Creativity As Action Findings From Five PDF

ORIGINAL RESEARCH ARTICLE
published: 16 April 2013

doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00176
Creativity as action: findings from five creative domains

Vlad Glaveanu1 *, Todd Lubart 2 , Nathalie Bonnardel 3 , Marion Botella 2 , Pierre-Marc de Biaisi 4 ,
Myriam Desainte-Catherine 5 , Asta Georgsdottir 2 , Katell Guillou 4 , Gyorgy Kurtag 5 ,
Christophe Mouchiroud 2 , Martin Storme 2 , Alicja Wojtczuk 3 and Franck Zenasni 2
1
Aalborg University, Aalborg, Denmark
2
Laboratoire Adaptations Travail-Individu, Université Paris Descartes, Paris, France
3
Laboratoire PsyCle, Aix Marseille Université (AMU), Aix-en-Provence, France
4
Institut des Textes et Manuscrits Modernes, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique Paris, France
5
Laboratoire Bordelais de Recherche en Informatique, Université de Bordeaux, Bordeaux, France
Edited by: The present paper outlines an action theory of creativity and substantiates this approach by
Layne Kalbfleisch, George Mason investigating creative expression in five different domains. We propose an action framework
University, USA
for the analysis of creative acts built on the assumption that creativity is a relational, inter-
Reviewed by:
Drew Polly, University of North
subjective phenomenon. This framework, drawing extensively from the work of Dewey
Carolina at Charlotte, USA (1934) on art as experience, is used to derive a coding frame for the analysis of interview
Tokie Anme, University of Tsukuba, material. The article reports findings from the analysis of 60 interviews with recognized
Japan French creators in five creative domains: art, design, science, scriptwriting, and music.
*Correspondence: Results point to complex models of action and inter-action specific for each domain and
Vlad Glaveanu, Aalborg University,
Kroghstræde 3, 9220 Aalborg,
also to interesting patterns of similarity and differences between domains. These findings
Denmark. highlight the fact that creative action takes place not “inside” individual creators but “in
e-mail: vlad@hum.aau.dk between” actors and their environment. Implications for the field of educational psychology
are discussed.
Keywords: creativity, action, art, design, science, scriptwriting, music
INTRODUCTION psychology of action, and in particular by pragmatist approaches

