Number Theory Muzammil Tanveer

NUMBER THEORY
BY MUZAMMIL TANVEER
mtanveer8689@gmail.com
0316-7017457
Dedicated
To
My Honorable Teacher
Dr. Muhammad Umer Shuaib
&
My Parents
1
Collected by: Muhammad Saleem Composed by: Muzammil Tanveer
Lecture # 01
Integer:
The number which have no decimal no riven ( ) and no under root.
‫ ا ر اور ر ۔‬ ‫ا اد‬
Positive Integer:
The integer in which x > 0 i.e. {1,2,3,…..}
Negative Integer:
The integer in which x < 0 i.e. {−1, −2, −3,…..}
Non-negative Integer:
The integer in which x ≥ 0 i.e. {0,1,2,3,…..}
Non-positive Integer:
The integer in which x ≤ 0 i.e. {0, −1, −2, −3,…..}
Well Ordering Principle:

Let S be a non-empty set of non-negative integers. Then S contains a least
(smallest) element.
Even Integer:
An integer ‘n’ is said to be even if n = 2m where m  Z
Odd Integer:
An integer ‘n’ is said to be odd if n = 2m+1 where m  Z
Division Algorithm:
Let ‘a’ and ‘b’ be any two integers such that b  0 then  unique integers q and r
s.t
a = qb+r ; 0  r < | |
2
e.g. a = 12 , b = 5  12 = (5) + 2
& a = −36 , b = −7
−36 = 6(−7) + 6
Divisibility:
Let ‘a’ and ‘b’ be any two integers with b  0 we say that b divides a if  an
integer c such that
a = bc
In this case ‘b’ is called divisor or factor of ‘a’ and ‘a’ is called multiple of ‘b’
and is denoted by ba
e.g 24 & a = 6 , b = 2  6 = 3(2)
Remark:
If there does not exist such integer ‘c’ we say be does not divide ‘a’ and is
denoted by b † a . e.g. 2†5
Remarks:
(i) Every integer a  0 divides 0 i.e a0
(ii) 1 divides every integer a i.e 1-5  -5 = -5(1)
(iii) Every integer divide itself i.e aa
(iv) If ab and bc then ac e.g. 24 and 48 then 28
(v) If ab then abx where x  Z
(vi) If ab and ac the abx+cy
i.e. ab  abx and ac  acy then abx+cy
(vii) If ab and b 0 then | || | i.e. 2-6  |2|  |−6|
Common Divisor:
Let ‘a’ and ‘b’ be any two integers at least one of them is non-zero and
integer ‘c’ is said to be common divisor of ‘a’ and ‘b’ if ca and cb.
e.g. 4 is a common divisor of 8 and 12
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Lecture # 02
Greatest Common Divisor:

Let ‘a’ and ‘b’ be any two integers at least one of them is non-zero. A positive
integer ‘d’ is called Greatest Common Divisor (G.C.D) of ‘a’ and ‘b’ if
(i) d a and d b
(ii) For any other common divisor (say) c of a and b the c d
“It is also known as Highest Common Factor (H.C.F)
Notation:
The greatest common divisor of a and b is denoted by
G.C.D of a and b = (a,b) = d
Remark:
(i) If a b then (a,b) = a
e.g. (2,4) = 4
and (0,0) = not exist
(ii) (a,b) = (| |, | |)
Theorem:
Let ‘a’ and ‘b’ be any two integers at least one of them is non-zero. Then g.c.d
of ‘a’ and ‘b’ exists and is unique.
Proof: Let S be a non-empty set of positive integers of the form ‘ma+nb’

where m,n  Z.
S = {ma+nb ; m,n  Z}
Then by Well ordering principle S contain a smallest element (say) ‘d’ where
d = ax + by ; x,y  z. Now we show that g.c.d of ‘a’ and ‘b’ = (a,b) = d
(i) Observed that d is positive because d  S

(ii) Since d  a
then by division algorithm  unique integers q and r such that
a = qd+r …(1) where 0r<d
 a = q(ax + by) + r
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 a = aqx+bqy +r
 r = aaqxbqy For g.c.d
 r = a(1qx)+(qy)b
 r = pa+sb where p = 1qx , s = qy (i) d0
rS (ii) da & db
(iii) For any other
Which is only possible if r = 0 put in (1) common divisor c
a = qd of a & b then cd
da
Similarly, db
(iii) Let ‘c’ be any integer such that ca and cb. Then
cax and cby
 cax+by
 cd  d = ax+by
Since d satisfy all conditions of definition of g.c.d. Therefore
(a,b) = d
Uniqueness:
Suppose that d1 and d 2 (if possible) are g.c.d’s of a and b.
If d1 is g.c.d then by definition
d 2  d1
 d 2  d1 …..(ii)
Similarly, if d 2 is g.c.d then by definition
d1  d 2
 d1  d 2 …(iii)
From (ii) and (iii)
d1 = d 2
Which show the uniqueness
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Lecture # 03
Remark:
If (a,b) = d then  integer x and y such that
ax+by = d
Co-prime integer or Relatively prime integer:

Two integers ‘a’ and ‘b’ are said to be co-prime integer if (a,b) = 1
Example: Find (4,9) = ?

Solution: 4 and 9 are relatively prime
a=9 ,b=4
9 = 2 (4) + 1
 (4,9) = 1
9x+4y = 1  ax  by  1
1 = 9 – 4(2)
division algorithm ‫اور‬b ‫اور‬a ‫ ان ا ت ے‬
1 = 9(1) + 4(–2)
 x = 1 and y = –2 a=qb+r ; 1 r  | | ‫ ۔‬
Question: (–9,4) = 4 linear combination ‫آ اس د ا ا د‬g.c.d

Solution: a = 4 , b = 4
‫م‬ y‫اور‬x ‫ اور‬
9 = 2(4) + 1
 (–9,4) = 1
In linear combination
–9x+4y = 1
1 = –9(–1)+4(–2)
 x = –1 and y = –2
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Question: (5,12) = ?
12 = 2(5) + 2 ____(i)
2
Here a = 5 , b =2 12
5 = 2(2) +1 5 10
i.e. (5,12) = 1 2
Now in linear combination
12x+5y = 1
1 = 5 – 2(2)
= 5–2[12–2(5)] from (i)
= 5 – 24 +4(5)
= 5(5) – 24
1 = 12(–2) + 5(5)
 x = –2 and y = 5
13 = 2(6) + 1
i.e (13 ,6) = 1
13x+6y = 1
1 = 13–6(2)
1 = 13(1)+6(–2)
 x = 1 and y = –2
7
Solution: a = 24 , b = 7 3
24 = 3(7) + 3 _____(i) 24
7 = 2(3) +1 7 21
3
(24,7) = 1
24x+7y = 1
1 = 7 – 2(3)
= 7 – 2[24 – 3(7)] from (i)
= 7 – 2 (24) + 6(7)
1 = 24(–2) + 7(7)
 x = –2 , y = 7
‫آر اس وا اب اس‬g.c.d = zero
34 = 8(4) + 2
4 = 2(2) + 0 ‫ ۔‬g.c.d
 (34,4) = 2
34x + 4y = 2
2 = 34 – 8(4)
2 = 34(1) + 4(–8)
 x = 1 and y = –8
8
76 = 9(8) + 4
8 = 4(2) +0
 (76,8) = 4
4 = 76 – 9(8)
4 = 76(1) + 8(– 9)
 x = 1 and y = –9
Question: (59,11) = ?
59 = 5(11) + 4 _______(i)
11 = 2(4) + 3 _______(ii)
4 = 1(3) + 1 _______(iii)
 (59,11) = 1
1 = 4 – 3(1)
1 = 4 – (1) [11–2(4)] from (ii)
1 = 4 – 11 +2(4)
1 = –11 + 3(4)
1 = –11+3[59 – 5(11)]  1 = –11+3(59) –15(11)
1 = –16(11)+3(59)  1 = 59(3) – 11(16)
1 = 59(3) + 11(–16)
 x = 3 and y = – 16
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Question: (37,47) = ?
Solution: a = 47 and b = 37
47 = 1(37) + 10 _____(i)
37 = 3(10) +7 _____(ii)
10 = 1(7) + 3 _____(iii)
7 = 2(3) +1 _____(iv)
 (37,47) = 1
47x+37y = 1
1 = 7 – 3(2)
1 = 7 – 2[10 – 1(7)] from (iii)
1 = 7 – 2(10) + 2(7)
1 = 3(7) – 2(10)
1 = –2(10) + 3[37–3(10)] from (ii)
1 = –2(10) +3(37) –9(10)
1 = 3(37) –11(10)
1 = 3(37) –11[47–1(37)] from (i)
1 = 3(37) –11(47) + 11(37)
1 = 14(37) – 11(47)
1 = 47(–11) + 37(14)
 x = –11 and y = 14
Example: Find (256, 1166) = ?

