R.V.

College of Engineering Bangalore Course : Engineering Materials (16EM42B)

Course Notes
Unit III

3.1 : Introduction.

Thin Film Electronic Materials : Techniques for Preparation of Thin Films, Thin Film
Conducting Materials, Thin Film Resistors, Transparent and Conductive Thin Films, Thin
Film Magnetic Materials.

Thin films :
 A layer of material films lesser than few micrometers to fractions of nanometers in
thickness are called thin films.
 The controlled synthesis of materials as thin films (a process referred to as deposition)
is a fundamental step in many applications.
Thin films have the following qualities.
1. Growth of thin films are grown on substrate materials like metal, ceramic,
semiconductor or polymers
2. Similar to bulk materials, thin film materials can be single crystalline,
polycrystalline or amorphous, and their crystal size can be in micro- or nano-
meter range. In comparison with bulk materials, materials in thin film forms
have many fascinating characteristics, typically including large surface
energy, abnormal (non-equilibrated) microstructure, non-stoichiometry, and
size effects (e.g. quantum size effect), resulting from their unique atomic growth
process
3. Thin films exhibit different chemical, electrical, mechanical, optical, and physical
properties and play an important role and active branch of material science of
engineering.
4. Thin films find more applications in various electronic, optical, magnetic and
mechanical devices, and other functional aspects such as for colour,
decorative, instrumental, electromagnetic screening and protective purposes.

3.2 : Techniques for preparation of Thin Films

A variety of techniques have been developed to prepare the thin films based on the
material composition structure and performance. These techniques are categorized into
three groups:

Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD)

 Reactant gases introduced in the chamber, chemical reactions occur on wafer surface
leading to the deposition of a solid film.
 E.g. APCVD, LPCVD, PECVD, most commonly used for dielectrics and Si.

Physical Vapor Deposition (PVD) (no chemical reaction involved)

 Vapors of constituent materials created inside the chamber, and condensation occurs
on wafer surface leading to the deposition of a solid film.
 E.g. evaporation, sputter deposition, most commonly used for metals.
R.V. College of Engineering Bangalore Course : Engineering Materials (16EM42B)

Chemical /Electrochemical deposition :

Coating with a liquid that becomes solid upon heating, e.g. spin-on-glass used for
planarization.
Electro-deposition: coating from a solution that contains ions of the species to be coated.
E.g. Cu electroplating for global interconnects.
Thermal oxidation.

These growth techniques have following common features :

 Generally has nucleation and growth stages;
 Nucleation and growth processes are controlled by deposition conditions;
and
 Compositional, microstructural, and functional properties can be controlled
during nucleation and growth stages.

Thin Film Deposition

Chemical Chemical Vapour Deposition Physical Vapour Deposition

Sol Gel Thermal Evaporation Sputtering

Electroplating Plasma
Ion Plating

Electroless Plating Laser

Thermal
Evaporation Diode
Chemical Conversion Microwave

E-Beam Triode
MOCVD
Evaporation
Magnetron
Pulsed Laser
Deposition

Molecular Beam Epitaxy

Thin film growth techniques

3.2.1 Evaporation

Growth of thin films using evaporation, in practice, could be done using two
typical ways for generation of vapour from the selected source materials,
namely, thermal evaporation and electron-beam evaporation. Atoms or molecules
from the vaporization source reach the substrate situated in the deposition
chamber with a relatively good vacuum (< 10 -4 Torr.).
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Thermal Evaporation Technique : In this processes the material is heated to its melting
point to vapourise the material placed at the bottom of the chamber, often in some sort of
upright crucible. The vapor then rises above the bottom source, and adheres on the
substrates held inverted in appropriate fixtures at the top of the chamber. The surfaces
intended to be coated are thus facing down toward the heated source material to receive
their coating.

Thermal Evaporation Process

Thermal evaporation is the oldest technique and most accessible technique for
growth of thin metallic films. The source materials are resistance-heated to an
appropriate temperature at which there is an appreciable vapour pressure.
Almost all common metals that vaporize below about 1500°C, evaporation can be
achieved simply by contacting a hot surface that is resistively heated by passing
a current through a material. Typical resistive heating elements are carbon (C),
molybdenum (Mo), tantalum (Ta), tungsten (W) and BN/TiB 2 composite
ceramics. The heated surface may have many configurations, such as basket, boat,
crucible, and wire, to realise fast heating and uniform distribution of vapour.

The major advantages of thermal evaporation are high film deposition rates
and re lative simple and cheap equi pment. This technology however is
R.V. College of Engineering Bangalore Course : Engineering Materials (16EM42B)

limited to the evaporation of metals with relatively low melting points, such as
aluminium (Al) and zinc (Zn).

Electron beam (E-beam) technique: one of the evaporation technique which uses
high-energy electron beams (typically accelerated with a voltage of 5 to 20 kV) to
"heat" the source materials that are placed in water-cooled copper hearth
"pocket".

It’s a technique whereby an intense, electron beam is generated from a filament and
steered via electric and magnetic fields to strike source material (e.g. pellets of Au) and
vaporize it within a vacuum environment. At some point as the source material is heated
via this energy transfer its surface atoms will have sufficient energy to leave the surface. At
this point they will traverse the vacuum chamber, at thermal energy (less than 1 eV), and
can be used to coat a substrate positioned above the evaporating material. Average
working distances are 300 mm to 1 meter.

 This technique can vaporize most pure metals, including those with high
melting points. It is particularly suitable for the evaporation of refractory
materials, such as most ceramics (oxides and nitrides), glasses, carbon, and
refractory metals. E-beam technology is probably the fastest deposition
source available today.
 Using high-power E-beam sources, deposition rates as high as 50 microns per
second have been attained. With adequate adjustment of the electron beam spot
size, uniform films of high purity can be obtained.

E-Beam Evaporation Process

R.V. College of Engineering Bangalore Course : Engineering Materials (16EM42B)

Evaporation technology is commonly used for metallization of ceramic,

semiconductor, and dielectric foils; preparation of functional coatings and thin
films (optical, decorative, corrosion -resistant, or insulating); and fabrication of
free-standing structures.

3.2.2 Sputtering

A Thin Film Physical Vapor Deposition (PVD) Coating technique where a target material to
be used as the coating is bombarded with ionized gas molecules causing atoms to be
“Sputtered” off into the plasma. These vaporized atoms are then deposited when they
condense as a thin film on the substrate to be coated.
The sputtering process involves physical evaporation of atoms from a surface by
momentum transfer from bombarding energetic atomic sized gas ions (such as
argon ions) accelerated in an electric field.
Ar + e-  Ar + + 2e- .
Sputtering deposition then is the deposition of species vaporized from the surface of
a certain source material (i.e., target, can be element, alloy, compound, or their
mixture) by the sputtering process. This can be performed in a vacuum using
either low pressure plasma (<5 mTorr) or high pressure plasma (5-30 mTorr).