Creativity has been studied for more than a century and has to human action, leads to the development of a situated model of
recently been a subject of debate in educational psychology (Smith creative activity. Our second aim is to apply this model to interview
and Smith, 2010). This is because, despite the general consen- data with recognized French creators from five different fields –
sus that we need more of it, especially in the educational system art, design, science, scriptwriting, and music – leading to a com-
(Makel, 2009), creativity scholars are still struggling to under- plex image of human creativity both within and across domains
stand the nature of this complex phenomenon and are quite far of activity. As will be argued in the end, this theoretical approach
from designing highly effective programs for enhancing creative has significant benefits for the field of educational psychology. A
expression (for a review of education and creativity see Fasko, detailed analysis of creative action in the case of established cre-
2000–2001). Dominant models of creativity associate it with cog- ators can offer important insights regarding what facilitates or
nitive mechanisms (such as divergent thinking) and personality constrains creativity and, therefore, enable us to think about effec-
traits (like openness to experience) but fail, on the whole, to prop- tive and domain-specific ways of stimulating creative expression
erly engage with the social and material aspects (with a few notable in both children and adults.
exceptions, e.g., Csikszentmihalyi, 1988). From an educational
perspective, this omission is counterproductive as individualistic CREATIVITY IN AND AS ACTION
accounts of creativity place their emphasis on “inner” attributes An inquiry into how creativity “takes place” is necessarily one
that are either not fully developed in children or hard to edu- that concerns itself with models of the creative process. Tradi-
cate (for harmful myths in this regard, see Plucker et al., 2004). tionally this process has been considered to be mental/cognitive
Educational systems represent, in the end, a certain kind of in nature and individual in manifestation (see Glaveanu, 2010).
environment and, if we are committed to understanding and Furthermore, the first models to be proposed excelled in depicting
stimulating children’s creative expression, we need a theory of a rather orderly and simplified succession of stages for it, usu-
creativity capable of articulating “internal” and “external” facets of ally four. Wallas (1926) offers a classic example in this regard
creative expression at its different levels: from the most mundane with his well-known distinction between preparation, incubation,
(typical for the school environment) to the highly celebrated and illumination, and verification. Subsequent models added both
visible. complexity and dynamism to these initial proposals. Mumford
Under these circumstances, the main purpose of the present et al. (1991), for instance, described a more elaborate succession
article is twofold. At a theoretical level it advances a relatively of stages – problem construction, information encoding, category
novel conception of creativity in a landscape dominated by cog- search, specification of best-fitting categories, combination and
nitive theories, that of creativity as action and of creative work as reorganization of best-fitting categories, idea evaluation, imple-
activity. Conceptualizing creativity with the means offered by the mentation, monitoring – and indicated many feedback loops
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Glaveanu et al. Creativity as action
among them. Botella et al. (2011) proposed a dynamic approach But, in the end, what is action? The notions of act, action and
to the artistic creative process in which it is possible to “jump” activity have been theorized since the beginning of the past century
some stages, to realize some simultaneously, and to go back to pre- by thinkers from a multitude of different schools of thought, span-
vious work phases. As Lubart et al. (2003) noted, early concerns ning from American pragmatism to Russian cultural-historical
with the creative process resulted primarily in stage models and psychology. Relatively dormant under the prominence of behav-
generated sustained arguments about the exact number and char- iorism and then cognitivism, they re-emerged in the past decades
acteristics of each stage. In contrast, more recent theories shifted especially as part of social and socio-cultural psychology. In
the focus to sub-processes and the micro-level dynamic of creativity, cultural psychology, the concept of activity is essential for under-
conserving nevertheless a predominantly cognitive perspective on standing the development and manifestation of the human psychic
the phenomenon (e.g., Ward et al., 1999). in various cultural contexts (see Eckensberger, 1995; Cole, 1996;
In contrast to purely cognitive models, action theories of cre- Ratner, 1996; Wertsch, 1998). Human action is defined by its inten-
ativity start from a different epistemological premise, that of tionality and the mediation of various systems of tools, signs, and
interaction and interdependence. Human action comprises and artifacts that make it comprehensible and symbolic. It takes place
articulates both an “internal” and “external” dynamic and, within in a setting and involves both the organism, in its unity between
its psychological expression, it integrates cognitive, emotional, body and mind, and a socioculturally constructed environment.
volitional, and motivational aspects. Creativity, from this stand- Finally, action is often joint action and is both facilitated by and
point, is in action as part and parcel of every act we perform facilitates human social relations. These characteristics of action
(see Joas, 1996). Creativity exists on the other hand also as action are present in John Dewey’s work, the leading pragmatist who,
whenever the attribute of being creative actually comes to define beside his writings on education, democracy, nature, and esthet-
the form of expression (and, as such, we can talk of “creative ics, was also an important theorist of activity (see Miettinen, 2006).
work” as different from other types of work which, in themselves, From his rich intellectual legacy, we will be focusing here on one
don’t completely lack the attribute of creativity). This particu- of his most celebrated works, “Art as experience,” first published
lar understanding of creativity is not on the whole absent from in 1934, in order to reconstruct his vision of human action.
past and present literature (see Glaveanu, 2012a). Woodman and For Dewey, what brings action and creativity together is human
Schoenfeldt (1990), for example, advocated some time ago for experience, defined precisely by the interaction between person
an interactionist model of creative behavior, one that starts from and environment and intrinsically related to human activity in
an understanding of the “organism-in-its-environment”. A strong and with the world. A graphic representation of his conception is
link between creator and situation also characterizes Gruber’s offered in Figure 1 below (see also Glaveanu, 2012b). Action starts,
evolving systems approach to creativity (see Gruber and Wallace, as depicted, with an impulsion and is directed toward fulfillment.
1999) and its emphasis on ecological, longitudinal, contextual, and In order for action to constitute experience though, obstacles or
situated investigations. The creator is an evolving system within constraints are needed. Faced with these challenges, the person
larger evolving systems (professional, social, political, etc.) and his experiences emotion and gains awareness (of self, of the aim, and
or her action is always contingent on this dynamic co-evolution path of action). Most importantly, action is structured as a con-
(see also Csikszentmihalyi, 1988). tinuous cycle of “doing” (actions directed at the environment) and
FIGURE 1 | A model of human experience (after Dewey, 1934).
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“undergoing” (taking in the reaction of the environment). Under- exploratory in nature and guided by the following general ques-
going always precedes doing and, at the same time, is continued tions: What are the impulsions? What kind of obstacles do creators
by it. It is through these interconnected processes that action can come across? What do they do? What do they undergo? How does
be taken forward and become a “full” experience. the cycle of doing and undergoing actually take place? What are the
The framework presented here is relevant for our understand- main sources of “undergoing”: social, material, personal, etc.? Is
ing of creative action and Dewey himself has elaborated it in there fulfillment and how does it contribute to the creation of full
relation to art and the activity of the artist. The creator acts on experiences? This investigation allows us to build more particular
the world in an attempt to materialize an artistic vision. However, descriptive “models” for each of the five domains in terms of all the
this action is pared by a reaction from the world, one that the elements above and, by using the same scoring grid, to compare
creator needs to undergo, to be aware of and integrate, in order to the creative action of artists, designers, scientists, scriptwriters,
continue the work. In Dewey’s words (1934, p. 116), art: and composers.
“is a developing process. (...) the artist finds where he is going
because of what he has previously done; that is, the original exci- MATERIALS AND METHODS
tation and stir of some contact with the world undergo successive PARTICIPANTS
transformation. The state of the matter he has arrived at sets up The sample consisted of 60 professional creators, 12 from each
demands to be fulfilled and it institutes a framework that limits of the five domains, currently living and working in France. The
further operations.” main criterion for selection was for respondents to have exten-
As such, for Dewey, artistic work is not the outcome of the sive experience in their domain (overall, on average, the work
artist alone, and neither of the work of art. Creative expression is experience ranged between 10 and 20 years). Demographic char-
precisely “located” at the interaction between self and art object acteristics of the sample are presented in Table 1. As can be
(Benson, 1993). Such a description resonates widely with many noticed, over two thirds of the participants are male, the distribu-