Solution: a = 1166 , b = 256
1166 = 4(256) + 142 ____(i)
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256 = 1(142) + 114 ___(ii)
142 = 1(114) + 28 ___(iii)
114 = 4 (28) + 2 ___(iv)
28 = 14(2) +0
 (256 , 1166) = 2
1166x+256y = 2
2 = 114 – 4(28)
2 = 114 – 4[142 – 1(114)] from (iii)
2 = 114 – 4(142) + 4(114)
2 = –4(142) + 5(114)
2 = –4(142) + 5[256 – 1(142)] from (ii)
2 = –4(142) + 5(256) –5(142)
2 = 5(256) –9(142)
2 = 5(256) – 9[1166 – 4 (256)] from (i)
2 = 5(256) – 9(1166) + 36(256)
2 = 1166(–9) + 41(256)
2 = 1166(–9) + 256(41)
 x = –9 and y = 41
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Lecture # 04
Theorem:
Let ‘a’ and ‘b’ be any two integers and ‘k’ be any integer then (ka,kb) = k(a,b)
Proof:
Let (a,b) =d
And (ka,kb) = t
Then we show that
kd = t
Since (a,b) = d
Then there exist integers u and v such that
au + bv = d
 u(ka) + v (kb) = kd ____(i)
We suppose
(ka,kb) = t
 tka , tkb
 tu(ka) , tv(kb)
 tu(ka)+v(kb)
By definition of divisibility
 u(ka)+v(kb) = tr
Put in (i)
kd = tr
 tkd by def. of divisibility
 t  kd _____(ii)
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Now as (a,b) = d
 da and db
 kdka and kdkb
 kd(ka,kb)
 kdt
 kd  t ______(iii)
From (ii) and (iii)
kd = t
or t = kd
(ka,kb) = k(a,b) proved
Corollary:
If (a,b) = d Then show that , =1
Solution:
Given that (a,b) = d
 , =d
By using above theorem (ka,kb) = k(a,b)
d , =d
 , =1
Theorem: If ac and bc and (a,b) = 1 then show that abc
Proof: Since ac and bc
So, by def. of divisibility  integers x and y such that
c = ax & c = by
Also given that (a,b) = 1 then  integers u and v such that

13
au + bv = 1
 acu + bcv = c
a(by) u + b(ax) v = c
ab(yu+xv) = c
 ab(z) = c  z  yu  xv integer
Or c = ab(z)
 abc  by def .of divisibility
Proved.
Theorem: If abc and (a,b) = 1 then ac

Proof: Given that (a,b) = 1
Then  integers x and y such that
ax + by = 1
 acx + bcy = c
As aa  aacx
 abc (given)
 abcy
 aacx+bcy
 ac Proved
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Lecture # 05
Common Multiple:
Let ‘a’ and ‘b’ be any two integers at least one of them is non-zero. An integer
(either positive or negative) ‘m’ is called common multiple of ‘a’ and ‘b’ if am
and b m.
Least common multiple (LCM):

Let ‘a’ and ‘b’ be any two integers at least one of them is non-zero. A positive
integer ‘m’ is called least common multiple of ‘a’ and ‘b’ if
(i) am and b m

(ii) If ‘c’ is any other common multiple of ‘a’ and ‘b’ i.e. ac & bc then
mc.
Notation:
If least common multiple of ‘a’ and ‘b’ is ‘m’ we denote it as [a,b] = m
Remark: If ab then [a,b] = b

n  P1x1  P2x2  P3x3  ......Prxr where Pi ' s are prime number and xi  0
 12  2  2  3
2 1
12   2    3
 72  2  2  2  3  3  30  2  3  5
3 2 1 1 1
  2    3   2    3   5 
P1  2, P2  3 P1  2 , P2  3, P3  5
x1  3, x2  2 x1 1, x2 1, x3  1
n  P1x1  P2x2  P3x3  ......Prxr

r
n   Pi xi
i 1
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Theorem:
Let ‘a’ and ‘b’ be any two integers at least one of them is non-zero where
r r
a   Pi , b   Pi yi . Let M i  max  xi , yi  then show that [a,b] = d where
xi
i 1 i 1
r
d   Pi M i . Also show uniqueness of d.
i 1
Proof:
r
(i) Note that d   Pi M i is positive because all Pi are prime number and
i 1
Mi  0 Three conditions for

(ii) Since M i  max  xi , yi  L.C.M
 xi  M i and yi  M i (i) d is +ve
Pi P
x Mi
and P i P
y Mi
i (ii) ad & bd
xi Mi yi Mi (iii) any integer c
P P and P P i
then dc
r r r r
xi Mi yi Mi
 P P and P P i
i 1 i 1 i 1 i 1
 ad and bd

r
(iii) Let ‘c’ be any other common multiple of ‘a’ and ‘b’ where c   Pi ti
i 1
Since ac and bc

r r r r
xi ti yi ti
i.e. P P
i 1 i 1
and P P
i 1 i 1
i
 xi  ti and y i  ti
 max  xi , yi   ti i
 M i  ti i
Mi t
P  Pi i
r r
Mi ti
 P P i
i 1 i 1
 dc Hence [a,b] = d
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Uniqueness:
Suppose that d1 and d 2 (if possible) are L.C.M’s of a and b
If d1 is L.C.M then by definition
d 2 d1
 d 2  d1 _____(i)
If d 2 is L.C.M then by definition
d1 d 2
 d1  d 2 _____(ii)
From (i) & (ii)
d1  d 2 which show the uniqueness
Theorem:
Let ‘a’ and ‘b’ be any two integers at least one of them is non-zero then
(a,b) . [a,b] = ab
Proof:
Let d = (a,b) and m = [a,b]
  integers r,s and integers u,v such that
a = dr , b = ds (r,s) = 1 ____(i)
and d = au+bv
Also m = [a,b]
  integers t and w such that
m = at & m = bw ______(ii)
d = au+bv
md = m(au+bv)
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md = mau + mbv
= bwau + atbv
md = ab (uw + tv)
 ab  md ______(iii)
ab drb
Also   rb  by (i )
d d
ab ads
  sa  by (i)
d d
ab ab ab
a , b ; that is a common multiple of ‘a’ and ‘b’.
d d d
ab
 m or md ab _____(iv)
d
From (iii) and (iv)
md = ab
(a,b).[a,b] = ab
Corollary:
If (a,b) = 1 then [a,b] = ab
Proof:
We know that from above theorem
(a,b).[a,b] = ab
Given that (a,b) = 1
1.[a,b] = ab
 [a,b] = ab
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(i) [6,14] = ?
14 = 2(6) + 2
6 = 3 (2) + 0
 (6,14) = 2
Now (6,14).[6,14] = 6×14
2 . [6,14] = 6×14
[6,14] = 42
If [a, b, c]   a, b  , c 
(ii) [6,14,8] = ?
[6,14,8]   6,14 ,8
First, we find [6,14]
14 = 2(6) + 2
6 = 3 (2) + 0
 (6,14) = 2
Now (6,14).[6,14] = 6×14
2 . [6,14] = 6×14
[6,14] = 42
[6,14,8]   6,14 ,8   42,8
Now 42 = 5(8) + 2
8 = 4(2) + 0 i.e. (42,8) = 2
(42,8) . [42,8] = 42×8
42  8
2 . [42,8] = 42×8   42,8   168
2
 [6,14,8] = 168
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Lecture # 06
Linear Indeterminate equations or Linear Diophantine equations:

