or parts from one place to another. The robot is equipped
with a gripper type of end- effector to accomplish this type of transfer. The gripper must be designed to handle the specific part or parts
that are to be moved. Within this application category are the following cases which are
(i)Material transfer, and
(ii)Machine loading/unloading.
In almost all the material handling applications, the part must be presented to the robot in familiar position and
orientation.
Material Transfer
These are the operations in which the robot picks up the parts at one location and place them at a new location. The
basic application in this category is pick and place operation, where robot picks up a part and deposits at a new
location. Transferring parts from one conveyor to another is a classic example of this application. However, palletizing is
a more complex example of the material transfer application. Here, the robots must retrieve parts, cartons, or other
objects from one location and deposit them onto a pallet or other container with multiple locations.
Machine Loading/Unloading Operations
In machine loading and unloading operations, the parts are transferred into/from a machine. The three possible
scenarios can be machine loading , machine unloading , machine loading and unloading . In the machine loading
operations, the robot loads parts into machine, but the parts are unloaded from the machine by some other mechanism.
In the unloading operations, the machines are unloaded using the robots. When both the earlier situations are present,
then this can be placed into the third category.
Numerous applications of machine loading and unloading operations are as follows :
(i)Die casting operations
(ii)Metal machining operations
(iii)Plastic molding
(iv)Forging
(v)Heat treating
(vi)Press working
Robots as mentioned earlier are also used in the process industry. Numerous applications in this category are spot welding, continuous
arc welding, spray painting, various rotating processes, and machining processes.
Spot Welding
Spot welding is a metal joining process in which two sheet metal parts are fused together at localized points of contact. It has got a
widespread use in the automobile industry. The end- effector used here is a spot welding gun used to pinch the car panels together and
perform the resistance welding process.
Continuous Arc Welding

Continuous arc welding is used to provide continuous welds rather than points in a spot welding process. As
the working condition is tough, therefore automation is recommended in this case. The robotic cell consists
of a robot, the welding apparatus (power unit, controller, welding tool, and wire feed mechanism), and a
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fixture that positions the components for the robot. The fixture might be mechanized with one or two
degrees-of-freedom so that it can present different portions of the work to the robot for welding.
Spray Coating
Spray coating makes use of a spray gun directed at the object to be coated. Fluid flows through the nozzle of the spray gun and is
dispersed and applied over the surface of the object. Here, robot applications consist of spray coating appliances, automobile car bodies,
engines, and other parts, spray painting of wood products, and spraying of porcelain coating on bathroom fixtures.
Other Processing Applications
The list of other industrial processes that are being performed by robots is as follows :
(i)Drilling, routing and other machining process.
(ii)Laser cutting.
(iii)Riveting.
(iv)Grinding, wire brushing, and similar operations.
(v)Water jet cutting.
In the next section, we detail the assembly and inspection operations performed by the robots.
Assembly and Inspection
Assembly and inspection are hybrids of the previous two application categories: material handling and processing. Assembly and
inspection applications can involve either the handling of materials or the manipulation of a tool. Assembly and inspection are
traditionally labour-intensive, boring and highly repetitive activities. Hence, they are the fitting cases for the robotic applications.
Production rate is one of the important performance measures for such robotic applications. Therefore,
industrially relevant problems have been presented and solved in the next section.
APPLICATIONS OF INDUSTRIAL ROBOTS
Industrial robots are being used widely in factories, they can be used for tasks like welding, painting,
transportation of materials and tools. Table 2 shows the distributions of applications of IR in the year 1990.
(a) Welding
There are various types of welding, including spot welding, electrical welding and wind welding, etc. IR is
often used to operate spot welding. Spot welding is suitable for joining two pieces of steel plates. Its
working principle is that the two pieces of steel plates are first joined by two electrodes, a large current is
produced when pressure is added. As the electrical energy of the current melts the metal on the joints, they
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are then joined together rapidly. Generally, there are more than several thousands of welding joints in a car.
If the process is done manually, the quality may be unstable. Therefore, robots are more suitable for this
kind of repetitive work
Robotic arm in welding machines Robots handling materials

(b) Handling materials
Robots can be used to handle materials, for instance, put and pick out materials from the machineries and
transportation of materials (Fig. 9) etc. Robots can also take materials out from the production line, move
machinery vehicles in a factory automatically and stack up the goods (materials, semi-finished goods,
components, etc).
Take press brake machining procedure as an example, the metal foils are pressed into different shapes, like
the outer case of the car, the case for circuits, etc. Since these procedures are very dangerous, it is necessary
to use robots to replace workers. Robots are responsible for picking up the metal foil and put it on the
suitable position in the press brake machine. The finished products will be selected and stacked together and
delivered to the next step of the product line.
(c) Load and unload of cutting tools
If a worker is responsible for the loading and unloading of cutting tools, the machines and the connected
parts has to stop to ensure the safety for the worker. If a robot works with the machineries instead, only the
clamp tip has to stop operating. Other procedures can continue to operate. If the load and unload commands
are preset in the program of the robots, the robots can take out the cutting tools quickly, replace the cutting
tools on the clamp tip and put the old ones back to the cutting tools storage. This process only takes about a
few seconds (Fig. 10). After replacing the cutting tools, the machineries can start again. Therefore, the use
of robots has shortened the time of changing cutting tools.
Robotic arm in load-and-unload Robot for assembling components