conceptualisations of artistic work (see Getzels and Csikszentmi- tion between sexes varying according to domain. Age also varies,
halyi, 1976, discussion of the role of tension in art) and also with the average for all domains except music being between 40 and
the experience of artists themselves. Israeli (1962) for example, in 50 years.
proceeding with a series of self-observations while painting, noted All respondents had received higher education, in most cases
that “check and evaluation of the operations and outcomes are directly specializing in their current profession. Important to note,
followed quite often by plans, suggestions, and decisions which the five groups are not completely homogenous in terms of cre-
control the subsequent operations on the painting” (p. 256). The ative output. Artists in the sample were primarily sculptors and/or
continuous cycle between doing and undergoing that is at the core painters, a few working with video and photography. Designers
of Dewey’s conception seems to express a valid approach in the covered a more varied type of production, from decorative objects,
case of art, and, potentially, beyond it. It is argued here that the interior design and furniture to visual communication, logos
framework depicted in Figure 1 has indeed a broader applicabil- and packaging. The scientists group included six physicists (and
ity in the psychology of creativity and constitutes, among other astrophysicists), three mathematicians (theoretical and applied
things: mathematics), two information and technology specialists and
• A model of the creative process based on cycles of doing and one chemist. Scriptwriters were more uniform, all writing film
undergoing; scripts for cinema or television. Finally, the musicians were
• An integration of behavioral, cognitive, emotional, and motiva- composers working on either instrumental or electro-acoustic
tional elements; pieces.
• A re-evaluation of “impulsion” and “obstacle” as defining MATERIAL
features of creative work;
The method used for data collection was represented by semi-
• A contextual and relational account of human creativity.
structured interviews following a similar topic guide across
THE PRESENT STUDY domains. The interview started with a general presentation of
The study presented here focuses on creative activity within the participant, continued with a description of his/her work
five creative domains: art, design, science, scriptwriting, and and activity and, in the last part, invited a reflection on the cre-
music composition. By applying the action framework pro- ative process and the place of the creator and his/her domain
posed above, we explore the generalities and specificities of the
doing-undergoing cycle in each domain and across domains. This Table 1 | Demographic characteristics of the sample.
framework can be potentially applied at three levels of analysis: a
micro-level, focused on creative acts as they take place; a mezzo- Art Design Science Scriptwriting Music
level, concerned with the creation of a particular work or series
of works; and a macro-level where the unit is the larger scale of Sex 7m5f 8 m 4f 11 m 1f 6m6f 10 m 2f
creative activity, oftentimes the lifetime work of a creator. Con- Mean age* 47 41 42 49 53
sidering the fact that we will rely on interview data, there is a
Age range* 35–66 24–60 28–57 40–63 36–63
possibility of uncovering elements belonging to all three levels but
essentially, in lack of micro-level observations, the conclusions will ∗There were a few missing values for age: 3 for design, 4 for science, and 5 for
be formulated at mezzo and macro levels. As such, the research is music.
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in society. In particular, an adaptation of the critical incident Atlas.ti. Following this stage, all relevant quotations for each code
technique (see Flanagan, 1954) was used in order to elicit more were retrieved, separately for each domain, and summarized the-
precise descriptions of respondent’s creative work. Interviews usu- matically by considering their content. For example, in the five
ally lasted between one and 2 h and were afterward transcribed domains, the “doing – stages” code included a series of different
verbatim for the purpose of analysis. actions (such as documentation, sketches, creating the final prod-
uct, etc.). Establishing the exact work phases in art compared to
PROCEDURE music composition, as well as their “order,” was done by reading
The participants were approached and fully informed about all the material coded under “doing – stages” and retaining only
the project before the interview took place. Their consent was convergent information (i.e., what most creators in the particu-
registered and anonymity guaranteed. After the interview, all tran- lar domain had in common). This allowed us to build general
scripts were subjected to thematic analysis (see Attride-Stirling, schemas of creative action for each domain, synthesizing find-
2001) and the coding frame was both theory and data driven. ings from the main codes: impulsion, obstacle, doing, undergoing,
The main analytical categories were offered by the framework (before doing, material, and social) and emotion. The schemas
presented in Figure 1 (impulsion, obstacle, doing, undergoing, are presented and explained in more detail in the results section.
emotion) but their subcategories were defined after a preliminary Whenever direct or indirect quotations are used, they are indi-
coding of the first interviews from each group. As such, in the cated as such by mentioning the respondent code (A – artists, D –
end, the coding frame included 11 codes, a summary of which can designers, S – scientists, L – scriptwriters and M – musicians; order
be found in Table 2. A similar coding frame had been elaborated numbers range from 1 to 12).
and used successfully in previous research concerning creativity in
craft activities (Glaveanu, 2012a,b). RESULTS
After finalizing the coding frame, a second coder, familiarized CREATIVE ACTION IN ART
with the theoretical framework, applied them to all 12 interviews As depicted in Figure 2, the creative activity of artists generally
of the art group. On average there was 93% agreement between starts from the impulsion to create or make, to “do” or “incarnate”
coders, with some discrepancies mostly for “undergoing – social” (A3), and it is also fed by a curiosity to see and understand (A6), to
and “undergoing final result.” This led to refining the initial defini- “find sensations” (A5), and a need to express (a “narrative desire,”
tions and then to the application of the updated coding frame for A1). Artists refer often to their work as a “physical” necessity (A7)
the entire sample with the help of the qualitative analysis software and to its motivation as a form of “internal pressure” (A9). This
Table 2 | Coding frame.
Code Definition Examples
Impulsion The motivation for action: why the person is doing a The need to create, to learn new things, to write, to express, to
certain action know (curiosity), to touch, etc.
Obstacle Difficulties and/or limitations on the whole or at different Lack of money, lack of time, lack of support, ”inspiration block,”
stages etc.
Doing – stages The different stages or phases of creative work and how it Documentation, first draft, maquette, prototype, final
advances outcome, etc.
Doing – procedures The different techniques creators use at different stages Taking notes, using forms of brainstorming, using repetition,
of their activity deformation, making associations, etc.
Doing – tools The material tools used Paper, pencil, brush, colors, wood, computer (different types of
software), metal, glass, etc.
Doing – Time/place When and where creative work is done In the “atelier,” at home, at university, in the morning, evening,
at all times, etc.
Undergoing – material The relation to the physical/material environment Constraints and properties of materials or the technology involved
Undergoing – social The relation to the social environment and the nature of With clients, colleagues, family, collaborators, critiques, audience;
social interactions issues of social recognition
Undergoing before doing Everything that prepared the creator for the work Reading, discussing with others, preparing the instruments,
studying, seeing exhibits, etc.
Undergoing final result Perceiving and judging the final outcome Looking at what came out, judging when and if it is finished, its
quality, etc.
Emotion Emotional experience at the beginning, during and at the Sadness, happiness, excitement, satisfaction, depression, anxiety,
end of activity joy, dissatisfaction, etc.
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FIGURE 2 | Schematic representation of creative activity in the case of artists.
intense motivational drive meets certain obstacles when it becomes considered by some not truly formative (A6), because most of the
manifest, mainly the incapacity to visualize (A2) and reach a time inspiration comes from the world and the works of others. In
creative idea, missing the tools to work with (A5) and, toward the words of one respondent,“the first stage is life”(A1). The artists
the end, at times, the failure of material support (A10). Artistic often consider themselves “sponges,” “90% of the time in a recep-
activity seems to be defined, for most respondents, by a series of tive state” (A4), allowing themselves to be “impregnated” by things
“crises” (A3), a constant self doubt and a desire to start everything and people (A11) who thus enter an inner “factory of fermenta-
afresh. tion” (A4). The walks, voyages, readings they make and exhibitions
In terms of the time and place of their activity, most artists are they see all nourish creative impulses. This is exacerbated by the
very irregular, they don’t have specific working hours, mix activi- “tactile” nature they seem to possess, where “observation goes
ties and often get to work in different places. They take pride in not through the hand” (A3). The material undergoing is marked by
having“office work”(A5) although the most frequent place, at least this “physical, sensorial, sensible presence” of the work, the “con-
for fabrication, is their studio. Several work at night, more as a mat- frontation” with it (A6). Artists are always aware of and recognize
ter of “germination” than urgency (A1). As for the general stages material constraints, for example the chemical properties of pig-
of their “doing,” the most frequent succession of stages is included ments (A1). Objects “guide” the work (A10), they “speak” to the