An equation with two or more than two variables is called Linear indeterminate
equations or Linear Diophantine equations.
e.g. ax + by = c
or x + βy + γz = 
x + 7y = 31 is satisfied by x = 21 , y = 1 also by x = 3 , y = 4 and also by x = 17

, y = 2 so we have infinite many solutions.
On the contrary the Diophantine equation 15x + 51y = 14 or 2x + 4y = 5 has no

solutions. Thus, we may ask when can a given Diophantine have solutions? We
give it in our next theorem.
Theorem: Let a(0) , b(0) and ‘c’ be any integer then the equation
ax + by = c _____(i)
has a solution iff dc where d = (a,b). If  x0 , y0  is a solution of eq (i) then

b a
general solution of eq (i) is given by x'  x0  t , y '  y0  t where t  Z
d d
Proof:
Suppose eq (i) has a solution (say)  x0 , y0  then
ax0  by0  c ____(ii)
We are to show that dc
Since (a,b) = d (given)
 da and db
 d ax0 and d by0
 d ax0  by0
 dc by eq (ii)
20
Conversely:
Suppose dc then by definition of divisibility there exist integer t such that
c = dt
Now as d = (a,b)
  integers u and v such that
au + bv = d
 a(ut) + b (vt) = dt multiplying by t
 ax0  by0  c
where x0  ut , y0  vt , c  dt
  x0 , y0  is solution of eq (i)
Now suppose  x ' , y '  is another solution of eq (i). Then
ax '  by '  c _____(iii)
Subtracting eq (ii) from eq (iii)
a  x '  x0   b  y '  y 0   0
 a  x '  x0    b  y '  y 0  _____(iv)
As d = (a,b)
 da and db
  integers ‘r’ and ‘s’ such that
a = rd , b = sd where (r,s) = 1
Put the values of ‘a’ and ‘b’ in eq (iv)
rd  x '  x0    sd  y '  y0 
r  x '  x0    s  y '  y0  ______(v)
21
From (v) we have
s r  x '  x0 
But (r,s) = 1 (relatively prime) holds when
s  x '  x0 
 x '  x0  st
 x '  x0  st
b b
 x'  x0  t  b  sd  s 
d d
Again, from eq (v)
r s  y '  y0 
But (r,s) = 1 holds when
r   y '  y0 
   y '  y0   rt
  y '  y0  rt
 y '  y0  rt
a a
 y '  y0  t  a  rd  r  proved
d d
Question: Find the general solution of 2x + 5y = 6

Solution:
Since (2,5) = 1 and 1  6
Solution of the given equation exists
Now 5 = 2(2) + 1
22
 1 = 5  2(2)
Or 2(2) + 5 (1) = 1
Multiplying by 6
2(12) + 5(6) = 6
 x0  12 , y0  6
Now for general solution
b
 x'  x0  t
d
5
x '  12  t
1
x '  12  5t
a
y '  y0  t
d
2
y'  6  t
1
y '  6  2t
To check
When t = 1  x '  7 , y '  4
2x + 5y = 6
2(7) + 5(4) = 14+20 = 6
Satisfied for all value of t.
23
Solution: Since (47,37) = 1 and 1  15 so, solution of the
given equation exists
Now 47 = 1(37) + 10 _____(i)
37 = 3(10) + 7 _____(ii)
10 = 1(7) + 3 _____(iii)
7 = 2(3) + 1 _____(iv)
Now 1 = 7  2(3)
1 = 72[10   from (iii)
1 = 7  2(10) + 2(7)
1 = 3(7)  2(10)
1 = 3[373(10)] 2(10) from (ii)
1 = 3(37)  9(10)  2(10)
1 = 3(37)  11(10)
1 = 3(37)  [471(37)] form (i)
1 = 14(37)  11(47)
Or 47(11) + 37 (14) = 1
47(165) + 37(210) = 15
 x0  165 , y0  210
For G.S
b a
x'  x0  t , y '  y0  t
d d
x '  165  37t , y '  210  47t
is the required general solution.
24
Solution: Since (85 , 60) = 1 and 5  20 so, solution of the
Now 85 = 1(60) + 25 _____(i)
60 = 2(25) + 10 _____(ii)
25 = 2(10) + 5 _____(iii)
10 = 2(5) + 0
Now 5 = 25  2(10)
= 25 2[60   from (ii)
= 25  2(60) + 4(25)
= 5(25)  2(60)
= 5[851(60)] 2(60) from (i)
= 5(85)  5(60)  2(60)
5 = 5(85)  7(60)
Or 85() + 60 (7) = 5
85() + 60(28) = 20
 x0  20 , y0   28
For G.S
b a
x'  x0  t , y '  y0  t
d d
x '  20  12t , y '  28  17t
For check t = 1
x '  32 , y '   45  85  32   60  45   20
25
Solution: Since (34, 7) = 1 and 1 2 so, solution of the
Now 34 = 4(7) + 6 _____(i)
7 = 1(6) + 1 _____(ii)
Now 1 = 7  1(6)
= 7 1[34   from (i)
= 7  1(34) + 4(7)
Or 34() + 7 () = 1
34() + 7() = 2
 x0  2 , y0  10
For G.S
b a
x'  x0  t , y '  y0  t
d d
x '   2  7t , y '  10  34t
For check t = 1
x '  5 , y '   24  34  5   7  24   2
26
Lecture # 07
Theorem: Let a(0) , b(0) and ‘c’ be any integer then the equation
axby = c ___(i)
has a solution iff dc where d = (a,b). If  x0 , y0  is a solution of eq (i) then

general solution of equation is given by
b a
x'  x0  t and y '  y0  t where t  Z
d d
Proof:
Suppose eq (i) has a solution (say)  x0 , y0  then
ax0  by0  c ____(ii)
We are to show that dc
Since (a,b) = d (given)
 da and db
 d ax0 and d by0
 d ax0  by0
 dc by eq (ii)
Conversely:
Suppose dc then by definition of divisibility there exist integer t such that
c = dt
Now as d = (a,b)
  integers ‘u’ and ‘v’ such that
au + bv = d
 a(ut) + b (vt) = dt multiplying by t
 a(ut)  b(vt) = dt
27
 ax0  by0  c
where x0  ut , y0  vt , c  dt
  x0 , y0  is solution of eq (i)
Now suppose  x ' , y '  is another solution of eq (i). Then
ax '  by '  c _____(iii)
Subtracting eq (ii) from eq (iii)
a  x '  x0   b  y '  y 0   0
 a  x '  x0   b  y '  y0  _____(iv)
As d = (a,b)
 da and db
  integers ‘r’ and ‘s’ such that
a = rd , b = sd where (r,s) = 1
Put the values of ‘a’ and ‘b’ in eq (iv)
rd  x '  x0   sd  y '  y0 
r  x '  x0   s  y '  y 0  ______(v)
From (v) we have
s r  x '  x0 
But (r,s) = 1 (relatively prime) holds when
s  x '  x0 
 x '  x0  st
 x '  x0  st
28
b b
 x'  x0  t  b  sd  s 
d d
Again, from eq (v)
r s  y '  y0 
But (r,s) = 1 holds when
r  y '  y0 
 y '
 y0   rt
 y '  y0  rt
a a
 y '  y0  t  a  rd  r  proved
d d
Question: Find the general solution of 8x  15y = 20