3.2.2.1 DC diode sputtering

The simplest configuration for sputtering deposition is a direct -current (DC)
diode plasma device that consists of a cathode (Le., target), an anode- (on which
the substrate is placed), a DC power source, and a vacuum chamber. Argon (Ar) is
normally used to establish a discharge. The plasma can be established uniformly
over a large area so that a solid large-area vaporization source can be used.
Further this surface is not necessary to be planar but can be shaped so as to be
conformal to a substrate surface. Typical plasma generation region is about
one centimeter in width. The electrons in the plasma are hot, with a
Maxwellian energy distribution and an equivalent thermal temperature of 1-5x104 K.
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DC Magnetron Sputtering Process

Advantages
The particles vaporized from the target surface have an intrinsic high energy. As a
result, thin films or coatings formed with DC diode sputtering generally show a
superior adhesion to the substrate and good crystalline structures.
DC Sputtering is used extensively in the semiconductor industry creating microchip
circuitry on the molecular level. It is used for gold sputter coatings of jewelry, watches and
other decorative finishes, for non-reflective coatings on glass and optical components, as
well as for metalized packaging plastics.

Disadvantages
This technology exhibits relatively low deposition rates due to the low plasma
density. In addition, the target must be electrically conductive since an insulating
surface will develop a surface charge that will prevent ion bombardment of the
surface. If the target is initially conducting but a non-conducting or poorly-
conducting surface layer is built up during sputtering due to reactions with gases in the
plasma, arcing on the target surface will happen and deteriorate the structural and
functional performance of the growing film.

Radio frequency sputtering

To overcome the limitation of DC sputtering in depositing dielectric and
insulating films Radio frequency sputtering technique is used to prevent a charge
buildup on the target or coating material.

RF Sputtering Process
R.V. College of Engineering Bangalore Course : Engineering Materials (16EM42B)

Radio frequency (RF) sputtering is commonly used for deposition of electrically

insulating materials, such as oxides and polymers. When a RF p ot ent ia l is
cap acit i ve ly coup led t o a t a rge t, a n a lt e rn ati n g positive/negative potential
appears on its surface. In a half cycle, positively charged ions are accelerated
towards the surface with enough energy to cause sputtering while on alternate
half cycle, electrons reach the surface to prevent any charge build-up. RF.
frequencies used for sputtering deposition are in the range of 0.5 -30 MHz with
13.56 MHz being the most wide ly use d. RF sputterin g can be use d for film
deposition at low working gas pressures (< 1 mTorr).

Magnetron sputtering
Magnetron Sputtering is a Physical Vapor Deposition (PVD) process in which a plasma is
created and positively charged ions from the plasma are accelerated by an electrical field
superimposed on the negatively charged electrode or "target"

In magnetron sputtering, a magnetic field is superposed to increase the plasma

density and current density at the cathode (target), then to effectively increase
the sputtering rate. The magnetic field is parallel to the cathode surface. The
electrons, ejected from the cathode, are deflected to stay near the target
surface.

Schematic showing the magnetic field and target assembly in a RF magnetron sputtering set
up.
If the magnets behind the target are arranged properly, the electrons can circulate on
a closed path. on the target surface. This electron -trapping effect will increase the
collision probability between the electrons and the sputtering gas molecules,
creating a high density plasma. This enables the sputtering at low gas pressures
with a high deposition rate. The most commonly used configuration of magnetron
is the planar one where the erosion track is a closed or elongated circle.
R.V. College of Engineering Bangalore Course : Engineering Materials (16EM42B)

3.2.3. Chemical vapour deposition(CVD)

A Materials synthesis method in which the constituents of the vapour phase react
to form a solid film at some surface

 CVD is a generic name for a group of processes that involve depositing a solid
material from a gaseous phase.
 Micro-fabrication processes widely use CVD to deposit materials in various
forms, including: mono crystalline, polycrystalline, amorphous, and epitaxial.
 These materials include: silicon, carbon fiber, carbon nano fibers, filaments,
carbon nanotubes, SiO2, silicon-germanium, tungsten, silicon carbide, silicon
nitride, silicon oxynitride and titanium nitride.
 CVD process is also used to produce synthetic diamonds.

Working concept of CVD

Chemical vapor deposition (CVD) results from the chemical reaction of gaseous
precursor(s) at a heated substrate to yield a fully dense deposit.
 Thermodynamics and kinetics drive both precursor generation and decomposition.
 Control of thermodynamics and kinetics through temperature, pressure, and
concentrations yields the desired deposit.
 A simplified concept diagram is shown in the Figure below
Metal deposition
metal halide (g) → metal(s) + byproduct (g)
Ceramic deposition
metal halide (g) + oxygen/carbon/nitrogen/boron source (g) → ceramic(s) +
byproduct (g)
* g- gas; s-solid

Gas stream

1 7
2 6

3 4 5
Wafer
Susceptor

Chemical Vapour deposition Process

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Basic components of CVD Process

 Gas delivery system – For the supply of precursors to the reactor chamber
 Reactor chamber – Chamber within which deposition takes place
 Substrate loading mechanism – A system for introducing and removing substrates,
mandrels etc
 Energy source – Provide the energy/heat that is required to get the precursors to
react/decompose.
 Vacuum system – A system for removal of all other gaseous species other than those
required for the reaction/deposition.
 Exhaust system – System for removal of volatile by-products from the reaction
chamber.
 Exhaust treatment systems – In some instances, exhaust gases may not be suitable for
release into the atmosphere and require treatment or conversion to safe/harmless
compounds.
 Process control equipment – Gauges, controls etc to monitor process parameters such
as pressure, temperature and time.
 Alarms and safety devices would also be included in this category.

Energy Sources : There are several suitable sources of heat for CVD processes
 Resistive Heating e.g. tube furnaces
 Radiant Heating e.g. halogen lamps
 Radio Frequency Heating e.g. induction heating
 Lasers
Other energy sources may include UV-visible light or lasers as a source of photo energy

Steps involved in CVD process

1. Transport of reactants to the deposition region.
2. Transport of reactants from the main gas stream through the boundary layer to the
wafer surface.
3. Adsorption of reactants on the wafer surface.
4. Surface reactions, including: chemical decomposition or reaction, surface migration to
attachment sites (kinks and ledges); site incorporation; and other surface reactions
(emission and redeposition for example).
5. Desorption of byproducts.
6. Transport of byproducts through boundary layer.
7. Transport of byproducts away from the deposition region.
Steps 2-5 are most important for growth rate.
Steps 3-5 are closely related and can be grouped together as “surface reaction” processes

Typical reaction used in CVD process

CH4 --> C(diamond) + 2H2

2A1C1 3 + 3H 2 + 3CO 2 Al 2 0 3 + 3C0 + 6HCI (1050°C),
4BC1 3 + CH 4 + 4H 2 B 4 C + 12HC1 (1200-1400°C),
BCI 3 + NH 3 BN + 3HCI (>1300°C),
CH 3SiC13 --> SiC + 3HC1 (900-1400°C),
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3SiC14 + 4NH3 --> Si3N4 + 121-1C1 (-850°C),

TiCI 4 + 2BC1 3 + 5H 2 TiB 2 + 10HC1 (800-1100°C),
TiC1 4 + CH 4 --> TiC + 4HC1 (850-1050°C),
TiCI4 + NH3 + H2 ---> TiN + 4HC1 (>900°C).