in Figure 1. The whole process starts normally with a “vision” or creator (A2), “call” each other (A8). In particular, objects resist the
idea. The “click” comes usually after a period of void, of wander- intentions of the artist. All of the sudden, they “ask a question”
ing (A7), and the exact trigger can take many forms (for example (A3) and very often “change the original plan,” being “stronger”
an image, A9). This initial idea is nevertheless schematic, neces- than the creator, “imposing their rules” (A10). This is exactly what
sarily incomplete, and needs a time of reflection, documentation, artists love about their work, this resistance, this reaction, this dia-
incubation. These initial stages of “conception” lead to the stages of logue: the fact that the material all of the sudden says “wait, it is
“fabrication” (A9), starting with the first sketches (e.g., the maque- not just you!” (A12). Accidents enrich the project and one needs
tte) and up to a “draft” and the final object. Ideas are typically to constantly be on the alert for them (A5). But ideas also come
tested and experimented with on the basis of drawings and mate- from collaborators and the area of social undergoing is well rep-
rial depictions of the work, in clay or cardboard. The end result is resented. At times, the starting point of a project is an encounter
often a series, as the first piece does not “exhaust” the sought after (A4) and the entire process of work is collaborative. When this
sensation (A6). Within these formal stages, there are numerous is the case, the partner is considered a “third eye” (A8) and the
work procedures artists employ to realize their vision, including moments of discussion, even arguments, become a necessity (A1,
repetition (A8), multiplication (A10), permutation of elements A3). One needs “to see how others look at the work, to be able to
and inversion (A2), simplification (A1), and change of medium see it as well” (A5). And “others” are also spectators and audiences.
(A9). Most of the time, the process is based on repetitive ges- Social recognition gives pleasure and, whereas some confess show-
tures, which for some are a means of relinquishing intentionality ing “extreme permeability” (A4), others strongly affirm that their
and “subjective decision” (A2, A4). Finally, the material medium works is not meant to “seduce” (A7).
involved is very diverse, including paper, pencil, computers, clay, This multifaceted process of creation is unsurprisingly associ-
metal, watercolors, acrylic, brushes, wood, plaster, latex, burin, ated with different emotional states. The excitement of the creative
ink, etc. idea is usually followed by a variety of emotions, while working.
Before engaging with work, artists undergo family influences These range from pleasure and satisfaction to melancholia and
(A11, A12), and also formal, university training. The latter is even desperation but, most of the time, the reported states are
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positive and have to do with the “jubilation of being alive” (A6), problem (D3), and through this to respond to a certain need (D3),
the “pleasure of making” (A4) and above all the inner “certitude” coming from a client. This presence, pressure and guidance offered
(A9) when you are about to “do something” (A12), when the work by the client’s brief are almost universally mentioned. Obstacles
starts “making itself ” (A7). Confronted with the stereotype of the reflect this to some extent and many discuss the financial and time
creator in turmoil, artists in this group were ready to contradict constraints put on their activity (D3, D7, D11, D12), as well as
the myth and claim that they work to be happy and when happy “technical” difficulties (missing the proper technology; D6, D8,
(A10, A11, A12). The end of the creative process and undergoing D11, D12) and being at times “blocked,” missing inspiration (D7,
of the final result are for all a delicate time when satisfaction mixes D8, D9, D10). Conflicts with clients are also mentioned as a source
with exhaustion (A11) and the product is judged in terms of the of stress (D7) as well as some self-imposed constraints (not to be
initial vision and reaction of the audience. In a sense, some agree too “literal,” D6; to strive toward simplicity, D7, etc.).
that an artistic object is “never finished” (A1), and take comfort in Similar to artists, most designers do not work every day accord-
the perspective of having the work “back” and working it further ing to a schedule and feel the need for some variation of their
(A9). This testifies to the continuity and cyclical nature of artistic daily routine (D5). However, in their case, “availability” and exter-
activity, making the schema presented in Figure 1 only a portion nal demands organize the work process and those who have a
of a process filled with feedback loops, for working and reworking fixed studio work primarily from there (D3). Designers distin-
the work of art. guish clearly between working for a client and working for oneself,
This dynamic between doing and undergoing is fully captured in which the former is much more constrained and comes with
by artists who, in their interviews, often refer to their work as a some pre-set guidelines. The stages of doing can nevertheless be
series of “back and forth,” “come and go” (A2) between an initial distinguished in both cases as starting from a general idea and
imperfect and incomplete idea (A1) and external conditions that gradually working toward its “concretisation” (D7). Just as in the
help the plan“mature”and keep it“flexible”(A4). Cycles of “action, case of artists, work starts from an idea (D4), an “intuition,” the
reflection, action, non-action, plenty of action” (A7) describe the “embryo” of the final form (D5). Certainly, whenever there is a
creation of art, during which the artist controls the process and client brief, the starting idea can be better defined, although this
at the same time lets it control the outcome (A8). This shapes the is not necessarily the case. The documentation stage is important,
experience of art as something at the same time “rewarding and and, when time allows, quite extensive (D8 compares it to “going
ungrateful” (A1) but, above all, defined as a “space of jubilation” shopping” for elements). First externalizations of ideas take the
(A2), of “extraordinary freedom” (A3) and of “pure magic” (A5). form of drawings and sketches, and are progressively followed by
3D computer modeling (D4) and/or physical mock-up (D3, D9).
CREATIVE ACTION IN DESIGN On the basis of these steps, the form is perfected and several of its
Designers share some important similarities with artists, but also details are progressively defined (D10). The prototype stage can
some clear differences, as can be observed from Figure 3. To start, be optional (D2) but at times it is required, especially when there
the work of designers has its roots in similar impulsions to “make” is scope for “industrialization” (D12). It is usually the case that
things, to “build” (D3, D7), and also to “touch,” to work with one’s designers present several ideas to the client (D7, D8, D12) and
hands (D3, D8). The need to create and to be original and generate therefore several prototypes are made. The final object can require
a “surprise” was also noted by some (D5, D3, D4), as well as the collaboration with technicians (D5) and an official presentation to
need to transform, change, and experiment (D2, D9). Specific to the client (D11). The repertoire of work procedures involved in the
designers, they are also motivated by a desire to solve a practical stages above is extensive: amplification, deformation (D4, D12),
FIGURE 3 | Schematic representation of creative activity in the case of designers.
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association of ideas (D2, D8), use of allegories (D6), schematisa- of undergoing, it is the figure of the client that dominates. On the
tion, and simplification (D7, D8, D11, D12), the re-use of shapes whole, designers seem to have an ambivalent relation with clients.
(D4), synthetic thinking (D9) and plenty of calculations (D11). Whereas some acknowledge the power of clients to decide how
Designers tend to have a notebook with them at all times, because the work is done and when it is finished (D7, D8), others com-
ideas can come even in the middle of the night (D5). The range ment on the freedom of the designer, as constrained as it may be,
of materials used is also impressive, and includes, among others: to decide on the final form (D1) and propose alternatives (D4).
paper, wood, cardboard, clay, metal, glass, textiles and cotton, steel, Ultimately, there is a constant interaction with the client, back and
foam, leather, and plastic. forth exchanges (D1, D8), especially at the beginning and toward
This attraction toward materiality was present for many since the end. Also, designers interact with technicians and engineers
early childhood, when they engaged constantly in making or cre- (D12) and with consumers (D6). In this context, some comment
ating things (D7, D8, D9, D11, D12). As in the case of artists, the on the general lack of recognition for designers in society (D7).
main sources of undergoing before doing are represented by the Creative work is accompanied by different emotions. The begin-
world and by other works. “Inspiration comes from everywhere” ning of work is exciting (D6) but can often generate stress and
says D1, and the “starting point” is found while walking on the anxiety (D10) due to external pressure (D7). Usually the work
street, reading, taking the metro (D5). The important thing is to itself is enjoyable (D6), marked by the pleasure of creating, of
always “keep the antennas out” (D10), to be “attentive” and “open “making” (D9, D11). However, there can also be an anxiety for
to the world” (D5), to “collect things” (D11) and “store them” in a missed possibilities (D7) and a persistent doubt about the direc-
“bank” of ideas (D9). “Creation is ultimately the reuse of a body of tion of the work (D10). The end brings satisfaction (D2), especially
things that have been seen, read, digested, and it is the ability to re- when the client is pleased (D10). An “artist” is never truly satisfied
fit, or to deliver, give life to this memory” (D2). Going to museums though (D1, D7) and the final product can generate “great surprise
and exhibitions is a vital part of this process (D7, D10, D11) as one but also great deceptions” (D12). In general, the outcome is judged