Solution: Since (8 ,15) = 1 and 120 so, solution of the
Now 15 = 1(8) + 7
8 = 1(7) + 1
And 1 = 8  1(7)
= 8 1[15  
= 8  1(15) + 1(8)
= 2(8)  1(15)
1 = 8(2)  15(1)
× by 20 8() 15() = 20
 x0  40 , y0  20
29
b a
For G.S x'  x0  t , y '  y0  t
d d
x '  40  15t , y '  20  8t
For check t=1
x '  55 , y '  28
8(55) 15(28) = 20
Question: Find the general solution of 67x  45y = 131

Solution: Since (67 ,45) = 1 and 1131 so, solution of the
Now 67 = 1(45) + 22
45 = 2(22) + 1
And 1 = 45  2(22)
= 45 2[67  
= 45  2(67) + 2(45)
1 = 3(45)  2(67)
Or 67(2)  45(3) = 1
× by 131 67() 45() = 131
 x0  262 , y0   393
b a
For G.S x'  x0  t , y '  y0  t
d d
x '  262  45t , y '  393  67t
For check t=1
x '  217 , y '  326
67(217) 45(326) = 131
30
Question: If the cost of an apple is Rs.8 and cost of mango is Rs. 15 How
many minimum (least) number of apples can bought from rupees 200.
Solution: Let x represent the number of apple and y represent the number of
mangoes. Then
8x+15y = 200
Since (8 ,15) = 1 and 1200 so, solution of the given

equation exists
Now 15 = 1(8) + 7
8 = 1(7) + 1
And 1 = 8  1(7)
= 8 1[15  
= 8  1(15) + 1(8)
1 = 2(8)  1(15)
Or 8(2) 15(1) = 1
× by 200 8(400) 15(200) = 200
 x0  400 , y0   200
b a
For G.S x'  x0  t , y '  y0  t
d d
x '  400  15t , y '  200  8t
Put t = 26 x '  400  15  26  , y '  200  8  26 
x '  10 , y'  8
To check 8() 5() = 80 + 120 = 200
Hence, we bought 10 apples from 200 rupees.
31
Lecture # 08
 13  5  2 Re mainder
2 3
 13  16
5 10 5 15
3 1
R=53=2 R=51=4
Remainder < Divisor
Congruence:
Let ‘a’ and ‘b’ be any two integers and ‘m’ be a fixed positive integer. We say
that ‘a’ is congruent to ‘b’ modulo ‘m’ if ‘m’ divides a b and is denoted by
a  b  mod m  ____(i)
The relation (i) is called congruence ‘m’ is called modulus value of congruence
‘b’ is called remainder/residue of the congruence. If ‘m’ does not divides a  b
we say that ‘a’ is incongruent to ‘b’ modulo ‘m’ and denoted by
a  b  mod m 
Examples:
(i) a=8 , b=5 , m=3
38    
‘a’ is congruent to 5(mod3) or 8  5  mod 3 
(ii) a=8 , b = 5 , m=3
38    
8   5  mod 3 
(iii) a=8 , b = 10 , m=2
28      8   10  mod 3  
32
(iv) a=8 , b = 6 , m=2
28    
8   6  mod 2 
Theorem: Show that the relation of congruence between integers is an

equivalence relation.
Proof:
(i) Reflexive: Let ‘a’ be any integer and ‘m’ be fix (positive) integer
Since ma
 ma  a
 a  a  mod m 
It means that relation of congruence between integer is reflexive.
(ii). Symmetric: Let ‘a’ and ‘b’ be any two integers and ‘m’ be a fix
(positive) integer.
Suppose a  b  mod m 
 mab = m(ba)
 m b  a
 b  a  mod m 
It means that relation of congruence between integers is symmetric.
(iii) Transitive: Let ‘a’, ‘b’ and ‘c’ be any integers and ‘m’ be any fix
(positive) integer.
Suppose a  b  mod m 
And b  c  mod m 
 ma b and mb c
33
 m a  b + b  c
 mac
 a  c  mod m 
It means that relation of congruence between integers is transitive. Since the

relation is reflexive, symmetric and transitive. Therefore, the relation is
equivalence.
Equivalence Class:
Since the relation of congruence between integer is an equivalence relation
therefore it partitions set of integers into classes these classes are called
Equivalence classes.
Example: m = 2
0   x x  0  mod 2 

 xx  mod 2 x  0
  0    0,  2 ,  4,....
And 1   x x  1 mod 2 

 xx  mod 2 x  1
 1   1,  3,  5,....
We note that
0  1  0
And 0  1  
34
Lecture # 9
Partition:
Let A = {1,2,3,4} A1 and A2 are partition of A if
(i) A1  A2  A
(ii) A1  A2  
(i) m=2
0 , 1 are classes  Re mainder 0,1
0   x x  0  mod 2 
 0   x 2 x0 
0  0, 2 ,  4, 6,......
1   x x  1 mod 2 
1   x 
2 x 1
1  1,  3, 5,......