Plasma-enhanced CVD (PECVD)

A cvd technique used to deposit the materials at low temperature then the
normal classical cvd process. This technique deposition can occur at a low
temperature, even close to ambient, since electrical energy rather than thermal
energy is used to initiate homogeneous reactions for the production of chemically
active ions and radicals that can participate in heterogeneous reactions.

Metalorganic CVD (MOCVD)

 Use organometallic source gasses.

eg: (CH3)3Ga . . . . tri-methyl Gallium
 Reactants are volatile at relatively low temperatures.
 Can grow high quality epitaxial films at nanometer scale.
 Both the reactants and the byproducts can be hazardous

It is a type of CVD that utilizes metal-organic precursors. Originally, metal-organic (or

organometallic) precursors were those compounds containing a direct metal-carbon bond
(e.g., metal alkyls or metal carbonyls), but they have been broadened to include precursors
containing metal-oxygen bonds (e.g. metal-alkoxides, metal-P-diketonates), metal-nitrogen
bonds (e.g. metal alkylamides), and even metal hydrides (e.g. trimethylamine alane).

3.2.4 Molecular beam epitaxy (MBE)

Molecular beam epitaxy (MBE) is commonly used to develop epitaxial films with
atomic thicknesses on to single crystal substrates using atomic and molecular
beams produced from Knudsen cells under high or ultrahigh vacuum
conditions (better than 10 -8 Pa). This technique was originally developed in the
mid-1960s, when homoepitaxial films of silicon were grown from molecular
beams of monosilane (SiFI 4 ) by Joyce and Bradley. The tremendous works of A.Y.
Cho and J.R. Arthur at Bell Laboratories triggered the incredible expansion of MBE.

The MBE process is essentially a refined form of vacuum evaporation. Ultra-pure

elements are heated in Knudsen cells (or effusion cells) and start to sublimate.
This provide an angular distribution of atoms or molecules in a beam.
Evaporated atoms or molecules (beams) are then directed to the substrate surface
where they may react chemically with each other or other gaseous species
introduced into the vacuum chamber in purpose and condense onto the heated
(continuously rotated, when needed to improve homogeneity) single crystal
substrate. If the substrate is of the same nature as the growing film, the term of
homoepitaxy is often used; otherwise the process is called heteroepitaxy. The
schematic diagram of a MBE system is given below.
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The mechanical shutters in front of each cell are under well control, enabling precise
control of the composition, doping, microstructure and thickness of the growing
layer at the monolayer level. The operation time of a shutter can be around 0.1 s,
much shorter than the time needed to gro w one monolayer (typically 1-5 s).
Reflection High Energy Electron Diffraction (RHEED) is often used for monitoring
the growth process. The oscillation of the RHEED signal exactly corresponds to
the time needed to grow a monolayer and the diffraction pattern on the RHEED
window gives direct indication over the state of the surface.

A number of modifications have been introduced to the basic MBE growth

technology. Some of the solid-state elemental sources were replaced by various
gas and/or organo-metallic sources. For example, for the growth of III-V
semiconductor compounds, elemental As and P had been substituted by arsine
and phosphine. Flux modulation techniques was also introduced to MBE as a
major modification, this led to the so-called migration enhanced epitaxy (MEE). In
MEE process, both cation and anion fluxes are modulated during growth, which
leads to enhanced the cation migration distances at fairly low temperatures when
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the anion surface adatom population is low, thus alleviating the surface rou ghness
of the growing surfaces.

3.23 Pulsed laser deposition (PLD)

A technique where a high-power pulsed laser beam is focused inside a vacuum chamber to
strike a target of the material that is to be deposited. This material is vaporized from the
target (in a plasma plume) which deposits it as a thin film on a substrate (such as a silicon
wafer facing the target). This process can occur in ultra high vacuum or in the presence of a
background gas, such as oxygen which is commonly used when depositing oxides to fully
oxygenate the deposited films.

Pulsed laser deposition (PLD) uses a focused high -power pulsed laser beam to
ablate a target surface of the desired composition to generate some volatile
phases. When the laser pulse is absorbed by the target, it s energy is converted to
electronic excitation and then thermal, chemical and mechanical energy,
resulting in evaporation, ablation, plasma formation and even exfoliation. The
ejected species expand into the surrounding vacuum in the form of a plume
containing many energetic species including atoms, molecules, electrons, ions,
clusters, particulates and molten globules. These materials are then condensed onto
a suitable substrate as a thin film. There are three possible growth modes in PLD:

Schematic of pulsed laser deposition system

1. Step-flow growth: this mode is often observed during deposition on a high miscut
substrate or at elevated temperatures. Atoms landed on the substrate surface
diffuse to atomic step edges and form into surface islands. The growing surface is
viewed as steps travelling across the surface.
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2. Layer-by-layer growth: islands continue to nucleate on the surface until a critical island
density is reached. As more material is added, the islands continue to grow until
coalescence between them appears, resulting in a high density of pits on the surface.
When additional atoms are added to the surface they diffuse into these pits
to complete the layer. This process is repeated for each subsequent layer; and
3. 3D growth: this mode is similar to the layer-by-layer growth. The difference is
that once an island is formed an additional island will nucleate on top of the
previous island. Continuing growth in one layer will not persist, leading to a
roughened surface when additional materials are added.

PLD is often carried out in a high or ultra -high vacuum chamber. Reactive gaseous
species, such as oxygen, can be introduced to initiate reactive deposition of oxide or more
complicated materials. PLD is the primary option for growing various complex materials
such as transition metal oxides, nitrides, high-temperature superconducting thin
films (e.g. YBa 2 Cu 3 0 7 ), high-quality multi -layer thin films and super lattices.
The development of new laser technology, such as lasers with high repetition rate
and short pulse durations, made PLD a very competitive tool for the growth of
thin, well defined films with complex stoichiometry.

3.2.6 Sol-gel

The sol-gel process is a wet-chemical technique based on the evolution of a

colloidal system through the formation of an inorganic or hybrid sol followed by its
gelation to form a continuous polymer network (gel). Metal alkoxide precursors
can be used as precursors for classical synthesis of such sols. Alkoxysilanes,
such as tetraethoxysilane (TEOS) and tetramethoxysilane (TMOS), and alkoxides of
zirconium, titanium, cerium, tin and aluminium are commonly used in the sol -gel
route.