is “nurtured” by the work of others (D6). A special relation is set in based on its esthetics (D11) and capacity to address the problem
place between the designer and the world of objects: “the designer (D12). Its value is “relational” and so is its origin: “In the end, the
is in the concrete” (D12). Forms of material undergoing are often project is a mixture of the original idea and then of the chances
mentioned in the interviews, from the need to explore materials, we came across, the meetings, so to speak, positive or negative,
to “test their limits” (D3), to the frustrations one experiences when with materials, with techniques” (D5). The idea of the dynamic
not “feeling” the fabric (D8). Material properties are to be discov- between doing and undergoing clearly emerges in this quote, and in
ered, to learn and re-learn with each new encounter. The maquette all references to work as “trial and error” (D2), as going “little by
stage is particularly important for this, to “see what happens,” how little” (D3) in an almost “experimental process” (D4). The concept
materials “react” (D4). Only through these trials can the designer is there from the start but it is not complete, it changes (D1) and
get to acquire “the intelligence of the materials,” to remember their doesn’t yet have a form (D2). It is all finally “a permanent dia-
solidity, rigidity, flexibility, or fragility, and to know exactly what logue between myself and the object” (D10) that defines the very
needs to be used and when (D11). A designer’s creative activity is experience of design.
a game of constraints (D3, D4, D8), of “happy” accidents (D7),
and moments of distancing and reflection (D9, D10). Distance is CREATIVE ACTION IN SCIENCE
also achieved through the look of others, close friends, and col- Figure 4 depicts the activity schema in the case of scientists. There
laborators (D3, D6, D9). However, when it comes to social forms are notable differences from artists and designers. To begin, the
FIGURE 4 | Schematic representation of creative activity in the case of scientists.
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impulsion that drives scientists toward their work mainly concerns that of artists and designers, being constituted primarily of books
the need to “solve,” to find an answer to a problem or question and articles (S2, S4), paper and pencil (S3, S4, S5). Computers
(S1, S2) and learn something new (S1, S4), coupled with great and the Internet are “indispensible,” “omnipresent,” a real “right
curiosity (S2, S5, S8). Many scientists mention also their passion hand” (S1). To this we need to add experimental machines and
for the domain of their choice and the pleasure they derive from technologies (S5) and lab equipment (S8).
working within it (S4, S6, S12, S7, S8), their need to go further As a precondition in science, all respondents experienced long
in their domain (S7, S8), to arrive at new and different results years of formal education, of “apprenticeships” (S1) that helped
(S5). A first obstacle for them is incomprehension or the inability them build their “general scientific culture” (S2). The undergoing
to solve and understand (S2, S5), often associated with a feeling before doing is completed by a more informal and continuous pro-
of being “blocked”. Missing proper tools is another major concern cess of learning beyond one’s academic training. Reading books
for scientists who depend on technology (S3, S5, S9, S10) and and articles, going to seminars and conferences (S2, S5, S6, S7)
the mathematical apparatus (S7) to perform their research. All is fundamental. In all the fields above “you are always forced to
these difficulties can be traced back to the complexity of the phe- learn something” (S4) and get to monitor and “devour” techni-
nomenon under study (S7) and for some, like astrophysicists, the cal progress (S11). As previously mentioned, there is “enormous
impossibility of having direct access to certain physical realities, library work” before a study (S6) because you do not want to get
for example planets and stars. to demonstrate what has already been demonstrated (S3). Discus-
The time and place for scientific activity tends not be fixed sions with colleagues supplement this effort and help ideas emerge
(S12) and some days are more productive than others (S1). How- or take shape (S7). At times, certain concerns and questions are “in
ever, unlike artists and designers, scientists are more committed the air” within the scientific community, and scientists pick them
to a stable working place, their university and their office, which up and work on them (S1). This relates also to the notion of social
is compared to a protective “cocoon” (S6). On the other hand, undergoing.
most refer to the continuous process of thinking as one can reflect Contrary to the popular image of the lone genius, if there is
on a problem from morning until late (S5). The actual stages of anything that defines scientific work it is the fact that it always
doing vary according to discipline but, overall, “there is the obses- happens with others, alongside others, in relation to others (S10).
sive period, there is the enlightened period, and a period when First points of contact are colleagues and peers, who play a crucial
you sweat hard to put things into shape” (S4). In more detail, role in proposing problems (S4), formulating ideas (S6, S8, S9),
and somewhat independent of the specific discipline, scientists clarifying them (S12), orienting the work (S2, S10) and finally
start with a stage of discussion and documentation when the evaluating it (S1). “There is a collective dimension and teamwork
problem arises. Problems can come from anywhere, from arti- in the process of creation” (S5) and often it is the case that two or
cles, discussions with colleagues or attending seminars (S2) and more people work together and have an ongoing critical exchange
their emergence is followed by substantial work in the library (S6). (S11, S12). In such circumstances, it becomes impossible in the
What is vital at this stage is for the “good questions” to be posed, end to know who had which idea (S7). Work “advances through
because “in research, it is more important to find the questions meetings” (S4) and, at a broader level, scientific careers are shaped
than the answers” (S9). Then the work process becomes differen- by the entourage and the chance of working with certain peo-
tiated. In mathematics there is a long period of eliminating “false ple (S5). The larger scientific community is a reality taken into
tracks” and, once the right idea “comes,” a demonstration for it account by all because scientific outcomes are there to be scru-
needs to be set in place (S3, S4). In chemistry, experimental results tinized and judged (S5, S8). There is a need for recognition (S6,
prompt further questions and ideas, these are then modeled and S8) and, in an effort to gain status (S5), a scientist has some-
again tested experimentally (S5). In theoretical physics and astro- times to do a bit of “marketing” in promoting his/her work (S1).
physics, scientists collect observations, build a model and then After all, there is “fierce competition” (S7, S8) in science, perhaps
test its assumptions (S1, S7). Finally, IT specialists in our group even more than in other creative domains. Another major source
deal with creating computer systems and employ an experimental of undergoing comes from the material world and again the sci-
approach (S12). For all the scientists, however, a special stage is entist’s activity is never as far from it as imagined. In physics,
the idea or Eureka moment, usually “instantaneous” (S3), coming for example, there are laws, absolute laws, and “the phenomenon
when least expected (S4). In contrast, the last phase of reporting, imposes incredible constraints,” “observable quantities” that defy
characteristic again for all, can be boring, tedious and non-creative all “creative calculations” (S1). Physics in this respect “guides the
(S1), “less amusing” (S4), although necessary (S7). physicist,” and defines a precise space of possibilities (S7). Chem-
In terms of the procedures used, by and large scientists have istry is not far from this because here as well a “game with matter”
two broad options in their work: to develop a new technique takes place (S5), and this matter resists and responds. As such, there
or use what already exists (S1). As for the second option, this is in science room for accidents and surprises, for unpredictable
can be done either by applying existing theories and models to results (S9) and theories that need to adapt to the evidence of
recently discovered phenomena (S3, S5, S9) or by modifying or “experience” (S8).
adapting procedures to fit the problem at hand (S3). More specif- And surprises also generate diverse emotions, depending on the
ically, scientists strive toward parsimony (S7, S8), breaking down stage and domain. Before getting the idea, a feeling of frustration
more complicated problems into simple ones (S10) and work by often accompanies the search (S5, S8) and the Eureka moment
making connections between problems and domains (S6). Finally, is always associated with “excitation” (S4, S5, S7), an enormous
when it comes to materials, the range seems more limited than satisfaction (S1, S10) close to euphoria (S3). This moment of
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certainty and inner clarity leads to a long period of testing and Unlike art and closer to science, scriptwriting requires a certain
formulating that can be gratifying, when calculations go well (S1), discipline and the time and place for work tends to be well estab-
but can also be associated with “suffering” during report writing lished: writing almost daily (L4, L6), for at least 3 h (L1, L6), in
(S4, S7). When work is finished, there is satisfaction and pride an office (L7). This leaves space also for particular routines some
(S5) but also depression (S4) and anxiety about presenting it (S7). have, for example that of writing in cafes (L1) or changing the
Overall, the ups and downs of scientific activity remind some of a program very quickly to foster spontaneity (L12). The stages of
manic-depressive state (S10), in which exaltation lives side by side doing are also generally preset and they are learned as part of the
with total exhaustion. This mirrors closely the general dynamic of craft. The process begins with a general idea, usually offered by
doing and undergoing specific for scientific efforts, one in which the client. For some this idea needs to be quite structured (L5,