0  1  
 0  1  
(ii) m=3
0 , 1 ,  2
0   x x  0  mod 3
0   x 3 x  0
0  0, 3,  6  9,......
1  x x  1 mod 3
1   x 3 x  1
1  1, 4, 7,10,...., 2, 5, 8, 11,...
35
 2   x x  2  mod 3
 2   x 3 x  2
 2  2 ,5,8,11,...., 1, 4, 7, 10,...
 0  1   2   
0  1   2  
(iii) m=4
0 , 1 ,  2 , 3
0   x x  0  mod 4 
0   x 4 x  0
0  0, 4 ,  8  12,......
1   x x  1 mod 4 
1   x 4 x  1
1  1,5,9,13,17...., 3, 7, 11, 15,...
 2   x x  2  mod 4 
 2   x 4 x  2
 2  2 , 6,10,14,18...., 2, 6, 10, 14, 18...
3   x x  3  mod 4 
3   x 4 x  3
3  3, 7,11,15,19...., 1, 5, 9, 13, 17...
 0  1   2   3  
0  1   2  3  
(iv) m=5
0 , 1 ,  2 , 3 ,  4 
0   x x  0  mod 5
0   x 5 x  0
0  0, 5,  10  15,......
1  x x  1 mod 5
36
1   x 5 x  1
1  1, 6,11,16, 21...., 4, 9, 14, 19,...
 2   x x  2  mod 5
 2   x 5 x  2
 2  2 , 7,12,17, 22...., 3, 8, 13, 18, 23...
3   x x  3  mod 5
3   x 5 x  3
3  3,8,13,18, 23...., 2, 7, 12, 17, 22...
 4   x x  4  mod 5
 4   x 5 x  4
 4  4 ,9,14,19, 24...., 1, 6, 11, 16, 21...
0  1   2  3   4  
0   1   2  3   4  
(v) m=6
 0 , 1 ,  2 , 3 ,  4  , 5
0   x x  0  mod 6 
0   x 6 x  0
0  0, 6 ,  12  18,......
1   x x  1 mod 6 
1   x 6 x  1
1  1, 7,13,19, 25...., 5, 11, 17, 23,...
 2   x x  2  mod 6 
 2   x 6 x  2
 2  2 ,8,14, 20, 26...., 4, 10, 16, 22, 28...
3   x x  3  mod 6 
3   x 6 x 3 
37
3  3,9,15, 21, 27...., 3, 9, 15, 21, 27...
 4   x x  4  mod 6 
 4   x 6 x  4
 4  4 ,10,16, 22, 28...., 2, 8, 14, 20, 26...
5   x x  5  mod 6 
5   x 6 x  5
5  5,11,17, 23, 29...., 1, 7, 13, 19, 25...
0  1   2  3   4  5  
0   1   2  3   4  5  
(vi) m=7
0 , 1 ,  2 , 3 ,  4 , 5 , 6
0   x x  0  mod 7 
0   x 7 x  0
0  0, 7 ,  14  21,......
1   x x  1 mod 7 
1   x 7 x  1
1  1,8,15, 22, 29...., 6, 13, 20, 27,...
 2   x x  2  mod 7 
 2   x 7 x  2
 2  2 ,9,16, 23,30...., 5, 12, 19, 26, 33...
3   x x  3  mod 7 
3   x 7 x  3
3  3,10,17, 24,31...., 4, 11, 18, 25, 32...
 4   x x  4  mod 7 
 4   x 7 x  4
 4  4 ,11,18, 25,32...., 3, 10, 17, 24, 31...
38
5   x x  5  mod 7 
5   x 7 x  5
5  5,12,19, 26,33...., 2, 9, 16, 23, 30...
6   x x  6  mod 7 
6   x 7 x  6
6  6 ,13, 20, 27,34...., 1, 8, 15, 22, 29...
0  1   2  3   4  5  6  
0  1   2  3   4  5  6  
(vii) m=8
0 , 1 ,  2 , 3 ,  4 , 5 , 6 , 7 
0   x x  0  mod8
0   x 8 x  0
0   0, 8,  16  24,......
1  x x  1 mod8
1   x 8 x  1
1  1,9,17, 25,33...., 7, 15, 23, 31,...
 2   x x  2  mod 8
 2   x 8 x  2
 2  2 ,10,18, 26,34...., 6, 14, 22, 30, 38...
3   x x  3  mod 8
3   x 8 x  3
3  3,11,19, 27,35...., 5, 13, 21, 29, 37...
 4   x x  4  mod8
 4   x 8 x  4
 4  4 ,12, 20, 28,36...., 4, 12, 20, 28, 36...
5   x x  5  mod8
39
5   x 8 x  5
5  5,13, 21, 29,37...., 3, 11, 19, 27, 35...
6   x x  6  mod8
6   x 8 x  6
6  6 ,14, 22,30,38...., 2, 10, 18, 26, 34...
7   x x  7  mod 8
7   x 8 x  7
7   7 ,15, 23,31,39...., 1, 9, 17, 25, 33...
0  1   2  3   4  5   6  7   
0  1   2  3   4  5  6  7   
(viii) m=9
0 , 1 ,  2 , 3 ,  4 , 5 , 6 , 7  , 8
0   x x  0  mod 9 
0   x 9 x  0
0   0, 9 ,  18  27,......
1   x x  1 mod 9 
1   x 9 x  1
1  1,10,19, 28,37...., 8, 17, 26, 35,...
 2   x x  2  mod 9 
 2   x 9 x  2
 2  2 ,11, 20, 29,38...., 7, 16, 25, 34, 43...
3   x x  3  mod 9 
3   x 9 x  3
3  3,12, 21,30,39...., 6, 15, 24, 33, 42...
 4   x x  4  mod 9 
 4   x 9 x4 
40
 4  4 ,13, 22,31, 40...., 5, 14, 23, 32, 41...
5   x x  5  mod 9 
5   x 9 x  5
5  5,14, 23,32, 41...., 4, 13, 22, 31, 40...
6   x x  6  mod 9 
6   x 9 x  6
6  6 ,15, 24,33, 42...., 3, 12, 21, 30, 39...
7   x x  7  mod 9 
7   x 9 x  7
7   7 ,16, 24,33, 42...., 2, 11, 20, 29, 38...
8   x x  8  mod 9 
8   x 9 x  8
8  8,17, 26,35, 44...., 1, 10, 19, 28, 37...
0  1   2  3   4  5  6  7   8  
0  1   2  3   4  5  6  7   8  
(ix) m = 10
0  , 1 ,  2 , 3 ,  4 , 5 ,  6 , 7  , 8 , 9
0   x x  0  mod10 
0   x 10 x  0
0  0, 10 ,  20  30,......
1   x x  1 mod10 
1   x 10 x  1
1  1,11, 21,31, 41...., 9, 19, 29, 39,...
 2   x x  2  mod10 
 2   x 10 x  2
 2  2 ,12, 22,32, 42...., 8, 18, 28, 38, 48...
41
3   x x  3  mod10 
3   x 10 x  3
3  3,13, 23,33, 43...., 7, 17, 27, 37, 47...
 4   x x  4  mod10 
 4   x 10 x  4
 4  4 ,14, 24,34, 44...., 6, 16, 26, 36, 46...
5   x x  5  mod10 
5   x 10 x  5
5  5,15, 25,35, 45...., 5, 15, 25, 35, 45...
6   x x  6  mod10 
6   x 10 x  6
6  6 ,16, 26,36, 46...., 4, 14, 24, 34, 44...
7   x x  7  mod10 
7   x 10 x  7
7   7 ,17, 27,37, 47...., 3, 13, 23, 33, 43...
8   x x  8  mod10 
8   x 10 x  8
8  8,18, 28,38, 48...., 2, 12, 22, 32, 42...
9  x x  9  mod10 
9   x 10 x  9
9  9 ,19, 29,39, 49...., 1, 11, 21, 31, 41...
0  1   2  3   4  5   6  7   8  9  
0  1   2  3   4  5  6  7   8  9  
42
Theorem: Let ‘a’, ‘b’, ‘c’ and ‘d’ be any integers and ‘m’ be fixed positive
integer. If a  b  mod m  and c  d  mod m  . Then
(i) a  c  b  d  mod m 
(ii) a  c  b  d  mod m 
(iii) ac  bd  mod m 
Proof: (i) Given
a  b  mod m  , c  d  mod m 
By definition of congruence
 m ab and m cd
 m abcd
 m  a  c   b  d 
 a  c  b  d  mod m 
(ii). Given
a  b  mod m  , c  d  mod m 
 m a  b  c  d 
 m abcd
 m  a  c   b  d 
 a  c  b  d  mod m 
(iii). Given
a  b  mod m  , c  d  mod m 
43
 m  a  b c and m c  d b
 m ac  bc , m bc  bd
 m ac  bc  bc  bd
 m ac  bd
 ac  bd  mod m 
Theorem: If a  b  mod m  then show that a n  b n  mod m 
Proof: Given
a  b  mod m 
 m ab
 m  a  b   a n 1  a n  2b  ....  b n 1 
 m a n  bn
 a n  b n  mod m 
Remark: The converse of above theorem is not true in general.

e.g. a=8 ,b=4,m=3,n=2
 82  42  mod 3 But  8  4  mod 3 
Some formula’s a 2  b 2   a  b  a  b  , a 3  b 3   a  b   a 2  ab  b 2 
a 4  b 4   a  b   a 3  a 2 b  ab 2  b 3  , a5  b5   a  b  a4  a3b  a2b2  ab3  b4  ,

an  bn   a  b  an1  an2b  an3b2  .....  bn1 
44
Lecture # 10
Question: Find remainder when 257 is divisible by 13

Solution: Since 64   1 mod13 
 26   1 mod13
6 9 9
  2    1  mod13
 254   1 mod13
 23.254   1.23  mod13
 257   8  mod13
 257  5  mod13  8  13  5
 Remainder = 5
Question: Find remainder when 5 48 is divisible by 12

Solution: Since 25 1 mod12 
 52 1 mod12 
2 24 24
 5   1  mod12 
 548  1 mod12 
 Remainder = 1

Solution: Since 81 1 mod10 
 34 1 mod10 
4 25 25
 3   1  mod10 
 3100  1 mod10 
45
 3.3100  1.3  mod10 
 3101  3  mod10 
 Remainder = 3