The common reactions that take place during the sol-gel process are:
1. Replacement of the alkoxide groups (—OR) with hydroxyl groups (OH) during
the hydrolysis stage due to the interaction of alkoxide molecules with water;

Si-OR + H2O —> Si-OH + ROH.

2. Condensation of two —OH groups or —OH group with —OR group, which
produces M—O—M bonds and water or alcohol. Usually, the condensation
process starts before the end of the hydrolysis step.

Si-OH + RO-Si --> Si-O-Si + ROH.

The overall reaction can be written as:
Si(OR) 4 + 2H20 —> Si02 + 4ROH

The sol can be deposited on a substrate to form a film using either dip coating
or spin coating. The first sol-gel process was described by Ebelmen in
1844 for synthesis of silica and the commercial production of sol-gel coatings
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onto flat glass appeared in the early 1960s. Sol-gel processes are now
playing a central role in synthesis of multi-component ceramics, polymers,
porous solids, and other nanostructured materials.

3.2.7 Electrodeposition

Electrodeposition refers to the deposition of a thin layer of pure metals or

alloys from solutions by the passage of an electric current to reduce
cations of a desired material from a solution. Electrolytes are usually
aqueous, although many materials have been deposited from non-
aqueous solutions. The part to be covered by the deposit is the cathode of the
circuit. The anode is normally the metal to be plated onto the cathode though
non-consumable anode may be used as well. The c o m p o s i t i o n a l , structural,
and f u n c t i o n a l p r o p e r t i e s of an electrodeposit are d e t e r m i n e d by many
external factors including the electrolyte composition, pH, temperature and
a g i t a t i o n , the potential applied between the electrodes, and the current
density. The resulting films can be crystalline or amorphous, metallic or
non-metallic.

3.3 Thin Film Conducting Materials

Thin film c o n d u c t o r s a r e w i d e l y u s e d as interconnectors, electrodes for

thin film resistors and capacitors, and welding regions in various
electrical and e l e c t r o n i c devices. The resistivity of thin film conducting
materials is in general higher than that of the bulk material with the same
composition, mainly due to the presence of surface reflective effects, high
concentration of impurities and defects. The b a s i c requirements for thin
fi lm conducting materials may include:

1. High c o n d u c t i v i t y ;
2. Good adhesion t o the underlying substrate;
3. Good compatibility with o t h e r materials; and
4. Compatible to photolithographic and other p r o c e s s e s .

Thin film conductors could be roughly categorized into two main groups:
elemental thin film and multi layered thin films. The former is mainly fabricated
using a single metallic element, such as Al. While the latter may have two, three, or
more metallic constitutes, such as Cr-Au, Ti-Pd-Au, Ti-Cu-Ni-Au, etc.

3.3.1 Cu
Copper has good electrical conductivity, thermal conductivity, high strength,
high resistance to fatigue, and excellent solderability. Thin films of Cu are
commonly prepared by using chemical vapour deposition, thermal evaporation,
sputtering, or electrochemical plating. A common problem associated with Cu
films is that they have relatively poor adhesion to most dielectric substrates.
Inter-layers composed of Al, Cr, Nb, or Ti had been used to enhance the adhesion
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in order to achieve desired mechanical bonding. Another technique is to add small

amounts of alloying elements, such as Cr and Ti, to Cu to improve the interfacial
bonding, especially after heat treatment or annealing.

3.3.2 Al
Aluminum has a lower conductivity than Cu, but Al and most of its alloys have
advantages of acceptable degree of adhesion to various substrate materials
including polymeric dielectrics, good corrosion resistance in natural atmosphere
and in many chemicals and solutions. Thin films of Al are normally produced by
vacuum evaporation.

3.3.3 Au
Gold has high electrical conductivity and excellent corrosion resistance and
environmental stability in a wide range of temperature. Its thin films can be
prepared through evaporation or sputtering. However Au does not adhere well to
substrate materials so that under layers composed of Ti or Cr might be needed. As
such Au thin films are more often used as a top layer to protect other metallic
layers

3.3.4 Ag
Silver has excellent conductivity. Its thin films, prepared by ·
electrochemical deposition or evaporation, are mainly used for contacts.

3.3.5 Cr-Au and NiCr-Au

Cr-Au and NiCr-Au systems are the most widely used multi-layered
conducting thin films. Cr and NiCr films are used to improve the
interfacial adhesion while Au film is the conducting film. A problem with
these multi-layered films of different components is that at elevated
temperatures, inter-diffusion between these two sub-layers may occur,
leading to the formation of undesired compounds or structural defects, and
then resulting in increased electrical resistance, poor solderabiliry, and
decreased surface property, reliability, and stability. In comparison with Cr-
Au system, NiCr-Au system has a lower inter-diffusion probability.

3.3.6 Ti-Pd(Pt)-Au

This system has better resistance stability under humid conditions

compared with NiCr-Au system. It also has excellent corrosion resistance since
Ti has superior self-passivation ability under most atmospheric conditions.
The Pd or Pt layer sandwiched between the bottom Ti layer (to improve
interfacial bonding) and the top Au layer is mainly used as a barrier layer that
can effectively inhibit the inter-diffusion between these two layers, therefore
resulting in a higher thermal stability. Ti, Pd, Pt, and Au layers can be
prepared by evaporation or sputtering techniques.
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3.3.7 FeCrAl-Cu-Au

This system is widely used as end contacts for thin film resistors,
interconnectors, and welding joints. When compared with NiCr-Au thin films,
FeCrAl-Cu-Au films have better interfacial bonding strength, solderability,
and stability. However inter-diffusion between FeCrAl and Cu layers could
still happen when the temperature of heat treatment is high.

3.4 Thin Film Resistors

Approximately 40-50% of components in an electronic circuit are resistors.

Thin film resistors widely used in integrated circuits are fundamental to the
desired functions of the devices, including biasing of active devices, serving as
voltage dividers, and assisting in impedance matching. Research and development
of thin film resistors mainly focus on finding, understanding, and improving
materials with very low temperature coefficient of resistance (TCR), low voltage
coefficient of resistance (VCR), and sufficient stability.
Typically there are three major design principles of discrete thin film resistors,
including: CHIP-type, MELF-type, and Leaded type. The heart of a thin-film resistor
consists of a thin layer of resistor material deposited onto a suitable substrate
(e.g., silicon, GaAs, or Alz03). The deposition was normally achieved b y using
sputtering. The contacts o r interconnections on the ends were then connected to
circuit components.
The resistance value of a thin film resistor is given by the relation where
R=Rs x (l/W) (3.1)
Rs is the sheet resistance of the film, l is the length and w is the width of the
resistor.

Fig:. Different types of thin film resistors. (a) CHIP-type, (b) MELF-type and (c)
Leaded type.
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A precision resistor is chara cterized by |TCR| < 25 ppm/K. Thin film resistor
materials can comprise a variety o f materials, including metals, alloys, nitrides or
cermets.