“we advance, we are blocked, we reflect for a moment, we advance L6), others enjoy more freedom at the start (L1) but in any case
some more” (S2). A constant cycle of observation, modeling and ideas are always worked closely with the film director (L11). After
testing (S7) takes place in science and shapes the experience of it, the topic of the scenario becomes clear, a stage of documenta-
in which excitement and suffering are integral parts (S4). tion is necessary, during which writers interview people and read
books (L5), watch documentaries relevant to the subject (L12) and
CREATIVE ACTION IN SCRIPTWRITING at times get to do some “fieldwork” (L10). Again, depending on
The activity of scriptwriters, depicted in Figure 5 resembles, to a the style of work, documentation can end up with a general plan
certain extent, that of artists and designers. Fundamental for the or simply with material for further elaboration. A central phase
impulsion of writers is their need to express (L2), to“tell”or“speak” of intense writing starts from documentation and leads into the
(L5, L6), to show the world (L5) and “stage” something (L9). This editing stage. Writing “enormously” (L6) and using plenty of note-
is associated with a particular desire to write, a desire so strong that books to put down ideas, sequences, even dialogs (L1) is crucial
it makes some conclude: “if I wouldn’t write movies, I would write during this period. The outcome is usually very long and needs to
novels” (L6). Another important need is to create, to make some- be simplified and organized (L12), something that invites plenty
thing new and “provoke” others (L2). The act of writing or creating of rewriting and revisiting. In the end, the plan (or sequence of
is never void of motivation because almost all respondents com- episodes) is a “transitional object” (L10), perfectible and open
mented on the fact that they work with “ideas that evoke a desire” to change. Finally, the editing part can take a long time in itself
(L5), that “tell me something,” address the writer him/herself (L8) and it is when the dialogue and details for each scene are clari-
and this desire is to be clarified from the start. Finally, some have fied (L4). Plenty of work procedures facilitate the task of writing
a more social motivational basis as well and feel the need to col- a script. Among the “tricks of the trade” some mention writing
laborate with certain producers or directors (L3, L10). This social a personal diary for the main characters (L1), or simply a nar-
basis is important because scriptwriting, even more than design, rative in first person (L2). Always having a notebook with you
relies on a commission from the client. Consequently, one main and taking a lot of notes is a requirement as well as taking regu-
obstacle is again represented by budget and timeline for comple- lar breaks from the script to gain some detachment (L3). Working
tion. The world of cinema revolves around budgets for stories and materials are relatively few in this case, primarily notebooks and
“economic imperatives” (L3, L4, L8, L11) writers cannot possibly the computer (L1). Interestingly, some love to write by hand (L7)
escape. Other difficulties have to do with inspiration blocks (L7, and use the computer just for later transcribing or corrections
L8) and the complexity of gaining a comprehensive view of the (L10), whereas others put down on paper only the general plan
entire work (L8, L10). (L9, L11).
FIGURE 5 | Schematic representation of creative activity in the case of scriptwriters.
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The undergoing before doing for scriptwriters is largely based own” (L2), when “the logic of the story is gradually unfolding”
on personal life experiences and the enjoyment of books and films (L3). This moment is essential and needs to be captured because it
(L3, L5, L6, L7). Scriptwriters have habitually the attitude of a signals that the project is on the right track (L1) and is taking the
“hunter in the forest,” always on the alert, always taking notes lead (L11). The characters have an important part to play in this
(L10). Frequently, the starting point is connected to one’s own unfolding given that, as they develop, they gain in power, become
history, the things seen as a child, the lived experience and the “alive” (L6) and start following a logic that imposes itself (L7). In a
people one knows (L6). At the same time, writers are “perma- conflict between structure and characters, it is the characters that
nently nourished by the spectacle of the others” (L8). In the end, usually win (L12). This is part of the “laws” of dramaturgy – norms
a scenario is always the “fruit of collaboration” and “it is never a that generally guide the construction of the story (L5). Ultimately,
solitary work, even if sometimes you work alone” (L11). Forms another constant form of material undergoing has to do with re-
of social undergoing start with the client: the film director and reading the script, normally out loud (L8, L10), and sometimes by
producers. Writers need to comply with their wishes (L2), under- acting or miming the scene (L10).
stand their vision (L5) and this requires constant interactions for The emotional background of scriptwriting is extremely mixed.
establishing and maintaining a “common ground” (L1, L8, L9). Whereas making the plan can be both exciting (L9) and frustrating
“The relationship with the director is at once something intimate (L8), during the writing episodes a combination of pain (L5), anx-
and devouring” (L10). In the end, the director’s views matter and iety (L11, L12), depression (L8), anguish (L4) and at times “intense
he or she is the one to say when the script is “ready to go” (L1, joy” (L1), happiness and jubilation (L2), takes center stage. How-
L4). Close collaboration can also exist with fellow scriptwriters as, ever, as repeatedly acknowledged, “when you love cinema there is
quite often, a script is a “shared work” (L5). A “ping-pong game” always a pleasure to some extent” (L11). This feeling is exacerbated
(L2) of “back and forth” (L10) starts between collaborators and toward the end when relief and accomplishment are equally felt
their input is valuable because it can give perspective, “prevents (L9); when everything is done and everyone is happy: “for 48 h I
one from turning around in one’s own madness” (L3). Friends are am the happiest woman on Earth!” (L1). Indeed, this emotional
sometimes also used for this purpose (L1, L5, L7). By the end, state is also an important criterion to evaluate the final outcome –
everything is “co-written” between fellow writers and there is no the script is finished when satisfaction outweighs frustration (L7).
way of knowing anymore who wrote what (L8). The relation with This happens though after a continuous cycle of doing and under-
critics and the public can bring joy or suffering but rarely affects going when “you write something, you have it read, you re-write,
the work directly (L1, L6). Recognition is desired (L1) but the film you have it read” (L5), a back and forth movement (L11) of a spe-
industry is often plagued by jealousy and competition (L6) and too cific nature and yet described by creators from all domains. The
much praise or too much criticism can be equally blocking (L7). experience of scriptwriting makes no exception and confronts the
On the whole, there is rarely a real appreciation in society for the creator everyday with his or her limits (L1), but, just as in every
role and contribution of the scriptwriter and this is experienced other case, “without contradiction there is no fulfilment” (L5).
by many as “humiliating” (L10).
Although not working with physical objects like artists, design- CREATIVE ACTION IN MUSIC COMPOSITION
ers, and scientists, writers are by no means free of material forms of In many regards, the group of composers shares similarities with
undergoing. On the contrary, these are equally present and direc- other “artistic” domains (see Figure 6). To start, their impulsion is
tive in shaping the work flow. There is a materiality of the script defined by a need to create music (M8), to work on a song (M2) or
and a moment in the process where it seems to take “a life of its a particular musical element (M6, M8). As is the case with other
FIGURE 6 | Schematic representation of creative activity in the case of composers.
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artists, this work is seen as a “necessity” (M6), an inner “creative along with more classical equipment: microphones, speakers,
force” that imposes itself on the composer (M11). There is also a tapes, and even the traditional paper and pencil for writing
more precise need to “touch” and play an instrument (M2) and to music (M7).
be original, not necessarily in doing something never seen before Before getting to use these specialized tools though, and in order
(M6, M7), but something unknown to the author (M8, M9, M11). to be able to write music, a period of formal training is needed,
The nature of the obstacles is also shared with other domains. First sometimes starting from teenage years with playing certain instru-
comes the situation of being “blocked” (M1), the anxiety of the ments (M4, M9). The undergoing before doing is, in this case as
“blank page” (M7), when things stop being “fluid” and become well, continuous and “learning never ends” (M8), an integral part
difficult (M6, M10, M11). Then come tiredness (M1), hesitations, of it being listening to music of diverse genres and origins (M6,
and constant questioning of the work (M6). Finally, in accordance M7). Old songs offer inspiration (M1, M9) and excellent starting
with designers and scriptwriters, there are also timelines to be points for the initial search phase (M5). The world more generally
considered because most pieces of music are in fact commissioned is another great source of inspiration, and composers “love to look
by clients. at things” (M5), to go to the cinema (M4), to read, paint and go to
Similar to other artists, musicians as well discuss the irregu- concerts (M6). They are often very curious, “receptive” (M7), like
larity of creation in terms of time and place, the fact that you a “sponge” in absorbing their surrounding (M5) and adding things
cannot have a strict schedule (M1, M4, M8, M9) and depend to the “reserve of what has been lived” (M8). Their relationship to
on a specific state of “disponibility” (M6). Whereas some like to the material world is particularly strong and reveals various forms