Solution: Since 4 1 mod 3 
 2 2 1 mod 3
2 23 23
  2   1  mod 3
 2 46  1 mod 3
 2.2 46  1.2  mod 3
 247  2  mod 3
 Remainder = 2
Question: Find the remainder when sum of the given series is divisible by 4
1!+2!+3!+….+100!
Solution: Since 4!  0  mod 4 
 4! 5! 6! ....  100!  0  mod 4 
 1! 2! 3! 4! ....  100! 1! 2! 3! mod 4 
 1! 2! 3! 4! ....  100!  9  mod 4 
 1! 2! 3! 4! ....  100! 1 mod 4 
Question: Find the remainder when sum of the given series is divisible by 15
1!+2!+3!+….+1000!
46
Solution: Since 5!  0  mod15 
 5! 6! ....  1000!  0  mod15 
 1! 2! 3! 4! 5! 6! ....  1000! 1! 2! 3! 4! mod15 
 1! 2! 3! ....  1000!  33  mod15 
 1! 2! 3! ....  1000!  3  mod15 
Remainder = 3
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Lecture # 11
Theorem: If a  b  mod m  then show that f  a   f  b  mod m 
Proof: Given that a  b  mod m  ___  i 
 ax  bx  mod m  ___  ii 
 ax 2  bx 2  mod m  ___  iii 
. .
. .
. .
 ax n 1  bx n 1  mod m  ___  iv 
From (i) , (ii) , (iii) and (iv) we have
a  ax  ax 2  ...  ax n 1  b  bx  bx 2  ...  bx n 1
f  a   f  b  mod m 
 f  a   a0  a1 x  a2 x 2  ....  an1 x n 1
Theorem: If a  b  mod m1  and a  b  mod m2  then show that

a  b  mod  m1 , m2   where  m1 , m2  is called L.C.M of x1 , x2
Proof: Since a  b  mod m1  and a  b  mod m2 
 m1 a  b , m2 a  b
Multiplying by m2
 m1m2 m2  a  b 
  m1 , m2   a  b 
 a  b  mod  m1 , m2  
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Complete Residue System (CRS)
Let a1 , a2 ,...,a k  be a set of integers and m be a fixed positive integer we say
that the set a1 , a2 ,...,a k  forms a complete Residue system modulo m (denoted
by CRS (mod m)) if
(i)  ai  a j  mod m   i  j
(ii) For any integer n there exist a unique ai such that
n  ai  mod m 
Example: Check the set forms CRS {11,12,13} , m = 3

Solution: (i) Condition
11  12  mod 3   3†11  12
12  13  mod 3   3†12  13
11  13  mod 3   3†11  13
1st condition satisfied
(ii). For 2nd condition for any other integer
25  13  mod 3   3 25  13
Example: Show that the set {6,7,8,9} , m = 4 from CRS.

Solution: (i) 1st condition
6  7  mod 4 
6  8  mod 4 
6  9  mod 4 
7  8  mod 4 
7  9  mod 4 
8  9  mod 4 
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(ii). 2nd condition
For any other integer
10  6  mod 4 
Example: Show that the set {6,7,10,9} , m = 4 forms CRS.

Solution: 1st condition
6  7  mod 4 
6  10  mod 4 
Which is not true. The given set not forms CRS.
Theorem: Let A = a1 , a2 ,...,a k  be a set of integers then ‘A’ forms CRS (mod
m) if k = m.
Proof: We know {0,1,2,….,m1} forms a CRS (mod m) hence for each j ,

1  j  k  unique i such that 0  i  m  1 and
a j  i  mod m 
Thus k  m. But then a1 , a2 ,...,a k  is also a CRS (mod m). Hence  i
0  i  m1 ,  unique j 1  j  k such that
i  a j  mod m 
 mk
By combining the above result i.e. km&mk
 m=k
Alternate definition:
The set A = a1 , a2 ,...,a k  forms a CRS (mod m) if
(i) A contain exactly m elements

(ii) ai  a j  mod m   i j
50
Example: Show that the set {81,82,83,84} , m = 4 forms CRS.
Solution: (i) Observe that A contains exactly 4 elements. Condition (i)
satisfied.
(ii). 81  82  mod 4 
81  83  mod 4 
81  84  mod 4 
82  83  mod 4 
82  84  mod 4 
83  84  mod 4 
Condition (ii) satisfied. Hence the given set forms CRS.
Exercise: Let  x1 , x2 ,.... xm  be a CRS (mod m) and a,b  Z such that (a,m) = 1
then show that the set A  ax1  b, ax2  b,....a xm  b forms CRS (mod m)
Solution: (i) Observe that A contain exactly m elements.

(ii). Now we show
axi  b  ax j  b (mod m ) i j
Suppose axi  b  ax j  b (mod m ) i j
 axi  ax j (mod m ) i j
Since (a,m) = 1 then

xi  x j (mod m ) i j
A contradiction against the fact that the given set  x1 , x2 ,....xm  forms a CRS
(mod m). So our supposition is wrong. Thus
axi  b  ax j  b (mod m ) i j
Hence set A forms CRS (mod m)
Remark: The set {0,1,2,…, n  1} always form a CRS (mod n)
51
Example: A = {81,82,83,84} , m = 4
The least residues of A (mod 4) are {1,2,3,0}
By using remark, the given set forms CRS (mod 4)
Example: A = {81,82,84,88} , m = 4
Solution: The least residues of A (mod 4) are {1,2,0,0} which are not
remainder of 4 i.e {0,1,2,3}. Hence the given set not forms CRS (mod 4).
52
Lecture # 12
Reduced Residue System (RRS)

A set of integers a1 , a2 ,..., a k  forms a Residue system modulo ‘m’ (denoted by
RRS (mod m)) if
(i)  ai , m   1  i
(ii) ai  a j  mod m  i j
(iii) For any integer n where (n,m) = 1 there exist a unique ai such
that
n  ai  mod m 
Example: Check the set forms RRS {1,3,5,7} , m = 8

Solution: (i) Since (1,8) = (3,8) = (5,8) = (7,8) = 1
(ii).
1  3  mod 8 
1  5  mod 8 
1  7  mod 8 
3  5  mod 8 
3  7  mod 8 
5  7  mod 8 
(iii). n = 15  (15,8) = 1
And 15  7  mod 8 
Hence the given set makes RRS.
53
Euler  function:
Let n be a +ve integer (n  1) we define Euler  function as follows
 n if n  1

  n   The number of  ve int egers less than
 and co  prime to n if n 1

e.g. If n = 1 then (1) = 1
If n = 2
(0,2) = 2 , (1,2) = 1
1 & 2 are co-prime
(2) = 1
If n = 3
(0,3) = 3 , (1,3) = 1 , (2,3) = 1
1 & 3 and 2 & 3 are relatively prime
(3) = 2
If n = 4
(4) = 2
If n = 5
(5) = 4
If n = 13
(13) = 12
Remark : (i) If P is prime number then (P) = P1

(ii). The set {1,2,3,..,P1} always forms a Reduced Residue system (mod P)
where P is a prime number.
54
Theorem: If a1 , a2 ,...,a k  is a Reduced Residue system (mod m) then
k = (m).
Proof: t1, t 2 ,..., t  m be the (m) integers that are less than m and co-prime to
 
m. We show t1 , t 2 ,..., t  m  is a RRS (mod m)
Suppose ti  t j (mod m) 1  ti , t j  m
 m ti  t j ___ 1
But 1  ti , t j  m
 ti  t j < m hence (i) cannot be possible unless ti  t j  0
Next, let ‘b’ be an integer such that (n,m) = 1. By division algorithm
n = qm + r ; 0r<m
And the quotient q = 0 if n < m and q  1 if n > m. Also (r,m) = 1. Hence r  ti
for some i 1  i  (m) and n  r  ti  mod m 
Since  i 1  i  k ( ai , m) 1  a unique l 1  l  (m)  ai  ti  mod m 
 k    m
Similarly, (m)  k
 k = (m)
Alternative definition:
A set a1 , a2 ,...,a k  forms Reduced Residue system (mod m) if
(i) k = (m)
(ii)  ai , m   1  i
(iii) ai  a j  mod m   i  j
55
Example: Check the set forms RRS {1,3,5,7} , m = 8
Solution: (i) Since (m) = 4
(ii). 1  3  mod 8 
1  5  mod 8 
1  7  mod 8 
3  5  mod 8 
3  7  mod 8 
5  7  mod 8 
Hence the given set form RRS.
Exercise: If  x1 , x2 ,.....x  m   is a RRS (mod m) and a  Z such that (a,m) = 1.
 