3.4.1 Ni-Cr

Ni-Cr or Ni-Cr-Al alloys are the classical materials system of thin film resistors that
are extensively used as discrete loads or potentiometers in hybrid circuits. A typical
alloy composition of Ni-Cr is 80:20 (wt.%), however the ratio of Ni:Cr can vary from
40:60 to 80:20. The resistivity is typically ranging from 110 to 300 µ.cm. The TCR is
more negative for films with higher Cr content. TCR control of Ni-Cr thin film resistors
can be achieved by using Au, Al and 02 as dopants.
Ni-Cr resistors are unstable under high humidity; therefore a coating, such as silicon
monoxide and polyimide, is often employed to increase the stability in a wide
variety of atmospheric conditions. Ni-Cr films were commonly prepared by DC or
RF magnetron sputtering or by vacuum evaporation.

3.4.2 Cu-Ni

Cu-Ni alloys have resistivities below 50µ.·cm, making them suitable for low-ohmic
applications. In the Cu-Ni alloy system, two compositions, i.e., 34 and 56 at.% Ni, show
zero TCR. Thin films of Cu-Ni were generally sputtering deposited onto suitable
substrates with a thickness typically smaller than 500 nm.

3.4.3 Cr

Chromium films are attractive for resistive films because they have very good
adhesive strength to substrate. Cr thin films have higher resistivities than Ni-Cr films;
and their TCRs are not as good as Ni-Cr. Cr films can be deposited by either sputtering
or evaporation

3.4.4 Ta

Tantalum films were widely used as resistive coatings since 1960s. These
films have characteristics of negative temperature coefficient of resistance,
wide range of resistivity at low temperatures (10 -1000 µ.cm at 0-30%- oxygen
contents), high stability with respect to aging and temperature, high
dielectric constant (20-40), transparency in the visible and IR range of
400-800 nm, high durability, superior corrosion resistance, and excellent
mechanical protection to the underlying layers.

During the 1990s, Ta films were successfully applied in microelectronics

applications. Ta thin films were commonly deposited onto i n s u l a t i n g
substrate by sputtering. Special attention is required during deposition since t h e
sputtered films a re highly prone t o contamination.
R.V. College of Engineering Bangalore Course : Engineering Materials (16EM42B)

3.4.5 Ta-Al

Amorphous Ta-Al film resistors have been achieved at a certain

composition ratio of Ta to Al for application to thermal bubble inkjet print
heads where high corrosion resistance at high temperature is required.
When deposited by sputtering using Ta and Al targets, the Ta-Al films with a
composition ratio of about 1:1, exhibiting amorphous like microstructure with
nanocrystalline grains embedded in an amorphous matrix. These as-
deposited amorphous-like Ta-Al films have the merits of high resistivity and
good thermal stability at annealing temperatures of up to 550°C.

3.4.6 Tantalum nitride

Tantalum nitride (Ta2N or TaN) thin films have some attractive physical
properties such as high resistivity and low temperature coefficient of
resistance (TCR). These films also have higher stability under various
environmental conditions than T a films. Resistors composed of Ta2N are
more stable than those formed with TaN.

Tantalum nitride films were usually p r e p a r e d by sputtering during

which nitrogen w a s introduced into the working chamber to achieve T a N
combination. The deposition conditions, such as powder density forwarded
to the target, flow and partial pressure of nitrogen, substrate temperature and bias
voltage, influence the electrical properties of the as-deposited films. If oxygen was also
introduced into t h e s p ut t e ri n g chamber, tantalum o x y n i t r i d e films can be
obtained. These films have higher resistivity, and their TCR values could be tuned
by varying the partial pressures of oxygen and nitrogen

3.4.7 Cermet

Cermets are an important class of ceramic-metal composites for thin film resistors.
Cr-Si-0 is a typical composition. Their thin films were generally deposited by
sputtering. Cr-Si-0 cermet is comprised of a continuous insulating Si02
matrix in which Cr and its. silicides monoxides serve as the conductors and
semiconductors, respectively. As deposited cermets of 80Cr and 20Si0 have a
resistivity of 550 µcm. A post-annealing at 400°C would decrease the resistance to
-400 µcm. Higher resistivities of 103 to 105 µ·cm can be achieved by varying
the percentage of SiO and Cr. The thermal stability of the Cr-Si-0 cermet material
is a concern in some applications.

3.4.8 Ru02

Ru02 thin films c a n be deposited using various techniques, such as chemical

vapor deposition (CVD), and sputtering (DC or RF). The resistance of the films is
temperature d e p e n d e n t . The films show positive TCR in a wide temperature region
R.V. College of Engineering Bangalore Course : Engineering Materials (16EM42B)

from 4.2 to 300 K. Thin films of Ru02 on Si02/Si or ceramic alumina substrates with
negative TCRs had also been reported by controlling the conditions of sputtering
and in-situ annealing. The realization of both negative and positive TCRs of the film
made it feasible for zero TCR resistor applications.

3.5 Transparent and Conductive Thin Films

A combination of optical transparency and electrical conduction c a n be achieved i n

different t y p e s of materials. Extremely thin films of metals such as Ag, Au or Cu can
be transparent. Their luminous transmittance can b e up to 50% for a single f i l m .
Glass with Ag coatings are in widespread use in modern fenestration
technology for providing thermal insulation and, in climates requiring space
cooling, for diminishing throughputs of near-infrared solar radiation..

A se c on d materials group is f o u n d among the wide-bandgap oxide semiconductors,

i.e., transparent conducting oxides (TCOs). The first observation appears to have
been in Cd oxide (CdO). Electrical conductivity and op t i ca l transparency were
found to co-exist when a thin film of sputtering deposited Cd metal after
incomplete thermal oxidation and post-deposition heat treatment in air. Though
the electrical conductivity of t hi s m a t e r i a l changed with time, its oxide was
i n d e e d a representative of conductor. The reason is· that resident oxygen
deficiency lends free charge carriers to associated metal defect energy levels
near the bottom of the metal-like conduction band of the oxide.

Since the early discovery, appreciable values of electrical conductivity

have been reported in many single, binary, ternary, and quaternary metal
oxide systems, with indium oxide (In203) as an. excellent example.
Intensive research efforts led t o films o f doped Sn02 and In203:Sn (commonly
known as indium tin oxide or ITO). A la rg e number of alternative oxides
have also been explored, including Cd2Sn04, CdSn03, CdSb206, Cdin204, ZnO, ZnSn03,
Zn2Sn04,, Zn2In205, Mgln204, Galn03 and ln4Sn3012. While transmission through
these materials in the visible region of the spectrum can be quite good,
electrical conductivities still remain considerably below those of metals.