work in different places (M6), others have a studio (M10, M11). of material undergoing.
A particularity for this group has to do with the number of peo- To begin, musical notes and instruments have a materiality
ple who claim to be working at night (M4, M6, M9, M10, M11). that is impossible to ignore. Notes are “compulsory” (M3) and
The stages of doing usually start with an initial search. This is the instruments offer a framework of possibilities (M6). There is a
case because very often for composers, even when working for very “primitive, tactile” feeling for all those who get to work with
a client, the preliminary guidelines are quite general (M7, M8). music instruments (M8), where the “immediacy” of the instru-
For this reason, composers are left to establish their own “sound ment (M9) needs to be mastered, practiced, “domesticated” even
palette,” looking for “sound actors” that will later be placed in a (M12). Another form of undergoing is embedded within the work
corresponding “script” (M4). Writing them down, the composer process when composers write and then listen back, deciding what
is then waiting for an “idea” (M8), for a “click” (M4). This is to do next with the material (M1, M2, M3, M9). This feedback is
the second stage, when insights emerge out of an “accumula- alimented by a “need for contact,” a need to “verify” (M7) one’s
tion of things” and one idea attracts another (M1, M3). More intuitions. Accidents play also a role in this process, and they are
often than not, musicians work with ideas in plural, rather than “artistically interesting to have” (M2, M12). In the end, music is
one single “vision” (M8), as compositions have a time dimen- “physical, it vibrates in the body” (M3) of the composer in ways
sion. Given that there are many ideas or themes to work with, a that gradually become internalized, constituting an inner “voice”.
moment of organization and reflection becomes necessary: dis- On the other hand, music is also a social enterprise, and social
tancing yourself a bit (M1) and trying to make a plan (M7). The types of undergoing link composers to clients, colleagues, inter-
writing and re-writing of compositions is of course a central stage preters/instrumentalists, and the larger audience. Clients impose
in the production process, a technical phase (M8) when things particular constraints (M1) and can be hard to please so one has
become more “precise” and new ideas can spur from the process to work “in reaction” to propositions, trying to always bring a
of writing itself (M6). Just as in the case of designers, composers personal note (M7). With interpreters/instrumentalists the rela-
often work on several versions of a song (M9). The “draft” stage tion can also be fruitful but difficult. Compromises need to be
is equally dynamic because editing takes place as the author lis- made and, at times, complicated pieces are simplified (M6). With
tens to the work during rehearsals (M6, M11). Even in the final other colleagues there is a constant exchange of ideas and reflec-
product phase, small changes can be made while the song is tran- tions (M4, M5, M12). For some, being a musician means working
scribed (M7) and the end truly comes when the music is officially “in a group” (M9), where both success and failure are shared
recorded or played (M10). The whole process can be defined as a (M6). This helps to perfect one’s own technique because “com-
“progressive concretisation” (M7), from conceptualization to final position as such is not taught, it is learned through encounters”
performance (M6). (M11). Finally, the public is the final recipient of the work so the
Work procedures guide activity and relate mainly to simplifi- appreciation of others is part of the success of the composition
cation (M1), varying instruments (M2) and themes (M3, M9), (M4, M9) and critical feedback needs to be taken into account
reposition and juxtaposition (M3), repetition (M3, M9), decom- (M1, M11).
position (M2), combination (M7, M9), etc. Many of these The final satisfaction or dissatisfaction with the outcome is
procedures are facilitated by the use of technology that permits relative to the public but also to the composer’s own evalua-
the integration of effects, insertion, mixing, dividing, synthe- tion of the result according to compositional criteria (M6) such
sizing, modulating and multiplying segments, compressing and as “coherence,” “good form” and “continuity” (M9). However,
decompressing, cutting and reorganizing (M5, M9, M11). It many respondents admit to never being truly satisfied (M7, M8)
comes as no surprise that, among the material tools used by whereas others allow themselves to feel exaltation (M3) or hap-
composers, computers, and mixing software are a priority (M1, piness (M11). Other emotions characteristic for this work are
M3, M4, M9, M10). However, instruments are also mentioned, the initial excitation and incertitude (M1), followed by different
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emotional states while working: plenitude (M1), pleasure (M2), work through the lenses of activity theory. Their description of
“erotic sensations” (M3), anxiety (M7), “romantic sadness” (M8), observed activities as “for the most part dynamic, iterative, and
jubilation or melancholy (M10), etc. These reactions come as a opportunistic” (Tan and Melles, 2010, p. 474) corroborates pre-
consequence of the particular ways in which doings and undergoing vious descriptions of design activities as opportunistic (see, for
interact, their specific moments of “back and forth” (M10, M12), a review, Visser, 1994) and matches the type of processes com-
alternation between “zoom and distance” (M6), between gesture prised in stages like “first sketches” and “perfecting the form” (see
and listening (M5). Everything in music composition seems to be Figure 3).
under the logic of “groping around” (M8, M9), of making and Investigations of scientific creativity for the most part either
re-making that lead to a “spiral” of progress from one stage to the confirmed the classic four stages model of preparation, incu-
next (M6). What is interesting for the composer is “what is born bation, illumination and verification (see Sriraman, 2004), or
out of the interaction with the tool, with the instrument, with enlarged it (see Busse and Mansfield, 1980). The model we propose
the context” (M12). The experience of music creation is consti- here departs in a significant way from this traditional conception.
tuted directly by interaction and resistance which are necessary to Whereas the idea/illumination moment seems to be consistently
“measure the value of one’s inspiration” (M10). mentioned by most scientists, the process is focused more on incre-
mental progress from experimentation to mathematical formalism
DISCUSSION and then again experimentation. The same kind of gradual devel-
The present article aimed to make a contribution toward develop- opment was proposed by Csikszentmihalyi (1996) in relation to
ing an action analysis of creative activity. Grounded in pragmatist creative writing. Rather than one great moment of illumination,
accounts of action, the framework proposed here focuses on the the author suggested a more continuous activity of generating
permanent exchange between a creator’s “doing” and the reaction “smaller” ideas, then connecting and revising them. The stages
it generates from the social and material world, the awareness of of “intense writing,” “rewriting/revisiting,” and “editing” reflect
which is defined as “undergoing.” This broad perspective became this insight. At last, descriptions of music composition by Ben-
gradually specified and resulted in the elaboration of schematic nett (1976) are similar to the ones proposed in Figure 6, starting
representations of creative activity in all five domains under inves- from a “germinal idea,” continued with brief sketches, a first draft,
tigation. Important to note, these schemas reflect content-specific elaboration and refinement and then completion. What action
aspects of activity for each field and not general and abstract cre- analysis brings to this field, though, is a greater acknowledgment
ative processes. As such, depictions both confirm and expand of the role of social and material factors for composition. Kaschub
previous results from the literature. (1997) once stated that restrictions and limitations play a key role
In art, for example, Mace and Ward (2002) proposed a basic in music creation. The origin of these restrictions and their result
succession of interconnected stages in the form of artwork con- are two fundamental concerns for activity theory.
ception, idea development, making the artwork and finishing One of our declared aims in selecting five creative domains
the artwork/resolution. Similar moments in the artistic process and using the same action coding frame for all the groups was
are depicted in Figure 2: the general vision can be related to to uncover possible patterns of similarity and difference between
artwork conception, the documentation and reflection stage to them (in agreement with current understandings of creativity that
idea development, making the artwork corresponds to the first consider both its domain-general and domain-specific aspects;
sketches and their testing whereas finishing the artwork leads to Lubart and Guignard, 2004; Baer and Kaufman, 2005). Such pat-
the final moments of the “draft,” final product or series. Both terns are briefly presented in Table 3 in terms of the main codes
conceptions seem to intersect in the claim that “the genesis of of impulsion, obstacle, doing, undergoing (material and social),
an artwork arises from a complex context of art making, think- and emotion. What can be immediately noticed is that, against
ing, and ongoing experience” (Mace and Ward, 2002, p. 182). In a common presupposition that science would stand out and that
design, some current models of the creative process – such as the design would “mediate” between it and the other three more “artis-
A-CM (Bonnardel, 2000) or the F-B-S model (Gero, 1998) – try tic” domains of art, scriptwriting, and music, we are confronted
as well to integrate components related to situated cognition. In with a patchwork of similarities and differences between domains
addition, Tan and Melles (2010) have recently approached design regarding each of the six criteria.
Table 3 | Summary of patterns in creative activity in the five domains.
Art Design Science Scriptwriting Music
Impulsion Create/express Create/solve Solve/curiousity Create/express Create/express