Then show that the set A = ax1 ,a x2 ,.....a x  m  forms RRS (mod m)
Solution: (i) Observe that the given set has exactly (m) elements
 
(ii). Since x1 , x2 ,..... x  m  forms RRS (modm)
So  x1 , m    x2 , m   ....,  x  m  , m   1
 
Then  ax1 , m    ax2 , m   ...., ax  m  , m  1   a , m   1
 
(iii). Since x1 , x2 ,..... x  m  forms RRS (mod m)
So x1  x2  mod m 
x2  x3  mod m 
x  m 1  x  m   mod m 
56
Then ax1  ax2  mod m 
ax2  ax3  mod m 
ax  m 1  ax  m   mod m 
Since all conditions are satisfied. Hence the given set forms RRS (mod m)
Prime Number:
A positive integer n > 1 is called prime if ‘n’ has exactly two integer divisors
namely 1 and ‘n’ itself otherwise ‘n’ is called composite number.
Composite Number:
A positive number n > 1 is called composite if ‘n’ has at least three positive
divisors.
Perfect Number:
A positive integer ‘n’ is called perfect if the sum of its positive divisor is twice
of the number ‘n’.
Examples n=6
Divisor of 6 = 1,2,3,6
Sum of divisor = 1+2+3+6 = 12 = 2(6)
 6 is perfect number
n = 28
divisor of 28 = 1,2,4,7,14,28
Sum of divisor = 1+2+4+7+14+28 = 56 = 2 (28)
 28 is perfect number.
57
Twin Primes:
Let ‘n’ be a positive integer , if n  1 and n +1 are prime number then these
prime number are called twin primes.
n=4
n1 = 3 is prime number
n+1 = 5 is prime number
 3 and 5 are twin primes.
Prime Triplet:
Let ‘P’ be a prime number if P+2 and P+4 are prime then the triplet (P,P+2,P+4)
is called Prime Triplet
e.g. P=3
P+2 = 5
P+4 = 7
(3,5,7) is called Prime Triplet.
Powerful integer:
A positive integer ‘n’ is powerful if whenever a prime ‘P’ divides ‘n’. P2 also
divides ‘n’.
e.g. n=8
P=2 , 28
P2 = 4 , 48  8 is powerful.
Exercise: The smallest divisor of an integer is prime.

Solution: Let d > 1 be the smallest divisor of an integer ‘n’.
Let d1 be any divisor of ‘d’. Then 1 d1 d . Suppose d1  1. Then d1d and dn
 d1n but d1  d  d1= d. Hence only divisors of ‘d’ are 1 and ‘d’ itself.
 ‘d’ is prime. Hence the smallest divisor of an integer is prime.
58
Exercise: Let P be a prime and ‘a’ be any integer then show that either Pa or
(a,P) = 1.
Solution: If P a we have nothing to prove. But if P † a then we show that

(a,P) = 1
Let d = (a,P)  da and dP
Since P is prime d = 1 or d = P. If d = P then Pa , not possible. Hence d = 1
 (a,P) = 1
Exercise: Fundamental theorem of Arithmetic

OR
“Every integer can be decomposed as a product of prime number.”
Proof: Suppose there exist an integer n > 1 which is not a product of primes.
Let ‘m’ be the smallest then ‘m’ is not a prime and hence m = ab; 1 < a , b < m.
But then by choice of ‘m’ both ‘a’ and ‘b’ are products of primes. So, ‘m’ is a
product pf primes. A contradiction, hence every integer can be decomposed as a
product of prime number.
59
Lecture # 13
Question: Let ‘m’ be a positive integer, ‘a’ and ‘b’ any integers. The Linear
congruence a x  b  mod m  has a solution if and only if db , d = (a,m).
Solution: Suppose the linear congruence a x  b  mod m  has solution exist
a x  b  mod m 
 m ax  b  by definition of congruence
 ax  b  my
 ax  my  b
If (a,m) = d then db
Conversely: If db then we show a x  b  mod m  has solution exist
Let x0 be the solution of a x  b  mod m  then
a x0  b  mod m  ____  i 
Let x' be another solution of a x  b  mod m  then
a x '  b  mod m  ____  ii 
From (i) and (ii)
a x '  ax0  mod m  ____  iii 
Since (a,m) = d
 da and dm
 a = dr and m = ds where(r,s) =1
Put in (iii)  dr x '  drx0  mod ds 
'
 ds drx  drx0
60
 ds dr  x '  x0 
 s r  x '  x0 
Since (r,s) =1 only possible if
s x '  x0
 x '  x0  hs
 x '  x0  hs ____  iv 
By Division Algorithm
h = dq +t ; 0t<d
(iv)  x '  x0  dqs  ts
tm m
x '  x0  mq   ds  m , s 
d d
m
x '  x0  t.
d
Therefore, the congruence a x  b  mod m  has solution x0 . Hence solution

exist.
Question: Under what conditions solution the system of linear congruence

having monic leading coefficients. Justify your answer?
Solution: A general system of simultaneous linear congruences

a1 x  b1  mod n1 
a2 x  b2  mod n 2 
. .
. .
ar x  br  mod n r 
61
can be simplified to form x  c1  mod m1 
x  c2  mod m2 
x  cr  mod mr 
by dividing each congruence through by  ai , ni  then multiplying by the inverse

ni ai
mod mi  of the coefficient . The simplified system may or
 ai , ni   ai , ni 
may not be solvable but in any case, it must have the same set of solution as the
original system. Hence, the linear congruence having monic leading
coefficients.
Example: The system x  8  mod12  , x  6  mod 9  has no solutions. Since,

the first congruence implies that x  8  2  mod 3 but the second implies that
x  6  0  mod 3 and these are incompatible with each other.
Question: Solve the system of linear congruence

x  2  mod 3
x  4  mod 5 
x  5  mod 6 
Solution: Gcd (5,3) = 15 3 = 12
Gcd (6,5) = 16 5 = 11
Gcd (6,3) = 36 3 = 33
x  2  mod 3
 3x2
62
 x 2 = 3k where k is integer
 x = 2 + 3k ____(i)
x  4  mod 5 
2  3k  4  mod 5 
3k  4  2  mod 5 
3k  2  mod 5 
2k  2  mod 5 
k  1 mod 5 
k  4  mod 5
 5k 4
 k  4  5k ' where k ' is any integer
k  4  5k ' put in  i 
x  2  3  4  5k ' 
x  2  12  15k '
x  14  15k ' ___(ii )
x  5  mod 6 
14  15k '  5  mod 6 
15k '  9  mod 6 
15k '  3  mod 6 
3k '  3  mod 6 
k '  1 mod 6 
63
 6 k' 1
 k '  1  6k ''
 k '  1  6k '' put in (ii )
x  14  15 1  6k '' 
x  14  15  90k ''
x  29  90k ''
x  29  90k ''
 90 x  29
 x  29  mod 90 
Question: Solve the system of linear congruence

x  5  mod 6 
x  4  mod11
x  3  mod17 
Solution: Gcd (6,11) = 111 6 = 15
Gcd (11,17) = 117 11 = 16
Gcd (6,17) = 117 6 = 111
x  5  mod 6 
 6x5
 x 5 = 6k where k is integer
 x = 5 + 6k ____(i)
x  4  mod11
5  6k  4  mod11
64
6k  4  5  mod11
6k  1 mod11
6k  10  mod11
5k  10  mod11
k  2  mod11
k  9  mod11
 11k 9
 k  9  11k ' where k ' is any integer
k  9  11k ' put in  i 
x  5  6  9  11k ' 
x  5  54  66k '
x  59  66k ' ___(ii )
x  3  mod17 
59  66k '  3  mod17 
66k '  3  59  mod17 
66k '  56  mod17 
66k '  12  mod17 
15k '  12  mod17 
2k '  12  mod17 
k '  6  mod17 
k '  11 mod17 
65
 17 k '  11
 k '  11  17k ''
 k '  11  17 k '' put in (ii )
x  59  66 11  17 k '' 
x  59  726  1122k ''
x  785  1122k ''
x  785  1122k ''

 1122 x  785
 x  785  mod1122 
Question: State and prove Wilson’s theorem.