3.5.1 Figure of merit for TCOs

The measure of the performance of TCOs (or so-called figure of merit) is the
ratio of the electrical conductivity  (measured per ohm per cm) to the visible
absorption coefficient α (measured per cm),
/ = - {Rs x ln(T + R)}-1. (3.2)

Rs = /t, (3.3)

where Rs is the sheet resistance  is the resistivity in ·cm, and t is the TCO film
thickness in cm.
R.V. College of Engineering Bangalore Course : Engineering Materials (16EM42B)

The sheet resistance has units of ohms, but is conventionally specified in units of
ohms per square (/D). T is the total visible transmission a n d R is the total visible
reflectance. The larger is the value of / t he better is the performance of the TCO
films.

3.5.2 Tin oxide (Sn02)

Sn02 doped with F or Sb is widely used for energy-efficient windows in building

applications. F:Sn02 deposited from SnCl2 precursors typically has the cassiterite
structure (similar to rutile) with a direct bandgap energy of 4.0 eV and an
indirect bandgap of 2.6 eV. Films show a resistivity on the order of 6 x 10··cm,
mobility of 20 cm2/V·s, and carrier concentration of 5-8xl020 cm-3. Sb-doped
films s h o w s i m i l a r properties.

Although the electrical' conductivity of SnO2 based materials is typically not

as good as that of ITO films, Sn02 is inexpensive both in terms of raw materials
and processing. It can be easily deposited using chemical methods such as spray
pyrolysis from the chlorides or from organometallic precursors. _Sn02 is
receiving great attention for photovoltaic a p p l i c a t i o n s , especially for h e t e r o
junctions with i n t r i n s i c thin film cells and related cells such as amorphous or
microcrystalline Si.

3.5.3 Indium tin oxide (ITO)

Crystalline In203 exhibits a bixbyite structure with a unit cell containing 40 atoms
and two non-equivalent cation sites. Crystalline ITO (c-ITO), amorphous ITO (a-
ITO), and amorphous IZO (a-IZO) are the most important three indium oxide
based TCO materials. The most commonly used technique for the deposition o f these
TCOs is DC or RF magnetron sputtering deposition. The targets are sintered ceramic
In203 containing 3-10 wt.% Sn02 and 7-10 wt.% ZnO for ITO and IZO, respectively.
Crystalline ITO deposited onto heated substrates (250-350 °C) offers relatively
low resistivities (l-3x10·4 ·cm). Both a-ITO and a-IZO films have slightly inferior
electrical transport properties compared wi t h c-ITO.

If a lower resistivity is demanded, an extremely thin metallic film could be

embedded between two layers of oxide to form a sandwiched structure. A natural
choice is the multilayered system of ITO/Ag/ITO that combines the electrical
conductivity of ITO and Ag with the optical transparency of ITO, with a refractive
index of 2, to boost the transmittance of the Ag. Studies of ITO (40 nm)/Ag ( 15
nm)/ITO (40 nm) found that the Ag film lowered the overall film resistivity by a
factor of 20, while the optical transmittance exceeded 80% in the full luminous
wavelength range.
R.V. College of Engineering Bangalore Course : Engineering Materials (16EM42B)

3.5.4 Zinc oxide (ZnO)

In the undoped state, ZnO is highly resistive because its native point defects are
not efficient donors. Substitutional doping with Al, In or Ga is commonly used to
increase its conductivity. Al-doped ZnO (AZO) has been a research focus. However Al
dopant requires a high degree of control over the oxygen potential in the sputtering
gas atmosphere due to its high affinity with oxygen. Ga is less reactive and has a
higher equilibrium oxidation potential, which makes it a better choice for ZnO doping
applications. Furthermore, the slightly smaller bond length of GaO (0.192nm)
compared with Zn-0 (0.197 nm) minimize ZnO lattice deformation at high
substitutional concentrations..

The electrical properties o f doped ZnO films strongly depend on the deposition
methods and conditions. Al and Ga-doped ZnO (AZO or GZO) films with a resistivity
on the order of 10·4 ·cm have been prepared by vacuum arc plasma evaporation
(VAPE), metal organic molecular beam deposition (MOMBD), metal organic chemical
vapour deposition (MOCVD), and magnetron sputtering. AZO films with a lower
resistivity of the order of 10·5 ·cm have been prepared by PLD.

At present, AZO and GZO films with a resistivity of 2-3x 10·4 ·cm, a refractive index
of approximately 2.0, and an average transmittance above 85% in the visible range
can be obtained on large area substrates with a high deposition rate at a
temperature above 200°C. These films have transparent e l e c t r o d e properties
c o m p a r a b l e t o those of ITO films. They. also offer significant benefits of low cost
relative to In-based systems and high chemical and thermal stability. However Zn
is more chemically active in an oxidizing atmosphere than Sn and In, the activity and
amount of oxygen must be precisely controlled during the deposition.

3.5.5 Application

As far as applications are concerned, TCOs are being used extensively in the
window layers of solar cells, as front electrodes in flat panel displays (FPD),
low emissivity windows, electromagnetic shielding of cathode ray tubes in
video display terminals, as electrochromic (EC) materials in rear• view mirrors
of automobiles, EC-windows for privacy (so-called smart windows), oven windows,
touch-sensitive control panels, defrosting windows in refrigerators and airplanes,
invisible security circuits, gas sensors, biosensors, organic light emitting diodes
(OLED), polymer light emitting diodes (PLED), antistatic coatings, cold heat
mirrors, etc. Some new applications of TCOs have been proposed recently
such as holographic recording m e d i a , high-refractive index w a v e g u i d e o v e r l a y s
for sensors and telecommunication applications, write-once read-many-times memory
chips ( WORM), electronic ink and etc.
R.V. College of Engineering Bangalore Course : Engineering Materials (16EM42B)

3.6 Thin Film Magnetic Materials

3.6.1 Soft magnetic thin films

Magnetic recording heads are t h e key parts for a c h i e v i n g high-density

magnetic recording. Soft magnetic thin films are commonly used for write
head core materials.. The basic requirements for a soft magnetic material
suitable for application in thin f i l m recording heads include:

1. High magnetic saturation (Bs >> lT);

2. Low coercivity for low hysteresis loss (Hc < 80 A/m);
3. Optimal anisotropy field (Hk) for high permeability(µ);
4. Zero or near zero magnetostriction () for reduced domain noise and head
instability;
5. High-electrical resistivity () for low eddy current loss;
6. Well-defined uniaxial anisotropy for domain structure control; and
7. Good t h e r m a l stability, excellent c o r r o s i o n and we a r r e s i s t a n c e .

Soft m a g n e t i c thin f i l m m a t e r i a l s can be roughly divided into three main

categories: crystalline, rnicro-znano-crystalline and amorphous.