cutting tools procedure
(d) Assembling components
Besides handling materials, robots are used to assemble components (Fig. 11). For instance, robots can use
the suction pad to assemble the window on the car. Using robots to assemble the machines has a lot of
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advantages. For example, robots can maintain stable production. They ensure the hygiene and can work
under dangerous circumstances.
(e) Cast treatment
Moulding is the process of injecting the melting metal into a mould. When the metal cools down, the desired
product is produced. Since the materials for moulding and the product are very hot, the workers may get
hurt. Therefore, robots are used to pour the melted metal, handle the finished products and carry out initial
treatment of the surface. Robots can work 24 hours a day, so the production cost is lower though the
machineries are very expensive.
(f) Painting
Spray painting is the use of gas to spray the paint as dots and scatter them evenly on the surface of the
finished products. However, frequent inhalation of paint affects the health of the workers. Therefore, it is
better to use robots to do the routine spraying task (Fig. 12). For instance, a robot paints cars in the
production line with a spray gun. Using robots with continuous path operation mode, robots can spray the
paint quickly and evenly on the car, so it can improve the quality of the cars.
Spraying the paint on the casing of the car by the use of robotic arm
Robots are widely used because they have several advantages:
1. Robots can carry out simple and repetitive work for human beings.
2. Robots do not take rest and so can work continuously for a longer period. The productivity is raised.
3. They can be used in assembly work with high precision and density. The quality of products is enhanced.
4. Robots can replace workers without laboring cost, and robots can achieve stable production rate as robots
will not be late to work, resign, take day off or strike.
5. The program can be modified easily so robots can increase the flexibility in manufacturing.
6. They can work in unfavourable circumstances, e.g. removing the high-temperature artifact from a casting
machine, welding task, spraying task, transportation of chemicals, etc., such work will affect the health of
the workers.
7. The manufacturing speed can be increased and the cost be reduced when robots are used.
8. Using robots may minimize the wasting of materials.
9. Using robots can improve the quality of a product by its ability to assemble precise components.
Robots are being used mainly in three types of applications: material handling; processing operations; and
assembly and inspection. In material handling robots move parts between various locations by means of a
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gripper type end effector. Two sub-divisions may be noted in material handling: material transfer; and
machine loading and/or unloading. These are outlined further in Table.
In processing operations the robot performs some processing actions, such as grinding, milling, etc. on the
workpart. The end effector is equipped with the specialised tool required for the process, and the tool is
moved relative to the surface of the workpart. Table 6.9 outlines examples of processing operations that
deploy robots.
75 | Page

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1 | Page AUTOMATION & ROBOTICS

JAWAHARLAL NEHRU TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY ANANTAPUR

UNIT – I: INTRODUCTION TO AUTOMATION

1.2 TYPES OF AUTOMATION IN THE INDUSTRY:

1.3 BASIC ELEMENTS OF AN AUTOMATED SYSTEM:

1.4 LEVELS OF AUTOMATION:

•Direct Type: Motors of a robot arm link

AUTOMATED ASSEMBLY SYSTEMS:

1.6 MECHANICAL FEEDERS, HOPPERS, ORIENTERS:

Figure 1.7: Hardware elements used to delivery parts to workstations

Figure 1.8: Hopper and parts feeder

UNIT – II: AUTOMATED FLOW LINES

Figure 2 .2 symbols used in production systems diagrams

Figure 2.3 Almac Industrial Systems, the Ontario-based manufacturer of material

Figure 2.4 SIKAMA INTERNATIONAL has developed a Walking beam mechanism

Figure 2.6 a, b and c Power Conveyor

Chain-drive conveyor system:

Figure 2.7 Chain drive conveyor

Figure 2.8 rack and pinion mechanisms

Figure 2.9 Ratchet and pawl mechanism

Figure 2.10 Geneva mechanism

Figure 2.11 CAM mechanisms

2.3 CONFIGURATIONS OF AUTOMATED FLOW LINE:

Figure 2.13 Example of 20 stations In-line configuration

Figure 2.14 L-shaped configuration

Figure 2.15 U-shaped configuration

Figure 2.16 Rectangular-shaped configuration

Figure 2.17 Rotary configuration

Figure 2.18 Example of 6 station rotary configuration

2.4 FLOW LINE WITH/WITHOUT BUFFER STORAGE:

Reasons for using storage buffers:

UNIT – III: ASSEMBLY LINE BALANCING

3.1 Manual Assembly Lines

Table 3.1: System configurations for Automated Assembly systems

3.2 LINE BALANCING METHODS:

Total Work Content

Where Rp is production rate.

Example: Work Elements (Small electrical appliance)

III. Method of Line Balancing - (Manual)

2. Kilbridge and Wester's Method (KWM)

Step 2. Work elements arranged according to columns

32 | Page Prepared by D.K. JAWAD, Assoc. Prof. Gates Institute of Technology

UNIT – IV: INTRODUCTION TO INDUSTRIAL ROBOTS

Classification Based on Control Systems

Cylindrical coordinate frame:

Spherical or Polar Robots:

The Scara Robot:

Applications of a Revolute robot:

4.2 ROBOT CONFIGURATIONS:

4.3 FUNCTIONAL LINE DIAGRAM:

Many robots today can be designed to move with 7 degrees of freedom.

4.5 BASIC COMPONENTS:

THE ROBOTIC JOINTS:

Multiple fingered gripper Magnetic Gripper

Pneumatic or Vacuum Grippers

UNIT VII: ROBOT ACTUATORS AND FEED BACK

Pneumatic & hydraulic actuation systems

Typical Pneumatic Power System