Obstacle Tools/material Budget/ tools Tools/material Budget/time Tools/time
Doing Idea/work/idea Idea/work/idea Work/idea/work Idea/work/idea Idea/work/idea
Undergo (MAT) Physical prop. Physical prop. Laws/norms Laws/norms Physical prop.
Undergo (SOC) Colleagues Client Colleagues Client/ colleagues Client/ colleagues
Emotion (DIS)Satisfaction (DIS)Satisfaction (DIS)Satisfaction (DIS)Satisfaction (DIS)Satisfaction
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For impulsion, indeed, the three “arts” can be grouped under under“impulsion”) can suggest the kinds of needs and impulses we
a general need to create and express, which somehow differs from should encourage in children, from an early age. Finally, knowing
a scientist’s urge to solve and learn about the world, designers about the stages of doing in particular domains can help us struc-
sharing here a bit of both. Obstacles though bring art and science ture our teaching of artistic and scientific disciplines and make
together in facing difficulties related to materials and tools; the good use of those material and social conditions that facilitate
problem of adequate tools is present also for designers and musi- creative expression (adequate tools, social recognition for one’s
cians. Budget and time are more pressing issues for scriptwriters, work, etc.).
and resonate as well with the budget constraints of designers and In the end, it is also important to realize the shortcoming of
the deadlines faced by composers. Across all domains, the “inspi- the present research. To start, we reported findings here from a
ration block” can be a common obstacle. The “doing” element relatively small number of participants (although adequate for a
reorders the five domains, this time along the lines of a dichotomy qualitative investigation) and all belonging to a particular cultural
between scientists and other creators. If in science a dynamic seems context. We can also question to some extent the trustworthiness of
to be set in place in which a general problem is examined, this self-report data, even though self-report scales are quite popular in
work leads to an idea and the idea is developed in subsequent creativity research and Hocevar (1976, p. 455), in another context,
work. Artists, designers, scriptwriters, and composers all men- claimed they are“perhaps the most easily defensible way to identify
tioned the idea, “vision” or client’s brief as the starting point. This creative talent.” But the most notable limitation, from a theo-
initial input is processed and then further ideas emerge. Material retical perspective, relates to our effort of translating theoretical
forms of undergoing revolve mainly around the physical prop- assumptions into research devices. Going back to the psychol-
erties of objects for those domains which are immersed in the ogy and philosophy of John Dewey, what transpires from all his
material world (art, design, and music), and around the laws and writings is an effort to transcend dichotomies, especially those
norms of the physical or dramaturgical universe for science and between self and world, and artificial segmentations between cog-
scriptwriting, respectively. From a social perspective all creators, nition, affect, motivation, and volition, all understood as building
independent of their particular discipline, emphasized the neces- blocks of human experience. For analytical purposes though, seg-
sity of relating with others, exchanging ideas and being evaluated. mentations had to be made, even temporarily, in order to end
The figure of the client is paramount in design and important for up with a broader, more dynamic and unitary picture of creative
scriptwriters and composers as well, whereas colleagues or peers activity. While a certain dynamism was introduced by relating
are regular interlocutors in science and art. In the end, the emotion the doing of the creators and the obstacles they face to material
dimension did not yield any significant differences between cre- and social forms of undergoing, on the whole, the schemas pre-
ators and it seems that, irrespective of domain, creative activity sented above do not contain many feedback loops between stages,
is marked by ups and downs, by oscillations between eupho- as other models rightfully do (e.g., Mace and Ward, 2002). This
ria and depression, between satisfaction and dissatisfaction with limitation can be accounted for by the nature of interview data
one’s work. and the fact that interviews alone only offer verbal reconstruc-
Such findings are important for the educational field. To begin, tions of creative work and are thus subject to narrative formats
they point to the fact that educating children for creativity should (progressing from “introduction” to “conclusion”). Subsequent
consider the domain specific features of creative action. It is cer- studies, currently conducted by the authors, strive to overcome this
tainly the case that, at school, children are not in the position shortcoming by adding an observational, longitudinal element to
of acknowledged artists or composers during their art and music interview accounts.
classes, nor are they scientists who could make significant contri- In summary, the present study aimed to develop an action
bution to a domain while studying math or physics (or at least the framework for creative activity, one that strives to be more com-
probability is very low). It is widely accepted today that acts of prehensive than previous cognitive models of the creative process.
historical or Big C creativity require many years of training, some- This framework, both a theoretical and methodological tool,
thing formalized by Hayes (1989) as the “ten-year rule.” A crucial does not disregard earlier findings from the cognitive tradition
question, however, is what exactly happens during these years of but tries to integrate them into a more contextual perspective
training, many of which take place as formal schooling in an edu- which reunites the psychological and behavioral aspects of cre-
cational setting (see the example of scientists in our study). Also, ation with its material and social effects. As such, it strongly
how can this period of preparation – whose length again varies connects with contemporary “extended mind” theories (Clark and
depending on domain – be most fruitfully organized to facil- Chalmers, 1998) and a vision of cognition as distributed, exter-
itate high-level creative expression? Moreover, because practice nal and situated. Applying this theoretical perspective results in
or preparation work are actually continuous for creators in most “local” models that respect the particularities of each creative
fields of activity (and certainly in the five domains studied here), field, while enabling comparisons between them. These local
we need to consider creative action as equally continuous and not models can also be very fruitful for our efforts to enhance cre-
taking place only when (and if) a highly celebrated outcome is ative expression in different domains, in educational settings and
actually produced. Under these circumstances, educators should beyond.
focus on the nature and quality of what we called here “undergoing
before doing” – the stage of preparing oneself for creative activity ACKNOWLEDGMENT
on the long run but also before working on particular projects. This research was financed by a grant from the French national
Ideas about what motivates recognized creators to work (found Research agency (ANR CREAPRO).
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ORIGINAL RESEARCH ARTICLE

published: 16 April 2013

Creativity as action: ﬁndings from ﬁve creative domains

INTRODUCTION psychology of action, and in particular by pragmatist approaches

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FIGURE 1 | A model of human experience (after Dewey, 1934).

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Table 2 | Coding frame.

Code Definition Examples

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FIGURE 2 | Schematic representation of creative activity in the case of artists.

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FIGURE 3 | Schematic representation of creative activity in the case of designers.

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FIGURE 4 | Schematic representation of creative activity in the case of scientists.

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FIGURE 5 | Schematic representation of creative activity in the case of scriptwriters.

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FIGURE 6 | Schematic representation of creative activity in the case of composers.

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Table 3 | Summary of patterns in creative activity in the five domains.

Art Design Science Scriptwriting Music

Impulsion Create/express Create/solve Solve/curiousity Create/express Create/express

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