3.6.1.1 Crystalline soft magnetic films

Ni-Fe alloy (Permalloy) is one of the typical crystalline alloys. Ni80Fe20 alloy has been
used for thin film inductive head since 1979. However, as the coercivity (Hc) of
magnetic recording media greatly increased, soft magnetic thin films with high-
saturation magnetic flux density (Bs) were desired for writing magnetic signals on
the recording media with high Hc. Therefore, various s o f t magnetic f i l m s w i t h
high 85 were investigated. Fe-Al-Si (Sendust) and Fe-Ga-Si-Ru alloy films
exhibit higher saturation flux densities around 1.3 T, and are applied for metal-in-
gap (MIG) type VCR heads. In these alloy films, good soft magnetic properties
are realized by annealing at a temperature above 500°C.

3.6.l.2 Micro-rnano-crystalline soft magnetic films

Micro- or nano-crystallization could be used to improve the saturation flux

density of soft magnetic films. In these films, magnetocrystalline anisotropy is
reduced by controlling the microscopic crystalline structure. Various films prepared by
electrodeposition in solutions had been reported to possess high B, values, such as
CoFe with Bs = 1.8-1.9 T, CoNiFe with Bs = 1.6-1.8 T. Sputtering-deposited nano-
crystalline films, s u c h as FeN based films and NiFe/CoFeN/NiFe multi-layered films
exhibited very high values of Bs at around 1.4-1.9T and 2.4 T, respectively.

Electrochemical deposition is a preferred technique f o r the deposition of CoNiFe soft

magnetic films with a nano-crystalline structure due to its advantages of simplicity
R.V. College of Engineering Bangalore Course : Engineering Materials (16EM42B)

and cost-effectiveness. Electrodeposition with conventional chemical baths could

provide films possessing Bs greater than 1.6 T and Hc larger than 400 A/m.
Co65Ni 12Fe23 is a typical example of soft magnetic films successfully obtained with Bs
as high as 2T. This t h i n film is composed of very fine crystal grains with diameters
typically r a n g i n g f r o m 1 0 to 20 nm. Applying this material to the write core of the
magnetic recording head in hard disk drives, a superior write performance was
obtained compared with normal magnetic recording heads with a conventional
NiFe soft magnetic film.

A distinct disadvantage associated with electrodeposited films is that they are

more susceptible to corrosion than the films prepared by physical vapour
deposition (such as sputtering) due to the presence of organic additives (e.g.
saccharin or thiourea) in the chemical bath. The films a r e anodically active; as
such t h e formation of a passive film on the surface is relatively difficult.

Nano-crystalline films of soft magnetic iron-based alloys are normally design with
the composition of Fe-M-X, where M is . a transition metal from group III-V of the
periodic table (typically Zr, Hf, Nb and Al) and X is C, N or 0. These soft magnetic
films were prepared by using (reactive) sputtering method. The fine nanostructure
can be obtained by crystallization of amorphous as-deposited alloy films or by
in-situ direct growth in s p u t t e r i n g process. These materials normally possess high
thermal stability, improved corrosion resistance and high resistivity and
have been proven to s a t i s f y various requirements as a potential candidate
for a thin film head material. In addition, they can also be used a s thin fi lm
inductors and flux gate m a g n e t i c sensors.

3.6.1.3 Amorphous soft ma gnet ic films

Soft magnetic amorphous thin films with excellent magnetic, magnetotransport and
magnetoelastic properties can find wide applications in sensors and transducers.
Co-based binary and/or ternary (e.g. Co-Fe-B, Co-Ta-Zr and Co-Nb-Zr) amorphous
films, prepared by sputtering or laser ablation, have better soft magnetic
properties than Permalloy and Sendust based films. Anisotropy control can
be achieved by annealing in a magnetic field. One d i s a d v a n t a g e of Co-based
amorphous alloys however is the reduction of the crystallization temperature
in the high Co content region. Amorphous alloys with c o m p o s i t i o n s
modulated by nitride layers and non-nitride layers show remarkable
thermal stability. Their soft magnetic properties are kept after an a n n e a l i n g
at a temperature above 700°C. This t h e r m a l stability improvement i s believed
to be caused by the phase transformation to the micro-crystalline state.
R.V. College of Engineering Bangalore Course : Engineering Materials (16EM42B)

3.6.2 Hard magnetic thin films

Hard magnetic films have a broad application area ranging from

magnetic recording media to magnetic micro-electromechanical systems
(MEMS) including magnetic sensors and actuators. Promising candidates in
these fields are rare-earth transition metal compounds such as NdFeB and
SmCo. A large variety of techniques have been developed to prepare hard
magnetic thin films, such as evaporation, sputtering, MBE, CVO, electroless
deposition, and electrodeposition.

NdFeB combines a high saturation magnetisation (l.6 T) with an anisotropy

field of 6.8 T at moderate material cost. On heated substrates NdFeB can be
grown with a c-axis texture, resulting in a perpendicular magnetic anisotropy
with respect to the film plane. Using sputtering deposition, textured films
with coercivities up to 0 . 7 T and isotropic films with coercivity up to l.6 T had
been reported. By choosing an appropriate buffer layer, substrate temperature,
and film thickness in PLD process, Nd2Fe14B films with a very fine grain size,
a pronounced perpendicular magnetic anisotropy, and a coercivity up to l.5 T
could be prepared.. A further modification of the film morphology could increase
the coercivity to 2T.

SmCo-based films are the choice when large in-plane coercivity and remanence
a r e r equired, due to the large . in-plane macroscopic anisotropies when
the films are deposited at temperatures of 400°C. The highest anisotropy
field known is for SmCo5 (0HA  35 T, µ0Ms = l.14 T); the highest saturation
magnetisation is found for Sm2Co17 (µ0HA  10 T, µoMs = 1.25 T). Thick SmCo
films with a Sm content ranging from 11-19 at.% had been found to exhibit
excellent magnetic properties. When the film is sputter deposited onto a
heated substrate, the hard magnetic phase can form directly upon deposition;
and the films possess a magnetic in-plane texture. The c-axis is hereby
randomly oriented in the film plane. For thick films (1-2 m), this texture is
observed on several different substrates; and the degree of texture improves
w h e n Sm content increases. Highly in-plane textured SmCo films have been
prepared by magnetron sputtering and P L D .

Co-rich alloys containing As, Bi, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Mo, Ni, P, Pd, Pt, Sb and W
are also promising candidates of hard magnetic materials. Their thin films
have been deposited electrochemically. The alloying elements tend to concentrate
at the grain boundaries, leading to the formation of a structure consisting
of isolated magnetic Co grains surrounded by non-magnetic or weakly
magnetic boundaries. This microstructural feature provides an increased energy
barrier for magnetic re-alignment of the domains, and thereby increases the
overall coercivity (He) of the films, making them magnetically hard.
R.V. College of Engineering Bangalore Course : Engineering Materials (16EM42B)

Promising hard magnetic thin film materials also include CoPt and FePt
due to their high magnetocrystalline anisotropy and magnetic saturation.
Specifically, L10 ordered phase materials (Co50Pt50 and Fe50Pt50) show
extremely high coercivity, Most CoPt and FePt magnetic thin films were prepared
using sputtering or MBE. They were deposited as multilayered structures and
then annealed to produce ordered phases.