Statement: An integer P is prime if and only if  P  1!  1 mod P 
Proof: Suppose P is prime. Let ‘a’ be an integer such that 1 a  P1. Then
(a,p)=1 . Hence the congruence ax  1 mod P  has a unique solution (mod P)
(say) b
 ab  1 mod P 
Also, if b  a  mod P  then
a 2  1 mod P 
 P a2  1 P a 1 or P a 1
Thus for each integer b  { 2,3,….,P2} such that bc  1 mod P 
Therefore, by pairing bs 1< b < P1 with cs 1< c < P1  bc  1 mod P  we get
1.2.3......  P  1  1.  P  1 mod P 
1.2.3......  P  1  1 mod P 

66
  P  1!  1 mod P 
Conversely: Suppose that   P  1!  1 mod P  and dP 1 d < P
Clearly d is a factor of  P  1!
 d  P  1!
As  P  1!  1 mod P 

 P  P  1!  1
 d  P  1!  1
 d1
 d 1 Hence P is prime
Question: State and prove Chinese Remainder theorem?

Statement: The linear system of congruence x  ai  mod mi  where the
moduli are pair wise relatively prime and 1  i  k has unique solution
m1 , m2 ,...mk
Proof: The proof consists of two parts. First, we will construct a solution and
then show that it is unique modulo m1 , m2 ,...mk
(i) Let M  m1 , m2 ,...mk and M i  M mi where 1  i  k

Since Gcd  M i , mi   1 i
Also M i  0  mod j  where i j
Since  M i , mi   1
So M i yi  1  mod mi 
has a unique solution say yi (yi is in fact the inverse of Mi modulo mi)
Let x  a1 M i y1  a 2 M 2 y 2  ....  ak M k y k
To show M is a solution of linear system we have
67
k
x   ai M i yi  a j M j y j
i 1
i j
k
x   ai .0  a j .1  mod j 
i j
x  0  aj mod j
x  aj  mod j  1 j  k
(ii) To show that solution is unique.

Let x0 and x1 be two solutions of the system. We shall show that
x0  x1  Mod M 
Since x0  a j  mod m j 
And x1  a j  mod m j  for 1  j  k
x1  x0  a j  a j  mod m  j
x1  x0  0  mod m  j
m j  x1  x0   0
m j x1  x0 for 1  j  k
m1 , m2 ,...mk x1  x0
where M  m1 , m2 ,...mk
 M x1  x0
 x1  x0  0  Mod M 
 x1  x0  Mod M 
Thus any two solution of linear system are congruent modulo M , so the
solution is unique modulo M.
Question: Let ‘a’ and ‘b’ be any two integers and ‘m’ be a positive integer
show that of n a  nb  mod m  then a  b  mod m  where gcd (m,n) = 1
Solution: Given that n a  nb  mod m 
 m na  nb  by definition of congruence
68
 m n  a  b
 m a b
 a  b  mod m 
Question: Let ‘a’ and ‘b’ be any two integers and ‘m’ be a positive integer.
Show that if a  b  mod m  then a n  b n  mod m 
Solution: Given that a  b  mod m 
 m ab
 m  a  b   a n 1  a n  2b  ....  b n 1 
 m a n  bn
 a n  b n  mod m 
Question: Define Fermat numbers and show that any two Fermat numbers are
relatively primes.
Fermat numbers: The number of the form 2k 1 is a prime then k  2m for

m
some integer m; so that 2k 1  22  1  Fm the number of this form is called
Fermat number.
Take any two distinct Fermat numbers, say Fa  Fb
Let d  gcd  Fa , Fb  . We know Fa Fb  2
Using the definition of d , d Fa and hence d Fb  2
Since we also know that d Fb it follows that d Fb   Fb  2 
 d2
But all Fermat number are odd and therefore d cannot be 2. So, d = 1 and the
numbers Fa and Fb are relatively prime.
69
Question: State and prove Unique Factorization theorem.
Statement: Every integer n > 1 can be expressed as a product of primes and
this representation is unique except for the order in which they are written.
Proof: We prove the theorem by induction on ‘n’

For n =2  2 = 2 (true)
Let us suppose that the statement is true for n = 2 ,3 , 4 ,…,k
Now prove it for n = k+1
If k+1 is prime. Then the induction is complete. If k+1 is composite. Then it can
be written as
k  1  k1 k2
Then by induction hypothesis k1 k2 can be expressed as product of prime. So,

induction is complete and theorem is true i.e. n  P1 P2 P3 ,....Pr where Pi for
i = 1,2,3,….,r are primes
For uniqueness
Let n  P1 P2 P3 ,....Pr where i = 1,2,3,….,r
And n  q1q2 q3 ,....q s where j = 1,2,3,….,s
Then q1q2 q3 ,....q s  P1 P2 P3 ,....Pr ______ 1
Then we cancelled common factors from both sides of (1) we obtained
q1q2 q3 ,....q i  P1 P2 P3 ,....Pj ___  2 
Then by result, If P P1 P2 P3 ,....Pk where Pi for i  1, 2,3,...k are the primes

then P  Pi for i  1, 2,3,...k  q1 q1q2 q3 ,....q i
Therefor q1 P1 P2 P3 ,....Pj  by  2 
Then by above result q1  Pj for i  1, 2,3,... j which is contradiction. Hence

this prove the uniqueness theorem.
70

Number Theory Muzammil Tanveer

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NUMBER THEORY

The number which have no decimal no riven ( ) and no under root.

Well Ordering Principle:

e.g 24 & a = 6 , b = 2  6 = 3(2)

e.g. 4 is a common divisor of 8 and 12

Greatest Common Divisor:

“It is also known as Highest Common Factor (H.C.F)

G.C.D of a and b = (a,b) = d

Proof: Let S be a non-empty set of positive integers of the form ‘ma+nb’

(i) Observed that d is positive because d  S

If d1 is g.c.d then by definition

Similarly, if d 2 is g.c.d then by definition

From (ii) and (iii)

Which show the uniqueness

Co-prime integer or Relatively prime integer:

Example: Find (4,9) = ?

Question: (–9,4) = 4 linear combination ‫آ اس د ا ا د‬g.c.d

Now in linear combination

= 5–2[12–2(5)] from (i)

i.e (13 ,6) = 1

Now in linear combination

Now in linear combination

= 7 – 2[24 – 3(7)] from (i)

Now in linear combination

Now in linear combination

Now in linear combination

1 = 4 – (1) [11–2(4)] from (ii)

1 = –11+3[59 – 5(11)]  1 = –11+3(59) –15(11)

1 = –16(11)+3(59)  1 = 59(3) – 11(16)

Now in linear combination

1 = 7 – 2[10 – 1(7)] from (iii)

1 = –2(10) + 3[37–3(10)] from (ii)

1 = –2(10) +3(37) –9(10)

1 = 3(37) –11[47–1(37)] from (i)

1 = 3(37) –11(47) + 11(37)

Example: Find (256, 1166) = ?

1166 = 4(256) + 142 ____(i)

142 = 1(114) + 28 ___(iii)

114 = 4 (28) + 2 ___(iv)

Now in linear combination

2 = 114 – 4[142 – 1(114)] from (iii)

2 = 114 – 4(142) + 4(114)

2 = –4(142) + 5[256 – 1(142)] from (ii)

2 = –4(142) + 5(256) –5(142)

2 = 5(256) – 9[1166 – 4 (256)] from (i)

2 = 5(256) – 9(1166) + 36(256)

Then we show that

Then there exist integers u and v such that

 u(ka) + v (kb) = kd ____(i)

 tkd by def. of divisibility

 da and db

 kdka and kdkb

From (ii) and (iii)

(ka,kb) = k(a,b) proved

If (a,b) = d Then show that , =1

Given that (a,b) = d

By using above theorem (ka,kb) = k(a,b)

So, by def. of divisibility  integers x and y such that

Also given that (a,b) = 1 then  integers u and v such that