3.6.3 Giant magnetoresistive film

Giant magnetoresistance (GMR) is based on spin-dependent scattering at both the
interfaces and within the individual layers. A number of factors are crucial in
metallic ferromagnets; but all of them derive from the spin• split band structure
in a ferromagnetic material. GMR effect was discovered in t he e x c h a n g e
coupled in F e /Cr/Fe trilayers by Grunberg and in Fe/Cr multilayers by Fert in
1988. The GMR multilayer shows a high resistance at the remanent state due
to the anti-parallel alignment of the magnetization of the adjacent layers.
When a s u f f i c i e n t l y strong magnetic field is applied in the plane of
the magnetic layer, the magnetization of t h e m u l t i l a y e r will be a l i g n e d
parallel to t he e x t e r n a l field, leading to a lower magnetic scattering and
then a low resistance state. In ge n e ra l , the electrical resistance decrease can
be typically around 10-80%.

3.6.3.1 Granular GMR

GMR effect had been observed in thin films composed of solid

precipitates of a ma g n e t i c material in a non-magnetic matrix. Such a
material system requires that the matrix metal and the precipitate metal are
immiscible. Typical examples are Fe-Ag, Co-Cu, and Co-Ag in which Cu or
A g matrices are c o n t a i n i n g Fe or Co granules. Granular films can be
prepared by e v a p o r a t i o n , sputtering, or i o n implantation. The G M R effect is
v a r y i n g with t h e concentration, size, and mo rp ho lo g y of magnetic granules
which further depend on the deposition and post• annealing conditions.

3.6.3.2 Multilayer GMR

GMR has been observed in many multilayered structures of t h e form FM/NM.

FM represents a transition-metal ferromagnetic layer (Fe, Co, Ni or their alloys)
and NM is a non ferromagnetic transition metal (Cr, Cu, Ag, Au etc.). Two or
more ferromagnetic l ayers are separated by a very thin (1nm) non-
ferromagnetic spacer. The simplest system for examining GMR may consist
of a thin layer of nonmagnetic Cr sandwiched between two la ye rs of
R.V. College of Engineering Bangalore Course : Engineering Materials (16EM42B)

magnetic Fe, i.e., Fe/Cr/Fe. Multilayer stacks of 10 or more l a y e r s may also be

established.
To observe GMR effect in multilayered system, some requirements need to be
met : :
1. The magnetic moments of the adjacent magnetic layers can be
reoriented upon the application of magnetic field;
2. The t h i c k n e s s of a single layer must be much smaller than that of the
average free path of electrons; and
3. The scattering rates of the up-spin and down-spin electrons in
ferromagnetic metals are sufficiently different.

GMR multilayers have been mainly produced by physical vapour deposition

techniques, such as electron-beam evaporation, laser· ablation, and sputtering.

3.6.3.3 Application

GMR can be u s e d in the areas of sensing where size, speed and sensitivity
are important parameters. Typical examples may include nanoscale arrays of
GMR sensors for 100 µm scale spatially resolved eddy current detection, biological
sensors for molecule tagging, galvanic isolators, magnetic sensors for traffic control
and engine management systems, magnetic separation and electr5:mic compasses.
GMR is utilized in hard drive read heads through the integration of a spin valve.
There has been considerable effort for developing a magnetic random access
memory (MRAM) which would have the advantages of non-volatility, radiation
hardness and low energy consumption.
R.V. College of Engineering Bangalore Course : Engineering Materials (16EM42B)

Summary:

Thin film electronic materials with tailored composition, structure, property

and performance are t h e p l a t f o r m for t h e development of microelectronic,
optoelectronic, magnetic, mechanical, sensing and/or photovoltaic devices. Many
techniques have been developed to prepare thin films with unique functions and
applications. Obviously, thin film technology and thin film material have become to
be an international· research frontier with the focus on: (1) advanced thin film
materials (including conducting, semiconducting and superconducting films,
magnetic (particularly giant magnetoresistive) films, and light emitting films); (2)
mechanisms concerning nucleation and growth of thin films; (3) advanced
technologies for thin film preparation; (4) new techniques for analysis, evaluation
and monitoring of thin films.
In this chapter, an overview of the typical techniques for the formation of
thin films was given. Then. the characteristics and applications of metal and/or
oxide based conducting and magnetic thin film systems were briefly introduced.

Important Concepts:

Thin film: a low-dimensional material which is prepared by using

elemental materials or inorganic/organic compounds. This layer is
normally supported by a suitable substrate of metal, ceramic,
semiconductor or polymer. Its thickness is typically less than several
micrometers.

Chemical vapour deposition (CVD): a process involves the formation of a

thin solid film on the heated area of a substrate situated in a reactor by
chemical reactions of volatile precursors containing the desired species

Physical vapour deposition (PVD) : a process involves creation of

vapours (using evaporation, sputtering or laser ablation) and their
subsequent condensation onto a substrate to form a film.

Sputtering deposition : this i s the deposition of species vaporized from t h e surface

of a certain source material (i.e.,. target, can be element, alloy, compound, or
their mixture) by the sputtering process.

Molecular beam epitaxy (MBE): a process commonly used to develop

epitaxial films with atomic thicknesses using atomic and molecular beams
produced from Knudsen cells under high or ultrahigh vacuum conditions..

Pulsed laser deposition (PLD): a process uses a focused high-power

pulsed laser beam to generate a plume containing many energetic species
(including atoms, molecules, electrons, ions, clusters, particulates and
molten globules) that condense onto a suitable substrate as a thin film.
R.V. College of Engineering Bangalore Course : Engineering Materials (16EM42B)

Transparent and conductive films: films that combine optical transparency and electrical
conduction..

Giant magnetoresistance effect: this effect is observed in artificial

multilayered structures composed of alternating ferromagnetic and
nonmagnetic thin films. In the presence of an external magnetic field, the electrical
resistance of the structure significantly decreases (typically l 0-80% ).

Questions:

1. Compare the major differences between chemical vapour deposition

and physical vapour deposition techniques in terms of operation
principle, processing condition, system, precursor, cost, etc.
2. Discuss the advantage and disadvantage of using an additional
magnetic field in sputtering deposition.
3. RF sputtering is normally used for deposition of semiconducting or
insulating films. However this method has relatively low deposition
rate, please discuss the potential ways that can be used to enhance the
deposition rate of high quality films.
4. What are t h e fundamental requirements for a thin film conducting
material? Please list t h e m o s t commonly used thin film conducting
materials.
5. Discuss the characteristics of major t h i n f i lm resistors.
6. How to evaluate the performance of a transparent and c o n d u c t i n g thin
film?